HPH 17 Europe

From: L.
Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Phonetics – Lincom Europa
17. Europe
17.0. Portuguese (Rom., ¤™) –with its neutral Brazilian and Lusitanian accents–
is given in é 7 of the HPr. Likewise, in é 6 of the HPr, we find Spanish (Rom., ¤™)
–with its neutral Iberian and (central-southern) American accents.
é 4 of the HPr gives neutral French (Rom., ¤™), with the additional following
pronunciations: international, mediatic Parisian, (Marseilles) southern, (Québe-
cois) Canadian, a‡ected Parisian, and the Parisian variant of the banlieues.
In é 2 of the HPr, we find the American and British pronunciations of English,
including their mediatic variants (also known respectively as çMidwestern Ameri-
canÇ and çEstuary EnglishÇ or çSoutheastern BritishÇ), alongside the pronuncia-
tions of Canadian, Australian, New-Zealand English, traditional and a‡ected Brit-
ish English, Cockney (¤ popular London) and a proposal for an international pro-
nunciation of English.
As for German, é 5 of the HPr provides, in addition to its neutral pronuncia-
tion, also those of northeastern Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and South Tyrol
(in northeastern Italy).
≈nally, é 8 of the HPr gives the modern neutral pronunciation of Russian, in
addition to the traditional one.
For related languages, such as the Romance ones, we sometimes omit obvious
information like (B, ƒ, Ÿ) for internal postvocalic /b, d, g/, or some opposite char-
acteristics, such as initial or postnasal çstrongÇ positions.
And now we will continue our journey, again following the map of û 17.
17.1. Galician (also Galego /gÈ'lIigOU/, ™: Rom., ¤™) presents limited and whim-
sical cases of dialectal metaphony and vowel adjustments (which do not fall with-
in neutral pronunciation, though); /jé, wé/ can frequently change to (ié, ué).
˛ere are many diphthongs of the /éi, éu/ kind. In the most typical accent we find
/éö˘, éöò, öé˘ö/ (–ö˘, –öò, ö–˘ö) and (–«0, –«ò): unha man (&u˙Å'mÅ«), while
in Spanish-influenced accents there is only plain automatic nasalization. Young
and urban people may present çyeismÇ, as in Spanish, ¤ /L/ = (á, ,, ‚); /l=0/, ex-
cept with labial and labiodental phonemes (or under the influence of Spanish),
while with velar C, or if final, /l/ is (ı) (or (])); /r:, R/ correspond to Spanish use.
For /†, s/ (†, ß), we have (∑Ê, fiÊ), and often /s/ = (À) + /N, c, S, L/; in the western-
-coast dialects, both /†, s/ (†, ß) become /s/ (s) (or (ß), before arriving at the coast).
˛e most traditional and well-known dialect (and consequently non-neutral) fea-
ture is the çg(h)eadaÇ, which causes /g/ to be realized as (H) (or (˜), in the moun-
tains). Under the influence of Spanish we can find (™, ø) for /e, E÷ o, O/.
˛e interrogative preintoneme is fairly high, as can be seen from the tonogram,
whereas the (interrogative) intoneme is somewhat peculiar, ¤ (2 ' 2 2); less typical
pronunciations can also have (2 Ì 1 2) (and even (2 ' 2 1), under the influence of
308 a handbook of phonetics
û 17. Languages of Europe.

39
p
Lap
Iceland.
35
Komi =
+ Karelian
h
nis
n
≈n
Scottish
gia
+
Gaelic
we
≠ + + Russian
r
No
ish
ed
Manx 44 + Estonian 43
Sw
+ Scots Mordvin =
Irish 34 ≠ + Latvian
Gaelic = Danish = 36
Frisian Russian Lithu.
= (Brit.) =
Welsh 26 ≠
ish Beloruss.
29 Engl + Dutch
+ √emish an Polish
Breton = 10 = Germ 47
Walloon +Letzeb. 52 Ukrainian
Vannes Bret. = Bavar. Czech
Fren Alsat. ak
Astur- ch = ≠ 27
n. Slov
n
Langue- e
cia
ian Gas- ± V i ±
≠ r.
docien Zur. ± Aus. G. Hunga
li
≠ con
Ga
+
-
≠
1 o .
≠
= Sw.± Rman 55 Croat. Rumanian

Basque= G . S
‰
15 lo Bo Moldavian
Aranese ± neg.
cin
ve sn n
.
Aragonese ± a
ug
± n . i
.
5 Prove Mo ian b rian

Ser
rt
Spanish nç. ulga

Po
±
Ita
± + B
Catalan Gh = Macedonian
lia
≠
Valencian e g
n
Co
t.
= 61
Ca
k
rsi
Gree
9 Balearinc ±
ca
rn
± Catala Alban.
ste
eastern
we
Andalusian
Maltese =
64
+ √emish 47
± German Polish
Breton = 10 Walloon +Letzeburg.
Vannes Bret. = Czech
21 Bavarian
Alsatian = ≠ Slovak
27 Vien-
French ± Aus. Gnese ±28
Asturian Zur. erm. Hungarian 53
≠ 12 Proven- ±
≠
2 h 55
Gas- Langue- çal Swiss ±Romansc Rum.
c o n Germ. cinese ro at.
Basque =
≠
docien ‰ Slo C B
15 ve osn
Aranese ± neg . n iac
± M = o ian Serbian
Aragonese arseil M
Ita
Frenc esl
lia
(Iber.) Spanish ± h 17
Al
n
± -
g
ba
ace.-
e
(central) Catalan
Gh
o r nia
≠
Valencian C a n n M on
sic ≠ 61 d
t.
=
Ca
Catal.
Balearic
st.
Greek
we
17. europe 309
Spanish, often with /÷/ (2 Ì 1 2), instead of (2 ' 2 2)).

As in Spanish, the o‚cial orthography uses initial >¿≥˚ >¡≥ followed by >?≥˚ >!≥˘
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e) /o/ (o)
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N («)|˙
pb t d (á) kg
C (‚)
f † ß ë (,) (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) j w
r:|R-l (]) (ı) (¬) L (ı)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)
/¿/ (2 2 Ì 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ì 2) {/?/ (2 Ì 1 2)} {/?/ (2 Ç 2 1)}
17.2. Asturian (™: Rom., ¤™) preserves /L/ (while the Asturian accent of Spanish
has /L/ = (,)); /n=0/, but (˙ò|, ˙òé); it has various diphthongs of the /éi, éu/ kind.
It typically presents devoicing of final V (also with -s], including /a/˚ if preceded by
voiceless C, ¤ (=‚{ß}ò).
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (™, ’e, »™) /o/ (ø, ’o, »ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N (˙)
pb t d (á) kg
C
å † (∑) ß (fi) ë , (Ÿ) {X}
(B) (ƒ) j w
R|r:-l (¬) L
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ì 1 2) /÷/ (2 5 2 2)

17.3. Basque /'bπsk, 'bA:sk/ (™/ƒ: isolated, non-¤™) has /n=0/ and /nò/. Generally,
in northern Basque /b, d, á, g/ do not have (B, ƒ, J, Ÿ) taxophones. We find /r/,
which is (r0, rò, 0r) but (éRé) (colloquially, also (é¸é) or even (é`é)), and /rr/ (rr).
We generally have (ié, ué), not (jé, wé) (also (gié, gué)), except in fast speech;
on the other hand, >ea¸˚ oa¸≥ usually are (ãaò, jaò). In final position, /b, d, g/ = (p,
t, k). ˛ere are diphthongs of the /éi, éu/ type.
On French territory we find /h/ >h≥˚ (h, éHé) too, but no /x/, which becomes /á/
(á, j); there is also /0h/ >Ch≥ for /p – ph, t – th, k – kh/, even with no minimal
pairs; besides, (r{r}) = (˜) – (R).
Spelling: ñ and in /N/, ll and il /L/, tt˚ dd /©, á/ (á, J), j /x/, z˚ tz /†, ‡/ (fl, =), s˚ ts
/s, q/ (ß, ç), x˚ tx /S, c/ (ë, C).
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (™) /o/ (ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N
p b t d © á k g
= ç C
{f} fl ß ë (J) x (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ)
R|r-l L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)
17.4. Aragonese (™: Rom., ¤™) has /n=0/ and /nò/; /r:, R/ follow Spanish use and
(R) is frequently (¸) in /éRé, Rò, Rr:/. Often /s/ (ß, fi) is (s, z), ¤ denti-alveolar; in
Aragonese Spanish, /dò/ (‡) = (†).
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e) /o/ (o)
/a/ (a)
m n N
pb t d kg
C
f † (∂) ß (fi) ë J (y) X
(B) (¸) j w
R|r:-l (¬) L
17. europe 311
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 21) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
17.5. Neutral Catalan (™: Rom., ¤™) has only three V in unstressed syllables, ¤
/i, √, u/ (i, x, u) (with the possibility to have /’e, ’E÷ ’o, ’O/ (e, ™÷ o, ø) in compounds,
and derived or lofty forms as well as in loanwords); before (ı, u), /a, √/ (a, x) be-
come (A, √) (and /E, O/ (E, O), become ('π, »Ä÷ 'Ø, »O)). For >i˚ u≥, it presents /0ié,
0ué/, /éjé, éwé/ but /òjé/, /kwé, gwé/, and diphthongs of the /éi, éu/ kind. It has
/n=0/ and also /˙/, which occurs finally or in /˙ö/ >gm˚ gn≥˘ Phonotactically we find
the sequences /ts, dz/ (tß, dfi), often erroneously described as stopstrictives (ça‡ri-
catesÇ): potser /put'se/ (put'ße), gats /'gats/ ('gatß), botzina /bud'zin√/ (bud'fii;nx).
In intervocalic position, we also find /tc, dG/ (TC, D‚) (which di‡er consider-
ably both from plain /c, G/ (C, ‚) and from the geminates found in other langua-
ges, /cc, GG/ (CC, ‚‚)): despatxar /d√sp√t'ca/ (&dxßpxT'Ca), mitjà /mid'Ga/ (miD-
'‚a) (however, in other contexts, we have /c, G/ (C, ‚): despatx /d√s'pac/ (dxß-
'paC), despatx obert /d√s'pac u'bErt/ (dxß'paD ‚u'BERt)); after pauses or C˚ /S, Z/ (ë,
ò) increasingly more often correspond to /c, G/ (C, ‚): (un) xal /{un}'Sal, -'cal/
({u~}'ëaı, -'Caı), (un) joc /{un}'ZOk, -'GOk/ ({u~}'òOk, -'‚Ok), but nothing of the kind
happens with /s, z/. Generally, /Sòs, Sòz; còs, còz/ become (òÀ, ò=÷ ò⁄, òÁ).
˛e sequences /bl, pl÷ gl, kl/ are often (though not always) heterosyllabic, with
possible lengthening or even gemination of non-continuant C, ¤ (0˘], 0:˘], 0˘0]);
in non-traditional pronunciations, these sequences can also be homosyllabic (˘0]),
¤ with /b, g/ (B, Ÿ), which normalize the situation in these four cases, for syllabi-
fication as well.
Certain geminations are possible, especially for sonants, written with unassim-
ilated historical spelling: admetre, cotna, atlas, espatlla /√s'paLL√/ (xß'paLLx). /l/ is
typically velarized, (]éı{0/ò}).
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e, »e) /o/ (o, »o)

/√/ (x) {(√í)+(ı, u)}
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)
{(π, »Ä)+(ı, u)} {(Ø, »O)+(ı, u)}
/a/ (a, »a) {(A, »A)+(ı, u)}, (/√/ Barcel. (å), (√§)+(ı, u)}
m n N ˙
pb td (T D) C‚ kg
f (v) ß fi (À =) ë ò (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) j w
R|r: ]|(ı) L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

In rhythm groups, /√/ in contact with another V is regularly elided˚ also when
not shown by spelling: d'aquì a una estona //d√√'ki √un√√s'ton√// /d√'ki {√}un√s'to-
n√/ (dx'ki {x}unxß'to;nx), que es diu //k√√s'diu// /k√z'diu/ (kxfi'ƒiu), que es fa //k√√s-
'fa// /k√s'fa/ (kxß'fa).
In the infinitives and gerunds with enclitic pronouns, -r˚ -t˚ which are normal-
ly çsilentÇ, are pronounced as /R, t/: fer /'fe/ but fer-ho /'feRu/, anant /√'nan/, but a-
nant-hi /√'nanti/, portar /puR'ta/, but portar-se /puR'taRs√/. All final stops are invari-
ably voiceless before /é, =, |/ and voiced before /Ê/; therefore, b¸, d¸, g¸ are regu-
larly /p, t, k/: tub estret, arab, fred intens, liquid, bioleg i geoleg, llarg; vice versa,
p¸, t¸, ç change to /b, d, g/ in cases like prop de, pot venir, esbufec desaprovador,
poc modest. Also f¸, (t)s¸, tx¸/Vig¸ are /v, {d}z, G/ before /é, Ê/: buf estrany ('bu
vxß'tRaN), els nens (xıfi'nEnfi), tots els jugadors ('to;dfixı{fi} &òuŸa'ƒoß), mateix any (mx-
&te'òaN), vaig demanar (&ba‚dxmx'na); notice that the former has (v) even though
this variety of Catalan does not normally have /v/. ©thin word boundaries, very
much like what happens in sentences, and in lofty words, loanwords, or derived
forms, written with b˚ d before /=/, correspond to /p, t/: substancia˚ obscurir˚ dis-
sabte˚ adquirir÷ while, for p˚ t˚ c˚ s/ç, before /Ê/, we have /b, d, g÷ z/ (realized as
stops, (b, d, g)): capdavall˚ abducció˚ futbol˚ anècdota˚ dracma, feliçment, as well
as in cases as viatge, dotze /dG, dz/.
In Barcelona, both under the influence of Castilian and normal evolution, /√/
is (å) (or (√) before (ı, u)); /L/ changes to /j/; also, /S, Z/ = /c, G/, and in intervocal-
ic position /dG/ = /tc/; /bl, gl/ = /pl, kl/ (all these features are highly stigmatized
but extremely widespread).
Spelling: c /s, k/, ç /s/, g /Z, g/, Vig¸ /éc/, j /Z/, ll /L/, ¬ /ll/, ny /N/, tg and tj /dG/,
ts /ts/, x /S/, Vix¸ /éS/, tx /c, étcé/, tz /dz/, y /j/, z /z/.
17.6. (North-)Western Catalan (™: Rom., ¤™) has a di‡erent distribution of /e,
E, o, O/ from neutral Catalan, and presents five V (instead of just three) in un-
stressed syllables, too: /i, e, a, o, u/ (i, e, å, o, u) (also for ('a], ’å])). Besides, /n=0/.
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e) /o/ (o)
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)

/a/ (a[]], ’å[]], »a)
m n N ˙
pb td (T D) C‚ kg
f (v) ß fi ë ò (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) j w
R|r: ] L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

17. europe 313
17.7. Balearic (or B. Catalan]˚ (™: Rom., ¤™), has stressed /'√/ ('ê) and /’√/ (ê, å|)
as unmarked local features; for /E, a, O/ it has (e, a, ù) and (π, A, Ø) + (ı, u). We al-
so find /’o/ (and more rarely, /’e/ too, which often alternates with /√/). /L/ is found
only in words deriving from Latin l- or -ll-, whereas those with çpalatalizedÇ Cl, liV
clusters have /j/; /l/ can be always (ı); /v/ – /b/; besides, /n=0/, including /nk/ (˙k,
N©). ˛e palatal taxophones of /k, g/ (©÷ á, J) before /i, e, E, a, √/ and word-final /k/
(©) are noteworthy. Often /b, g/ do not present the usual taxophones (B, Ÿ) (while
(ƒ) for /d/ is generally present).
˛ere is a less typical accent, especially in Majorca, resulting both from Castilian
influence and normal evolution, which exhibits the V given, and in the second vo-
cogram; for /l/ it tends to have (lé]), whereas it never has /L/ (= /j/); increasingly
more often, /v/ = /b/, /S/ = /c/, and /j/ = (é, , |›, N›). In Minorca, we find /Rò/ (rò).
More marked variants, as that of Felanitx, may present seven V˚ instead of the
eight of ordinary Balearic, because of the coalescence of /E/ with /e/ = (™), as a con-
sequence /a/ = (Å), /O/ = (a).
Balearic /i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e, »e) /o/ (o, »o)

/√/ (ê, å|) /O/ (ù, »∏)
{(√)+(ı, u)} {(Ø, »O)+(ı, u)}
/E/ (E, »™) /a/ (a, »a)
{(π, »Å)+(ı, u)} {(A, »A)+(ı, u)}
Majorca /i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e, »e) /o/ (o)

/E/ (Ä, »É) /√/ (å) {(√)+(ı, u)}
{(Ä/, »É/)+(ı, u)}
/O/ (∏, »Ö)
/a/ (a, »a) {(O, »ø)+(ı, u)}
{(A, »A)+(ı, u)}
Felanitx /i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/o/ (ø)
/e, E/ (™, »™) /√/ (ê, å|)
{(√)+(ı, u)}
/a/ (Å, »Å) /O/ (a, »a)
{(a, »a)+(ı, u)} {(Ø, »Ø)+(ı, u)}
m n N
pb td (T D) C‚ (© á) kg
fv ßfi ë ò (J) (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) ã j
R|r: ı L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

17.8. Valencian /vÈ'lEnSiÈn, -SÈn/ [Catalan]˚ (also Southern Catalan, ™: Rom., ¤™),
has five V in unstressed positions, /i, e, a, o, u/; /E, O/ are fairly centralized, (E#, »™#÷
O@, »ø@). It traditionally distinguishes /b, v/ >b˚ v≥; after pauses, /b, d, g/ are (Ê, ∂,
â); /s, z/ become (À, =) after /i/. Compared to neutral Catalan, it has no /Z/ which
has become /G/: gent ('‚ent), joc ('‚Ok). ˛e sequences /0jé, 0wé/ can be (0ié,
0ué)÷ as on the Balearic Isles, /L/ is only found for Latin l- and -ll-, not for çpala-
talizedÇ Cl, liV clusters; /n=0/; besides, /J/ (,), but (›) after N or pauses; /l/ (]) (but
also (l)).
In Valencia and its outskirts, but also sparsely in the Valencian territory, both
under the influence of Castilian and normal evolution, we find no voiced stopstric-
tive phonemes, nor voiced grooved constrictives; we do find, however, the assimi-
lated phonetic realizations (fi, ò÷ dfi, ‚) before voiced C; for /s0/, there is often
(h0), or assimilation to the following C, (0), even with gemination, (00), as in
eastern Andalusian. /L/ coalesces with /J/ (,, ›); likewise, /w/ is often ç/gw/Ç (m,
)); besides, /v/ = /b/ (all these features are highly stigmatized but extremely wide-
spread).
Spelling (di‡erences with neutral Catalan): g /G, g/, j /G/, Vix¸ /éiS/.
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e) /o/ (o)
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)

