6

Shallow Foundations

The most important thing is to keep the most

important thing the most important thing.
Anonymous

Shallow foundations, as defined in Chapter 1, include spread footing foundations and mat
foundations. This chapter introduces both types of foundations. Chapters 7 to 10 discuss
the various geotechnical and structural design aspects of spread footings, and Chapter 11
discusses mats.

6.1  SPREAD FOOTINGS

A spread footing (also known as a footer or simply a footing) is an enlargement at the bot-
tom of a column or bearing wall that spreads the applied structural loads over a sufficiently
large soil area. Typically, each column and each bearing wall has its own spread footing, so
a typical structure may include dozens of individual footings.

Footing Types

Spread footings are by far the most common type of foundation, primarily because of their
low cost and ease of construction. They are most often used in s­ mall-​­to ­medium-​­size struc-
tures on sites with moderate to good soil conditions, and can even be used on some large
structures when they are located at sites underlain by exceptionally good soil or shallow
bedrock.

189
190 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

Spread footings may be built in different shapes and sizes to accommodate indi-
vidual needs, as shown in Figure 6.1. These include the following:

• Square spread footings (or simply square footings) have plan dimensions of
B * B. The depth from the ground surface to the bottom of the footing, or the depth
of embedment, is D and the thickness is T. Square footings usually support a single
­centrally-​­located column.

Gr
ou Gr
nd ou
Su nd
rfa Su
ce rfa
ce
T L
D T
B D
B
B

Square
Rectangular

Bearing Wall

Gr
ou
nd
Su
rfa Gr
ce ou
nd
T Su
D rfa
ce
B
T
Circular D
B

Continuous

Gr
o un
dS
ur
fac
e
L T
D
B

T
Combined Ring

Figure 6.1  Spread footing shapes and dimensions.

6.1  Spread Footings 191

• Rectangular spread footings have plan dimensions of B * L, where L is the long-

est dimension. These are useful when obstructions prevent construction of a square
footing with a sufficiently large base area or when large moment loads are present in
one direction only.
• Circular spread footings are round in plan view. Smaller circular footings are con-
structed by drilling with an auger. These are frequently used as foundations for light
standards, flagpoles, and power transmission lines. If these foundations extend to a large
depth (i.e., D/B greater than about 3), they may behave more like a deep foundation (see
Chapter 12). From a geotechnical perspective, circular tanks also act as circular footings.
• Continuous spread footings (also known as wall footings or strip footings) are used
to support bearing walls.
• Combined footings are those that support more than one column. These are useful
when columns are located too close together for each to have its own footing.
• Ring spread footings are continuous footings that have been wrapped into a circle.
This type of footing is commonly used to support the walls of ­above-​­ground circu-
lar storage tanks. However, the contents of these tanks are spread evenly across the
total base area, and this weight is probably greater than that of the tank itself. There-
fore, the geotechnical analyses of tanks usually treat them as circular foundations
with diameters equal to the diameter of the tank.

Sometimes it is necessary to build spread footings very close to a property line,

another structure, or some other place where no construction may occur beyond one or
more of the exterior walls. This circumstance is shown in Figure  6.2. Because such a
footing cannot be centered beneath the column, the load is eccentric. This can cause the
footing to rotate and thus produce undesirable moments and displacements in the column.
One solution to this problem is to use a strap footing (also known as a cantilever
footing), which consists of an eccentrically loaded footing under the exterior column con-
nected to the first interior column using a grade beam. This arrangement, which is similar
to a combined footing, provides the necessary resisting moment in the exterior footing to
counter the eccentric load. Sometimes we use grade beams to connect all of the spread
footings in a structure to provide a more rigid foundation system.

Materials

Before the ­mid-​­nineteenth-​­century, almost all spread footings were made of masonry, as
shown in Figure  6.3. ­Dimension-​­stone footings were built of stones cut and dressed to
specific sizes and fit together with minimal gaps, while ­rubble-​­stone footings were built
from random size material joined with mortar (Peck et al., 1974). These footings had very
little tensile strength, so builders had to use large ­height-​­to-​­width ratios to keep the flexural
stresses tolerably small and thus avoid tensile failures.
Although masonry footings were satisfactory for small structures, they became
large and heavy when used in heavier structures, often encroaching into the basement as
shown in Figure  6.4. For example, the masonry footings beneath the n­ ine-​­story Home
192 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

Interior Column

Exterior
Column
(Eccentric
Loading on
Footing)

Grade Beam

Prop
erty
Line
Figure 6.2  Use of a strap footing with
a grade beam to support exterior columns
when construction cannot extend beyond
the property line.

