CH 7 Organic Agriculture

ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER 7
FOR. ROMUALDO B. DE GUZMAN, JR., MSA, Mbio
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR II
OBJECTIVES
• To understand the basis of organic farming and main
differences from conventional agriculture
• To recognize the procedures for organic farming and
related transition
• To satisfy the background needs for sustainable
agriculture and organic farming
• To understand and manage relationships
nutrition/plant and related organic farming
techniques
Origin of Organic Farming
• Germany, began to analyze the widening
gap between man and nature.
• speculate as to how this tendency might
be reversed.
• framework (research), Rudolf Steiner, the
Austrian philosopher, teacher, and founder
of anthroposophy, created
• 1924, a new concept of farming seen as a
self-sufficient living organism.
• His disciple Ehrenfried Pfeiffer developed
this theory and called it "biodynamic
farming".
The main principles of this approach
were:
 rejection of the use of soluble mineral-
based plant foods;
 independence and self-sufficiency of
the farm, thanks to a policy of
breeding livestock and growing a
variety of crops;
 a belief in the importance of a natural
and healthy diet;
 a belief in the importance of lunar and
astral influences on the crops.
• In England, the "organic farming" school
of thought was born immediately after the
Second World War.
• Ideas of Sir Albert Howard and his
assistant Lady Eve Balfour, it emphasized
the importance of the fertility and the
biological balance of the soil.
• goals, the use of organic compost was
considered of great importance, especially
since this was believed to develop the
plants’ resistance to parasites and diseases.
• Organic farming doctrine also stressed
the importance of the husbandry of natural
resources and respect for the environment -
and this included using any given area of
land in the way that nature intended.
• In Switzerland, a third movement, led
by H.P.Rusch and H.Muller got
underway in the 1940’s. Called
"biological farming",
• based in the principle of making the
most efficient use of renewable
resources.
• Essential to care for the humus of the
soil: compost should be applied to the
surface, and tilling should be kept to the
strict minimum in order to avoid
damaging the soil’s microflora.
• In Italy, Alfonso Draghetti, with its “Principles of
farm physiology” (“Principi di fisiologia dell’azienda
agraria”, Ist. Ed. Agricolo, Bologna 1948),
• Revaluing use of natural manures according to
the rules of a natural fertility corresponding to the
productive life cycle which center is constituted by
the farm.
• Spreading of these methods in the post-Second
World War period was an actively pursued aim of the
first associations of organically-minded farmers and
technical consultants.
• Biodynamic farmers in various European
countries, it is worth mentioning the following, by
way of example: the Soil Association in Britain;
Nature et Progrès in France; Suolo e Salute (Soil and
Health) in Italy; and Organic Gardening and Farming
in the USA.
From the 70's to the 90’s
• Organic farming really came to the
fore at the end of the 1970’s,
environmentalist movement meant that
farmers & consumers concerned about
environmental issues.
• Phenomenon initially developed in
North European countries such as
Denmark, Germany and Holland, and
then spread to the countries of the
Mediterranean Basin (France, Italy and
Greece) and the United States.
• Gave rise to the creation of new
associations of organic farmers.
• 1972, in France, five organic farming
associations founded IFOAM
(International Federation of Organic
Associations and Movements);
• 1987, these five had become over one
hundred, in 25 countries.
• Truly explosive growth in the
popularity of organic farming over the
last few years has led to an increase by a
factor of five in the number of
associations belonging to IFOAM:
• There are now about 500 of them
operating in 100 countries.
1977, IFOAM started to define and
harmonize the techniques associated
with organic farming. This process
was made necessary by the following
aims:
 to provide clear information to
producers and consumers;
 to create conditions that would
facilitate regulation and self -
regulation;
 to take steps against fraud and
misleading advertising.
• 1980 IFOAM published the first standard
for organic production and processing, a
basic guide for all members and certification
bodies.
• 1991, with the passing of EC Regulation
2092, that the organic farming method
became an officially recognized set of rules,
guidelines, and procedures that clearly
defined a specific method of production.
• June 1992 the Codex Alimentarius
Commission decided to discuss and develop
the “Guidelines for the Production,
Processing, Marketing and Labelling of
Organically Produced Foods”, established in
Codex Alimentarius 1999.
•
ORGANIC FARMING TODAY
Basic principles and techniques
• Organic agriculture is defined as a
production system that is managed to
respond to site specific conditions by
integrating cultural, biological and
mechanical practices that foster
cycling of resources, promote
ecological balance and conserve
biodiversity.
The fundamental principles of organic farming are as
follows:
 to view the farm as a single system or "organism"
that exists within the context of a local ecosystem;
 to protect the balance of relationships within the
farm’s own system, as well as those existing between
the farm’s system and the surrounding ecosystem;
 to maintain a marked degree of biodiversity within
the system, so as to promote the control of parasites
and destructive organisms;
 to encourage the biological cyclicity of the natural
system, paying particular attention to the cycle of
organic substances, so as to promote humification;
 to make maximum use of solar energy and to reduce
the use of all types of external input to an absolute
minimum.
More specifically, organic farming entails:
 use of cover crops, green manures, animal manures
and crop rotations to fertilize the soil, maximize
biological activity and maintain long-term soil health;
 use of biological control, crop rotation and other
techniques to manage weeds, insects and diseases;
 an emphasis on biodiversity of the agricultural
system and the surrounding environment;
 using rotational grazing and mixed forage pastures
for livestock operations and alternative healthcare for
animal wellbeing;
 reduction of external and off-farm inputs and
elimination of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers
and/or other materials, such as hormones, antibiotics
and GMO;
 a focus on renewable resources, soil and water
conservation and management practice that restore
maintenance and enhance ecological balance.
Some schools of thought
Within the world of organic farming,