/a/ (a)
m n N
p b t d (T D) k g
C‚ (›)
f v ß fi ë (ò) (À =) , (Ÿ)
(B) (V) (ƒ) j w
R|r: ]|(l) L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)
17.9. Eastern Andalusian (™: Rom., ¤™) has the peculiarity (though not absolute)
of having two di‡erent taxophones for each of the five (stressed or unstressed) V
/i, e, a, o, u/ (within words or rhythm group): çnormalÇ (i, e, å, o, u) (relatively
higher and backer) V çspecialÇ (I, ™, a, ø, U) (relatively lower and fronter) which
occur before /s/, whether realized as (h) (not as (â, ∆, W, ∆)), or assimilated to the
following C, or realized as çzeroÇ: los ojos azules /lo'soxo sa'sules/ (lø'hø;∆ø ha'sU;-
l™{h}); but un ojo /u'noxo/ (u'no;∆o). Notice that all the V in a word belong to ei-
ther of the groups seen above.
/s0/ sequences generally produce geminates: rasgo˚ esto˚ isla ('r:aggo, '™tto, 'Illå);
the same can happen with other sequences as well, as in pacto˚ apto ('patto, 'atto);
17. europe 315
for /sb, sd, sg/, we find the typical short voiceless realizations (F, Ï, ∆), or (HB, Hƒ,
Hy). After pauses or C˚ /S, Z/ (ë, ò) are realized as stopstrictives, (C, ‚) (/Z/ cor-
responds to both neutral Spanish /L/ and /J/); the most common neutralization of
syllable- or word-final /R, l/ is (R, ¸). In su‚x grammemes, /d/ is generally (`); /e,
o/ + V become (ã, j). We also have /n=0/, but (–«ò).
/i/ (i, I*) /u/ (u, U*)
/e/ (e, ™*) /o/ (o, ø*)
/a/ (å, a*)

m n N («)
p b t d k g
(C ‚)
s ë ò (y)
F (B) (Ï ƒ) (¸) j|(ã) ∆ w|(j) (h H)
R|r:-l
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (1 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
17.10. Breton /'b<Etó, -tØn/ (ƒ: Celtic, ¤™) is complicated by the fact that it has
15 dialects (without considering, here, the islands with their own peculiarities),
which coincide only partially, having di‡erences in the phoneme inventory, as well
as in some realizations; besides, speakers are often composite, which further com-
plicates the situation. Here the neutral pronunciation is presented, as obtained
from a necessary normalization; some (especially vowel) phonemes have a very
limited occurrence. We find 10 oral V (/i, e, E, a, O, o, u÷ y, °, §/) and seven nasal-
ized V (/i, e, Å, Ú, u, y, J/). ˛ey are all phonemically short, but can be lengthened
/i/ (i[i]), /i/ (i[i]) /u/ (u[u])
/y/ (y[y]), /y/ (y[y]) /u/ (u[u])
/e/ (e[e]), /°/ (°[°]) /o/ (o[o])
/e/ (™[™]), /J/ (}[}]) /Ú/ (9[9])
/E/ (™[™]), /§/ (#[#]) /O/ (ø[ø])
/Å/ (_[_])
/a/ ([A]a)
/iu/ (iu)
/ei/ (™i)
/ey/ (™y) /ou/ (øu)
/eo/ (™P) /ÅÚ/ (_œ)
/ae/ (aÙ) /ao/ (aP)
m n N
pb td k g
f v sz SZ X (º)
j ¥ w (˜) h
R-l L (K)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
in certain contexts, either as narrow diphthongs or simple doublings.

We have also added the eight phonemic diphthongs, belonging to neutral pro-
nunciation. Some C present an interplay of tension/length, which surfaces espe-
cially through lengthening — devoicing, also at word boundaries, but with di‡er-
ences between traditional and modern pronunciation. Moreover, stressed V pre-
ceding non-tense C are lengthened. In some rare distinctive cases, with vowel
lengthening in unexpected positions, sequences of identical V may be occur, espe-
cially for /aa/, rather than having theoretical phonemic durations for all V˘ ˛e
most typical and genuine articulation for r is (R), which however is usually substi-
tuted with (K, º, ˜); diphonic C show //Êò// = /=/; //=òé, =òÊ// = /Ê/.
17.11. Vannes Breton (also Vannetais /vπn'tEI, '__/, ƒ: Celtic, ¤™) is the most pecu-
liar among the 15 dialects of continental Brittany, five of which are of the Vannetais
kind. We present here the Vannes koiné, normalized so as to function as a possible
local neutral pronunciation, passing over the least widespread peculiarities. We
give, however, only simple V, since the various possible diphthongs are generally
formed by juxtaposing the existing vowel elements. Depending on words and dia-
lects, in Brittany there can be as many as 25 diphthongs (not necessarily so in
Vannes Breton), but the situation is so intricate, that it is best treated this way. In
comparison to neutral Breton, Vannes Breton has two extra phonemes, /c, G/, but
/i/ (i[i]), /y/ (y[y]) /u/ (¯[¯])

/o/ (o[o])
/e/ (e[e]) /È/ (È)
/E/ (™[™]), /ê/ (ê[#]) /O/ (ø[ø])
/Å/ (_[Ô])
/a/ ([A]a)
m n N
pb td kg
cG
f v sz S Z (º)
(â) j ¥ (∆) (W) w (˜) h (H)
R-l L (K)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

17. europe 317
lacks /X/; the phoneme /h/ has various possible taxophones, ¤ (éHé, ∆ò, âi, W¯).
Generally, the C are short and there are also some sequences of homochromatic V,
as /aa/.
17.12. Gascon /'gπskÈn/ (ƒ: Rom., ¤™) has the V given, including /’Oò/ (o÷), which
could be rendered with ç/o/ (’oò)Ç (even though, sometimes, it is (’øïò)); it has the
sequences /ts, dz÷ tS, dZ/ (which are not stopstrictives {ça‡ricatesÇ}, as some descrip-
tions say); ¸r is /r/ (r:), while rr is /Rr/ (Rr)÷ we find /n=0/ and /nò/; generally, there
is no /¥é/, but /y'é/; (j) may occur for certain (B) too.
/i/ (i), /y/ (y) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e)
/’Oò/ (o) >a(s)ò≥
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N
pb td kg
f sz SZ (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) j j h
R|(r:)-l L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
17.13. Aranese (ƒ: Rom., ¤™) has the frequent variant /iu/ (iu) for /jeu/ (jÉu); the
phonemes /q, Q÷ G/ oscillate between stopstrictive, (ç, Ç÷ G), and sequential re-
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/y/ (y)
/e/ (e)
/jeu˙iu/ (jÉu˙iu) /O/ (O, »ø)
/E/ (E, »™)
/a/ (a, ’√|)
m n N (˙ò)
pb t d kg
çÇ cG
f ß fi S Z (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) j ¥ w
R|r-l (]) L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

alizations, (tß, dfi÷ DG); after /n/, /s, z÷ Z/ become (nç, nÇ÷ ~G). We have /n=0/,
but (˙ò|); dialectally, we find /h/ >h≥˚ also in /òé/ (òhé).
17.14. Languedocian /lπ˙'dOUS˘n, lπ˙gwÈ'-/ (also central Occitan[ic], ƒ: Rom.,

¤™) has /R, r/ (R, Rr), which oppose also in /éòré/ (éRòré); it has the sequences /ts, dz÷
tS, dZ/. ˛e taxophones (B, ƒ, Ÿ) of /b, d, g/ alternate with (b, d, g); we find /n=0/
and (nò). Nowadays, under the influence of French, we frequently find (˜, r) and
({˜}º, {r}K), for /R, {R}r/, in which case their opposition is threatened. Here is an
interesting sample: en Occitania (&enut&sita'niø).
/i/ (i), /y/ (y) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e)
/’Oò/ (ø) >aò≥
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N
p b td k g
f sz SZ (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) j ¥ w
R|r-l L
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
17.15. Provençal /p<ØvØn'sA:ı/ (ƒ: Rom., ¤™), in spite of the lh digraph, has not
had /L/ for a long time now, as it has become /j/. /R/ (R) occurs only in /éR{ò}é/; else-
where we find /0K, K0÷ {é}òK/ (0r, r0÷ {é}òº, {é}òK) for r˚ and /K/ (º, K) for rr. ˛e
neutral opposition between /R/ (R) and /K/ (º, K) is increasingly more often neutral-
ized into (r). Diphonic consonants show /Êò/ = (=). We find the sequences /ts, dz÷
tS, dZ/; and /n=0/, but («ò): provençal (&pruven's√u).
As regards Nice, we have /a/ (a) throughout, also when unstressed — final; like-
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/y/ (y)
/e/ (e)
/jeu/ (jeu) >iu≥ (’∑ò) >a(s)ò≥
/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (ø, »ø)
/ai/ (åi) /au/ (√u, ’∑u)
/a/ (a, ’å, »a)
m n N («ò)
pb td kg
fv sz SZ º
j ¥ w
R-l (K|r)
17. europe 319
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

wise, /ai, au/ are always (ai, au); besides, it has neutralization into (º); and (,) for
/j/ >lh≥˘
17.16. Monegasque /mØn¢'gπsk/ (ƒ: Rom. {Ligurian-like}, ¤™) does not show V
phonemic length÷ the phoneme /°/ is being lost; besides, we find /n/ («0, «ò), and
/s0, z0/ (ë0, ò0); the phoneme /¸/ is being lost, too: relëri (Re'l°;°¸i).
/i/ (i), /y/ (y) /u/ (u)
/e/ (e), {/°/ (°)} /o/ (o)
/a/ (a)
m n N («)
p b t d k g
C ‚
f v s z ë ò
{¸} j w
R-l
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
17.17. Corsican (ƒ: Rom., ¤™), in comparison to central Italian dialects, has pecu-
liar distributions of /e, E, o, O/, which are practically exchanged; it presents self-ge-
mination and co-gemination (Ô é 3 of the HPr, and MaPI “ DiPI]˘ Stressed V are
monotimbric diphthongs, with the following durations: ('é;é˘, 'ééò, 'éé0:). Un-
stressed final /i, a, u/ are (‚) before pauses. Consonant gemination is distinctive;
/i/ (i[i]) /u/ (u[u])
/e/ (e[e]) /o/ (o[o], »o)
/E/ (™[™], »™) /O/ (ø[ø], »ø)

((Ä, »É) Nord: >eN(C)≥˚
e freq. >err/erC≥) /a/ (a[a])
m n N
pb td (© á) kg
qQ cG
fv sz (z) SZ (Ÿ)
(B) (ƒ) j (¥) w|(j)
R|(r)-l
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (1 Ì 2 2) /÷/ (2 52 2 2)
besides, we find /kj, gj/ (©, á), /n=0/. After pauses or N˚ /v/ = /b/ (|b, mb); between
V˚ /v/ = /w/ (j); /w5/ = (¥5); frequently, /{s}tR, {z}dR/ are ({s}tz, {z}dz).
17.18. ‰cinese /tIc¢'nIiz/ (©∆: Rom., ¤™) has peculiar labializations for /f, v÷ q,
Q÷ s, z/ (è, ¶÷ Ë, Z÷ À, ã); (˙0)÷ /s0, z0/ (ë0, ò0), /kj, gj/ (k, ›).
/i[i]/ (Û[i]) /u[u]/ (¯[u])

/y[y]/ (%[y])
/e[e]/ (Ù[e]) /o[o]/ (P[o])
/°[°]/ (+[°])
/EE/ (ÄE, »É) /OO/ (∏O, »Ö)
/a[a]/ (A[√]), /’a/ (√)
m n N (˙|«)
p b t d k g
Ë Z C ‚ (k ›)
è ¶ À ã ë ò
j w
R-l (¬)
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (1 Ç 1 1)
17.19. Romans(c)h /<OU'mπnS, -A:nS/˚ also Rheto-Romance /'<IiùOU <OU'mπns/ or

Grischun(a) /g<¢'ZUun{È}, -'S-/ (©∆: Rom., ¤™), has typical diphthongs of the /éi, éu÷
éÈ/ kind, (éI, éU÷ éÈ); it opposes C – CC÷ after /n, r, l/, /s/ changes to (q) (or (Ú)),
/i[:]/ (I, i:), /y[:]/ (Y, y:) /u[:]/ (U, u:),
/IÈ/ (IÈ), /YÈ/ (YÈ) /UÈ/ (UÈ)
/e[:]/ (e[:]), /°[:]/ (°[:]) /o[:]/ (o[:])
/È/ (È)
/E/ (™), /E:/ (E:, »™)
/§/ (#) /O/ (ø), /O:/ (O:, »ø)
/’a/ (√)
/a[:]/ (a[:])
m n N
pb td (© á) kg
qQ C‚
fv s z ë ò
(â) j w h
5|(R)
l {(])} L
17. europe 321
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

even though not systematically. For /s, z/ + diphonic C or sonants, we find (ë, ò);
initial /b, d g/ are (Ò); /b, d g÷ v/ + /=/, or when final, become (=); for /r/, we have
(5, ’R); (]) is possible for /lò, l0/; we then have /n=0/, but /nò/ (˙) opposing /mò,
Nò/; /kj, gj/ (©, á).
17.20. Zurich /'zU˘<Ik/ Swiss German (©∆: Germ., ¤™) has the typical phonemic
and phonetic diphthongs given in the second and first vocograms respectively. It
has the intense sonants /õ, ó, ô÷ “, Í/, and the peculiar (stopstrictive) /w/ (}) (c)k
and (sequences) /xs/ (ºs) chs˚ /ks/ (ks) x. /b, d, g÷ v, z, Z/ are (Ò); /R|/ is (Í, 5); /kV,
qV, SV/ are (kB, qB, ëB)÷ >CC≥ (and others too, after short /'é/) are (00)÷ /n=0/.
/i/ (i), /y/ (y) /u/ (u)

/ii/ (¤i), /yy/ (Yy) /uu/ (Uu)
/e/ (e)÷ /ee/ (eÙ) /°°/ (°+), /oo/ (oP)
/È/ (Ù)÷ /êê/ (@ê) /°/ (#), /o/ (ø)
/E/ (E)÷ /EE/ (EÉ)
/O/ (O)
/π/ (π)÷ /ππ/ (πE)
/ØØ/ (ù∏)
/iÈ/ (iÙ), /yÈ/ (yÙ) /uÈ/ (uÙ)
/ei/ (™i), /êi/ (êi)

/ou/ (øu)
/Oi/ (∏i)
/ai/ (Åi)÷ /au/ (å¯)
m n ˙
p b t d k g
∫ q C }
f v s z ë {ò} º (˜)
(B) V j h
R-l
/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ç2 2 2)
17.21. Alsatian (ƒ: Germ., ¤™) presents also diphthongs with an /i/ (I) added to
/é, é:/; it has /&, Í/, /º|/ (ü, X)÷ /tS/ (TS), rather than /c/; /ò'kh/.
/i[:]/ (i[:]), /’i/ (i) /%[:]/ (%[:]), /%È/ (%ê)

/iÈ/ (iÙ), /I/ (I) /u/ (U)
/+[:]/ (+[:])
/e[:]/ (e[:])
/o[:]/ (o[:])
/E:/ (™:) /È/ (È)
/a/ (Ä), /a:/ (ÅÄ) /ê[:]/ (@[:])
/Ø/ (∏), /Ø:/ (ù∏)
m n ˙
p t k
∫ q
f s S Xº
j w h
l
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
17.22. Letzebuergesch /'lEtsÈbUÈ≤g¢S/ (also Luxemburgian /'l√ksÈmbÈ:≤GiÈn, __'__/˚

Germ., ¤™) has the vowels and diphthongs given in the two vocograms, including
/È/ (¢), which can occur stressed as well, and in -Cen too; /kv, qv, Sv/ (kj, qj, Sj)÷
in neutral pronunciation, as on the radio, r should be /R/ (R), but commonly (Ké,
éº) occur; /n=0/. We find (X, º) for ch˚ g after back vowels, including /a{a}/ and
diphthongs ending in /u/ (¯); elsewhere, we find (slightly retracted) (ë, ò), also for
¸g.
/i[i]/ (I[;i]) /u[u]/ (¯[;u]) /iÈ/ (IÈ) /uÈ/ (¯+)
/iiK[0]/ (i;) /uuK[0]/ (¯;)
/e[e]/ (e[;Ù]) /o[o]/ (P[;¨]) /ei/ (ei) /ou/ (+¯)
/—È/ (¢), /’ÈKò/ (√º)
/O/ (Ö) /EEi/ (Ä;i)
/E[E]/ (E[;™]) /au/ (å¯)
/EEu/ (Ä;¯)
/a[a]/ (a, Ä;Å)
/ai/ (ai)
m n ˙
pb td kg {ö}
q C
fv sz (ë ò) Sq Xº
j (j) h
{R}-l (K)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 • 2 2)
17.23. Walloon /wØ'lUun, wÈ-/ (∫: Rom., ¤™) shows length oppositions (mono-
timbric diphthongs) for stressed oral vowels, except /E, §, O/; the four nasalized
vowels are only phonetically diphthongized: /í, ^, Ó, Ú/ (ì{ì}, }{}}, _{_}, œ{œ}).
17. europe 323
As for C, in addition to the presence of /c, G/ (c, G), and the absence of /¥/, we
find /K/ ('º, 0º÷ ’˜, é˜); also, /l0, lò/ (÷).
/i[i]/ (i[i]), /y[y]/ (y[y]) /u[u]/ (u[u])
/e[e]/ (e[e]), /°[°]/ (°[°]) /o[o]/ (o[o])

