5.

Control Of Machine Tools

Prepared By:
Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

 What is Computer Numerical Control?

Modern precision manufacturing demands extreme dimensional accuracy and surface

finish. Such performance is very difficult to achieve manually, if not impossible, even

with expert operators. In cases where it is possible, it takes much higher time due to

the need for frequent dimensional measurement to prevent overcutting.

It is thus obvious that automated motion control would replace manual “handwheel”
control in modern manufacturing. Development of computer numerically controlled

(CNC) machines has also made possible the automation of the machining processes

with flexibility to handle production of small to medium batch of parts.

Initially, the CNC technology was applied on lathes, milling machines, etc. which

could perform a single type of metal cutting operation. Later, attempt was made to

handle a variety of work pieces that may require several different types machining

operations and to finish them in a single set-up. Thus CNC machining Centres

capable of performing multiple operations were developed.

To start with, CNC machining centres were developed for machining prismatic

components combining operations like milling, drilling, boring and tapping. Gradually

machines for manufacturing cylindrical components, called turning centers were

developed.

 Numerical Control
In a typical NC system the motion and machining instructions and the related
numerical data, together called a part program, used to be written on a punched
tape. The part program is arranged in the form of blocks of information, each
 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

related to a particular operation in a sequence of operations needed for producing a

mechanical component.

In CNC systems multiple microprocessors and programmable logic controllers work

in parallel for simultaneous servo position and velocity control of several axes of a

machine for contour cutting as well as monitoring of the cutting process and the

machine tool.

Thus, milling and boring machines can be fused into versatile machining centers.

Similarly, turning centers can realize a fusion of various types of lathes. Over a

period of time, several additional features were introduced, leading to increased

machine utilisation and reduced operator intervention. Some of these are:

(a) Tool/work monitoring: For enhanced quality, avoidance of breakdowns.
(b) Automated tool magazine and palette management: For increased versatility and

reduced operator intervention over long hours of operation

(c) Direct numerical control (DNC): Uses a computer interface to upload and

download part programs in to the machine automatically.

• Advantages of a CNC Machine :

• CNC machines offer the following advantages in manufacturing.

• Higher flexibility.

• Increased productivity.

• Improved quality.

• Reliable and Safe operation.

• Smaller footprint: Due to the fact that several machines are fused into one.
• Dis-Advantages of a CNC Machine :
• Relatively higher cost compared to manual versions.

• More complicated maintenance due to the complex nature of the Technologies.

• Need for skilled part programmer

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Classification of NC Systems
• CNC machine tool systems can be classified in various ways such as :

• Point-to-point or contouring : depending on whether the machine cuts metal

while the workpiece moves relative to the tool

• Incremental or absolute : Depending on the type of coordinate system adopted

to parameterise the motion commands

• Open-loop or closed-loop : depending on the control system adopted for axis

motion control

• Point-to-point systems
Point-to-point (PTP) systems are the ones where, either the work piece or the

cutting tool is moved with respect to the other as stationary until it arrives at

the desired position and then the cutting tool performs the required task with

the motion axes stationary.

Such systems are used, typically, to perform hole operations such as drilling,

boring, reaming, tapping and punching. In a PTP system, the path of the cutting

tool and its feed rate while traveling from one point to the next are not

significant, since, the tool is not cutting while there is motion.

Therefore, such systems require only control of only the final position of the

tool. The path from the starting point to the final position need not be

controlled.

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5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Contouring systems
In contouring systems, the tool is cutting while the axes of motion are moving,
such as in a milling machine. All axes of motion might move simultaneously,

each at adifferent velocity. When a nonlinear path is required, the axial velocity

changes, even within the segment. For example, cutting a circular contour

requires sinusoidal rates of change in both axes.

The motion controller is therefore required to synchronize the axes of motion to

generate predetermined path, generally a line or a circular arc.

A contouring system needs capability of controlling its drive motors

independently at various speeds as the tool moves towards the specified

position. This involves simultaneous motion control of two or more axes, which

requires separate position and velocity loops. It also requires an interpolator

program that generates the position and velocity setpoints for the two drive

axes, continuously along the contour. In modern machines there is capability

for programming machine axes, either as point-to-point or as continuous (that

is contouring) Before the next type of classification is introduced, it is necessary

to present the basic coordinate system conventions in a machine tool.

