2.

Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

Chapter 2 Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

2.1 Introduction

Groundwater pressure is a major factor in all slope stability problems and an understanding of
the role of surface groundwater is an essential requirement for any meaningful slope design.

The major effects of presence of groundwater in rock masses are as follows:

 Water pressure reduces the normal stress acting to a sliding plane and as a result shear
strength is decreased (refer Eq. 2.3).

 Water pressure reduces the frictional strength, which resists sliding (refer Eq. 2.4).

 Water pressure in tension cracks increases the driving force, which tends to induce sliding
down the plane (refer Eq. 2.4).

 Discharge of Groundwater into an open pit gives rise to increased operating costs.

 Freezing may block drainage and induce additional pressure on the joint surface.

2.2 Occurrence and Characteristics of groundwater

2.2.1 Porosity and Permeability of rock and rock mass

Groundwater by definition is the freely moving water that occurs below the water table in a
completely saturated geologic formation. This water normally represents the major part of the
surface water.

Groundwater primarily originates from rainfall and melting snow. Some water infiltrates into the
ground and percolates downward to the saturated zone at depth, while some water moves over
the surface as surface runoff. Groundwater in saturated zone moves towards rivers, lakes and
seas, where it evaporates and returns to the land as clouds of water vapor, which precipitates as
rain or snow melt. This circulation of water is often known as the hydrological cycle.

The water in rock mass is an integrated part of the hydrologic cycle. Groundwater may travel
considerable distances through a rock mass, and hence it is important to consider the regional
geology and the overall groundwater pattern when potential water problems are analyzed.

As mentioned earlier, rainfall or snowmelt on the ground surface will infiltrate into the
subsurface materials, which are differentiated into unsaturated and saturated zones. The
unsaturated zone is often located above the main groundwater table (phreatic surface) with voids
partially filled with water. This zone is sometimes called zone of aeration. The saturated zone is
within the main water regime with voids completely filled with water.

1
2. Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

The water content of rock depends upon its capacity to hold water and to allow passing through
it. This capacity for transmitting fluids is called Permeability. The capacity of rocks to hold
liquid depends upon their porosity, which is the total volume of all voids in them. The rate of
infiltration and percolation (slow infiltration) of surface runoff depends mainly on the
permeability and porosity of material.

Porosity and Permeability are the two most important factors governing the accumulation,
migration and distribution of groundwater. Both may change with in a rock or soil mass in the
course of its geological evaluation. And it is not uncommon to find variation in both porosity and
permeability per meter of depth beneath the ground surface.

The permeability of a particular material is defined by its coefficient of permeability or hydraulic

conductivity.

Hydraulic conductivity, k (in m/s) represents coefficient proportionality of Darcy’s Equation

(ref. Eq.2.1).

Q
v  k i (2.1)
A

Where;

v = Flow velocity (m/s)

Q = Flow rate (m3/s)
A = Flow area (m2)
i = Hydraulic gradient

The value of hydraulic conductivity depends on the nature of rock mass and nature of the fluid.

Specific Permeability (K), which is generally referred as Permeability is defined by:

 
K k k (2.2)
g g

Where;
 = Dynamic viscosity of the fluid (N-s/ m2)
 = Kinematic viscosity of the fluid m2/s) = (1.3*10-6 m2/s for pure water at +10oC)
 = Density of the fluid
g = Gravitational acceleration (= 9.81 m/s2)

The unit of the Permeability is m2.

2
2. Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

Figure 2.1 Hydraulic conductivity of rocks and soils (after Freeze and Cherry, 1979)

2.2.2 Fluctuation in groundwater level

The knowledge of the fluctuation in the groundwater table due to the rainfall is of paramount
importance in analyzing the stability of slope. How much rainfall permeates in to the slope
depends on the intensity of rainfall, steepness and length of slopes being drained, nature and
extent of vegetation, and condition and nature of surface and subsurface. Because these factors
vary considerably between slopes, it is not possible to draw general relationship between rainfall
and groundwater response with accuracy. Ideally the groundwater conditions assumed in any
slope stability analysis should be those observed in the field. However, for every rare rainfall
events, this is seldom possible.

In many areas, rainfall may lead only to shallow landslides and there may be a predominance of
debris flows in some of these areas. Deep-seated landslides also occur in many areas as a
consequence of rainfall. However, such landslides often correlate with cumulative rainfall for
significant antecedent periods rather than to rainfall intensity over short period.