/È/ (È) /Ú/ (œ[œ]}
/E/ (™), /§/ (#) /O/ (ø)
/í/ (ì[ì], ’3), /^/ (}[}]) /Ó/ (_[_], ’9)
/a[a]/ (a[a])
m n N
pb td kg
cG
fv sz S Z º
j w (˜) h
l (÷)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
17.24. Dutch (also Netherlandic of the Netherlands, ~¬: Germ., ¤™) has 13 V˚ /i,
I, E, a, A, O, o, u, y, °, +, È/; apart from /È/ (È, +ò), which is unstressed (and round-
ed, when in word-final position), five only occur in checked syllables and are al-
ways short, /I, E, A, O, +/ (¤, ™, å, ø, +); the other seven are phonetic narrow diph-
thongs of mid length ((éé)) in stressed syllables, and are classified into two groups:
high V˚ (ii, yy, uu) (monotimbric diphthongs) and non-high V˚ (eÙ, °+, oP÷ aå)
(narrow diphthongs). In unstressed syllables, /i, y, u÷ e, °, o÷ A/ are all short, ¤ (i,
y, u÷ e, °, o÷ å); /i, y, u/ are short in stressed checked syllables too, (i0, y0, u0).
Also, all seven in stressed (either checked or unchecked) syllables before /R/ (R) are
long diphthongs, ¤ (é;é) – more precisely: opening diphthongs, (i;I, y;Y, u;U), and
monotimbric diphthongs, (Ù;Ù, +;+, P;P÷ å;å) (somehow exchanging their peculiar-
ities seen above); note also the taxophone of /O/ followed by a nasal, (Pö{0/ò}, P˘ö).
˛e three phonemic diphthongs are closing diphthongs: /EI, åY, √U/ (EI, åY, ∏U)
(of mid length). ˛e third vocogram gives the nasalized V, for French words. ˛ere
are also secondary diphthongs, not given in the vocograms, but deducible, being
formed by the combination of certain vowels with /i, u/, ¤ /eu, oi÷ ai÷ iu, yu, ui/
(eÙu, oPi÷ aåi÷ iu, yu, ui). Besides, we find the vowel sequences /éié, éué/ (éié,
éué) (the latter is often realized also as (éVé)). Unstressed final a¸ oscillates be-
tween /A, a/, realized as (A÷ å, a), according to words and speakers. Stressed initial
V (also non-initial after /a, È/) can be preceded by (ö). ˛e fourth vocogram gives
six çlongÇ xenophonemes, /ii, yy, uu÷ EE, §§, OO/, which usually are changed into
the phonemes shown. Should we decide to render (in an interphonemic tran-
scription) the non-short /i, y, u÷ e, °, o÷ a/ as /ii, yy, uu÷ ee, °°, oo÷ aa/ (even for
the true lengthening contexts, before /R/), we could then render the xenophonemes
either as /é{é}/ or /é:/.
/i/ (ii, i;IR, i0, ’i)

/u/ (uu, u;UR, u0, ’u)
/y/ (yy, y;YR, y0, ’y)
/I/ (¤), /+/ (+) /o/ (oP, P;PR, Pö, ’o)
/e/ (eÙ, Ù;ÙR, ’e)
/°/ (°+, +;+R, ’+) /O/ (ø)
/E/ (™)
/a/ (aå, å;åR, ’a) /A/ (å)
/È/ (È, +ò)
/√U/ (∏U) /^/ (}[‹])

/EI/ (EI) /í/ (™[’]) /Ó/ (Ó[9])
/åY/ (åY)
/˙/ (ú[˙])
/ii/x (ii) /uu/x (uu) /[È]R0, [È]Rò/
{= /i/} {= /u/} (<, >)m “ (Ù)m
/yy/x (yy) /I/ (¢<, ¢ı)m
/§§/x (#+) /o/ (oU)m
{= /y/} {= /°/} /e/ (eI)m
/°/ (°Y)m /+/ (ê<)m
/EE/x (™Ù) /OO/x (Oø) /O/ (O<, Oı)m
{= /E, e/} /E/ (Ä<, Äı)m
{= /O, o/} /EI/ (πI)m /√U/ (åU)m
/åY/ (aT)m /A/ (A<)m
m n ˙
pb t d (T) (+) (©) k {g} (ö)
fv ßfi ëò (À) (Â J) º|X (º)m
V j (<)m h (H)
l R-(ı)
/ / (2 2 5 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 è 2 1) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)
In the fifth vocogram we give the peculiarities of the mediatic accent, regarding
/e, °, o÷ EI, åY, √U/ respectively realized as closing diphthongs, (eI, °Y, oU) (¤ nar-
row) and (πI, aT, åU) (¤ slightly wider than the neutral ones, their first elements
being lower – a further di‡erence occurs in the second element of /åY/, which is
central) and the taxophones of /I, E, A, O, +/ + (<) and /I, E, O/ + (ı): (¢, Ä, A, O, ê).
Again in the fifth vocogram, we also find the frequent mediatic realization of /{È}R/
(Ù), which occurs both after stressed or unstressed V and after C˚ in front of C or
pauses, (éÙ, 0Ù), but especially in /0ÈR{0/ò}/: maar /'maR/ ('må;åR, 'må;å<, 'må;åÙ)˚
bier /'biR/ ('bi;IR, 'bi;I<, 'bi;IÙ)˚ verder /'vERdÈR/ ('Ñ™RdÈR, 'Ñ™<d>, 'Ñ™ÙdÙ)˚ liever /'livÈR/
('liiÑÈR, 'liiÑ>, 'liiÑÙ)˚ honderd /'hondÈRt/ ('hPndÈRt, -d>t, -dÙt)˘
Neutral pronunciation has /R/ (R) (similar to the original (R), still present in A-
frikaans) in every context, as in ∫emish; however, the mediatic accent commonly
presents (ºé, é<{0/ò}, 0>{0/ò}): ra˚ naar /'Ra, 'naR/ ('ºaå, 'nå;å<), for ('Raå, 'nå;åR). For
/l/, the neutral accent has (l5) (¤ front and front-central V]˚ (ıÌ) (¤ central and
back V]˚ and (ı0, ıò); there is also (®). ˛ere is no çaspirationÇ for /p, t, k/; /ts/ is
17. europe 325
(tß, Tß) (not (ç)); there is a strong complete assimilation (of voicing), as in: ik ben
/Ik'bEn/ (¤g'b™n), half vijf /'hAlÈf 'vEIf/ ('håıÈf 'fEIf). ˛e sequences /nj, dj, zj÷ {n}sj,
{n}tj, {n}kj/ are (~J, _J, =J÷ {~}ÀÂ, {~}+Â, {N}©Â); besides, we have /VR/ (vR). ≈nal /tò/
is often (T); and (n=0).
Spelling: ae /a/ (aa), au /√U/ (∏U), c /s, k/ (ß, k), ch /x/ (òº-º-ºò), eeuw /eu/ (eÙu),
ei /EI/ (EI), -en¸ /È/ (+), eu /°/ (°°), ey /EI/ (EI), f /f/ (òf-f-fò), g /Ÿ/ (òX-X-) (and = /xò/
(ºò)÷ /g/ (g) is only found in loanwords}, gg /x/ (X), h /h/ (òh-H-), i /i, I/ (ii, ¤), ie /iR,
i0/ (iiR, i0), ieuw /iu/ (iu), ij [IJ] /EI/ (EI), j /j/ (j), ng /˙/ (˙), or /o, O{ö}/ (oP, ø,
Pö), oe /uR, u0/ (uUR, u0), oei /ui/ (uui), ooi /oi/ (oPi), ou /√U/ (∏U), ph /f/ (f), s /s/
(òß-ß-ßò), sch /sx, sò/ (ßX, ßò) (Bosch /'bOs/ ('bøß)), th /t/ (t), u /y, y0÷ +/ (yy, y0÷ +), ui
/åY/ (åY), uur /yR/ (yYR), uy /åY/ (åY), v /v/ (òÑ-Ñ-) (and = /fò/ (fò)}, w /V/ (òV-V-uò) {or
(Vò)}, y /EI/ (EI), z /z/ (òÜ-fi-) (if final = /sò/ (ßò)}.
17.25. √emish (also Netherlandic of the √anders, ∫: Germ., ¤™) has the vowels,
three diphthongs and four nasalized vowels given in the three vocograms. It has
no mid vowel length: (é, é;é); there is no (ö) before stressed V; V and diphthongs
are less wide than in the Netherlands, as can be seen from the vocograms (and the
three phonemic diphthongs /EI, åY, √U/ are quite di‡erent especially from those of
Dutch mediatic accent: (EÙ, @+, ,P)). In the sequence /éué/, if the first V is front-
-central rounded, we have (é¯é); unstressed a¸ is (a); the sequence /Oö/ has no spe-
cial taxophone. On the other hand, /I, E, +/ have a slightly di‡erent realization be-
fore /l/, ¤ (¤], E], T]) (Ô canonical /I, E, +/ (I, ™, Y)).
˛e phoneme /R/ is always (R) (with (áò|)); for /l/, we have (l5) (¤ before front
and front-central V]˚ (]Ì) (¤ before central and back V]˚ and (]0, ]ò); there is also
(–). Besides, we find: f /f/ (òf-f-fò), v /v/ (òÑ-v-) and /fò/ (fò), w /V/ (òñ-ñ-uò) {or (¯ò),
/i/ (ii[R], i0, ’i) ∆
/u/ (uu[R], u0, ’u), /≠ué/ (é¯é)
/y/ (yy[R], y0, ’y) /+/ (Y, T])
/I/ (I, ¤]) /È/ (È)
/e/ (ee[R], ’e) /o/ (oo[R], ’o)
/°/ (°°[R], ’°) /O[ö]/ (ø)
/E/ (™, E])
/a/ (aa[R], ’a) /A/ (a#)
/åY/ (@+) /Ó/ (9[Ú])

/EI/ (EÙ) /√U/ (,P) /í/ (ì[3])
/^/ (^[}]) /˙/ (˙[˙])
m n ˙
pb td (+) (©) k {g}
fv sz S {Z} (J) x
ñ (â) j (é) ∆ h
l R-(])
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

after /i, I, e, y, °, +/; while we can have (é), for /V/ (ñ), before /i, I, e/)÷ s /s/ (òs-s-sò),
z /z/ (òz-z-) {or (òΩ)} and /sò/ (sò)÷ ch /x/ (òx-x-xò), g /Ÿ/ (ò∆-∆-∆ò) (but (â) in contact
with /i, I, e/); h /h/ (òh-h-) (/g/ (g) is only found in loanwords). Besides, we have:
/tò/ (4), /kò/ (£) after /i, I, e/; in /0j/ sequences, the only normal assimilation is for
/{n}tj/ (+J, ~+J); (n=0).
A suitable çinternational pronunciationÇ of Netherlandic should be 2ˇ’ ∫emish
and 1ˇ’ Dutch.
17.26. Frisian (~¬: Germ., ¤™), like most other Germanic languages, is rich in
vowels and in phonetic and phonemic diphthongs, including some oscillations
with approximant-vocoid sequences (indicated with ü). ˛ere is length opposition
between /é, éé/ (é, é;é) (also + /==ò/); /È/ (+); /én/ = (––) + /f, v, s, z, j, w, l, R/÷
/t, d÷ s, z/ are mostly denti-alveolar (also in /ts, dz/ (4, 7÷ s, z÷ q, Q))÷ (n=0)÷ er¸ (“),
Ver¸ (éR, éÍ), el¸ (®), Cen¸ (0=M), rm¸ (Rõ)÷ /l/ (]é, ıò, ı0)÷ generally, /òé/ (öé); w
/òv, -u-, fò/ (òv-u-fò)÷ Cw /0w/ (0w, 0V)÷ g /g/ (g) (lexeme-initially), /-g-kò/ (-Ÿ-kò).
/i/ (i), /ii/ (ii) /u/ (u), /uu/ (uu)
/y/ (y), /yy/ (%y)
/I/ (I), /jI/ (j¤) {ü/iÈ/} /wo/ (wP) {ü/uÈ/}
/°/ (°), /°°/ (°Y) /È/ (+)
/EE/ (™E)
/E/ (E) /oo/ (Oø), /o/ (O)
/a/ (a), /aa/ (aa)
/iÈ/ (iÙ), /yÈ/ (y+) /ui/ (ui)

/uÈ/ (ux) {ü/wo/ (wP)}
/ei/ (ei) /ou/ (ou)
/eÈ/ (eÉ) {ü/je/ (j™)} /oÈ/ (oÖ) {ü/wa/ (wa)}
/°È/ (°+)
/Ei/ (EI)
/ai/ (aI) /au/ (aU)
m n ˙
pb td kg (ö)
(q Q)
fv sz xŸ
j w h
R ] (ı)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
17.27. Bavarian (the variant described here is the Munich dialect, ∂: Germ., ¤™)
features also nasalized vowels and (peculiar) diphthongs, as well as diphthongs
originated by l vocalization. It presents vowel doubling before lenis C ((Ò)) and
(õ, ó, ô÷ ®); besides, we find (n=0), absence of (ö) and of çaspirationÇ; opposition
between /=ò, 0ò/ (=ò, Òò), but only /ò=/ (ò=).
17. europe 327
/i/ (i[i]), /i/ (i[i]) /u/ (u[u]), /u/ (u[u])

/e/ (e[e]), /e/ (e[e]) /o/ (o[o]), /Ú/ (Ú[Ú])
/’e/ (Ù)
/E/ (™[™]) /O/ (ø[ø])
/a/ (a[a], ’å) /Å/ (Å[Å])
/iÈ/ (i‘) /uÈ/ (¯x) /ui/ (u¤)

/%i/ (%¤)
/eÈ/ (e‘) /oÈ/ (ox) /+e/ (+Ù) /oe/ (oÙ)

/e'/ (e4) /Ú'/ (Ú≈) /êe/ (êÙ) /Oe/ (øÙ)
/ae/ (ÅÉ) /ao/ (AÖ)
/Åe/ (a3) /ÅÚ/ (˙Ô)
Diphthongs derived from Vl
m n ˙
p b t d k g
∫∫ qQ cG w
f v s z S Z x Ÿ
B j h
R-l (ı)
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 3 2)
17.28. Viennese /vIiÈ'nIiz/ (å: Germ., ¤™), like his Bavarian cognate, features al-
so nasalized vowels and (peculiar) diphthongs, as well as diphthongs originated by
l vocalization˘ In addition to usual (õ, ó, ô) and (n=0), we find a typical realiza-
tion for /l/ (÷) (after /k, g/ (ı)), occurring also as intense (“) (after /k, g/ (”)) and
vocalized (,) (especially after V]˘ In the dialect, there is no /él0/ any longer, the
/i/ (i[i]), /i/ (i[i]) /u/ (u[u]), /u/ (u[u])
/e/ (e[e]), /e/ (e[e]) /o/ (o[o])

/Í/ (“, k”, â”) {(,)} /√/ (x), /Ú/ (≈)
/E/ (E[™]) /O/ (O[ø])
/a/ (a[A], ’å), /Å/ (Å[˙])
/%%/ (%%) /u+/ (u:)
/i√/ (ix) /u√/ (¯x)
/++/ (++) /o+/ (o,)
/e√/ (™x)
/eÚ/ (™≈) /o√/ (øx)
/êê/ (@ê) /O+/ (ø,)
/πE/ (πÉ) /ØO/ (ØÖ)
/πí/ (π3) /ÕÓ/ (ÕÔ)
Diphthongs derived from Vl
m n ˙
p b t d k g
∫∫ qQ cG
6 f v s z S Z (…) x Ÿ
j h
l R-(÷) (ı)
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 1)
sequence having changed to /éé0/; but in the cennese accent of German, (÷)
clearly emerges, and (,) too. /R/ is (R), but frequently also (r, K); for er¸ /ÈRò/ (after
V or C] there is /√/ (x). Besides, there is no (ö) and no çaspirationÇ for voiceless
stops and stopstrictives; it only has /ò=/ (ò=), but opposes /=ò/ and /Êò/ as (=ò) V
(Òò, Âò), with /é=ò/ (é=ò), /éé=ò/ (éé=ò), but /éÊò/ (ééÒò), /ééÊò/ (é;éÒò); like-
wise, there is (ééÒò, é;éÒò) + /é, |/. In correspondence with the German diph-
thongs /ae, ao/ (ae, ao), it exhibits the typical /πE, ØO/ (πÉ, ØÖ), so often stigma-
tized.
17.29. Southern Welsh (Ÿ∫: Celtic, ¤™) has various phonetic and phonemic diph-
thongs (these, together with triphthongs, are nothing but /é, éé/ + /i, u/ (i, I÷ u));
there is also /'È/ ('x): hynny ('hxni). We have shown the possible variants of diph-
/ii/ (iI) /uu/ (uU)
/i/ (I÷ ’i|, ’iò, ’ié) /u/ (U÷ ’u|, ’uò, ’ué)
/ee/ (e™) /oo/ (oø)
/È/ (x)
/e/ (E) /o/ (O)
/aa/ (aå), /a/ (a)
/ui/ (uI)
/ei/ (Ii) /iu/
{(oI)}
{(ei)} (Iu)
/Èu/ (xu)
/Ei/ (Ei) /Eu/
/Oi/ (OI) /Ou/ (Ou)
{(åI)} (Eu)
/au/ (au)
m5 n5 ˙5
p5 T5 k5
(. …) {C5}
fv †|s ∑|{z} ! ë X
(≈ ¸) j w h
5R-(l) ]
/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