there are various schools of thought that
are distinguished from each other by
differences in outlook or technique.
Biodynamic agriculture
• This type of farming is characterized by its own particular
scientific and spiritual credo.
• Principally, it represents a world-view in which man,
agriculture, the environment and the productive cycle are
all part of a whole that must develop harmoniously.
• 1924, Dr. Rudolf Steiner, gave a series of eight talks on the
fertility of the soil: world-view all the constituent elements
inter-reacted and in which man had only a limited capacity
to influence the factors that determine the world’s
development.
• Steiner’s philosophy lead towards the production of food
for consumption.
• Yields will depend on atmospheric conditions such as rain,
wind, and numerous other variables temperature,
sunshine, the length of the day, that taken together could be
said to make up the macroclimate.
• theories spread in Germany and the north of Europe.
• he should try to create harmony between all aspects of the
farm - livestock, fields, grassland, woodland
Biodynamic agriculture
• The basic objective is self-sufficiency in fertilizers,
seeds, animal-rearing and the production of
biochemical preparations.
• use of external inputs are organic manure and
possibly rock powder, limestone, and untreated
phosphates.
• Home-produced manure
• Dr. Steiner’s own recipes encourage the correct
development of the processes involved in the
decomposition and metamorphosis of the compost.
• contains small quantities of humus and cow dung to
stimulate the soil’s life-giving processes; increase
their assimilative powers and ability to
photosynthesize,
• increase their resistance to disease.
Permaculture
• The term "permaculture" was coined in 1975 by Bill
Mollison, an Australian.
• two words - permanent and agriculture - in order to
suggest a global and holistic approach to farming.
• promote mutually beneficial relationships.
• intervene with energy and labor is progressively
reduced as the system becomes more stable, lasting,
and - eventually - permanent.
• This method envisages year-round crop-growing,
together with farming methods and activities that
consume small amounts of energy in the most
efficient way possible.
• care about the planet’s future, and it is concerned
more with self-sufficiency in food than with
producing food for commercial purposes.
Permaculture
The underlying principles of this philosophy are:
 small-scale exploitation of the land;
 growing a broad variety of crops rather than just
large quantities of one crop;
 growing perennial rather than annual crops;
 the virtue of a broad variety of animal and vegetable
species, crops, microclimates and habitats;
 thinking long-term, with future generations in mind;
 growing local species, since these are well adapted to
the soil and the climate;
 the inclusion of all the constituent elements of the
system in a mutually beneficial network of working
relationships:
 marginal or unproductive areas: land that is steep,
rocky, arid, or marshy.
Permaculture
• aims to anticipate the effects of the important
climactic changes that are taking place, and
maintains that plants have a moderating influence on
the climate and are able to reduce its harshness.
• Variety and eco-diversity are seen as an insurance
policy against fire, drought, wind, or heavy rainfall.
• Structural and functional variety of plants increases
the number of microclimates, which in their turn
create favorable conditions for a larger variety of
useful plants; thus plants create better conditions for
both man and animals - a typical example of positive
interaction as envisaged by the permaculture
approach.
The zero-tillage system
• This system is based on the principle
of minimum interference with the
workings of nature.
• Developed in Japan by Masanobu
Fukuoka, and is influenced by the
philosophical and religious precepts
of Zen Buddhism and Taoism.
There are four basic principles that should govern man’s
relationship with the earth:
 Not to break up the earth in any way, since roots,
insects, and microorganism break it up in any case;
 Not to use fertilizers, The zero breakup method
enables the soil to maintain itself and provide itself
with fertilizers through its own natural cycles
 Not to use chemical products, since they weaken
plants. Nature is capable of maintaining a perfect
equilibrium by herself, and a healthy environment
wards off disease.
 Not to remove weeds, since they have always been
part of a living ecological structure. A basic principle
of natural agriculture that they should be left alone.
• When a farmer first adopts natural methods of
agriculture, the land will need a few years to recover
its lost vitality;
• Crop from land that has been over-exposed to
fertilizers will initially be between 10 and 15%
smaller than before.
• Japan, it has been shown that after a three-year
period in which the soil has not been broken up or
hoed, it is possible to obtain higher yields than those
obtained by standard modern methods: in an average
year, a half-hectare of land will yield 3.5 tons of
barley and a further 3.5 tons of rice.
• Practice this method, a farmer must have a
thorough knowledge and understanding of nature,
plants, water, the land and the surrounding area.
• zero breakup method does not envisage leaving
these things entirely to themselves.
• envisages presiding over them with the wisdom
that derives from an understanding of the way the
universe is ordered, making a minimum use of
artificial human labor, and allowing the plants to live
unaided and unmolested.
Organic Farming and
Sustainable Agriculture
• basic differences between conventional and
organic agriculture lies in the differing views of how
plants are supplied with minerals.
• Called principle of input-output was explained
by Liebig in one of his most important works, “The
Application of the chemistry in Agriculture and
Physiology":
• “If a farmer wants to be sure of a long-term high
yield he must make sure to replace the nutrients
which are lacking in stable manure from other
sources, as the amount of these substances contained
in the fields is very limited …
• if the farmer does not ensure their replacement
the time will inevitably come when any field is no
longer able to produce crops" (Liebig 1865).
Organic Farming and
• Organic farming the crops are sustained by the soil,
from which they extract the nutrients, making the soil,
together with the climate, the two conditions which must
be taken into consideration.
• A system, soil is considered a fragile element that
must be cared for and protected to assure its long-term
productivity and stability.
• Soil fertility is a general concept expressing soil
capacity to allow growth and production of plants.
• This concept in organic farming, since the EEC
Regulation 2092/91 as well as in Regulations EC 834/2007
and 889/2008, means that soil fertility has to be
maintained by bringing organic substances, instead of
synthetic chemical fertilizers.
Organic Farming and
Entails that in order to maintain and improve the
productivity of the soil the following agricultural
practices should be carried out:
 Reduction of tilling
 Adequate management of watering in order to
reduce the erosion and the resulting loss of soil
through drag.
 Maintenance of vegetable cover or crop remains on
the soil to diminish the erosion processes.
 Addition of organic material by means of compost,
manure or burying green crops (i.e. leguminous
plants).
Organic Farming and
PROCESSES OF SOIL PRACTICES FOR
DEGRADATION PRESERVING THE
SOIL
 Erosion  Tilling
 Run-off of  Crop rotation
nutrients  Improved
 Flooding Soil draining
 Turning into - Productivity +  Managing
desert residues
 Acidification  Water
preservation
 Compacting
 Terracing the
 The formation of
land
a crust
 Cultivating in
 Loss of organic
strips of land
material
 Chemical
 Salinity fertilizer
 Depletion of  Organic
nutrients due to fertilizer
being washed
 Improve the
away
cycle of the
 Accumulation of nutrients
foods
 Suitability of the
soil, the climate
Concept of sustainable agriculture (From Parr et al., 1990)
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (VISION AND FUNCTION)
Preserves the resources Increases food health
Productive
Objectives and protects the and
and profitable
environment security
METHODS OF LOW INPUT AND RATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Non-use of
Preservation practices of
synthetic Crop rotation
soil and water
chemicals
Biological Diversification of
control of Mechanized cultivation crops
Means plagues and livestock
Use of organic Use of animals and