3
2. Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

2.2.3 Groundwater monitoring

Monitoring of groundwater pressures by means of Piezometers is the most reliable means of

establishing the input parameters for the groundwater models and for checking upon the
effectiveness of drainage measures.

An experienced engineering geologist should interpret any groundwater data and to develop a
groundwater model to be used for slope stability analysis.

2.3 Groundwater effects on slope stability

2.3.1 Influence of water pressure on shear strength

A model of the influence of water pressure acting on the surface of a shear specimen is given in
Figure 2.2. The normal stress  acting across the failure surface is reduced to the effective stress
( - u) by the water pressure u. Then Equation 2.3 defines the general Equation of shear strength.
The Equation 2.3 is also known as “the effective stress law”.

  c  (  u ) tan  (2.3)
Where;
c = Cohesive strength of the cemented surface
 = Friction angle of the sliding plane

Figure 2.2 Model of the influence of water pressure acting on the surface of a shear specimen
(from Hoek and Bray, 1981)

2.3.2 Influence of water pressure in a tension crack

A model of water pressure distribution in a tension crack of a block, which is resting on the
inclined plane, is indicated in Figure 2.3.

4
2. Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

Figure 2.3 A model of water pressure distribution in a tension crack of a block

(from Hoek and Bray, 1981)

The water pressure in the tension crack increases linearly with depth and the total forces V acts
down the inclined plane. Assuming that the water pressure is transmitted across the intersection
of the tension crack and base of the block, the water pressure distribution illustrated in the Fig.
2.3 occurs along the base of the block. This water pressure distribution result in an uplift force U,
which reduces normal force acting across this surface. The condition of limiting equilibrium for
a block, which is split by a tension crack (filled with water), is defined by Equation 2.4 (Hoek
and Bray, 1981).

W sin   V  cA  (W cos   U ) tan  (2.4)

Where;

W = Weight of the sliding block

c = Cohesion
 = Inclination of slope
A = Base area of the sliding block
 = Friction angle of the sliding block

Based on Equation 2.4, it can be concluded that the disturbing force which tends to induce
sliding down the plane increases and the frictional force which resist sliding decreases with water
in tension crack of a sliding plane and hence both V and U result in decrease in stability. In many
cases, the presence of water in the slope giving rise to uplift forces and water forces in tension
cracks is found to be critical in controlling the stability of the slope.

2.3.3 Groundwater pressure models

Groundwater develops hydrostatic pressure in rock discontinuities and reduces effective stress
and the frictional strength of rocks along these discontinuities. How the groundwater should be
treated in analysis depends on how intact and porous the rock mass is.

5
2. Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

Effects of groundwater on rock discontinuities could be detrimental and should therefore be dealt
with judiciously in analyzing rock slope stability. Tension cracks on top of rock slopes could trap
water, which eventually develops hydrostatic pressures in the tension cracks and along rock
discontinuities.

The idealized extreme conditions concerning water pressure along potential sliding planes are
given in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Models of water pressure distribution along potential sliding plane
(from Nilsen and Palmstrom, 2000)

6
2. Quantification of Groundwater Pressure

Case (a) represents a model, where the water pressure is zero. Case (b) represents a model where
water enters freely on the top, but is fully drained at the toe after having reached a maximum
hydrostatic pressure at a height corresponding to 50% of the slope height. Case (c) represents a
model where water is assumed to enter freely on the top of the slope, and increase hydrostatically
along the discontinuity to a maximum value at the toe. Case (c) represents a very high water
pressure, and is realistic only if the discontinuity is completely blocked at the toe of the slope, for
instance by ice or concrete. Experience from cold climates indicates that such blocking due to ice
is rather rare (Nilsen and Palmstrom, 2000).

When the sub-surface groundwater conditions are unknown, and to allow for the possibility that
substantial sub-surface water may be present; the model in case (b) is proposed. This model is
believed to be representative of extreme conditions, which could occur during very heavy rain
and is widely used today for rock slope stability analysis (Hoek and Bray, 1981).

The idealized triangular distribution (case b of Figure 2.4) will seldom match perfectly with the
real situation during heavy rainfall, but as a result of shortcoming in alternatives the idealized
triangular distribution model is common today.
xxxxx