17. europe 329
thongs too, /ei, Ei, ui/ (Ii, ei÷ Ei, åi÷ uI, oI). Occasionally we find /hR, hj, hw, Xw/
(hR, hj, hw, Xw); besides, /p, t, k/ are usually (p, /, k); there is neutralization of /p5,
t5, k5/ (= /ph, p÷ th, t÷ k, kh/) into (p, t, k) in contact with C÷ it also has /c5/ = /ch/
(Ch), /c/ (ä). Generally, before silence or voiceless C, we only find voiceless C, al-
so for ç/v, ∑/Ç; only in voiced contexts can we find (v, ∑) or, at most, (Ê, fl, â, ä).
Cases of consonant gemination are possible. For /t5R/ we find (Th≈, /¸) (also (.h¸,
…¸); sometimes (¸) is found for /R/ too); for /l/, the normal phone is (]), while (l)
occurs only before front V; (n=0). Celtic syllabification links a final C to an initial
V: Yn y botel yn yr oergell (&x-nx-'pOTThE &]x-nx-'ROiRkE!) çin the bottle in the fridgeÇ.
17.30. Northern Welsh (Ÿ∫: Celtic, ¤™) di‡ers from southern Welsh especially for
the preservation of /…/ and of a series of diphthongs and triphthongs with /-…/: haul
/'ha…l/ ('ha…]), hael /'haa…l/ ('haå…]). We have shown three possible variants, /iu, ei,
Eu/ (Iu, Ùu÷ Ii, ei÷ Eu, ™u), and two taxophones, /ei, e…/ (™i{0{0}}ò, ™…{0{0}}ò). ˛ere
are no cases of consonant gemination; (n=0); /th, t/ are (4h, 4).
/……/ (…¢), /…/ (¢÷ ’…|, ’…ò, ’…é) /ei/ (Ii) {(ei)} ('™i[0[0]]ò)
/ii/ (iI) /uu/ (uU)
/u/ (U÷ ’u|, /uI/ (uI)
/i/ (I÷ ’i|,
’iò, ’ié) ’uò, ’ué)
/ee/ (™™) /oo/ (øø)
/È/ (å) /Oi/ (Oi)
/e/ (E) /o/ (O)
/aa/ (aå) /a/ (a) /ai/ (ai)
/u…/ (u…) /…u/ (…u)
/iu/ (Iu)
{(Ùu)} /Ou/ (Ou)
/e…/ (e…) /O…/ (O…)
/Eu/ (Eu) /Èu/ (åu)
{('™…[0
[0]]ò)} {(™u)}
/a…/ (a…) /au/ (au)
m5 n5 ˙5
p5 t5 k5
{C5}
fv †|s ∑ ! ë X
(≈ ¸) j w h
5R ] (ı)
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 3 2)
17.31. Manx (Ÿ∫: Celtic, ¤™) is seriously threatened with extinction; the pho-
nosynthesis describes the koiné as obtained from a close examination of several re-
alizations, which exhibit considerable oscillations, due to English interference too.
It opposes short and long V (the latter being phonetically narrow diphthongs), and
wide phonemic diphthongs (with /i, È, u/ (I, È, U) as a second element); we find

/'È/ ('È), also as a first element in diphthongs; (n=0).
/i[i]/ (I[i]) /u[u]/ (U[¯])

/È/ (È)
/e[e]/ ([E]™) /o[o]/ ([O]ø)

/a[a]/ ([a]å)
m (m) n ~ N ˙
p b (p b) TD ©á kg
cG
f v (f v) s ∑|z SZ ÂJ xŸ
j w
R ] {ç}-¬
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)
17.32. Scots /'skØts/ (Ÿ∫: Germ., ¤™), it is worth stressing, is not Celtic but Ger-
manic. It presents interesting occurrences of short and diphthongized V˚ for which
we give the traditional symbols (between ç Ç): ç/I/Ç /Ù/ (Ù, ’É), ç/°/Ç /Y/ (Y{Y}), ç/u/Ç
/%/ (%{%}), ç/√˙È/Ç /√/ (√, ’x), ç/√i˙Èi/Ç /√i/ (xi), ç/√u˙Èu/Ç /√u/ (x¯). /i, e, Y, %, o/
are narrow diphthongs + /R, v, ∑, z, Z/, or if final, even + desinential C. ˛ere are
also two possible interdialectal variants: /AA/ (A√) ü /OO/ (OØ), /j%{%}/ (j%{%}) ü /i%/
(i%); (n=0).
/i/ (i[i]) /%/ (%[%]) /j%/ (j%[%])
/Y/ (Y[Y]) ("/u/&) {o /i%/ (i%)} /√u/ (x¯)
("/°/&) (o "/Èi/&)
/e/ (e[e]) /o/ (o[o])
/√/ (√, ’x) /√i/ (Éi) /OI/ (øI)
/Ù/ (Ù, ’É) (o "/Èi/&)
("/I/&) {o "/È/&}
/E/ (™) /A/ (A) /ae/ (A√Ù)
/AA/ (A√) {o /OO/ (Oø)}
m n ˙
p b T D kg
cG
f v † ∑ s z S Z (x) X
j Ww h
R|(5)-ı
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

17. europe 331
17.33. Scottish Gaelic (Ÿ∫: Celtic, ¤™) shows distinctive nasalization both for
high and low V; besides, there are various diphthongs, formed by short V + /i, u,
X, a/ (i, ¯, x, a). ˛e notation /ö5/ indicates the çmutatedÇ variants, which are real-
ized as (°h), ()h, Ùh, £h, }h, 8h, h), not di‡erently from the other /0h/ (0h)
sequences. Also (â) concerns çmutationsÇ; while (∆) occurs in çpreaspirationÇ, /h0/
(∆0); (n=0). Phonemically, the number of consonant phonemes can be consider-
ably reduced, if we resort to 21 /0j/ (J) sequences, and to three /0µ/ sequences
(for (ˆ): (n, R, ı)), adding the phoneme /µ/, but suppressing no less than 24, to ar-
rive at such a small number as 16: /m, n, ˙÷ p, t, k÷ f, v, s, x, Ÿ÷ j, µ, h÷ R, l/.
/i[i]/ (i[I]) /M[M]/ (M[û])

/u[u]/ (¯[¨])
/e[e]/ (e[Ù]) /o[o]/ (o[P])
/X[X]/ (x[X])
/E[E]/ (E[™]) /O[O]/ (O[ø])
/a[a]/ (a[a])
m5 (m5) n5 (n) (~5) (N5) ˙5
p5 (p5) t5 (©5) k5
(c5)
f v (f v) s (S) (Â J) x Ÿ
(â) j (∆) V h
R-l (R-ı) (ç-¬)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ì 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 3 2)
17.34. Irish Gaelic (Celtic, ¤™) opposes short and long V (the latter are actually
narrow diphthongs). ˛ere are also two peculiar pairs of closing diphthongs (/ai,
au/) and two pairs of opening diphthongs (/ia, ua/), with some interesting taxo-
phones: in contact with çslenderÇ C [/J/), their lowest element is front-central, (ÄI,
ÄU÷ IÄ, UÄ), whilst in contact with çbroadÇ C (¤ non-slender, therefore normal, but
they are possibly velarized or labialized, as we shall see shortly) it is back-central,
(√I, √U÷ I√, U√) (Ô the last two vocograms). We find the same influence on /a/, too,
¤ (√, Ä). A parallel variation occurs for /È/ (X, Ù), and also for /aa/, but with di‡er-
ent timbres: (ù∏, A√) respectively. çLongÇ V are simply (éé). Vowels and diph-
thongs can be distinctively nasalized.
˛e phonemic system presented here pertains the Irish koiné, regardless of the
present three dialectal subdivisions (each of which may present either a few more
or a few less phonemes – also vowels, with di‡erent realizations)÷ however, all the
possible consonant variants are provided for here (within the koiné, except for the
phonemic distinctions of length), since, even though not all of them are necessary
to speak neutral Irish, they are indispensable to adequately understand native
speakers, since there are several internal oscillations.
/ii/ (Ûi) /uu/ (¯u)

/i/ (¤) /u/ (û)
/JÈ, ÈJ/ (Ù) /ˆÈ, Èˆ/ (X)
/ee/ (Ée) /oo/ (Öo)
/e/ (É) /o/ (Ö)
/Ja, aJ/ (Ä) /Jaa, aaJ/ (å√)
/â, aˆ/ (√) /âa, aaˆ/ (ù∏)
/Jia, iaJ/ /Jua, uaJ/

(IÄ) (UÄ)
/Jai, aiJ/ /Jau, auJ/
(ÄI) (ÄU) /ûa, uaˆ/
/îa, iaˆ/
(I√) (U√)
/âi, aiˆ/ /âu, auˆ/
(√I) (√U)
m ([) (m) (M) n (“) (n) (~) (N) ˙ (˙)

p b (( {) (p b) (P b) t d (T D) (t d) (+ _) (C ‚) (© á) k g (k g)
f v (5 ç) (f v) (f v) s z (s z) († Ã) (À =) (ë ò) (Â J) x Ÿ (x ))
j w h
R-l (∂-t)(R-ı) (ç-¬)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
In our opinion, the most useful phonemic interpretation for çslenderÇ C seems
to acknowledge the çpalatalizingÇ e‡ect exerted on C by /j/ in /0j/ sequences. ˛is
way, by not considering all actual consonant articulations as di‡erent phonemes,
their number is reduced to: /m, n, ˙÷ p, b, t, d, k, g÷ f, v, s, z, x, Ÿ÷ j, h÷ R, l/. ˛e
most marked realizations for çslenderÇ C, /0j/, are: (m, ~, N÷ p, b, +, _, ©, á÷ f, v, À,
=, Â, J÷ ç, ¬) ((+, _, À, =) almost invariably become (C, ‚, ë, ò)); while for çbroadÇ C,
/0/ they are: (M, n, ˙÷ P, b, t, d, k, g÷ f, v, †, Ã, x, )÷ R, ı) (or, sometimes, also ([,
“÷ (, {, T, D÷ 5, ç, s, z÷ ∂, t)). For both series, the least marked ones are those of the
çintermediateÇ series: (m, n, ˙÷ p, b, t, d, k, g÷ f, v, s, z, x, Ÿ÷ R, l). In fact, we notice
that between the two extremes we always have çneutralÇ articulations, which act
as çslenderÇ or çbroadÇ, according to the actual articulation of the other group.
˛eir real realizations are only a matter of equidistance, in order to e‡ectively
guarantee the opposition between the two groups.
We observe that the çbroadÇ series would correspond to something like ç/ˆ/Ç or
ç/±/Ç, in case we did not systematically extend the opposition of /0j/ – /0/, by ac-
cepting instead another principle, after which /0i/ corresponds to (Ji), in contrast
with /0…, 0M/. In fact, this is most natural for many languages that have a further
close V between /i/ and /u/.
Obviously, the phoneme /j/ (j) can occur on its own, as well as in /0j/ sequences.
We find also /h/, which can produce (0h) sequences, since there are speakers who
present word-initial çaspirationÇ of voiceless stops and stopstrictives accompanied
by a parallel devoicing of their voiced counterparts, /Ê/ (Ò), which are normally
17. europe 333
(Ê) instead.
˛e phonemic system presented here essentially corresponds to the phonic nota-
tion of the Celtic tradition, which for çslenderÇ C resorts to /0å/ in opposition to
/0/; however, our phonemic transcription is lighter, as it marks /0j/ only once in
a syllable, either in its head or coda; thus we interpret Glinsce ('áLÛi~ë©Ù) as /'gljiinj-
skjÈ/ instead of ç/'gålåi:nåsåkåÈ/Ç. One could even mark /'gljiinskjÈ/, following the
principle of consonant assimilation, as long as the çnon-homochromaticÇ conso-
nant clusters are kept apart, as is often the case for those with /s, R/. In fact, in /sm,
sp/ sequences, much unlike those with /st, sk, sn, sl/, the phoneme /s/ is not influ-
enced by a /j/ coming after the following C; the same happens for initial /R/ as well,
or before /n, t, d, h, l/, or after /s/. Generally, however, the influence of /j/ is so reg-
ular that even when a /È/ is inserted, the palatalization is preserved: Bairbre ('bù∏-
çÙbçÙ, 'b-, '{-) /'baaRbRjÈ/ (for ç/'ba:råbåråÈ/Ç).
In English loanwords, as in job, we regularly have /dj/ (‚), even tough it is of-
ten phonetically transcribed with a symbol or a combination of symbols which
would lead one to think of something di‡erent. In addition to (n=0), çhomochro-
maticÇ consonant clusters are interesting – as (bı, b¬÷ kı, ©¬÷ kn, ©~÷ †k, ë©÷ tR, Cç):
trì ç3Ç ('CçÛi). ˛e letters v˚ w are /'vjee, 'vee/ ('vÉe, 'v-) and ('vÉe, 'ç-, 'v-), respective-
ly (with ('v-) being possibly one or the other, but in the reverse order, so as to main-
tain an auditory distance: those speakers who have (v) for v˚ cannot have it for w
as well).
17.35. Icelandic (Germ., ¤™) has the eight short vowels and phonemic diph-
thongs given in the two vocograms; there are also such phonetic diphthongs as (Ti,
êi, øi), which –out of morphonemic reasons– are best considered biphonemic se-
quences, ¤ /%, +, o/ + /i/. Stressed V (marked in grey or with a broken line) are
phonetically lengthened as narrow diphthongs in unchecked syllables or in sim-
ple checked final syllables; stressed initial V are (ò'öé). Before /i, I, e, ei, ai/ (but not
/%, +/), /kh, k, hj, n/ are realized as (©h, ©, Â, N) respectively, while /h/ (â) only oc-
/i/ (i[iï]) /u/ (u[u])

/I/ (I[i/]) /%/ (T, %%)
/ou/ (øu)
/o/ ([o]ø)
/e/ ([e]™) /ei/ (™i)
/+/ ([+]ê) /+%/ (ê%)
/a/ (a[å]) /ai/ (aI) /au/ (aU)
()) m (£) n (8 N) ( ˙)
p5 t5 (©5) k5 (ö)
å fl∂ ß (Â) x y
B (â) j h
(5)-(a) R|(r)-l
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 Ç 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 1 1)

curs after /i/ (not /I, e/). ˛e phenomenon of çpreaspirationÇ (/h0/) is noteworthy,
although it belongs to çpeculiarÇ sequences (though quite normal in Icelandic) as:
hakki ('hah©I), lagt ('laxt), allt ('öaat), einn ('ö™it£).
Spelling\ á /au/, & /∑/ (∂), and /e, ei/, é /{j}e/, i /I/, ì /i/, or /o/, ó /ou/, u /%/, ù /u/,
y /I/, √ /i/, ˇ /fl/, æ /ai/, ö /+, +%/.
17.36. Modern neutral Danish (Germ., ¤™) has changed considerably with re-
spect to the traditional pronunciation of three or four decades ago, both phonet-
ically and phonemically (even though grammars and textbooks usually still pres-
ent the traditional pronunciation). In fact, we now also find an opposition be-
tween /π/ – /a/, as in kan /'khπ/ ('khπ) (pres. tense) çcanÇ V kar /'kha/ ('kha)
çcontainerÇ, Anners /'πn√s/ ('öπn√ß) (genit. pl. form of) çAnnaÇ V Anders /'an√s/
('öan√ß) (surname); in words of foreign origin ending in -a¸, we have /πò/ (Å), but
/aò/ (a) for -ra\ villa /'vilπ/ ('vilÅ), Noah /'nUUπ/ ('nUUÅ), zebra ('ßIIp‰a), Nora
('nUU‰a, 'nUUa). Moreover, we now have: lad /'lπ∑/ ('lπÃ) (before coronal C) V lab˚
laf˚ lak /'lap, 'laf, 'lak/ ('lap, 'laf, 'lak), which once had the same phoneme (/'0a0/),
even though phonetic di‡erences similar to those of today were to be found (¤:
('lπÃ), ('lÅp, 'lÅf, 'lÅk)), while there were no minimal pairs, since kar was still /'khaK/
('kha”, 'khax) (and kan /'kha{n~}/ ('khπ{c})).
Also, it is better to posit the phonemes /ê{ê}/, even if they are only found in con-
tact with /K/; in fact, particularly out of sociolinguistic reasons, we cannot let
/Kê{ê}/ (‰ê{ê}) coincide with the diaphonemic sequences /K°{°}/ (‰°{°}), which
are possible in the same words, but with connotations referring to traditional pro-
nunciation (shown by the taxophones given in the second vocogram), with a clos-
ing and fronting narrow diphthong; the same happens for the indicated taxo-
phone of /Ke{e}/ (‰e{e}).
We then notice /eE, °ê/, which occur in contact with /K, √/: they are diapho-
nemes, being possibly realized also as (ee, ÄÄ÷ °°, êê) alongside with (™Ä, #ê): lære
/'leE√/ ('l™Ä∏, 'lee∏, 'lÄÄ∏), sm@re /'sm°ê√/ ('sm°ê∏, 'sm°°∏, 'smêê∏), rærene /'KeE~√-
nÈ/ ('‰™É√nÈ, '‰ee√nÈ, '‰ÄÉ√nÈ, -√ó), r@re /'K°ê√/ ('‰°ê∏, '‰°°∏, '‰êê∏). Again in the
second vocogram, we also find the peculiar realizations of /KE, Kê/ (‰=Ä, ‰j@), with
an inserted approximant, as in: række /'KEkÈ/ ('‰=ÄkÈ), dr@mme /'tKêmÈ/ ('T‰j@mÈ,
-@õ).
Also other taxophones appear, under the influence of /K/ and also of /√/ (√, ∏ò),
but we focus especially on /aa√, OO√/ (ç/aaa, OOO/Ç) (a;a, O;O), as in vare /'vaa√/ ('va;a,
'vaa∏), pore /'phOO√/ ('phO;O, 'phOO©); the second taxophones are increasingly less fre-
quent (and belong more to traditional pronunciation). ˛e series is completed by
/i√, I√, E√÷ y√, Y√, ê√÷ u√, U√/ (i-, I-, ™-÷ y-, Y-, ê-÷ ¯-, U-), which maintain the second
element unassimilated, ¤ /√/ (√) and (∏ò|) (if final and prepausal). Sequences of
/éé/ + /√/ are also possible: ord /'UU~√/. Stressed initial V are often preceded by (ö).
/i, I, y, Y/ + /∑/ have retracted taxophones (…Ã, ¢Ã, %Ã, TÃ), which are indicated:
st@d /'stY∑/ ('ßTTÃ). Danish shows various sequences of vowel phonemes (either
short or long, (é, éé)), phonetically real closing diphthongs, with /i/ (i), or espe-
cially /u/ (u), as a second element (deriving from previous /Ÿ, v/, to which they are
still synchronically linked). ˛ere are also some real triphthongs, which are gen-
17. europe 335
erally hardly ever realistically indicated with ç/éjé, éwé/Ç, which would lead one
to think there are two syllables.
In the third vocogram the two white markers indicate these elements: /i, u/ (i,
u); while the four diphthongs which exhibit a di‡erent realization from the pho-
nemes given in the first vocogram are expressly shown (in order to be more e‡ec-
tive, we have chosen a phonemic transcription which does not shield from reali-
ty). Sequences of /éé/ + /i, u/ are also possible: eg˚ ¢g /'II~i, 'oo~u/, but they are of-
ten shortened to /é/ + /i, u/, especially in widely used words: /'Ii~, 'ou~/.
/y[y]/ (y[y]), /Y[Y]/ (Y[Y]), /°[°]/ (°[°]), /ê[ê]/ (ê[ê])
/i[i]/ (i{i]) /u[u]/ (¯[¯])
/U[U]/ (U[U])
/I[I]/ (I[I])
/È/ (È)
/e[e]/ (e[e]) /o[o]/ (P[P])
/EE/ (™™) /√/ (√, ∏ò|)
/π/ (π) /O[O]/ (O[O])
/a[a]/ (a[a]) /Ø/ (ù)
/i, I/+/∑/ (…, ¢)+(Ã) /y, Y/+/∑/ (%, T)+(Ã) /éié/ (éié), /éu[é]/ (éu[é])
/Ke[e]/ (‰e[e]) /K°[°]/ (‰°[°])