Insurance Building in Chicago (built in 1885) had a combined weight equal to that of one
of the stories (Peck, 1948). As larger structures became more common, it was necessary
to develop footings that were shorter and lighter, yet still had the same base dimensions.
This change required structural materials that could sustain flexural stresses.
The steel grillage footings used in the ­ten-​­story Montauk Block Building in Chicago
in 1882, may have been the first spread footings designed to resist flexure. They included
several layers of railroad tracks, as shown in Figure 6.5. The flexural strength of the steel
permitted construction of a short and lightweight footing. Steel grillage footings, modified
to use ­I-​­beams instead of railroad tracks, soon became the dominant design. They pre-
vailed until the advent of reinforced concrete in the early twentieth century.
Figure 6.6 shows a typical reinforced concrete footing. These are very strong, eco-
nomical, durable, and easy to build. Reinforced concrete footings are much thinner than
the old masonry footings, so they do not require large excavations and do not intrude into
basements. Thus, nearly all spread footings are now made of reinforced concrete.
6.1  Spread Footings 193

(a)

Figure 6.3  (a) ­Dimension-​­stone footing;

and (b) ­Rubble-​­stone footing. (b)

Figure 6.4 ­Dimensional
stone foundation for ­Chicago
­Auditorium ­building built
between 1887–89. Note
both height and width of the
­foundation and the amount of
space they occupy. (Library
of ­Congress, Prints &
­Photographs ­Division, HABS,
­Reproduction number HABS
ILL, 16-CHIG, 39-8.)
194 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

Brick

Basement
Floor Level
Rails 12-in I

3¿ -2
Concrete

25¿ - 6

Figure  6.5  Steel grillage footing made from railroad tracks, Montauk Block Building, Chicago, 1882. The
concrete that surrounded the steel was for corrosion protection only (Peck, 1948).

Column

Dowels

Capital, Pier, or Pedestal (Optional)

Reinforced-Concrete
Footing

Figure 6.6  Reinforced-concrete spread footing.

Figure 6.7  A backhoe making an excavation for a spread footing.

6.1  Spread Footings 195

Construction Methods

Contractors usually use a backhoe to excavate spread footings, as shown in Figure  6.7.
Typically, some hand work is also necessary to produce a clean excavation. Once the exca-
vation is open, it is important to check the exposed soils to verify that they are comparable
to those used in the design. Inspectors often check the firmness of these soils using a 9 mm
(3/8 in) diameter steel probe. If the soil conditions are not as anticipated, especially if they
are too soft, it may be necessary to revise the design accordingly.
Most soils have sufficient strength to stand vertically until it is time to place the
concrete. This method of placing the concrete directly against the soil is known as pour-
ing a neat footing, as shown in Figure 6.8a. Sometimes shallow wood forms are placed
above the excavation, as shown in Figure 6.8b, so the top of the footing is at the proper

Proposed Column

“Neat”
Proposed Footing Excavation

(a)

Proposed Column

Wooden Form

Proposed Footing
“Neat”
Excavation

(b)

Proposed Column

Full-Depth
Wooden Form

Proposed Footing
Figure 6.8  Methods of
placing concrete in footings:
(a) Neat excavation; (b) Neat
excavation with wooden forms This area to be backfilled after forms are removed
at the top; and (c) Formed
footing with ­full-​­depth
wooden forms. (c)
196 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

Figure 6.9  A completed spread footing. The four bolts extending out of the footing will
be connected to the base plate of a steel column.

elevation. If the soil will not stand vertically, such as with clean sands or gravels, it is
necessary to make a larger excavation and build a f­ull-​­depth wooden form, as shown in
Figure 6.8c. This is known as a formed footing.
Once the excavation has been made and cleaned, and the forms (if needed) are in
place, the contractor places the reinforcing steel. If the footing will support a wood or
steel structure, threaded anchor bolts and/or steel brackets are embedded into the con-
crete. For concrete or masonry structures, short steel rebars, called dowels are placed such
that they extend above the completed footing, thus providing for a lap splice with the
column or wall steel. Chapter  10 discusses these connections in more detail. Finally, the
concrete is placed and, once it has cured, the forms are removed. Figure 6.9 shows a com-
pleted spread footing in the field.