Increase of soil fertility
residues green manure
Protection and
Foster natural Use of useful insects
recovery of
processes against parasites
biodiversity
Organic Farming and
• Diversification (crop rotation) allows for
biological and economic flexibility.
• From an agronomic and biological point of view
the practice of the rotation of annual crops
contributes to the control of diseases, plagues and
weeds.
• the use of vegetable covering, above all with
woody crops, can give stability to the system through
the soil retention of nutrients, the retention of
humidity in the soil and an increment in the
infiltration rate and in the capacity for water
retention. thus reducing the need for pesticides.
• Organic farming implies a time dimension and
the capacity of the agricultural system to remain and
last indefinitely and therefore without the
degradation of the environment due to minimizing
the inputs.
FERTILITY OF THE SOIL AND
CHOICE OF CROPS
• Soil is the most important resource for the
ecological farmer.
• managing it efficiently it can remain in an
adequate state from a productive point of view as
well as from the viewpoint of the fertility of the soil.
In 6 you can see the main factors that affect the
fertility of the soil.
1. Crop rotation.
2. Burying cover crops and straw.
3. Composting vegetable and animal residues.
4. Maximum recycling of nutrients.
5. Maintenance of the soil structure.
6. Use of crops that fix nitrogen
CHOICE OF CROPS
CHOICE OF CROPS
• interest to note that water is at present, and will
be even more so in the future, the main limiting
factor in agricultural production, therefore its correct
use and preservation is fundamental for organic
production and for agricultural sustainability. The
management of water in this context must consider
the following actions:
 Improving the means of its preservation
 The use of species and varieties that are tolerant of
drought
 The use of watering systems of reduced volume
 A correct manipulation of the crops and their
watering in order to reduce the loss of water through
evaporation and run-off
CHOICE OF CROPS
General principles for choosing crops
When one chooses a type of ecological production it is
important to take the following points into consideration:
 The destiny of highly specialized quality markets
 To choose varieties capable of competing favorably
with the weeds
 To choose varieties which have a good resistance to
common diseases
 To choose early varieties in areas where the production
is late to allow the reduction of the number of phyto-
sanitary treatments
 To cultivate a determined amount of varieties
sequentially in order to get successive staggered
harvests
 To take into account the effect of both the crops that
came before and those that will come after when
deciding on the rotation
CHOICE OF CROPS
Factors determining the choice of crop
The factors which should be considered and condition
type of crop to choose are:
 The situation of the farm and its proximity to the
destination markets
 The demands of the market
 The type of soil
 The farm specific characteristics
A correct crop rotation is a strong point for an efficient
organic agriculture.
CHOICE OF CROPS
Rotation
 Crop rotation, as a basis of organic crops and
vegetable production, allows biodiversity to be
introduced throughout the duration of the rotation. It
is indispensable to maintain the fertility of the soil and
to avoid phyto sanitary problems derived from the
reiterative cultivation of just one species. It also allows:
 To re-establish the fertility of the soil.
 The use of crops with different root structures that
allow the soil to maintain its structure while exploring
different layers.
 To introduce alternatively crops that fix the nitrogen
(clover, alfalfa) with others that require it (cereals).
CHOICE OF CROPS
Rotation
 To prevent damage due to erosion (on and under the
surface) by maintaining the soil covered with a
vegetable covering for as long as possible throughout
the year.
 To provide a wide range of possibilities for weed
control.
 To minimize the effect of plagues and diseases.
 To include species from different families with the aim
of preventing plagues and diseases that are resident in
the soil.
 To diminish the effect of operations on the crops
 To reduce the risks associated with the deficient
behavior of a determined crop.
 To provide a better use of investments in machinery
and equipment.
CHOICE OF CROPS
The distribution of different rotation of crops
• Organic rotations, especially in humid climates,
are based, at least for 3 or 4 years, on vegetable cover
of herbaceous/clover meadows. From time to time and
for short periods the rotation includes grazing crops.
• The cover crops include pulses, which synthesize
nitrogen and provide food for animals whose
excrements are recycled.
• This also offers the chance to reduce weeds,
plagues and diseases.
• Organic production livestock is the ideal
complement to agricultural crops, due to the
permanent recycling of nutrients and organic matter.
CHOICE OF CROPS
Examples of long-term rotation
CHOICE OF CROPS
When establishing the rotations the following points
should be considered:
 Their economic viability
 The pedological-climatic adaptation of the different
crops
 The level of technical knowledge
 The availability of suitable machinery
CHOICE OF CROPS
Factors to take into consideration in the crop model
 Susceptibility of the different crops to plagues and
diseases
 The reaction of the crops to the residual fertility (from
previous crops)
 The requirements of the crops in manure (organic
material)
 The economic viability of the rotations
 The climatic adaptation of the different crops
 The availability of experts in organic production and
of machinery
FERTILITY OF THE SOIL AND CHOICE OF
CROPS
Compound
Alliaceous
Chenopodiaceous Artichoke
Garlic
Chard "Cardo"
Onion
Spinach Endive
Shallot
Beetroot Curly lettuce
Asparagus
Lettuce
Gramineae Solanaceous Cucurbitaceous
Cereals Aubergine Courgette
Sweet corn Pepper Melon
Tomato Cucumber