/eE/+/√/ (™Ä) /°ê/+/√/ (#ê)
/KE/ (‰=Ä) /Kê/ (‰j@)
/E[E]Ké/ (Ä[Ä]‰é) /OO/+/√/ = /ØY/ (ùY)
/EE/+/√/ (ÄÄ) ç/OOO/Ç (O;O) /ØU/ (ùU)
/’πò/ (Å), /’Kaò/ ([‰]a) /aa/+/√/ = ç/aaa/Ç (a;a) /aI/ (ÅI), /aU/ (aU)
m n (~) ˙
p5 T5 (+5) k5
fv ß S (À)
Ã ([) j (=) (j) ‰ h
l (¬)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)
˛e abstract (tautosyllabic) sequences //Èn, Èl, ÈK// undergo assimilation –which

is already included in our phonemic transcriptions– /ó, Í, √/ (the latter, (√, ∏|ò),
from a previous traditional /Ú/ (…)): halen /'hEEló/, gammel /'kamÈl/ ('kamÍ), haler
/'hEEl√/. ˛is assimilation can further extend to other voiced phonemes: tiet
/'thiiÈ∑/ ('Thiiµ), hyldet /'hylÈ∑/ ('hylµ). We notice that currently (as already
emerged from some examples given above) /Èò/ also assimilates to a preceding
voiced phone, giving: hale /'hEEÍ/, m¢ne /'moonÈ/ ('mPPó), uge /'uuÈ/ ('ö¯¯), pige
/'phiiÈ/ ('phii, 'phi;i), pine /'phiinÈ/ ('phiió), gade /'kEE∑È/ ('k™™µ), which are possi-
bly further reduced in case of complete assimilation. Notice also: uforst¢elige
/uf√'stoo~ÈliÈ/ (&¯f√'ßTPÕPlii).
As for consonants, we recall that /05/ indicates /0h, 0/, which oppose word-ini-
tially; in the extant cases (also in /s0/) they occur without çaspirationÇ, and –be-
tween V– they are voiceless lenis, (p, /, k) (in careful pronunciation, but (Ê, fl, â)
in connected speech). Besides, we notice that in the capital and its outskirts, /th/
is often realized as (çh): ten /'thII~n/ ('ThIIc÷ 'çh-); on the other hand, especially be-
tween V˚ /t/ is frequently realized as ([) (çdasked dÇ): otte /'ootÈ/ ('öPP/È, -flÈ, -[È).
As seen, Danish has a typical consonantal sound: /∑/ (Ã), çblÊdt dÇ /'plYt 'tII~/ ('plYT
'TYY), a voiced lateralized dental approximant (which foreigners often mistake for
/l/). Besides, /n, t5, s, l/ + /j/ = (~j, +{h}j, À{j}, ¬j), but usually //sj// = /S/ (S).
St@d is a typically Danish phenomenon by which stressed (or half-stressed) V ei-
ther short (followed by voiced C] or long can present distinctively a creaky phona-
tion type (in place of ancient tones): hun /'hun/ ('h¯n) çsheÇ, hund /'hun~/ ('h¯c)
çdogÇ; also, mor /'mUU√/ ('mUU∏) çmotherÇ, mord /'mUU~√/ ('mUU∏) çmurderÇ÷ tæn-
der /'then√/ ('Then∏) çlighterÇ, tænder /'then~√/ ('Thec∏) çteethÇ. Some speakers pro-
nounce /é~, 0~/ as sequences of (éö, 0ö); however, nowadays, this pronunciation
is not considered to be neutral any longer, except when speaking slowly or em-
phatically; otherwise, it is regional. We finish with some interesting transcriptions:
K@benhavn /khYpó'haU~n/ (&khYpõ'haUn), Kierkegaard /'khi√kÈkOO~/ ('khi√kÈ&kOO,
-kÈ&k-, -k&k-), Lars von Trier /'laas fØn'thKi~√/ ('laaß fùn'Th‰i∏).
Spelling: a /EE, π, a/ (but only /a, aa/ before or after r), b /p/ (finally, also /vò,
uò/), c /s5, k/, ch /S/, d /˘t, ∑ò, ∑È, ’∑i/ (silent in ld˚ nd, rd¸˚ ds˚ dt), -dd- /∑/, e /II, e;
I/ (after r, normally /E, ee, ei/; before r /E, II/), eg¸/ej /aI/, ’er(¸) /√/, g /˘k, Ï`, 5iò,
Ìuò/, lg /lj/, rg /√u/, -gg- /k/, h /h/, ¸hj /j/, ¸hv /v/, i /ii, i, I/, jV /j/, k /òkh, k/, ng /˙/,
o /UU, Ø, o; U/ (before g˚ v also /oo/), or /OO, O/, p /òph, p/, r /K, √ò/ [Vre(r)¸ /é{é}√/,
Vrre(r)¸ /é{√}K√/, ’Cre¸ /0K√/, ’ere¸ /√√/}, s /s/, t /òth, t/, u /uu, u, o; U/, y /yy, y, Y/,
z /s/, æ /e, ee/ (before r /eE, E/, after r /ee, E/), @ /YY, Y, °, °°/ (before r /YY, °ê, ê/,
after r /°i, °°, ê/; /°, °°/ only, but not necessarily, before m˚ n˚ v, or after r), @r
/YY√, ê√/, @g/@j /ØY/, ¢ /oo, Ø, o/, ¢r /OO, ’O/, év[l/n]˘ /éu{l/n}/.
17.37. Norwegian (Germ., ¤™) has the V (all of them either short –lower– or
long monophthongs) and the diphthongs shown in the two vocograms (the two
diphthongs given in brackets occur rarely, in words of foreign origin). For /°:R, §R/,
opener realizations than those given would be considered regional or non-modern.
We prefer interpreting the postalveolar series, (N, ˛, Ã, ß, $), as realization of the
phonemic sequences /R/ + /n, t, d, s, l/, rather than as autonomous phonemes ç/N,
˛, Ã, ß, $/Ç, since it is a phenomenon which is also morphonemic and, the unassim-
ilated pronunciation is always possible in a lofty style (as also in the Southwest,
where /R/ is realized as a uvular contoid): Karl˚ Lars /'kA:Rl, 'lA:Rs/ ('khå:$, 'lå:ß).
In brackets we also give a postalveolar tap ((e)), which is not an integral part of
neutral pronunciation, even though it is very widespread in the Oslo area, especial-
ly in correspondence of l˚ as in bl¢: /'blo:/ ('blo:÷ 'beo:). Syllable-initial stressed /p, t,
k/ (not preceded by /s/) are çaspiratedÇ; in final position, /k, g/ are (©, ˆ); instead
of (ß), we can systematically find /S/ (S). ˛ere are various intense sonants: (õ, ó,
{, ô÷ “÷ Í, [).
˛e most noteworthy peculiarity of Norwegian is its tonal word accent, which
17. europe 337
produces minimal pairs such as: banner /çbAnÈR/ (çbAn2n“) çbannerÇ and /èbAnÈR/
(èbAn2n“) çcurseÇ; hoppene /çhOpÈnÈ/ (çhOp3p¢2n¢) çthe jumpsÇ and /èhOpÈnÈ/ (èhOp3p¢-
2n¢) çthe maresÇ. From the examples just cited, we see that the chronetic pattern
after stressed short V is /é0é/ (00). We now provide some useful examples (rapid-
ly drawing a comparison with the pronunciation of Bergen, which has /R/ (º) and
a di‡erent tone pattern, given in brackets): Amundsen /èA:m%nsÈn/ (èå:3m%n2só)
{(¶å:2m%n3só)}, Bergen /çbERgÈn/ (çb™R2gô) {(èb™º3gô)}, Oslo /èuslu/ (èus2lu) –in Oslo:
(èuß2$u)– {(¶us3lu)}, õord /çfju:R/ (ç2fju:Í) {(¶fju:ü)}, Magnus /'mA˙n%s/ (çmA˙2n%s).
Spelling: au /§y/, c /k, s5/, d /d, `/, e /e:, E, È/, ei /Ei/, g /g, 'j5/, gj /'j5/, gn /˙n/, h
/h/, ¸hj /j/, ¸hv /v/, j /j/, k /k, 'Â5/, kj /Â/, l /l/, ¸lj /j/, ng /˙/, or /u{:}, o:, O/, oy /Oy/, s
/s/, sj /S/, sk /sk, S/ (as in ski /'Si:/), skj /S/, u /%{:}, u/, v /v/, y /y{:}/, æ /e: E{:}/, @ /°:, §/,
@y /§y/, ¢ /o:, O/.
/y[:]/ (Y:, y), /°:/ (°:), /§/ (#)
/i[:]/ /u[:]/ (u:, u§)
(i:, i§) /%[:]/ (%:, %§)
/È/ (¢)
/e:/ (e:) /o:/ (o:) /§y/ (#;y)
/E/ (™) /O/ (O) /E%/ (Ä;%)
/Ei/ (Ä;i)
/E{:}/+ /A/ (A) {/Oy/ (O;y)}
/R/ (Ä{:}) /A:/ (å:) {/Ai/ (A;i)}
m n (N) ˙
p b t d (˛ Ã) (© á) k g
f v s (ß) S Â J
h
R-l {e}-($)
/ç/ (ç [3] 2) /è/ (è [3] 2) /./ (13) /?/ (31) /÷/ (^)
17.38. Swedish (Germ., ¤™), unlike Norwegian, exhibits narrow diphthongs

((é;é)) for çlongÇ V, while it has no phonemic diphthongs at all; in fact, the fre-
quent sequence /EJ/ (™,) is not a diphthong (neither are /aJ, OJ/ (a,, ø,), occurring
in exclamations): nej /'nEJ/ ('n™,); in the vocogram we have also indicated the four
vowel taxophones conditioned by a following /R/: /E, EE, °°, §/ (Ä, ™Ä, ê@, @). No-
tice that çlong aÇ is /ØØ/ (ØO): Karl˚ Lars /'kØØRl, 'lØØRs/ ('khØO$, 'lØOß). ˛e concrete
realizations of /ii, yy, %%, uu/ (Ûiï, èYï, %y°, Uuí), with their second elements so
tense and close as to cross the top margin of the vocogram are also worth notic-
ing; they sometimes present a slight friction noise which recalls contoids.
For Swedish, the postalveolar series, (N, ˛, Ã, ß, $), is best considered as the real-
ization of the phonemic sequences /R/ + /n, t, d, s, l/, rather than as self-standing
phonemes ç/N, ˛, Ã, ß, $/Ç. As in Norwegian, we also find that /p, t, k/ (not preced-
ed by /s/) are çaspiratedÇ; and /kò, gò/ (©, ˆ). Typically Swedish, instead, is the real-
ization of /R/ (R, 5ò), which generally becomes (¸, §ò) (also (≈ò)) in Stockholm, while
in the South it is uvular ((˜, Æò), with (˜0), in place of (N, ˛, Ã, ß, $)). ˛e most typi-
cal consonantal articulation of Swedish is /S/ (S): sjärt /'SERt/ ('SÄ˛), with four vari-
ants, more or less regionally marked, (f, ., ., c) (which we show for their peculiar-
ity), including the change into (ß).
Like Norwegian, Swedish still preserves word tonemes, so that we can find min-
imal pairs such as: biten /'biitÈn/ ('bÛi2tÙn) çthe bitÇ and /5biitÈn/ (ÌbÛi–tÙn) ç(she/he/
it) bitÇ÷ tomten /'tOmtÈn/ ('thøm2tÙn) çthe groundÇ and /5tOmtÈn/ (Ìthøm–tÙn) çthe
goblinÇ; with marked tonemes, secondary prominences do not follow the contour
given in the tonogram, but that of compounds: n¢gonstans /5noogønstans/ (Ìnoø-
3gÙn–stans, -3gøn-) çsomewhereÇ, anklaga /5anklØØga/ (Ìa˙–khlØO2ga) çto accuseÇ. To
end with, some useful examples: Stockholm /5stOkhOlm/ (Ìstøk–hølm), Göteborg
/J§tÈ'bORJ/ (&,#tÙ'bøR¿), Magnus /'ma˙n+s/ ('ma˙2n+s), Malmberg /5malmbERJ/
(Ìmalm–bÄR¿), blomma /5bluma/ (Ìblum–ma) (with /é0é/ (00), as in Norwegian).
Spelling: c /k, s5/, ch /S/, e /ee, E, È/, ei /Ei/, g /g, J5/, h /h/, ¸hj /J/, k /k, Â5/, kj /Â/,
lg¸ /lJ/, ng /˙/, or /u{u}, oo, O/, qu /kv/, rg¸ /RJ/, s /s/, sj /S/, sk /sk, S5/, skj /S/, stj /S/, tj
/Â/, u /%%, +/, y /y{y}/, v /v/, z /s/, ¢ /oo, O/, ä /E{E}/, ö /°°, §/.
/i[i]/ ([Û]i), /y[y]/ (èY, y) /%%/ (%y), /u[u]/ ([U]u)
/ee/ (e™)
/°°/ (°#) {(ê@)+/R/} /+/ (+), /oo/ (oÖ)
/E/ (™) {(Ä)+/R/} /È/ (Ù)
/EE/ (™Ä) {±/R/} /O/ (ø)
/§/ (#) {(@)+/R/}
/a/ (a) /ØØ/ (ØO)
m n (N) ˙
pb td (˛ Ã) (© á) kg
f v {(f)} s (ß) {(.)} Â , {(c)} {(.)} S
(¸) h
R-l ($)
/'/ (' [2] 2) /5/ (Ì [3] –) /./ (13) /?/ (313) /÷/ (31)
About 5% of ≈nns are native speakers of Swedish, which is as follows: with no

/i[i]/ (i[i]) /u[u]/ (u[u])
/y[y]/ (y[y]) /%[%]/ (%[%])
/e[e], E[E], È/ (™[™]) /o[o]/ (ø[ø])

/°[°]/ (#[#]) /°[°]R/ (ê[ê]R)
/E[E]R/ (π[π]R)
/a/ (a) /AA/ (AA)
m n ˙
pb t d (© á) kg
f √ s S
j h
R|(r) ]
17. europe 339
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (2 Ì 2 2) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