6.2 MATS

The second type of shallow foundation is a mat foundation. A mat is essentially a very large
spread footing that usually encompasses the entire footprint of the structure, as shown in
Figure 6.10. Mats also are known as raft foundations. They are always made of reinforced
concrete. Conditions that may justify using mats rather than spread footings are discussed
in Chapter 11.
Many buildings are supported on mat foundations, as are silos, chimneys, and other
types of tower structures. Mats are also used to support storage tanks and large machines.
The 75-​­story Texas Commerce Tower in Houston is one of the largest ­mat-​­supported
structures in the world. Its mat is 3 m (9  ft 9 in) thick and is bottomed 19.2 m (63  ft)
below the street level.
6.3  Bearing Pressure 197

Figure 6.10  The central portion of a mat foundation for a hotel under construction in San
Francisco in 1999. Note the heavy reinforcement for the foundation. When completed the
mat extended to the edges of the excavation shown and varied from 1.2 to 2.5 m (4–8 ft)
thick (courtesy of Ross Boulanger).

6.3  BEARING PRESSURE

The most fundamental parameter that defines the interface between a shallow foundation
and the soil that supports it is the bearing pressure. This is the contact force per unit area
between the bottom of the foundation and the underlying soil. Engineers recognized the
importance of bearing pressure during the nineteenth century, thus forming the basis for
later developments in bearing capacity and settlement theories.

Distribution of Bearing Pressure

Although the integral of the bearing pressure across the base area of a shallow foundation
must be equal to the force acting between the foundation and the soil, this pressure is not
necessarily distributed evenly. Analytical studies and field measurements (Schultze, 1961;
Dempsey and Li, 1989; and others) indicate that the actual distribution depends on several
factors, including the following:

• Eccentricity, if any, of the applied load

• Magnitude of the applied moment, if any
• Structural rigidity of the foundation
• ­Stress-​­strain properties of the soil
• Roughness of the bottom of the foundation
198 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

Figure 6.11 shows the distribution of bearing pressure along the base of flexible and
rigid shallow foundations subjected to concentric vertical loads. Perfectly flexible founda-
tions bend as necessary to maintain a uniform bearing pressure, as shown in Figures 6.11a
and 6.11b, whereas perfectly rigid foundations settle uniformly but have variations in the
bearing pressure, as shown in Figures 6.11c and 6.11d.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 6.11  Distribution of bearing pressure along the base of footings subjected to concentric vertical loads:
(a) flexible footing on clay; (b) flexible footing on sand; (c) rigid footing on clay; (d) rigid footing on sand; and
(e) simplified distribution (after Taylor, 1948).
6.3  Bearing Pressure 199

Real spread footings are close to being perfectly rigid, so the bearing pressure dis-
tribution is not uniform. However, bearing capacity and settlement analyses based on
such a distribution would be very complex, so it is customary to assume that the pressure
beneath concentric vertical loads is uniform across the base of the footing, as shown in
Figure 6.11e. The error introduced by this simplification is not significant.
Mat foundations have a much smaller ­thickness-​­to-​­width ratio, and thus are more
flexible than spread footings. In addition, we evaluate the flexural stresses in mats
more  carefully and develop more detailed reinforcing steel layouts. Therefore, we con-
duct more detailed analyses to determine the distribution of bearing pressure on mats.
­Chapter 11 discusses these analyses.
When analyzing shallow foundations, it is customary and reasonable to neglect any
sliding friction along the sides of the footing and assume that the entire load is transmitted
to the bottom. This is an important analytical difference between shallow and deep foun-
dations, and will be explored in more detail in Chapter 12.

Computation of Bearing Pressure

The bearing pressure (or gross bearing pressure) along the bottom of a shallow
foun­da­tion is:

P + Wf
q = - uD (6.1)
A
where
q = bearing pressure
P = vertical column load
Wf = weight of foundation, including the weight of soil above the foundation,
if any
A = base area of foundation (B2 for square foundations or BL for rectangular
foundations
uD = pore water pressure at bottom of foundation (i.e., at a depth D below the
ground surface).