Water melon
Cruciferous
Umbelliferous
Cabbage
Pulse Celery
Brussels Sprouts
Pea Parsnip
Cauliflower
Broad bean Fennel
Kohlrabi
Green bean Parsley
Turnip
Carrot
Radish
Rosaceous …………… ……………
Strawberry …………… ……………
FERTILITY OF THE SOIL AND CHOICE OF
CROPS
Moderately deep
Superficial (<60 cm) Deep(>120 cm)
(60 a 120 cm)
Garlic Pea
Celery
Bean
Onion Artichoke
Cabbage Melon
Aubergine
Endive Turnip
Spinach Asparagus
Lettuce Cucumber
Water melon
Sweet corn Pepper
Potato Tomato
Leek Beetroot
Radish Carrot
CHOICE OF CROPS
Cultivation potential
The main aspects to be considered when planning crops
are the following:
 Satisfaction of the nutritional requirements
 use of organic correctors is essential given that they
provide nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, but
in different quantities and in different ratios.
 Micro-elements
 iron, sodium, chlorine, selenium, cobalt,
manganese, copper, zinc, boron, iodine, silicon and
molybdenum.
 Important nutrients
 three more (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium)
must be added
 three remaining ones (magnesium, calcium and
CHOICE OF CROPS
Availability of nutrients according to the pH level
PLANT NUTRITION AND
TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIC
FARMING
• the largest possible amount of mineral elements
extracted from the soil return to it.
• As is logical, crops are extractions that are not
revertible so the recycling is not total but it is more
efficient than in the case of conventional farming.
• at least two nutrients must be specifically applied,
these are phosphorus and potassium
• the nutrition of the crops it must be born in mind
that each crop has its own nutritional needs, hence the
interest in establishing crop rotations.
• soil should be tested for its phosphorus, potassium
and pH level, and if necessary the levels should be
optimized before establishing the first crop of organic
production.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
• organic farming, in the same way as in other parts of
the production process, (phytosanitary defense,
elimination of weeds etc.)
• Integrated Systems of Plant Nutrition (SINP). SINP
tries to achieve maximum efficiency when bringing
nutritive elements to crops by means of a better
association of the agricultural and non-agricultural
sources of nutrients, trying to achieve a sustainable
agricultural production based on a better productive
capacity of the soil.
• systems the need for mineral fertilizers can be
considerably reduced as they bring timely and
sufficient supplies of plant nutrients and reduce the
loss of these nutrients in the cultivation systems as
much as possible. The adoption of SINP includes the
potential to increase the profitability of the use of
fertilizers (FAO, 1993).
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Recycling nutrients in organic farming
• to achieve that objective the losses due to the
following must be minimized:
 Environmental reasons
 Economic reasons
 Problems with supply
The recycling of nutrients must be considered at two
different levels:
 That of the farm producing ecologically.
 That of the soil. In the plant/soil system the nutrients
are absorbed from the soil by the plant and later
returned to it when the plant dies. Micro-organisms
and the fauna in the soil, water and gas also intervene
in this cycle. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
circulate in the soil and in animals in different ways
due to their chemical properties.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Options for managing the fertility
The most fertile soils are deep, well drained and loose,
with an adequate content of nutrients and organic
material and with a correct structure. These soils have
an intense activity of microbial and invertebrate
organisms. Correct crop rotation is fundamental.
 Cultivation systems:
 Crop rotation
 Covering with leguminous species
 Green manure
 Covering crops
 Supply of manure and fertilizers
 Produced in the same farm (solids and liquids)
 The purchase of organic manure or fertilisers
 Crops
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Nitrogen in the soil
• Nitrogen is required for the growth of leaves and for
the production used in photosynthesis. In organic
production it habitually occurs in organic ways and
needs to be converted into ammonia or nitrate in order
to be absorbed into the plant
Form in the soil Nitrogen in the Ammoniacal Nitrate (NO3-)
organic material nitrogen (NH4+)
Conversion by the micro-organisms in the soil
Availability for the No Scarcely Yes
plant
Lost in the No As ammonia gas Nitrogen and
atmosphere nitrous
oxide gas
Lost through
No No Yes
draining away
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Nitrogen supply
• In dung, as well as in compost or other forms,
nitrogen is found mainly in organic forms and needs
to be converted into an ammoniac or nitric form so
that it can be used by the plants.
• Some plants, as for example leguminous ones
(clover, alfalfa, beans, peas, etc.) are able to absorb
atmospheric nitrogen, therefore the inclusion of clover
or other leguminous crops in the rotation allows
adequate nitrogen levels in the soil without the need
for fertilizers.
• This process is due to bacteria, known as
Rhizobium, which are found in the nodules of
leguminous crops. During the symbiosis the bacteria
bring nitrogen to the plant and the plant gives them
the necessary nutrients.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Nitrogen supply
• A mixed cover with clover can fix about 160 kg of
nitrogen per hectare, although this quantity can vary
according to the age of the leguminous plants, climatic
conditions etc.
Quantity of humus in function of the kg of humus per ha of
part of the plant used. crop
Wheat stalks and roots 300-600
Wheat roots and buried pellets 600-1200
Barley stalks and roots 200-500
Barley roots and buried pellets 400-1000
Corn roots and stalks 400-800
Corn roots and buried leaves 800-1200
Beetroot leaves and necks 500-800
Green manure 300-700

PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
With regard to the nitrogen, it is important to
remember some points in order to optimize the
advantages and avoid losses:
 It is soluble and can be lost in gas form.
 The extractions by the crop and losses may be replaced
thanks to the absorption of leguminous plants.
 These crops liberate nitrogen making it available for
the plant or losing it.
 When the soil is barren in winter large quantities of
nitrogen can be lost (for example due to water
seepage).
 The problem is not usually the total quantities
required, so much as the extractions not being in
harmony with what is supplied.
 Nitrogen is less difficult to replace than phosphorus
and potassium.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
• The cycle of nitrogen in a grass/clover meadow
(Source: Simpson, 1987)
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Phosphorus in the soil (P2O5)
• Phosphates are needed so that seeds can germinate
and so that the roots can grow.
• (tricalcium phosphate, iron and aluminum
compounds, etc.) and the organic material.
• Phosphate levels can be maintained by the residues of
the crops and by the addition of phosphoric rock.
• Availability of phosphate is greater when the pH level
is between 5.5 and 6.6
• Ion phosphate is much less mobile than nitrogen and
needs to be found within the root system or nearby.
• The Mycorrhiza Fungi that live in the roots of the
plants are very useful as their hyphae can colonize a
volume of soil much greater than that which the
plants’ own roots can.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Important aspects which should be known about
phosphorus:
 The availability of phosphate, short-term, can become
an important problem given that phosphoric
correctors (phosphoric rock, etc.) are for long-term use.
 Phosphate does not suffer losses due to seepage or in
gas form, but it can be lost through erosion,
particularly when the correctors have been heaped up.
 Standard soil analysis only shows the phosphorus
available for the plant but not the existing reserves.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Potassium (K2O)
• Potassium is used to control the balance of water in the
plant and helps to maintain its defenses. It is required
for the synthesis of hydrocarbons, whether these be in
the form of starch or sugars. It favors a natural
resistance against attacks by plagues and diseases.
Potassium is probably the most difficult nutrient to
manage in organic production.
 Clay soils are no particular handicap, as they allow for
a balanced crop rotation of species and have adequate
levels for the majority of crops.
 The most important problems are found in sandy soils,
in which there is usually a deficiency of potassium.
• Straw has a considerable potassium content and its
recycling as manure is essential in ecological
production.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
• Certain compounds such as potatoes and leafy
vegetables need important quantities, straw can also
extract a lot of potassium. If these crops are sold a
great deal of attention must be paid to replacing
losses. Like phosphorus, potassium is not very mobile
in the soil, although more so than phosphorus,
therefore crops with a good root system are the best
ones for extracting the available potassium from the
soil. The following must be considered:
 To replace the potassium in the same place as the
losses are produced.
 Important quantities of potassium can be lost through
leaching in the mounds where potassium correctors
are stored.
 Potassium rock constitutes a long-term supply of
potassium.
Extraction of nutrients for crops
Kg of nutrient per ton of fresh matter Production Kg of nutrient extracted
N P2O5 K2O per ha N P2O5 K2O
Barley
17 7.8 5.6 5 85 39 28
grain
Parley
5 1.5 12.6 3 15 5 38
straw
Wheat
19 7.8 5.6 7 130 55 39
grain
Wheat
5 1.3 9.3 4 20 5 37
straw
Oats 17 8.0 6.0
Potato
3 1.0 5.0 36 126 32 180
tuber
Grass
1.4 4.8 30 160 42 144
ensilage
Grass hay 4.8 16.0 7.5 90 36 120
Pea grain 8.8 10.0 4 144 35 44