çaspirationÇ, no postalveolar taxophones, but (Rn÷ Rt, Rd, Rs, R]); /S/ (S) for both /S,
Â/; /c/ for both tj and k + front V˚ /[g]j/ for dj; final /k, g, R/ (©, á÷ 5); (é-0:é) for (é0-
0é); no toneme, but normal stress on proper syllables.
17.39. Lapp(ish) (also Sa(a)mi /'sA:mi, 'sπ-, 'sEI-/, ~, ß, ƒ¤~: Uralic) has simple
(short: /i, e, a, o, u/ (I, ™, å, ø, U)) and geminated V (or better narrow diphthongs
rather than çlongÇ V\ /ii, ee, aa, oo, uu/ (ii, E™, aå, Oø, uu) (with these phonetic
durations: ('é;é, ’éé)). It also has the following narrow diphthongs /ie, ea, oa, uo/
(I™, πÄ, Ø√, Uø), with the frequent taxophones (j™, ãå, jå, wø), as is also the case
for /aa/: (aå, =a). It presents not only short (/0/ (é˘0é)) and long C (¤ /0:/ (é0:˘é)),
but also geminated ones˚ by combining the two syllabic types (/00:/ (é0˘0:é)).
Actually, rather than three çdegrees of lengthÇ (as is often suggested introduc-
ing çhyperlongÇ C]˚ we have just two (/0/, /0:/) which combine (/00:/). ˛ey are
better grasped too, by referring to syllable structures: £alit /l/ (˘l)˚ £allit /l:/ (l:˘)˚ £al-
llit /ll:/ (l˘l:) – /'ca-lit, 'cal:-it, 'cal-l:it/. Moreover, even though it might seem more
logical to posit (l:˘l) for the çthirdÇ length degree, the phonetic reality is (l˘l:), as in
Japanese.
˛e o‚cial spelling and çcurrentÇ phonology resort to çvoicedÇ letters and sym-
bols also for (short) /p, t, k/, ¤ ç/b, d, g/Ç V ç/p, t, k/Ç, instead of /p, t, k/ and /p:,
t:, k:/, which are more appropriate. Obviously, short-sighted (or hard of hearing)
theoretical phonologies, which indicate geminates with ç/p:, t:, k:/Ç, are at a loss
when it comes to indicating /00:/. For clusters of heterorganic C we have /C0:/
(éC˘0:é).
/ii/ (ii) /uu/ (uu)
/i/ (I)÷ /ie/ (I™) /u/ (U)÷ /uo/ (Uø)
ç(È)Ç (¤, É, ‘, Ö, ¨)
/e/ (™), /ee/ (E™) /o/ (ø)
/oo/ (Oø)
/ea/ (πÄ)
/oa/ (Ø√)
/a/ (å), /aa/ (aå)
m5 n5 (~) ˙
p5 t5 k5
q5 (C5) c5
f v5 s S
Ïƒ (â ã)|j5 (∆ =) (w|j) h
R|(r5)-l5 (¬)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ì 2 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)
We then find çpreaspiratedÇ C, which are actually sequences of /h/ + C˘ Along-

side this çsimpleÇ /h0/ (éh˘0é), we also find a çlong preaspirationÇ (that is çstrong-
erÇ too): /h:0/ (é∆:˘0é); these two di‡er also phonemically. Between sonants ((ù)
= (ö, ó, ‹)) and short heterorganic C, a short or ultrashort vocoid is inserted,
which is a faint echo of the preceding V: (¤, É, ‘, Ö, ¨) (shown in the vocogram
with broken-line white markers): dearvan /'tearvan/ ('tπÄRÉvan)÷ however, this
does not happen with homorganic C. Voiceless short C can be realized as half-
-voiced ((Ò)) after voiced phones, before both /é/ and /0:/.
In the table, /05/ indicates the opposition between çaspiratedÇ and çunaspiratedÇ
voiceless stops or stopstrictives; whereas the sequences /mh, nh÷ Rh÷ lh/ are realized
as long voiceless C: ():, £:÷ ç:÷ a:), and /jh, vh/ as: (â:, W:). Besides, we have /nj, t5j,
hj, lj/ (~÷ Chã, Cã÷ â÷ ¬). ˛e graphemes ≠˚ É indicate (approximant) (Ï, ƒ) ç/†, ∑/Ç.
17.40. „nnish (Uralic) has short and long V (the latter are monotimbric diph-
thongs, ('é;é, ’éé)): katua /'kAtuA/ ('kAtuA), kaatua /'kAAtuA/ ('kA;AtuA)÷ kiven
/'kiven/ ('kiv™n), kiveen /'kiveen/ ('kiv™™n). It has many phonemic diphthongs, al-
so unstressed, among which /ie, y°, uo/. It has few C˚ with three xenophonemes,
/b, f, g/, forming diphonic pairs; in final position, there is also /ö/: vie /'vie/ ('vi™)
ç(she/he) drivesÇ and /'vieö/ ('vi™ö) çdrive!Ç. Before C˚ /h/ is a constrictive, instead
of an approximant: hiihtää /'hiihtππ/ ('hi;i·tππ).
˛ere is distinctive opposition between simple C, /0/ (0), and geminated CC,
/00/ (00:), also after long V: palo /'pAlo/ ('pA]ø), pallo /'pAllo/ ('pA]]:ø), mato /'mA-
to/ ('mAtø), matto /'mAtto/ ('mAtt:ø); we also find opposition after di‡erent C: kor-
pi /'korpi/ ('kø5pi), korppi /'korppi/ ('kø5p:i). More examples follow: Pertti /'pert-
ti/ ('p™5t:i), kauppa /'kAuppA/ ('kAupp:A), pankki /'pAnkki/ ('pA˙k:i), Mirja /'mirja/
('mi5-jA) (the latter shows heterosyllabic division too). Stress tends to fall on the
first syllable of words. Spelling: y /y/, ä /π/, ö /°/.
/i[i]/ (i[i]) /u[u]/ (u[u])

/y[y]/ (y[y])
/e[e]/ (™[™])
/o[o]/ (ø[ø])
/°[°]/ (#[#])
/π[π]/ (π[π]) /A[A]/ (A[A])
m n ˙
p {b} t d k {g} ö
{f} v ß (·)
j h
5-]
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ì 2 2) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)
17.41. Karelian /kÈ'<IiliÈn, -jÈn/ (Russ. Fed.: Uralic) opposes short and long (¤
doubled) V and phonemic diphthongs formed by normal vowel sequences + /i, u/;
17. europe 341
all unstressed short V are devoiced before pauses or voiceless C, or after voiced C
too, even /π, a/. We find (n=0) and opposition between /0/ and /00/.
/i[i]/ (i[i]) /u[u]/ (u[u])

/y[y]/ (y[y])
/e[e]/ (™[™])
/o[o]/ (ø[ø])
/°[°]/ (#[#])
/π[π]/ (π[π]) /a[a]/ (a[a])

m n ~
pb td +_ kg
{q} C‚
{f} v sz ë ò À= J x
h
R-ô ] ç
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 6 2 2) /÷/ (2 è 2 2)
17.42. Komi /'kOUmi/ (Russ. Fed.: Uralic) has only short V˚ but phonemically
opposes /0/ and /00/. It has (n=0) and three xenophonemes.
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/…/ (…)
/e/ (™) /‘/ (‘)

/o/ (ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N
pb td ©á kg
{q} C‚ Cc
{f} v sz ë ò S q {x}
j
R ] L
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)
17.43. Mordvin (Russ. Fed.: Uralic) has seven vowel phonemes, five of which,
/i, e, a, o, u/, have fronted and raised taxophones, (iï, e, Å, P, ¯), between /J/, ¤
/j, 0j/, including /c, S, Z/ (~, /, \); /0j/ sequences are (0j), except for coronals: /nj,
tj, dj, qj, sj, zj, Rj, lj/ (~, ⁄, Á, ⁄À, À, =, ç, ¬) (notice the di‡erence between /tj/ (⁄)
and /qj/ (⁄À)); /nj0/ (~0) often becomes (n0). After sonants, we often find (q, ⁄,
©) for /s, sj, S/; we also have (n=0) and two xenophonemes. Sometimes /vò, lò/ be-
come /u/ (even (∞) for /lò/). Consonant clusters are frequent: karkstnë /'kaRkstn‘/
('kaRkstnÉ).
/i/ (i, JiJ) /u/ (u, J¯J)
/…/ (Û)
/e/ (™, JeJ) /o/ (ø, JPJ)
/‘/ (É)
/a/ (a, JÅJ)
m n (~)
pb td kg
q (⁄ Á) ~
{f} v sz (À =) / \
j {∆}
R ] (ç-¬)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
17.44. Estonian (Uralic) is noticeable for its three degrees of distinctive length,
both for V and C˘ Long V, /é:/, are long monophthongs; close V perfectly corre-
spond to the short ones, ¤ /i:, y:, u:/ (i:, y:, u:) and /i, y, u/ (i, y, u); as regards mid
V, instead, the short ones are less closed, ¤ /e:, °:, o:/ (e:, °:, o:) and /e, °, o/ (™, #,
ø), except for /X:, X/, which, like close V, do coincide. As for open V, we have co-
incidence for /π:, π/ (π:, π), but a slight di‡erence for /a:, a/ (a:, A).
As regards hyperlong V, they are actually nothing else but a combination of long
and short V, with the following peculiarities: /i:i, y:y, u:u/ have a closer and fron-
ter/backer last element, (i:iï, y:Y, u:uí); as for mid V, the last elements are like their
corresponding short ones in three cases, /e:e, °:°, o:o/ (e:™, °:#, o:ø); whilst, in the
extant case, a closer phone occurs, /X:X/ (X:û). ≈nally, for the two open V, we have:
/π:π/ (π:E) (which behaves like the close V and /X:, X/) and /a:a/ (a:A) (with its own
identity): jama /'jama/ ('jAmA), jaama /'ja:ma/ ('ja:mA), jaama /'ja:ama/ ('ja:AmA).
˛ere are various diphthongs, formed by /é, é:/ + /é/: kott ('køit:). In cases such
as this, /n, t, s, l/ are often said to be çpalatalizedÇ, and are consequently marked
as ç/nJ, tJ, sJ, lJ/Ç; however, these C's remain normal, while an (i) is inserted be-
tween the V and the C˚ as in the example given.
Also for hyperlong C, we actually find the combination of the two basic chro-
nemic types, /0/ (0), /0:/ (˘0:), ¤ /00:/ (0˘0:), as in: kala /'kala/ ('kAlA), kalla
/'kal:a/ ('kAl:A), kalla /'kall:a/ ('kAll:A) (spelling does not show the third degree of
length). ˛e velar taxophone of /h/ (∆) occurs before pauses or C÷ there is (n=0).
˛e grapheme õ is used for /X/, in place of a more consistent ë (alongside with
ä˚ ü˚ ö /a, y, °/; however, it makes a straightforward identification of written Es-
tonian possible): mõdu /'mXdu/ ('mXdu); besides, s/z /s/, ∞/` /S/.
17. europe 343
/i, i:, i:i/ (i, i:, i:i) /u, u:, u:u/ (u, u:, u:u)
/y, y:, y:y/ (y, y:, y:Y)
/X, X:, X:X/ (X, X:, X:û)
/e, e:, e:e/ (™, e:, e:™)
/°, °:, °:°/ (#, °:, °:#) /o, o:, o:o/ (ø, o:, o:ø)
/π, π:, π:π/ (π, π:, π:E) /a, a:, a:a/ (A, a:, a:A)
m n
p t k
å 6 s {S}
j (∆) h
R|(r)-l
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (3 ¶ 2 2)
17.45. Latvian (also Lettish, Baltic, ¤™) has the vowel system given in the voco-
gram, with short and long V (actually narrow diphthongs, ('é;é, ’éé)) and pecu-
liar phonemic diphthongs, also with oscillating realization; in loanwords, we also
find /oo/, otherwise unknown to the language. Generally, word- or syllable-final
short unstressed V, also in sentences, undergo devoicing, (´), even complete, (‚),
up to their dropping, (`).
Before voiceless C or pauses, Latvian sonants too are devoiced. Besides, we find
(ó, ( , –); (n=0); there is opposition between /l/ (ô) and /ı/ (]); diphonic elements
show complete voicing assimilation to second elements; /x/ is (∆, â5). Consonant
clusters are possible up to five elements. On every (long) bimoraic syllable, wheth-
/ii/ (Ii) /uu/ (Uu)÷ /ui/ ('Ui, U'I)

/i/ (I)÷ /ie/ ('IÉ, I'É) /u/ (U)÷ /uo/ ('UÖ, U'Ö)
/ei/ ('™i, ™'I)
/e/ (™), /ee/ (™™) /o/ (ø) {/oo/ (øø)}
/E/ (E), /EE/ (ÅÄ)
/a/ (å), /aa/ (aå) /ai/ (aI), /au/ (aU)
m n ~
pb td © á kg
qQ C‚
{f} v sz ë ò
(â) j ∆
R-ô ]
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
/'/ ('2) /è/ ('3 ) /ç/ (Ç3) /./ (13) /?/ (313) /÷/ (131)
er stressed or not, one of three tonemes occurs, also on more than one syllable in
a word. Nowadays, however, partly because of their strong similarity, many speak-
ers distinguish only two tonemes, with much variation; in towns, they are often
not distinctive any longer, if not totally absent; for this reason, we present here
both the çmodernÇ and çtraditionalÇ intonation tonograms. ˛ose who maintain
them usually have creaky voice with the third toneme.
Spelling: VvC, Vv¸ /éu, év/, e /e, E/, e /ee, EE/, o /uo, o, oo/, º /©/, : /á/, … /N/ (~/,
û /l/ (ô), c /q/, ∞ /S/, ` /Z/, £ /c/, d` /G/.
17.46. Lithuanian (Baltic, ¤™) has a vowel system similar to that seen for Lat-
vian, with similar features also in the length of long V (actually narrow diph-
thongs, ('é;é, ’éé)). In addition to (n=0), we find /s, z/ + /c, G/ (©, ≈) = /S, Z/ (“,
‰); there is opposition between /l/ and /ı/. ˛e sequences /lj, nj/ are (¬, ~), /{l}n5/
{including /a, aa/} and /{l}njÌ/ are ({¬}~), also /l/ (¬) + /S, Z÷ c, G/. In Lithuanian
too, the tonemes are disappearing in colloquial urban speech; however, traditional-
ly, we find the ton(em)es shown in the diagrams.
Spelling: ô/y /ii/, “ /ee/, ' /EE/, ( /aa/, ≈/u /uu/, £ /c/, ∞ /S/, ` /Z/.
/ii/ (Ii), /i/ (I) /uu/ (Uu)

/ie/ ('IÉ, I'™) /u/ (U), /ui/ (UI)
/uo/ ('UÖ, U'ø)
/e/ (™), /ei/ (ei) /oo/ (øO)
/ee/ (e™) /o/ (ø)
/EE/ (EÄ), /ai/ (ÄI) /au/ (√U)
/a/ (å), /aa/ (aå)
m n (~)
pb td kg
qQ ©≈
fv sz “ ‰
j|(ã) {∆} {H}
R-l ı (¬)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)
/¶/ (Ç2) /è/ ('3 ) /'/ (') /./ (13) /?/ (313) /÷/ (131)
17.47. Polish /'pOUlIS/ (Slavic, ¤™) has six (short: ('éò, 'é;˘)) vowel phonemes, a-
mong which /…/ (¤) (but not with a truly central timbre, so that the /I/ symbol
could be adopted, also for phonemic transcriptions within oƒIPA]˘ ˛ere are diph-
thongs formed by the six V + /i, u/ (including /ii, uu/: kij /'kii/ ('©i;i), stól /s'tuu/
(s'tu;u)); and we also find sequences of /j, w/ + V˚ excluding /j…, wi/. Spelling has
special marks for two çnasal vowelsÇ –'˚ (– where, nowadays, nasalization is not
solely on the vowels, but especially on the nasal which follows (¤ semi-palatal or
17. europe 345
semi-provelar: /N, ˙/ (n, «)), as long as they are either word-final or followed by a
constrictive; if followed by stops or stopstrictives, ' and ( do not indicate such
nasalized pronunciation (anymore), but simply sequences of /e, o/ + /ö=0/. Also
before l˚ l˚ CC, the letters '˚ ( stand for plain /e, o/.
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/…/ (¤)
/e/ (™) /o/ (ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N|(n) ˙|(«)
pb td (© á) k g
qQ ÃÓ C‚
fv sz ∑ „ ë ò
(â) j|(ã) ∆ (y) m
R-l
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ç 3 2)
In addition, each of the six /é/ + /Nò/, /˙ò/ (where /ò/ indicates any continuant
C, including /x/ (∆)) is realized as (–n, –«) (or even as semi-nasalized, ¤ (◊n, ◊«)).
Polish spelling has V~ for /éN/ (–n), and in˚ an˚ un˚ yn (but '/en˚ () for /é˙/ (–«):
re~ski /'ReNski/ ('R™ns©i), pa~ski /'paNski/ ('pÅns©i), ko~ski /'koNski/ ('k9ns©i), m'ski
/'me˙ski/ ('m™«s©i), szanska /'∑a˙ska/ ('∑Å«ska), k(ski /'ko˙ski/ ('k9ns©i); for /’e˙ò/,
currently, there can also be /’e/: b'd' /'bende˙/ ('b™nd™«, -d™) (the first syllable of
the example makes it further clear that ' also corresponds to /en/). Often we have
/òé/ (öé).
Certain traditionalistic descriptions of Polish still posit a phonemic consonant
system with palatalized C, ¤ with ç/m, p, b÷ f, v/Ç and with just five vowel pho-
nemes! More in touch with phonetic reality, we posit the six V given in the voco-
gram; the so-called çpalatalizedÇ labial C are actually (m, p, b÷ f, v) simply followed
by /i, j/ (i, ã). We find /xi/ (âi), and also a voiced taxophone of /x/ (∆, y), by assimi-
lation. If we want to stick to oƒIPA˚ the notation of the çsibilantsÇ poses some prob-
lems; in fact, the traditional-analysis ç/c, G, S, Z/Ç are actually (Ã, Ó, ∑, „), which
would be better rendered more precisely with /Ã, Ó, ∑, „/; whilst, traditionalistic
ç/Â, ©, ¿, B/Ç are actually (C, ‚, ë, ò), that is /c, G, S, Z/÷ therefore, we should at
least exchange the values given to ç/c, G, S, Z/Ç.
˛e necessary nasal consonant phonemes are the following four: /m, n, N, ˙/
(or, more abstractly, /nj, n+ò/, instead of the latter two). For /w/, we find (m) (or
(w), but certainly not (w), which is not vigorous enough), while traditional pro-
nunciation still has (∞). In addition to real stopstrictives, /q, Q, Ã, Ó/, we also find
the sequences /ts, dz, t∑, d„/, the last two are realized either as (t∑, d„) or as (Ã∑,
Ó„): czy /'Ã…/ ('Ã¤), trzy /'t∑…/ ('t∑¤, 'Ã∑¤), dΩemy /'Óem…/ ('Ó™m¤), drzemy /'d„em…/
('d„™m¤, 'Ó„™m¤). Graphic diphonic C undergo voicing assimilation to the second

element: lawka /'wafka/; cho©by /'xoGb…/; while, word-finally, only voiceless
phonemes occur: nie≈ /'NeS/ ('N™ë). Sequences of equal C are also possible, as in:
droΩszy /'dRo„„…/ ('dRø„„¤).
Spelling: ( /oö/, c /q/, © /c/, ci /c/ (Ci, Cé), (c)h /x/ (∆, âi), cz /Ã/, dz /Q/, dzi /G/
(‚i, ‚é), dz /G/ (‚), dΩ /Ó/, ' /eö/, gi /gi/ (ái), j /j, éi/, ki /ki/ (©i), l /w, éu/ (m,
éu), ~ /N/, ni /N/ (Ni, Né), ó /u/, rz and Ω /„/, ≈ /S/ (ë), si /Si, Sé/ (ëi, ëé), sz /∑/, w /v/, y
/…/ (¤), z /z/, zi /Zi, Zé/ (òi, òé), z /Z/ (ò).
17.48. Belorussian, Bye- /bElÈ'<√S˘n, biE-/ (Slavic, ¤™) has the six vowel phonemes
given in the vocogram, with the taxophone (e), while the other V˚ between /J/, re-
main the same. ˛ere are diphthongs with /-i/; word-finally, they become (’éi), in
unstressed syllables; vowel length is: ('é0˘, 'éò, 'é;˘). Diphonic consonants typical-
ly assimilate for voicing to second elements or to following pauses. ˛ere is (n=0)
and /dZ/ (D‰). We could use /I/ (¤) instead of /…/.
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/…/ (¤)
/e/ (™, JeJ) /o/ (ø)
/a/ (a)
m (m) n (~)
p b (p b) t d k {g}
q {Q} (⁄ Á) ©
f v (f v) s z (À =) “‰ x Ÿ
j (w)
R ] (¬)
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 • 2 2) /÷/ (2 6 2 2)
17.49. Czech /'cEk/ (Slavic, ¤™) has the V given in the vocograms; those in the first
represent modern neutral pronunciation; while, those in the second one refer to
the mediatic pronunciation based on Prague use, with timbre di‡erences for short
and long V. Long V maintain their full length also in unstressed syllables. Initial-
ly –or after another V– we generally find (öé). ˛ere is the diphthong /ou/ (and,
in loanwords, also /eu, au/). ˛ere are (õ, (, –), as well; and (n=0).
˛e most typical C, /z/ (represented by the grapheme r), is realized as an alveo-
lar slit constrictive, (z), which is voiceless, (Q), when final or in contact with /=/.
˛e sequences /tz, dz/ are realized as such, (tQ, dz), without changing into stop-
strictives (¤ not (., …)); in emphatic or very careful pronunciation we can have
constrictive taps, (4, (), or even constrictive trills, (», «), again voiced or voiceless,
depending on the contexts indicated (either alone or in the sequences seen). For
17. europe 347
diphonic pairs, there is voicing assimilation to a preceding or following element