Virtually all shallow foundations are made of reinforced concrete, so Wf is com-

puted using a unit weight for concrete, gc, of 23.6 kN/m3 (150 lb/ft3). For simplicity,
the overlying soil also can be assumed to have the same unit weight, which is slightly
conservative.
The pore water pressure term accounts for uplift pressures (buoyancy forces) that
are present if a portion of the foundation is below the groundwater table. If the groundwa-
ter table is at a depth greater than D, then set uD = 0.
For continuous footings, we express the applied load and the weight of the footing
in terms of force per unit length, such as 2,000 kN/m. We identify this unit length as b, as
shown in Figure 6.12, which is usually 1 m or 1 ft. Thus, for simplicity, the load is still
200 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

b B

Figure 6.12  Definitions for load on continuous footings.

expressed using the variable P, and the weight using Wf , with the understanding that the
load or weight is now given as a force per unit length. The bearing pressure for continu-
ous footings is then:

P + Wf
q = - uD (6.2)
B
We will use Equation 6.1 to compute the bearing stress for a square footing in Example 6.1.

Example 6.1

The 5 ft square footing shown in Figure 6.13 supports a column load of 100 k. Compute the
bearing pressure.

100 k

2.5 ft 3 ft

1.5 ft

5 ft g = 120 lb/ft3

Figure 6.13  Spread footing for Example 6.1.

6.3  Bearing Pressure 201

Solution

Use 150 lb/ft3 for the unit weight of concrete, and compute Wf as if the concrete extends from
the ground surface to a depth D (this is conservative when the footing is covered with soil
because soil has a lower unit weight, but the error introduced is small).

Wf = (5 ft)(5 ft)(4 ft)(150 lb/ft3) = 15,000 lb

A = (5 ft)(5 ft) = 25 ft2

uD = gwzw = (62.4 lb/ft3)(4 ft - 3 ft) = 62 lb/ft2

P + Wf
q = - uD
A
100,000 lb + 15,000 lb
= - 62 lb/ft2
25 ft2

= 4,538 lb/ft2

Example 6.2

A 0.70 m wide continuous footing supports a wall load of 110 kN/m. The bottom of this foot-
ing is at a depth of 0.50 m below the adjacent ground surface and the soil has a unit weight of
17.5 kN/m3. The groundwater table is at a depth of 10 m below the ground surface. Compute
the bearing pressure.

Solution

Use 23.6 kN/m3 for the unit weight of concrete.

Noting that both P and Wf are now forces per unit length and that their appropriate unit
should be kN/m,

Wf = (0.70 m)(0.50 m)(23.6 kN/m3) = 8 kN/m

uD = 0

P + Wf 110 kN/m + 8 kN/m

q = - uD = - 0 = 169 kPa
B 0.70 m

Net Bearing Pressure

An alternative way to define bearing pressure is the net bearing pressure, q′, which is the
difference between the gross bearing pressure, q, and the initial vertical effective stress,
′ , at depth D. In other words, q′ is a measure of the increase in vertical effective stress
sz0
at depth D.
Use of the net bearing pressure simplifies some computations, especially those
associated with settlement of spread footings, but it makes others more complex. Some
202 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

engineers prefer this method, while others prefer to use the gross bearing pressure. There-
fore, it is important to understand which definition is being used. Either method will pro-
duce the same design, so long as it is used consistently and correctly. In this book we will
use only the gross bearing pressure.

Foundations with Eccentric or Moment Loads

Most foundations are built so the vertical load acts through the centroid, thus producing a fairly
uniform distribution of bearing pressure. However, sometimes it becomes necessary to accom-
modate loads that act through other points, as shown in Figure 6.14a. These are called eccen-
tric loads, and they produce a n­ on-​­uniform bearing pressure distribution. Assuming a linear
distribution of the bearing pressure, the eccentricity, e, of the bearing pressure is given by:

PeL
e = (6.3)
P + Wf
where
e = eccentricity of bearing pressure distribution
P = applied vertical load (or the same per unit length for continuous footings)
eL = eccentricity of applied vertical load
Wf = weight of footing (or the same per unit length for continuous footings)