Carrot 2 1 4
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Green manure
• Green manure or cover crops are often confused,
both are cultivated for different reasons but they have
some advantages in common. Cover crops are grown
throughout the winter period, when the soil would be
barren were it not for these crops, mainly to prevent
the loss of nitrates through leaching. They provide a
residual supply of nitrogen for the next crop.
• Green manure is the use of a green crop, normally
a leguminous one, which is grown mainly so that it
can be buried to provide nutrients. Green manure can
be used several times for its forage benefits or for
selling. It is usually grown for 12 months or longer.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Amongst the many advantages of green manure the
following are noteworthy:
 It provides organic material
 If they are leguminous crops they allow the nitrogen in
the air to be available to the plants
 It increases the availability of nutrients (phosphorus,
potassium, etc.)
 It improves the structure of the soil
 It reduces the leaching of nitrates
 It eliminates weeds
 It reduces the problems brought about by plagues and
diseases by providing a break in the normal sequence
of the crops
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Quantities of humus provided by different crop
residues
Type of crop residue Kg of humus per ha. of crop
Wheat stalks and roots 300-600
Wheat roots and buried pellets 600-1200
Barley stalks and roots 200-500
Barley roots and buried pellets 400-1000
Corn stalks and roots 400-800
Corn roots and buried leaves and 800-1200