(or before a pause); the same holds for /z/ (and for /v/, excluding /=v/).
˛e Prague/mediatic interrogative intoneme (which is marked in grey in an
added tonogram) is perceived as very çheavyÇ by native speakers and, instead of
being rising-falling, (2 ¶ 1 2), it is çrising-risingÇ as shown. Stress tends to fall on the
first syllable of words, and one must take the utmost care not to interpret vowel-
-length prominence (which is very noticeable even in unstressed syllables) as if it
were stress prominence. Notice m‘ /mje/ (mj, mJ, mn, mN)+(™).
Spelling: c /q/, £ /c/, ch /x/, f (F) /á/, d + i˚ ‘ (but not + y˚ e) /á/, ‘ /je/, h /H/, n
/N/, n + i˚ ‘ (but not + y˚ e) /N/, r /z/, s /s/, ∞ /S/, t (T) /©/, t + i˚ ‘ (but not + y˚ e) /©/,
} /u:/, y /i/, z /z/, ` /Z/÷ á˚ é˚ ì˚ ó˚ ù˚ √ /é:/.
/i[:]/ (i[:]) /u[:]/ (u[:])

/i[:]/ (i:, I) /u[:]/ (u:, U)
/e[:]/ (™[:]) /o[:]/ (ø[:]) /e[:]/ (™:, E) /o[:]/ (ø:, O)
/a[:]/ (a[:]) /a[:]/ (a:, å)
m n N
p b t d © á k g (ö)
q (Q) c (G)
f v s z (Q)|{(4)} z|{(()} S Z x (Ÿ)
j H
R|(r) ]
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ¶ 1 2) {/?/ (2 5 2 2)} /÷/ (3 ' 2 2)
17.50. Slovak /'slOUvπk, -A:k/ (Slavic, ¤™) has slightly less peripheral V than Czech,
and an extra phoneme, /E/ (E) ä, which, however, is only used in traditional pro-
nunciation, having coalesced with /e/ (™) in modern pronunciation. It opposes
/i[:]/ (i[:]) /u[:]/ (u[:])
/e[:]/ (™[:]) /o[:]/ (ø[:])

{/E/ (E) >ä≥ = /e/ (™)}
/a[:]/ (a[:])
m n N
p b t d © á k g
qQ cG
f v s z S Z
j ∆ (y) H
R|(r)-ô|(l) ı|(]) (¬)
/ / (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (3 ç 2 2)
short and long V; it presents the following diphthongs /ei, ai, oi÷ eu, au, ou/ and
sequences /i'e, i'a, i'u, u'o/.
Unlike Czech, initial or postvocalic V generally are not (öé). ˛ere are intense
C\ /“, –/ –for r and l between C– and also /(:, –:/÷ (n=0). ˛ere is voicing assimila-
tion for diphonic pairs, but not for /=v/. Only in intentional pronunciation can
we find /00/ (0:). Stress basically falls on the first syllable of a word.
Spelling: ä /e÷ E/, c /q/, £ /c/, ch /x/ (∆), f (F) /á/, d + i (but not + y) /á/, d` /G/, h
/H/, l /ı/ (ı, –), µ /l/ (–:), m /l/ (ô) (also (l, ¬)}, n /N/, n + i (but not + y) /N/, ô /u'o/, r /R,
“/, ® /(:/, s /s/, ∞ /S/, t (T) /©/, t + i (but not + y) /©/, y /i/, z /z/, ` /Z/÷ á˚ é˚ ì˚ ó˚ ù˚ √ /é:/.
17.51. Hungarian (Uralic) opposes short and long V (the latter are narrow diph-
thongs), which di‡er also in timbre, especially /°°, °/ (°°, #), /oo, o/ (oo, ø), /ee,
e/ (ee, E/), but in particular /aa, a/ (aa, ù). (ù) is rounded; if no such systematic cor-
relation of short and long V existed, it would be more logical to use /Ø/ instead of
/a/, as we would obviously do in interphonemic transcriptions. In unstressed syl-
lables, as well as in stressed checked ones, lengthening is smaller, ¤ ('é;é, 'éé0, ’éé).
We have distinctive length for C too, which are geminated or, when final,
lengthened, ¤ (00, 0:ò). Voiced diphonic C are partially devoiced, when final;
while they become completely voiceless before voiceless C. For /h/ (h) we often
have (â5, ∆Ì, éHé), and (hò, `ò); (n=0).
Stress tends to fall on the first syllable of a word; however, in such a simple sen-
tence as Péter magyar and Péter magyar? çPeter is HungarianÇ and çIs Peter Hun-
garian?Ç we generally perceive: /'mØáØR./ and /mØ'áØR?/ (magyar çMagyar, Hungar-
ianÇ).
Spelling: a /a/ (ù), á /aa/, c/cz /q/, ch/cs /c/, dz /Q/, dzs /G/, é /ee/, gy /á/, j/lj/y /j/,
/i[i]/ (i[i]) /u{u]/ (u{u])

/y[y]/ (y[y])
/ee/ (ee) /oo/ (oo)
/°[°]/ (°°, #) /o/ (ø)
/e/ (E) /a/ (ù)
/aa/ (aa)
m n N
p b t d k g
q Q cG k›
fv s z S Z
(â) j (∆) h (H)
R-l
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

17. europe 349
ny /N/, ö /°/, p /°°/, ó /oo/, s /S/, ss /SS/, ssz /ss/, sz /s/, ty /©/, ü /y/, ) /yy/, ù /uu/, z /z/,
zs /Z/, zz /zz/, zzs /ZZ/.
17.52. Ukrainian (Slavic, ¤™) has the six V given, with the four raised and front-
ed taxophones occurring between /J/, and another taxophone for /’o/ in non-çsoftÇ
contexts; for unstressed written e, we have /…/ (¤), but /eò/ (™); vowel length, in
stressed syllables, is invariably ('éé), whatever the context, also + CC˘ ˛ere is a
di‡erence between /ji, je, ja, jo, ju/ and /i, e, a, o, u/ (in addition to /…/); also /0j/
and /Jj/ are di‡erent; the prepalatal phones (shown in the table) are the realiza-
tions of /nj, tj, dj, qj, Qj, sj, zj, Rj/, whereas we find (mã, pã, bã, fã, vã) for /0j/; be-
sides, /SS/ (“©) is di‡erent from /S/ (“); generally /G/ is (≈‰), which is written as a
digraph, ¤ dµ÷ for /l/, in addition to (], ¬), the variants (ı÷ ô, l) are also possible;
(n=0).
˛ere can also be some geminates, even in initial position, in which case we gen-
erally have (0:); voiced diphonic C, when final or before voiceless C, remain voiced
(or are only partially devoiced); at any rate, sequences of diphonic C undergo voic-
ing assimilation to the second element. As regards the grapheme b, we have /v/ (v),
but /u/ (u) when final or + C: K$¤b ('k¤¤iu).
/i/ (ii, ’i) >i≥ /u/ (uu, J¯¯J,

/…/ (¤¤, ’¤) >$, ’e – ’eò≥ ’u, ’J¯J)
/e/ (™™, JeeJ), /o/ (øø, JPPJ,
(’™ò) >’eò≥ ’o[ò], ’JPJ)
/a/ (aa, JÄÄJ,
’a, ’JÄJ)
m n (~)
pb t d (+ _) (©) k {g}
qQ (⁄ Á) ©≈
fv s z (À =) “ ‰ y
(â) j ∆
R ] (ç)-(¬)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)
17.53. Rumanian (Rom., ¤™) has the seven V shown in the vocogram; for /iò/
we find (i), also in connected speech: Bucure¸ti /buku'reSti/ (&buku'R™Sti), buni /'bu-
ni/ ('bu;ni), bun /'bun/ ('bun)÷ and pom /'pom/ ('pøm) çtreeÇ, pomi /'pomi/ ('pø;mi)
çtreesÇ, /'pomii/ ('pø;mi) pomii çthe treesÇ÷ fi /'fi/ ('fi) çto beÇ, fii /'fii/ ('fii) çchil-
drenÇ, fiii /'fiii/ ('fi;i) çthe childrenÇ.
It has six median approximants, which are distinctive, even though four of them
can be considered taxophones of /e, o, …, È/, since in slow — careful pronunciation
they can be realized exactly as vocoids – ia /ja/ ('ja), ua /wa/ ('wa), ea /e'a/ ('ãa), oa
/o'a/ ('ja), eu /…'u/ ('ju), eo /È'o/ ('Fø): biatå /'bjatÈ/ ('bja;tx), beatå /be'atÈ/ ('bãa;tx),
cuartå /'kwaRtÈ/ ('kwaRtx), coardå /ko'aRdÈ/ ('kjaRdx), vreun /vR…'un/ ('vRjun), vreo
/vRÈ'o/ ('vrFø); for oa˚ both (ja) and (wa) are possible, especially word-initially. For
/’e, ’È, ’o/, the timbres (e, È, o) are possible, sometimes even for /'e, 'È, 'o/; for /0ié/,
either stressed or unstressed, we have (0ijé). Before /i, e/, /k, g, x/ are (©, á, â) ((â)
also after /i, e/; but normally, /x/ (∆)); voiced diphonic C are devoiced when final;
also sonants can be devoiced; besides, there is (n=0). As can be seen, interrogative
preintonemes are slightly di‡erent.
Spelling: å /È/ (x), â /…/, c /c, k/, ch /k/, ci /c, ci/, cea /ca/, g /G, g/, gh /g/, gi /G,
Gi/, gea /Ga/, h /x/ (∆), î /…/, j /Z/, s /s/, ¸ /S/, ¶ /q/, z /z/.
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/…/ (…)
/o/ (ø) {(’o)}
/e/ (™) {(’e)}
/È/ (x) {(’È)}
/a/ (a)
m n
p b t d (© á) kg
q cG
f v s z S Z
(â) j|(ã) (j)|(F) ∆ w|(j)
R-l (¬)
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /¿/ (2 2 Ì 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (3 ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)
17.54. Moldavian (Rom., ¤™) is a Slavicized Rumanian, as can be seen from the
greater number of palatalized consonant taxophones; the vowel /È/, too, has a
fronted taxophone, (É), which occurs after front V, through a sort of assimilation.
Especially after /g, q, z, R/, /i/ can become /…/. In comparison to Rumanian it has
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/…/ (…)
/e/ (™) /o/ (ø)

/È/ (x, É)
/a/ (a)
m (m) n (~)
p b (p b) t d (© á) kg
q cG
f v (f v) s z S Z
(ª) (â) ã ∆ j
R-l (ç-¬) (])
17. europe 351
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ç 3 2)
fewer median approximants, but /'e, 'o/ are generally, or often, (ª™, jø); for /l/, we
have (]), but (l) + /i, e/ and /lj/ (¬); besides, it has (n=0).
17.55. Slovenian /slOU'vIiniÈn/ (also Slovene /'slOUvIin, _'_/, Slavic, ¤™) has eight
vowel phonemes and various phonemic diphthongs (we only show the four which
have di‡erent timbres in the first elements). ˛ere are some quite important varia-
tions between modern pronunciation, with no long V (but only eight short V˚
which are phonetically doubled in stressed syllables of whatever kind) and no
tonemes, and traditional pronunciation, with six short and seven long V (narrow
diphthongs) and two tonemes. ˛ere is also an çin-betweenÇ pronunciation, with-
out tonemes, but maintaning long V. Prestressed /’e, ’o/, in words or rhythm
groups, are (e, o); after stressed syllables they are (™, ø).
Slovene schwa also occurs in stressed syllables: Lesc /'lÈsq/ ('lÈÈsq). For /j/ we find
modern
/i/ ('ii, ’i) /u/ ('uu, ’u)
/È/ ('ÈÈ, ’È)
/e/ ('ee) /o/ ('oo)
/’e, ’E/ /’o, ’O/
(e…', '…™) (o…', '…ø) /ei/ (™i) /ou/ (øu)
/E/ ('EE) /O/ ('OO) /ai/ (åi) /au/ (åu)
/a/ ('aa, ’a)
traditional
/ii/ ('ii) /uu/ ('uu)
/i/ ('I, ’i) /u/ ('U, ’u)
/ee/ ('ee) /oo/ ('oo)
/È/ ('È, ’È)
/’e, ’E/ (e…', '…™) /’o, ’O/ (o…', '…ø)
/E{E}/ ('E{E}) /O{O}/ ('O{O})
/a/ ('å, ’a) /aa/ ('aa)
m n
pb t d k g
q (Q) C‚
f√ s z ë ò
(â) j|(ã) ∆ (y)
R-l
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 1 1)
/5/ ([2] Ì 2 [2]) /ç/ ([2] Ç 2 [2]) /./ (13) /?/ (313) /÷/ (31)
(0j, 'j, éjé, é’ãé); for ijV (ié); /x/ (∆, âi); in addition to (n=0), we have /s, z/ = (ë,
ò) + /c, G, S, Z/. Both v and l correspond to /u/ (u), when final or + C, although
not systematically; for ¸vC˚ CvC˚ too, we find the same correspondence v /u/ (u),
though with an extra possibility: (u=). As regards syllabification, note Marjeta
(maR'jeeta). In the tonograms, the grey dots indicate the pitch of syllables una‡ect-
ed by the two ton(em)es.
Spelling: c /q/, £ /c/, lj /ljé, l0, lò/, nj /njé, n0, nò/, ®˚ ¸rC˚ CrC /ÈR/ (ÈR, “, (), s /s/,
∞ /S/, z /z/, ` /Z/.
17.56. Croatian (∆® “ ∫¤∆: Slavic, ¤™) has the V given in the vocogram, both
short and long distinctively, with identical timbres, in addition to /éi/ Vj diph-
thongs, /ei, ai, oi/, and /ié/ as well. Furthermore, /j/ is usually a (slightly retracted)
prepalatal approximant, (ª), as are /N, L/ (~, ¬); between V˚ /j/ becomes zero, if one
of the two is a front one.
In addition to (n=0), we find that the (grooved) constrictives before stopstric-
tives become homorganic, in spite of what their spellings might suggest: (sq, ò‚,
«&). ˛e postalveopatal stopstrictives (whether spread or hyper-rounded), are ar-
ticulated with a raised tip of the tongue, and the di‡erence in their labial positions
is distinctive: /c, G÷ &, 1/ (C, ‚÷ &, 1); (î, i÷ ¨, u÷ Í, 5) are possible before pauses;
there is opposition between /“/ and /(:/; for /l/ (]), we can find (l).
It has two tonemes, with partially di‡ering realizations, according to the num-
ber of syllables which follow the stressed one. ˛ere are slight, also notational,
di‡erences between the Croatian and Serbian ton(em)es; also as far as the suspen-
sive intoneme is concerned.
Spelling: c /q/, £ /&/, © /c/ (C), É /G/ (‚), d` /1/, l /ı/ (]), lj /L/ (¬), nj /N/ (~), s
/s/, ∞ /S/, z /z/, ` /Z/.
/i:/ (i:, ’i[;]) /u:/ (u:, ’u[;])
/i/ ('i, ’i) /u/ ('u, ’u)
/e:/ (™:, ’™[;]) /o:/ (ø:, ’ø[;])

/e/ (™, ’™) /o/ (ø, ’ø)
/a:/ (a:, ’a[;]) /a/ (a, ’a)

m n ~
p b t d k g
q (Q) C‚ &1
f v s z (ë ò) SZ (« »)
ª ∆ (y)
R|(r) ] (¬) ¬
/'iiii/ ('i2i2i2i) /'iii/ ('i2i2i) /'ii/ ('i2i) /çiiii/ (Çi2i2i2i) /çiii/ (Çi2i2i) /çii/ (Çi2i)
/./ (13) /?/ (313) /÷/ (^)