Another similar condition occurs when moment loads are applied to foundations, as
shown in Figure 6.14b. These loads also produce ­non-​­uniform bearing pressures. In this
case, the eccentricity of the bearing pressure is:

M
e = (6.4)
P + Wf
where
M = applied moment load (or the same per unit length for continuous footings)

M
P eL P

e e
Figure 6.14  (a) Eccentric;
and (b) Moment loads on
spread footings. (a) (b)
6.3  Bearing Pressure 203

In both cases, we assume the bearing pressure distribution beneath spread footings
is linear, as shown in Figure  6.14. This is a simplification of the truth, but sufficiently
accurate for practical design purposes. Note that this assumption may not be reasonable
for mat foundations, and we perform more detailed analyses for mats, as discussed in
Chapter 11.

­One-​­Way Eccentric or Moment Loading

If the eccentric or moment loads occur only in the B direction, then the bearing pressure
distribution is as shown in Figure 6.15.

B
M M
P P

qmin
qmax qmax
Resultant

Resultant

e e

(a) (b)
M
P

qmax

e
Resultant

(c)

Figure  6.15  Distribution of bearing pressure beneath footings with various eccentricities: (a) e 6 B/6;
(b) e = B/6; and (c) e 7 B/6.
204 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

If e … B/6 the bearing pressure distribution is trapezoidal, as shown in F

­ igure 6.15a,
and the minimum and maximum bearing pressures on square or rectangular foundations are:

P + Wf 6e
qmin = a - uD b a1 - b (6.5)
A B

P + Wf 6e
qmax = a - uD b a1 + b (6.6)
A B

where
qmin = minimum bearing pressure
qmax = maximum bearing pressure
P = column load
A = base area of foundation
uD = pore water pressure along base of foundation
e = eccentricity of bearing pressure distribution
B = width of foundation

If the eccentric or moment load is only in the L direction, substitute L for B in Equa-
tions 6.5 and 6.6. For continuous footings, express P and Wf as forces per unit length and
substitute B for A.
If e = B/6 (i.e., the resultant force acts at the t­hird-​­point of the foundation), then
qmin = 0 and the bearing pressure distribution is triangular as shown in Figure 6.15b. There-
fore, so long as e … B/6, there will be some contact pressure along the entire base area.
However, if e 7 B/6, the resultant of the bearing pressure acts outside the t­ hird-​­point
and the pressure distribution is as shown in Figure 6.15c. Theoretically, there is tension on
one side of the footing, but since soil cannot take tension, this side of the footing will lose
all contact pressure with the ground. In addition, the high bearing pressure at the opposite
side may cause a large settlement there. The actual behavior is likely an excessive tilting of
the footing, which is not desirable. Therefore, we avoid this situation and design footings
with eccentric or moment loads such that the following criterion is satisfied:
B
e … (6.7)
6
This criterion maintains compressive stresses along the entire base area.
For rectangular foundations with the moment or eccentric load in the long direction,
substitute L for B in Equation 6.7.

Example 6.3

A 5 ft wide continuous footing is subjected to a concentric vertical load of 12 k/ft and a moment
load of 8 ­ft-​­k/ft acting laterally across the footing, as shown in Figure 6.16. The groundwater
table is at a great depth. Determine whether the resultant force on the base of the footing acts
within the middle third and compute the maximum and minimum bearing pressures.
6.3  Bearing Pressure 205

8.0 ft-k/ft

12.0 k/ft

1.5 ft

Middle Third
5.00 ft
Figure 6.16  Proposed footing for Example 6.3.

Solution

Wf = (5.0 ft)(1.5 ft)(150 lb/ft3) = 1125 lb/ft

M 8,000 ft@lb/ft
e = = = 0.610 ft
P + Wf 12,000 lb/ft + 1,125 lb/ft

B 5 ft
= = 0.833 ft
6 6
e * B/6; therefore the resultant is in the middle third.