stems 500-800
Beetroot leaves and necks 300-700
Green manure
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Sowing/planting
In certain plots of land transplanting may have
advantages such as:
 Less time required from the time of planting to the
time of harvesting
 An earlier harvest
 The land is occupied for less time thus allowing two
crops per year
 The crop is better assured as problems of germination
and shoots have been eliminated
 Weeds are controlled more effectively, by growing the
crop and colonizing the area more quickly than the
weeds can
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Sowing/planting
The main disadvantage of this system is the higher cost
per plant, which is why it is usually used for vegetable
production.
• In larger areas the transplant operation needs to be
mechanized meaning an investment in buying or
hiring machinery, which is not always possible.
• The best time for sowing and/or transplanting of
different species and varieties depends on latitude
with relevant climate, specific climatic conditions and
hydric state of the soil.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Sowing dates corresponding to different crops.
Suggested
Crop dates for Too soon Too late
sowing
Spring oats March/April Weeds/Few plants Low production
Winter Few plants, low
October Diseases / Weeds
wheat production
Low shoots, affected Low production,

Potatoes April/May
by frosts diseases
Low production,
Weakness, deficient deficient
Carrot May
establishment establishment in
dry soil
Deficient
Leeks April Low production
establishment
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Density of sowing and distances for planting
(transplanting)
• The density of sowing and transplanting are vitally
important, given that the results are related to this
variable, in spite of the fact that other factors such as
the species, variety, soil preparation, soil temperature
and environmental conditions influence the number of
plants per m² and therefore the results.
Therefore the following should be taken into
consideration:
 Loss of production may be caused by too many or too
few plants.
 Denser crops make it harder for weeds to low grow.
 Crops with large seeds (corn, etc.) should be planted
deeper in the soil than those which have small seeds
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Amount of seeds and density of planting for some
crops
Crop Amount of Plants/m2 Distance
seed (cm)
(kg/ha)
Spring oats 200-300 400-500 18x1.2 -