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Coordinate Systems
• The coordinate system is defined by the definition of the translational and

rotational motion coordinates.

• Each translational axis of motion defines a direction in which the cutting tool

moves relative to the work piece.

Z= length axis

X= Radial axis

Y= No Need

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Open Loop Systems

• The term open-loop means that there is no feedback, and in open loop systems

the motion controller produces outputs depending only on its set points,

without feedback information about the effect that the output produces on the

motion axes.

• The primary drawback of open-loop system is that there is no feedback system

to check whether the commanded position and velocity has been achieved.

• If the system performance is affected by load, temperature or friction then the

actual output could deviate from the desired output.

• For these reasons, the open-loop system is generally used in point-to-point

systems where the accuracy requirements are not critical.

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5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Closed Loop systems

Closed-loop control, he difference between the actual value of the variable and
its set-point is the error. The control law takes the error as the input and drives

the actuator, in this case the servo motor and its drive system, to achieve

motion variables that are close to the set points.

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5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

In absolute positioning systems utilizing an incremental feedback device, two

alternative sequences of pulses from the incremental encoder, one for each direction of

motion, feed the up and down inputs of a position counter. Thus, its contents are

incremented for a rightward movement of the corresponding axis and are decremented

for a leftward motion.

The position counter value, therefore, indicate the actual absolute position of the

axis.A command register is loaded with the required absolute destination position of

the axis, by the interpolator.

The subtractor unit indicates the instantaneous actual difference between the required

and actual position, which is the distance to the target point.

The subtractor output is the position error of the loop. Till the subtractor output is

zero, pulses are fed through a deceleration circuit to the motor.

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Actuators
• A control valve is normally driven by a diaphragm type pneumatic actuator that
throttles the flow of the manipulating variable for obtaining the desired control

action.

• A control valve essentially consists of a plug and a stem.

• When the air pressure increases, the downward force of the diaphragm moves
the stem downward against the spring.

They are designed such that if the air supply fails, the control valve will
be either fully open, or fully closed, depending upon the safety requirement of the

process. For example, if the valve is used to control steam or fuel flow, the valve

should be shut off completely in case of air failure.

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Ideal Characteristics
• The control valve acts like an orifice and the position of the plug decides the
area of opening of the orifice. Recall that the flow rate through an orifice can be

expressed in terms of the upstream and downstream static pressure heads as:

where

q = flow rate in m3/sec.

K1 = flow coefficient

a = area of the control valve opening in m2

h1 = upstream static head of the fluid in m

h2 = downstream static head of the fluid in m

g = acceleration due to gravity in m/sec2.

• The control valves can be classified in terms of their m vs. x characteristics, and

three types of control valves are normally in use.

• They are:
• (a) Quick opening

• (b) Linear

• (c) Equal Percentage

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• Pascal’s Law
Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and
equally throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the

confining vessel at right angles to its interior surfaces.

• Amplification of Force
Since pressure P applied on an area A gives rise to a force F, given as,

F = P×A

Thus, if a force is applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined

fluid, the force generated on a larger area can be made many times larger than the

applied force that crated the pressure. This principle is used in various hydraulic

devices to such hydraulic press to generate very high forces.

• Advantages of Hydraulic Actuation Systems

Hydraulic Actuation Systems offer unique advantages, as given below.
Variable Speed and Direction: Most large electric motors run at adjustable, but

constant speeds. It is also the case for engines. The actuator (linear or rotary) of a

hydraulic system, however, can be driven at speeds that vary by large amounts and

fast, by varying the pump delivery or using a flow control valve. In addition, a

hydraulic actuator can be reversed instantly while in full motion without damage.

This is not possible for most other prime movers.

Power-to-weight ratio: Hydraulic components, because of their high speed and

pressure capabilities, can provide high power output with vary small weight and

size, say, in comparison to electric system components. Note that in electric

components, the size of equipment is mostly limited by the magnetic saturation

limit of the iron. It is one of the reasons that hydraulic equipment finds wide usage

in aircrafts, where dead-weight must be reduced to a minimum.