P + Wf 6e
qmin = a - uD ba1 - b
B B

12,000 + 1125 (6)(0.610)

qmin = a - 0ba1 - b
5.0 5.0
qmin = 703 lb/ft2

P + Wf 6e
qmax = a - uD ba1 + b
B B

12,000 + 1125 (6)(0.610)

qmax = a - 0ba1 + b
5.0 5.0
qmax = 4546 lb/ft2

When designing combined footings, try to arrange the footing dimensions and column
locations so the resultant of the applied loads acts through the centroid of the footing. This
produces a more uniform bearing pressure distribution. Some combined footing designs
accomplish this by using a trapezoidal shaped footing (as seen in plan view) with the more
lightly loaded column on the narrow side of the trapezoid. When this is not possible, be sure
all of the potential loading conditions produce eccentricities no greater than B/6.
206 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

­Two-​­Way Eccentric or Moment Loading

If the resultant load acting on the base is eccentric in both the B and L directions, it must
fall within the ­diamond-​­shaped kern shown in Figure 6.17 for the contact pressure to be
compressive along the entire base of the foundation. It falls within this kern only if the fol-
lowing condition is met:
6eB 6eL
+ … 1.0 (6.8)
B L
where
eB = eccentricity in the B direction
eL = eccentricity in the L direction

If Equation 6.8 is satisfied, the magnitudes of q at the four corners of a square or

rectangular shallow foundation are:

P + Wf 6eB 6eL
q = a - uD b a1 { { b (6.9)
A B L

Example 6.4 will illustrate how to check that the resultant load lies within the kern
and adjust the footing width as needed.

Example 6.4

A 3 m square footing supports a vertical column load of 200 kN and two moment loads with
axes parallel to the sides of the footing, each having a magnitude of 124 ­kN-​­m. The embed-
ment of the footing is 1 m, and the groundwater table is at a great depth. Determine whether
eccentric loading requirements will be met. If these requirements are not met, determine the
minimum footing width, B, needed to satisfy these requirements.

Solution

1. Check ­one-​­way eccentricity

 
P = 200 kN
 
M = 124 kN@m
Wf = (3 m)(3 m)(1 m)(23.6 kN/m3) = 212 kN

M 124
e = = = 0.3 m
P + Wf 200 + 212

B 3m
= = 0.5 m
6 6

B
Therefore, e … OK for ­one-​­way eccentricity
6
6.3  Bearing Pressure 207

eL
eB

(a)

Kern

B/3
B

L/3

(b)

Figure 6.17  (a) Pressure distribution beneath spread footing with vertical load
that is eccentric in both the B and L directions; and (b) To maintain q Ú 0 along
with the entire base of the footing, the resultant force must be located within this
­diamond-​­shaped kern.
208 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

2. Check ­two-​­way eccentricity

6eB 6eL 6(0.3 m) 6(0.3 m)

+ = + = 1.2 7 1 Not acceptable
B L 3m 3m

3. Conclusion
Although the footing is satisfactory for o­ ne-​­way eccentricity, it does not meet the criterion for
­two-​­way eccentricity because the resultant is outside the kern. This means a corner of the foot-
ing may lift up, causing excessive tilting. Therefore, it is necessary to increase B.
4. Revised Design
Assuming that the weight of the foundation does not change,

6eB 6eL 6(0.3 m) 6(0.3 m)

+ = + = 1
B L B L

Minimum B = minimum L = 3.6 m

Therefore, a 3.6 m * 3.6 m square footing would be required to keep the resultant
within the kern. However, this is only one of many design criteria for spread footings. Other
criteria, as discussed in Chapters 7 to 10, also need to be checked.

Equivalent Uniformly Loaded Footing

When we have a footing with an eccentric or moment loading, as shown in Figure 6.14, it is

convenient, for computational purpose, to determine the dimensions of an equivalent uni-
formly loaded footing. The equivalent footing is a footing that carries the same applied load
as the original footing but has different dimensions such that the resulting bearing pressure
is uniform (Meyerhof, 1963; Brinch Hansen, 1970). This is accomplished by decreasing
the footing width, B, to an equivalent width, B′, and the length, L, to an equivalent length,
L′, as shown in Figure 6.18. The equivalent dimensions B′ and L′ are selected such that the
net resultant load acts through the centroid of the equivalent footing.
For a footing with true dimensions B * L , we can determine the equivalent dimen-
sions B′ and L′ using the following process. First determine the eccentricities eB and eL
from the applied load and moments using Equations 6.3 and 6.4. Next, check to ensure
that the resultant footing load acts within the kern shown in Figure 6.18. If not, increase
B and L such that this criterion is satisfied. Then compute the dimensions B′ and L′ using
Equations 6.10 and 6.11:

B′ = B - 2eB (6.10)

L′ = L - 2eL (6.11)

The equivalent bearing pressure for this footing, qeq, will be greater than the average bear-
ing of the true footing and computed as:

P + Wf
qeq = (6.12)
B′L′
6.3  Bearing Pressure 209

B¿

Actual
P Footing

Equivalent
Footing

eB
eL L¿

Figure 6.18  Equivalent uniformly loaded footing for a footing with eccentric applied loads
or moments. The dimensions B′ and L′ are selected such that there is no eccentricity on the
equivalent footing.

Example  6.5 will demonstrate how to determine the equivalent footing size and
compute the equivalent bearing pressure.

Example 6.5

A 5 * 7 ft footing is founded at a depth of 2  ft and supports a vertical load of 80 k and a

moment load of 30 ­ft-​­k in the B direction and 50 ­ft-​­k in the L direction. Determine the dimen-
sions of the equivalent uniformly loaded footing and compute the equivalent bearing ­pressure.

Solution

First we must compute the eccentricities using Equation 6.4.

Wf = (5 * 7 * 2)(0.15) = 10.5 k

30
eB = = 0.33
80 + 10.5
50
eL = = 0.55
80 + 10.5
210 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

Check to see that resultant acts within the kern using Equation 6.8.

6(0.33) 6(0.55)
+ = 0.87 6 1.0 6 OK
5 7

Now compute equivalent dimensions B′ and L′ using Equations 6.10 and 6.11.

B′ = 5 - 2(0.33) = 4.34 ft
L′ = 7 - 2(0.55) = 5.9 ft

The equivalent bearing pressure is

80 + 10.5
qeq = = 3.53 k/ft2
4.34 * 5.90

Discussion

Note that the average bearing pressure on the true footing is

80 + 10.5
qave = = 2.58 k/ft2
5 * 7
80 + 10.5 6(0.33) 6(0.55)
qmax = a1 + + b = 4.83 k/ft2
5 * 7 5 7

Note that the equivalent uniform bearing pressure is an intermediate value between the average
and maximum bearing pressure on the true footing. This intermediate value is a useful way to
compute bearing capacity and settlement of an eccentrically loaded footing and will be used in
Chapter 9 for the design of footings.

6.4  PRESUMPTIVE ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURES

An allowable bearing pressure is a pressure that, if exceeded, may present an unsafe condi-
tion as related to either ultimate or serviceability limit states. In Chapter 9, we will synthe-
size the footing design process and discuss allowable bearing pressure in detail. It is useful
at this point to introduce the concept of presumptive allowable bearing pressures (also
known as prescriptive bearing pressures).
Presumptive allowable bearing pressures are allowable bearing pressures obtained
directly from the soil classification without any further analysis. These presumptive
bearing pressures appear in building codes, as shown in Table  6.1. They are easy to
implement, and do not require borings, laboratory testing, or extensive analyses. The
engineer simply obtains the qA value from the table and selects a footing width such that
q … qA.
6.4  Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures 211

Example 6.6

A footing supporting a column load of 140 kN is to be founded on a silty sand deposit at a

depth of 0.7 m. The water table is at a great depth. Determine the width of a square footing
that will support this column load.

Solution

First we compute the weight of the footing.

Wf = B2Dgc = B20.7(23.6) = 16.5B2

Note that the weight of the footing is a function of the footing width. The bearing pressure is

P + Wf 140 + 16.5B2
q = 2
=
B B2
Solving for B gives

140
B =
A q - 16.5

From Table 6.1 qA for silty sand is 100 kPa. Substituting qA = 100 for q gives

140
B = = 1.3 m
A 100 - 16.5

TABLE 6.1  PRESUMPTIVE ALLOWABLE BEARING

­PRESSURES PER INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE (ICC, 2012)

Allowable Bearing Stress,

Soil or Rock Classification qA kPa (lb/ft2)
Crystalline bedrock 600
(12,000)
Sedimentary and foliated rock 200
(4,000)
Sandy gravel or gravel (GW and GP) 150
(3,000)
Sand, silty sand, clayey sand, silty gravel, or 100
clayey gravel (SW, SP, SM, SC, GM and GC) (2,000)
Clay, sandy clay, silty clay, or clayey silt 70
(1,500)
212 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