17. europe 353
17.57. Serbian (¥¨ “ ∫¤∆: Slavic, ¤™) has the V given in the vocogram, both
short and long (narrow diphthongs) distinctively, with more or less di‡erent tim-
bres, as can be seen, which constitute the greatest vowel di‡erences from Croatian;
in addition to /éi/ Vj diphthongs, /ei, ai, oi/, and /ié/ as well; the palatal approxi-
mant /j/ (j) becomes semi-approximant between V˚ or zero when one of the two is
a front one.
In addition to (n=0), we find that the (grooved) constrictives before stopstric-
tives become homorganic, in spite of what their spellings might suggest: (sq, ò‚,
/~); the postalveo-palatal stopstrictives are articulated with a lowered tip of the
tongue, which further distinguishes them from the postalveo-prevelar protruded
ones. ˛ese nuances are su‚cient to be distinctive features: (C, ‚÷ ~, ˙), so that
the problem arises of which phonemic symbols to adopt; traditional-analysis ç/Â,
©/Ç do not adequately represent actual articulations; whilst, the current oƒIPA
ones, ç/cJ, GJ÷ c„, G„/Ç, are neither practical nor handy; therefore the most suit-
able ones are /C, ‚÷ C, c/ (on the other hand, prior to the latest çreformÇ, both
these pairs were o‚cial, or deducible). Before silence, (î, i÷ ¨, u÷ Í, 5) are possible;
there is opposition between /“/ and /(:/; for /l/ (ı) we can also have (]).
It has the two tonemes shown, with partially di‡erent realizations, according to
the number of syllables which follow the stressed one. Serbian distinguishes from
Croatian also because of the use of the cyrillic alphabet, like half the Slavic langua-
ges.
/ii/ (i;i§, ’i[i§]) /uu/ (u;u§, ’u[u§])
/i/ (i§, ’i§) /u/ (u§, ’u§)
/ee/ (e;™, ’™[™]) /oo/ (o;ø, ’ø[ø])

/e/ (E, ’™) /o/ (O, ’ø)
/a/ (’a, ’å0ò) /aa/ (a;a/, ’a[a/])
m n N
pb t d k g
q (Q) C‚ ~˙
fv s z (ë ò) SZ (/ \)
j|(ã) ∆ (y)
R|(r) ı (¬) L
/'iiii/ ('i2i2i2i) /'iii/ ('i2i2i) /'ii/ ('i2i) /çiiii/ (çi2i2i2i) /çiii/ (çi2i2i) /çii/ (çi2i)
/./ (13) /?/ (313) /÷/ (31)
17.58. Bosniac /'bØzniπk/ (also Bosnian /'bØzniÈn/, ∫¤∆: Slavic, ¤™) occupies an
intermediate position between Croatian and Serbian, as can be seen from all the
diagrams given. It has a tendency towards the neutralization of çshibilantÇ pho-
nemes, having a feeble opposition between /c, G/ (with a lowered tip) and /c, g/
(with a raised tip), whilst /S, Z/ are (x, ç) (but (S, Z) before front V]˘
/ii/ (ii, ’i[;]) /uu/ (uu, ’u[;])
/i/ ('i, ’i) /u/ ('u, ’u)
/ee/ (™™, ’™[;]) /oo/ (øø, ’ø[;])

/e/ (™, ’™) /o/ (ø, ’ø)
/aa/ (aa, ’a[;]) /a/ (a, ’a)

m n N
p b t d k g
q (Q) cG cg
f v s z (S Z) xç
j|(ã) ∆ (y)
R|(r) ı (¬) L
/'iiii/ ('i2i2i2i) /'iii/ ('i2i2i) /'ii/ ('i2i) /çiiii/ (çi2i2i2i) /çiii/ (çi2i2i) /çii/ (çi2i)
/./ (13) /?/ (313) /÷/ (31)
17.59. Bulgarian (Slavic, ¤™) has six vowel phonemes, with the lower three hav-
ing closer unstressed taxophones, with interesting sociolinguistic di‡erences, so
that we have: /’e, ’a, ’o/ (±e, ±å, ±o) (in çaccurate, literaryÇ pronunciation, ¤ tradi-
tional neutral pronunciation), or (I, x, U) (in çcurrent, colloquialÇ pronunciation,
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/X/ (X)
/’e/ (±e, I, ≠i) /’o/ (±o, U, ≠u)
/e/ (™, »™) /o/ (ø, »ø)

/’a/ (±’å, ’x, ≠’X)
/a/ (a, »a)
m n
pb td (© á) k g (ö)
qQ C‚
f√ sz ë ò (y)
(â) ã|(j) ∆
(l) l R
/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ç 1 2) /÷/ (2 ç 2 2)

17. europe 355
¤ modern neutral pronunciation), or (≠i, ≠X, ≠u) (in non-neutral pronunciation,

¤ oriental). Generally, the neutralization of /’a, ’X/ into (x), and of /’o, ’u/ into (U),
or (more rarely) of /’e, ’i/ into (I), can not be considered to fall within a neutral
kind of pronunciation, no matter how widespread it may be. Word-initial V,
whether stressed or not, are realized as (öé); word-final V˚ not only when final in
rhythm-groups, or before pauses, but also inside sentences, are devoiced or voice-
less. Besides, V followed by /öò/ (¤ nasal or {grooved/slit} constrictive) become
nasalized, (–öò), even as far as (–ò); otherwise, we find (n=0).
Phonemic analyses with a useless series of 17 çpalatalizedÇ C, /J/, o‚cially
ç/0J/Ç, are inadequate, since we actually have sequences, /0j/ (0ã), with a palatal
semi-approximant, except for (©, á÷ â), which occur before /i, e/ and correspond al-
so to the sequences /kj, gj, xj/; /j/ is (j) only after pauses; whilst, /éi/ is (éãi). As re-
gards /l/, we have a dental articulation, (l, l) ((ı, l)), also for the main uvularized
taxophone, which is substituted by (l) ((l)), only before /j, i, e/. ≈nal voiced di-
phonic C become voiceless; internal diphonic sequences show complete voicing
assimilation to their second elements, including /q, x/ (q, Q÷ ∆, y), but excluding
/v/ (√) (and /R, l/ (R÷ l, l), as well). Colloquially, geminate C are simplified, except
at morpheme boundaries, and /xv/ becomes /f/; besides, /t/ is dropped in /stò, Stò/.
17.60. Macedonian (Slavic, ¤™) has the six V given in the vocogram, all of them
short (realized as half-long in internal unchecked stressed syllables); all final un-
stressed V can be devoiced or voiceless before pauses. Because of its spelling, cur-
rent descriptions posit a ç/(/Ç which, however, is normally /XR/: kpct /'kXRst/
('kXRst); $jV >ijV≥ corresponds to (ié). ˛ere are sequences of V˚ even identical
ones. We then find (n, ]), n, l, also before /j, i, e/, whereas we have /N, L/ (~, ¬), ∆,
¬. Instead of /ı, L/ (], ¬), traditional pronunciation has (ı, l). Besides, (n=0)÷ /x/
(∆, âi)÷ /s, z/ = /S, Z/ + /c, G÷ S, Z/; /00/ are possible, but limited to /m, t, d, s, z, j,
l/, and only in composition. Colloquially, final consonant sequences tend to be
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/X/ (X)
/e/ (™) /o/ (ø)
/a/ (a)
m n ~
p b t d k g
qQ cG k›
f v s z S Z
(â) j ∆
R ] ¬
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 • 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

simplified. ˛ere is complete voicing assimilation to the second elements for

diphonic-C clusters, and full devoicing before pauses.
17.61. Albanian (also Tosk, isolated, ¤™), has the seven short V given in the vo-
cogram; all are stressable, even /È/ (‘); we find the following distinctive opposi-
tions: /c, G/ (c, G) and /k, ›/ (k, ›), ç/r, l/Ç (¸, ô) and /5, ı/ (5, ı)÷ /h/ (h) also
occurs in word-final position: kreh /'kreh/ ('k¸™h) çto combÇ.
Spelling: c /q/, ç /c/, dh /∑/, ë /È/ (‘), g /g/, gj /›/, h /h/, j /j/, l /l/ (ô), ll /ı/, nj /N/
(N), q /k/, r /r/ (¸), rr /5/, s /s/, sh /S/, th /†/, y /%/, x /Q/, xh /G/, z /z/, zh /Z/.
/i/ (i), /%/ (%) /u/ (u)
/e/ (™) /È/ (‘), /o/ (ø)
/a/ (a)
m n N
pb t d kg
q Q cG k›
fv †|s ∑|z S Z
¸ j h
ô 5-ı
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 3 2)
17.62. Gheg (å¬ “ ¥¨, isolated, ¤™), in addition to the seven short V in common
/i[i]/ (I[i]), /i/ (¤) /u[u]/ (U[u]), /u/ (U)

/%[%]/ (T[%]), /ß/ (fi)
/È[È]/ (‘[‘])
/e[e]/ (™[™]), /e/ (™) /o[o]/ (ø[ø])
/a[a]/ (å, a√), /Å/ (Ú)
m n N
p b t d © á k g
q Q C ‚
f v †|s ∑|z ë ò
¸ j h
ô R-ı
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ç 3 2)

17. europe 357
with Albanian, slightly di‡erently articulated (as can be seen from the vocogram,
/i, e, a, o, u, %, È/ (I, ™, å, ø, U, T, ‘)), also has the seven long correspondent V (nar-
row diphthongs) /ii, ee, aa, oo, uu, %%, ÈÈ/ (Ii, ™™, a√, øø, Uu, T%, ‘‘), alongside
five short nasalized V, /i, e, Å, u, ß/ (¤, ™, Ú, U, fi). Another di‡erence concerns /c,
G/ (C, ‚) and /©, á/ (©, á), ç/r/Ç (¸) and /5/ (R)÷ whilst ç/l/Ç (ô) and /ı/ (ı) are the
same as in Albanian.
Orthography indicates nasalized V with a circumflex accent, ¤ î˚ ê˚ â˚ û˚ ›, but
does not mark long V.
17.63. Greek (Hellenic, ¤™) has only five vowels, with no length opposition; non-
-high V may be more raised when unstressed; whilst, unstressed /i, u/ tend to be
voiceless when final or between voiceless C. Phonetic length has a semichrone in
internal unchecked syllables, (é;˘). ˛ere can be diphthongs, as in tsãÛ /'qai/ ('çai).
It has voicing assimilation for /ö/ + voiceless stop or stopstrictive C, which become
voiced, as can be seen below, in the grapheme section. In loanwords, internal NC
are /Ê/ or /öÊ/, according to their original forms; besides, (n=0)÷ /mj/ (mj÷ mN)÷
/=j/ (=ª).
˛ose who studied Ancient Greek in Europe, with their çacademicÇ pronuncia-
tions, in passing to modern Greek, will find only scanty similarities for vowels and
consonants; had they studied it following a çclassicalÇ pronunciation, they would
had further problems. It would be interesting to compare the four types of pronun-
ciation given in the section devoted to dead languages: ancient, hellenistic, byzan-
tine and (Italian) academic (§ 22.32-5). (˛e present author would appreciate it
very much if other European academic accents were provided by competent read-
ers, following the HPh criteria, to be included in his website: canIPA on Natural
Phonetics.)
/i/ (i) /u/ (u)
/e/ (™, ’™÷ ’e) /o/ (ø, ’ø÷ ’o)
/a/ (a, ’a÷ ’å)
m n (N)
p b t d (© á) k g
çÇ
f v † ∑ ß fi (Â J) x Ÿ
j
R-l (L)
/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /¿/ (3 3 Ç 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ç 3 2)
Spelling: vowels – a /a/ (a), au /av, afò, af=/, ai and e /e/ (™), eu /ev, efò, ef=/ (°u-
rv /'evRo/ ('™;vRø)), ei and h and i and oi and u and ui /i/ (i), o and v /o/ (ø), ou /u/
(u)÷ consonants – m /m/, n /n/, niV /njé/ (Né) (not in niC˚ ni¸ = /ni/ (ni); while (Ni)
is a regional pronunciation); p /p/, t /t/, k /k/ (k) {(©) + /i, e/ and in /kj/}÷ mp /òb,
-mb-/, nt /òd, -nd-/, gk (and gg] /òg, -ng-/ (g, ˙g) {(á, Ná) + /i, e/ and in /gj, ngj/}÷ f
/f/, y /†/, s (w¸) /s/ (ß) {(fi) + voiced C}, x /x/ (x) {(Â) + /i, e/ and in /xj/}÷ b /v/, d /∑/,
z /z/ (fi), g /Ÿ/ (Ÿ) {(J) + /i, e/ and in /Ÿj/ (J), giV].
Besides: ts /q/ (ç), tz /Q/ (Ç)÷ r /R/ (R), l /l/ (l), liV /ljé/ (Lé) (not in liC˚ li¸ =
/li/ (li); while (Li) is regional)÷ c /ps/ (pß), j /ks/ (kß)÷ mf˚ n¸f /nf/ (Mf), mb˚ n¸b /nv/
(Mv), n[¸]d /n∑/ (n∑), n[¸]y /n†/ (n†), n[¸]x /nx/ (˙x) {(NÂ) + /i, e/ and in /nxj/}÷
n¸p /mb/, n[¸]t /nd/, n[¸]k /ng/ (˙g)÷ n¸ts /nQ/ (nÇ)÷ n¸c /mbz/ (mbfi), n¸j /ngz/
(˙gfi).
CiV /0jé/ (0jé, =ªé)÷ ViV /éŸjé/ (éJé)÷ ¸iV /òjé/ (òJé); as already said, g + /i, e/
is invariably /Ÿ/ (J)÷ in addition, gi + /a, o, u/ is /Ÿj/ (J) (coinciding phonetically, by
assimilation, as for all velars + /j/; positing a phoneme ç/J/Ç is not appropriate:
ãgiow /'aŸjos/ ('a;Jøß)). Single /0/ (0) correspond to written geminates.
17.64. Maltese (Afro-Asiatic) has the short and long V˚ alongside the phonemic
diphthongs, given in the two vocograms, including /iÈ/ (¤Ù) ie; actually çlong VÇ
are narrow or monotimbric diphthongs; we also find sequences of /éé/ + /é/,
which result in long diphthongs: rg∆ajt /'Raait/ ('Raait). It opposes short and long C
((é˘0:é), (é0:ò)). It has (n=0) and voicing assimilation to second elements in clus-
ters of diphonic C; final or prepausal voiced C become voiceless, as they do before
V˚ which are preceded by /ö/; on the contrary, they remain unchanged before
voiced C, (ÊòÊ). For /h/, we have (·) (when internal, also (h); when final, also (á));
/R/ is (R) (also (¸)) and /RR/ (rR, Rr) (also (¸¸)).
Spelling: ¸ /c/, g /g/, î /G/, ∆ /·/, g∆ and h /hò, é:/ (if final = /h/, they otherwise
lengthen the adjacent V]˚ j /j/, q /ö/, s /s/, w /w/, x /S÷ Z/, Ω /z/, z /q/: Borî /'boRG/
('bøRG).
/i[i]/ (I[i]) /u[u]/ (U[u]) /iu/ (Iu)

/iÈ/ (¤Ù) {/u/+/h, ö/ (Uo)}
/ei/ (™i) /oi/ (øI)
/e[e]/ (™[™]) /o[o]/ (ø[ø]) /eu/ (™u) /ou/ (øu)
/a[a]/ (a[a]) /ai/ (ai) /au/ (au)
m n
pb t d kg ö
q {Q} cG
fv s z S {Z} (á) ·
(¸) j w (h)
R|(r)-l
/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 3 2)

HPH 17 Europe

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HPH 17 Europe

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From: L.

Canepari (2005) A Handbook of Phonetics – Lincom Europa

û 17. Languages of Europe.

= Sw.± Rman 55 Croat. Rumanian

5 Prove Mo ian b rian

Spanish nç. ulga

Spanish, often with /÷/ (2 Ì 1 2), instead of (2 ' 2 2)).

/e/ (e) /o/ (o)

/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

/¿/ (2 2 Ì 2 2 Ì 2 2 Ì 2) {/?/ (2 Ì 1 2)} {/?/ (2 Ç 2 1)}

/e/ (™, ’e, »™) /o/ (ø, ’o, »ø)

/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ì 1 2) /÷/ (2 5 2 2)

/e/ (™) /o/ (ø)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

/i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/e/ (e) /o/ (o)

/e/ (e, »e) /o/ (o, »o)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/e/ (e) /o/ (o)

/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

Balearic /i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/e/ (e, »e) /o/ (o, »o)

Majorca /i/ (i) /u/ (u)

/e/ (e, »e) /o/ (o)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

/e/ (e) /o/ (o)

/E/ (E, »™) /O/ (O, »ø)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

/i/ (i, I*) /u/ (u, U*)

/e/ (e, ™*) /o/ (o, ø*)

/a/ (å, a*)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (1 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

in certain contexts, either as narrow diphthongs or simple doublings.

/i/ (i[i]), /y/ (y[y]) /u/ (¯[¯])

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 Ç 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

17.14. Languedocian /lπ˙'dOUS˘n, lπ˙gwÈ'-/ (also central Occitan[ic], ƒ: Rom.,

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ì 2 2)

/i/ (i), /y/ (y) /u/ (u)

/e/ (e), {/°/ (°)} /o/ (o)

/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 3 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ' 2 2)

/i/ (i[i]) /u/ (u[u])

/e/ (e[e]) /o/ (o[o], »o)

/E/ (™[™], »™) /O/ (ø[ø], »ø)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (1 Ì 2 2) /÷/ (2 52 2 2)

/i[i]/ (Û[i]) /u[u]/ (¯[u])

/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (1 Ç 1 1)

17.19. Romans(c)h /<OU'mπnS, -A:nS/˚ also Rheto-Romance /'<IiùOU <OU'mπns/ or

/ / (2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2 2 Ç 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 Ç 2 2)

/i/ (i), /y/ (y) /u/ (u)

/ei/ (™i), /êi/ (êi)

/ / (2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2 2 ç 2) /./ (2 Ç 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 1 2) /÷/ (2 ç2 2 2)

/i[:]/ (i[:]), /’i/ (i) /%[:]/ (%[:]), /%È/ (%ê)

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 ' 3 2)

17.22. Letzebuergesch /'lEtsÈbUÈ≤g¢S/ (also Luxemburgian /'l√ksÈmbÈ:≤GiÈn, __'__/˚

/ / (2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 ' 2) /./ (2 ' 2 3) /?/ (2 ' 2 1) /÷/ (2 • 2 2)

/e[e]/ (e[e]), /°[°]/ (°[°]) /o[o]/ (o[o])

/i/ (i, I) /u/ (u, U)

/e/ (e, ™) /o/ (o, ø)

17.22. Letzebuergesch /'lEtsÈbUÈ≤g¢S/ (also Luxemburgian /'l√ksÈmbÈ:≤GiÈn, '/˚