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

Stall Condition and Overload Protection: A hydraulic actuator can be stalled

without damage when overloaded, and will start up immediately when the load is

reduced. The pressure relief valve in a hydraulic system protects it from overload

damage. During stall, or when the load pressure exceeds the valve setting, pump

delivery is directed to tank with definite limits to torque or force output. The only

loss encountered is in terms of pump energy. On the contrary, stalling an electric

motor is likely to cause damage. Likewise, engines cannot be stalled without the

necessity for restarting.

• Basic Hydraulic System

• Components of Hydraulic Actuation Systems

Reservoir oil tank
Piping

Hydraulic pump

Power source

Actuator

Valves
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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

Filters
• 1. Reservoir Oil Tank
The reservoir holds the incompressible fluid, which is usually hydraulic oil.

It also protects the fluid from getting contaminated, which is critical to ensure the
hydraulic system functions optimally.

• 2. Piping
• Piping is simply, but importantly, the hollow structures that carry the hydraulic
fluid from one location to another within the system.

• 3. Hydraulic Pump
• The role of hydraulic pumps is to force the hydraulic fluid from the reservoir to

the rest of the circuit.

• Firstly, the pump creates a vacuum at the pump inlet which forces the fluid

from the reservoir into the pump.

• Next, the pump pushes the fluid to the pump outlet and then forces it into the

rest of the hydraulic system.

• 4. Power source
• An electric motor or other power source is required to make the mechanical
elements of the pump work.

• 5. Hydraulic Actuator
• A hydraulic actuator is the component which changes the hydraulic power in

the fluid into mechanical power to achieve the desired action.

• 6. Control Valves
• Valves control the pressure, flow rate and direction of the fluid moving through

the circuit. There are many types of valves with specific functions.

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5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

• 7. Filters
• Filters prevent the hydraulic system from being contaminated. This is essential
to ensure the system works effectively and safely. Without a filter, a hydraulic

system’s components may wear down quickly and pipes may get blocked.

• A suction line filter stops any contaminants in the reservoir fluid getting into the

rest of the hydraulic system.

• It is located at the input side of the hydraulic pump.

• A return line filter cleans out any contamination in the hydraulic fluid at the

end of the return line.

Advantages of Hydraulic Actuation Systems

• Variable Speed and Direction: The actuator (linear or rotary) of a hydraulic

system, however, can be driven at speeds that vary by large amounts and fast,

by varying the pump delivery or using a flow control valve.

• In addition, a hydraulic actuator can be reversed instantly while in full motion

without damage.

• Power-to-weight ratio: Hydraulic components, because of their high speed and

pressure capabilities, can provide high power output with vary small weight and

size.

• Stall Condition and Overload Protection: A hydraulic actuator can be stalled

without damage when overloaded, and will start up immediately when the load

is reduced.

• The pressure relief valve in a hydraulic system protects it from overload damage.

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 Prepared By:
5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

Hydraulic Servo-System

• The electric motor that drives the pump at a constant speed is dc-based.

• The pump itself has a fixed displacement, and delivers oil flow from the tank to

the rest of the components.

• Normally, the pressure Ps at the pump discharge is kept constant by means of

the accumulator and the relief valve.

• The installed accumulator is relatively small, and is used as an additional

source of hydraulic fluid and a water-hammer absorber.

• The relief valve is set to pressure Ps and compensates for pressure increases

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5. Control Of Machine Tools Prof. BAWAGE A.S.

due to large loads, by returning a required additional amount of flow to the

tank.

• The displacement of the rotary hydraulic actuator that drives the load is

constant; its direction of motion, speed, and acceleration are determined by the

two-stage servo valve, through the convenient position of its spool.

• The load is generated using a pump that is driven by the hydraulic actuator and

another servo valve that creates a desired restriction at the pump discharge.

• All necessary data are collected through the different installed sensors; i.e.,

torque meter, tachometer, and pressure sensors.

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