Spring barley 200-300 350-450 12x2
Winter wheat 250-300 250-400 18x1.5 -
Potatoes 1000-1500 4-10 12x2
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Harvesting
• Harvesting is a process that takes on special
importance in the case of some crops that can be
damaged if they are not harvested correctly, such as
certain fruits and vegetables (apples, peaches, grapes,
tomatoes, etc.). In the case of others the harvesting
does not take on such importance as the crops are
easily handled (potatoes, melons, carrots, beans,
artichokes, etc.) In addition, apart from the physical
process of harvesting the best moment to do it must be
taken into consideration, depending on:
 The species and the variety
 The destination of the product and the requirements of
the market-consumer
 The means of transport
 The packaging system used
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Cereals
• Cereals are ready to be harvested when the grain has
hardened. However, in certain crops and in damp
climates it is difficult to achieve degrees of humidity
that allow for adequate preservation, so they will have
to be artificially dried in dryers (corn, sunflowers, etc.).
Root crops and vegetables
• Tubers must be harvested as soon as the skin has
formed. The earliness with which they are harvested is
influenced by:
 The presence of certain diseases of the foliage
(bacteria, fungi)
 The variety of the crop., i.e. before potato bacteriosis
becomes a problem.
 The market. Early varieties usually command higher
prices, despite the fact that the production and taste
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Preservation and storage
• The possibility of preserving the products correctly is
not only limited by the choice of technical harvesting
conditions but it also depends on factors that have
occurred throughout the growth of the product to be
preserved. In many cases these factors condition the
duration of the preservation. Amongst these factors the
following are worthy of a mention:
 The climate: temperature, relative humidity, rainfall,
light, wind, etc.
 The nutritional state
 Watering
 Attacks by plagues and diseases
 The state of maturity when harvesting
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
In the case of fruit and vegetables as well as cereals the
following points should be considered:
 Hygienic measures when handling the food products
 Ventilation in the store
 A suitable temperature in the store
 Enough space
 The amount of time in storage
 Available resources for the exploitation
 Planning of the market needs
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
In the same way that there are different methods of
harvesting according to the different kind of crop and
in the part that is eaten, they may be divided into two
main groups:
• Root crops
• These should be stored when, having been pulled
from the ground, they have dried. The store must be
cool, free from frosts and well ventilated to prevent
disease. The potato is the tuber that throughout history
has been the most important crop, providing the basis
of the diet in many countries, especially after war
conflicts.
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Vegetables
These may be stored for:
 A short period of time (a few days) before being
commercialized, to avoid excess offer or to lengthen
the period in periods of scarcity.
 Long-term (several months) to extend the period of
commercialization. Vegetables harvested must be put
into cold-storage as quickly as possible. The length of
the storage depends on the part of the leaf that is to be
used. For example, in leafy vegetables (lettuce, curly
lettuce, chard, etc.) the storage time is limited, whilst
for other crops such as marrow, radishes or carrots the
length is much greater. The ones that are in between
are those crops in which the fruit is the edible part
(tomatoes, peppers, cucumber, aubergine or
courgettes). Granaries: if the floors are ventilated or in
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Potatoes as an example
• The mid-season or late varieties may be kept for
up to 10 months. In order to do this they must be free
from damage or alterations in the pulp and they must
not be green. The greater the specific weight and
content of dry matter the better they will preserve.
During the first fortnight they must be at a
temperature of 15ºC and well ventilated, with a high
relative humidity to help any "wounds" to heal over.
After this the temperature depends on the variety and
their destination. If the destination is for direct
consumption the best temperature is 4º-5ºC, but if they
are for industrial use they should be stored at between
7º and 10ºC. The relative humidity should be kept at
around 85% so as to avoid excessive loss. They should
be well ventilated and not exposed to light as this can
cause them to go green. (Gorini, 1979).
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Marketing
This is the most important aspect as the profitability of
the exploitation will depend on the prices obtained. The
requirements of the market will determine the system of
production and the crop rotation. You must be aware of
what the market will require and what the producer must
require of the market. This should be based on:
 Volume, product and delivery dates
 Packaging
 Price margin, system and guarantee of payment
 Specification of the market requirements
 Stability of the market for the different products
PLANT NUTRITION AND
FARMING
Main factors to be integrated in organic farming
References
Bookstaller C. , Girardin P. , Van Der Werf H.M.G. (1997) Use of agro-ecological
indicators for the evaluation of farming systems, European Journal of
Agronomy
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/analysis/markets/organic_2010_en.pdf
Ferrari M., Marcon E., Menta A. (2000) Lotta biologica. Edagricole Bologna.
Hamilton L.H. (2007) Farming to create heaven on earth, Shumei international
press, Shiga
IFOAM (2002) Basic standards for organic production and processing.
www.ifoam.org
Koopmans C.J., Bokhorst J. (2000) Optimizing organic farming systems: Nitrogen
dynamics and long term soil fertility in arable and vegetable production
systems in the Netherlands.
Proceedings 13th International IFOAM Scientific conference, Bassel, Switzerland,
28-31 August 2000, 69-72.
Lange, Stefan; Williges, Ute; Saxena, Shilpi and Willer, Helga, Eds. (2006)
Research in Organic Food and Farming.
Reports on organisation and conduction of research programmes in 11 European countries.
Bundesanstalt für
References
Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (BLE) / Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food
BLE, Bonn, Germany. 135
Pohl, Alexandra (2009): How do European Rural development Programmes
support Organic Farming? Published by
IFOAM EU Group, Brussels; Available at:
http://www.ifoam.org/about_ifoam/around_world/eu_groupnew/positions/
Others_II/final-RD_study_7.1_web.pdf
Raviv M. (2010) Is organic agriculture sustainable? Chronica Horticulturae, 50
(2): 7-14.
Sahota, Amarjit (2011): The Global Market for Organic Food and Drink.
Published in: Willer, Helga and Lukas
Kilcher (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging
Trends 2011. FiBL-IFOAM Report.
Schaack, Diana et al. (2011) The Organic Market in Europe. Published in: Willer,
Soil Association (2000) The biodiversity benefits of organic farming
Stolze, M., Stopes, C., Wollmuthová, P., Vairo, D. and Zanoli, R. (2008): Organic Action Plans:
Development, implementation and evaluation. A resource manual for the organic food and
farming sector. Edited by Schmid O.,
Stopes C., Lampkin N. and Gonzálvez V. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL, CH-
5070 Frick, Switzerland
and IFOAM-EU Group, BE-1000 Brussels, Belgium (ISBN 978-3-03736-022-4). 105p. Available at
http://orgprints.org/13481/
QUESTIONS???

CH 7 Organic Agriculture

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CH 7 Organic Agriculture

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

Within the world of organic farming,

Use of organic Use of animals and

Wheat roots and buried pellets 600-1200

Barley stalks and roots 200-500

Barley roots and buried pellets 400-1000

Corn roots and stalks 400-800

Corn roots and buried leaves 800-1200

Beetroot leaves and necks 500-800

Green manure 300-700

Pea grain 8.8 10.0 4 144 35 44

Wheat stalks and roots 300-600

Wheat roots and buried pellets 600-1200

Barley stalks and roots 200-500

Barley roots and buried pellets 400-1000

Corn stalks and roots 400-800

Corn roots and buried leaves and 800-1200

Low shoots, affected Low production,

Spring oats 200-300 400-500 18x1.2 -

You might also like