SUMMARY

Major Points

1. Shallow foundations are those that transmit structural loads to the n­ ear-​­surface
soils. There are two kinds: spread footing foundations and mat foundations.
2. Although other materials have been used in the past, today virtually all shallow
foundations are made of reinforced concrete.
3. Spread footings are most often used in s­ mall-​­to m­ edium-​­size structures on sites
with moderate to good soil conditions. The bearing pressure is the contact pressure
between the bottom of a spread footing and the underlying soils.
4. The actual distribution of bearing pressure is a complicated function depending
upon the soil properties, footing stiffness, and eccentricity of the loading. We gen-
erally assume the bearing pressure is either uniform or distributed in a triangular
fashion across the base of the footing.
5. If the loads applied to a footing are eccentric, or if moment loads are applied, the
resulting bearing pressure distribution also will be eccentric. In such cases,  the
footing needs to be designed so the resultant of the bearing pressure is within
the middle third of the footing (for o­ ne-​­way eccentricity) or in a d­ iamond-​­shaped
kern (for ­two-​­way eccentricity). This requirement ensures the entire base of the
footing has compressive bearing pressures, and thus avoids problems with uplift.
6. Eccentrically loaded footings can be converted into an equivalent uniformly loaded
footing. This method is used to simplify the design of eccentrically loaded footings.
7. Presumptive allowable bearing pressures are code specified pressures based on
soil classification and not on analysis. They can be used to size footings for light
structures founded on competent soils.

Vocabulary

Anchor bolts Equivalent footing width Presumptive allowable

Backhoe Equivalent uniformly bearing pressures
Bearing pressure loaded footing Raft foundation
Cantilever footing Footer Rectangular footing
Circular spread footing Footing Reinforced concrete
Combined spread footing Formed footing footing
Continuous spread footing Grade beam Ring footing
­Dimension-​­stone footings Gross bearing pressure ­Rubble-​­stone footings
Dowels Kern Shallow foundation
Eccentric load Mat foundation Spread footing
Embedment Moment load Square footing
Equivalent footing Neat footing Steel grillage footing
pressure Net bearing pressure Strap footing
Questions and Practice Problems 213

QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Section 6.1 Spread Footings

6.1 What is the difference between a square footing and a continuous footing, and when would
each type be used?

6.2 Describe a structure for which a ring footing would be appropriate.

6.3 Describe why a rectangular footing might be a good choice for a footing supporting a column
with a moment load in one direction.

Section 6.3 Bearing Pressure

6.4 A 400 kN vertical downward column load acts at the centroid of a 1.5 m square footing. The
bottom of this footing is 0.4 m below the ground surface and the top is flush with the ground
surface. The groundwater table is at a depth of 3 m below the ground surface. Compute the
bearing pressure.

6.5 A bearing wall carries a dead load of 5.0 k/ft and a live load of 3.0 k/ft. It is supported on a
3 ft wide, 2 ft deep continuous footing. The top of this footing is flush with the ground surface
and the groundwater table is at a depth of 35 ft below the ground surface. Compute the bearing
pressure for ultimate limit state design using the ASD method.

6.6 Repeat Problem 6.5 using the LRFD method with ASCE 7 load combinations.

6.7 A 5 ft square, 2 ft deep spread footing is subjected to a concentric vertical load of 60 k and an
overturning moment of 30 ­ft-​­k. The overturning moment acts parallel to one of the sides of the
footing, and the top of the footing is flush with the ground surface and the groundwater table
is at a depth of 20  ft below the ground surface. Determine whether the resultant force acts
within the middle third of the footing, compute the minimum and maximum bearing pressures
and show the distribution of bearing pressure in a sketch. Determine the size of the equivalent
uniformly loaded footing and compute the equivalent bearing pressure.

6.8 Consider the footing and loads in Problem 6.7, except that the overturning moment now acts
at a 45° angle from the side of the footing (i.e., it acts diagonally across the top of the footing).
Determine whether the resultant force acts within the kern. If it does, then compute the bearing
pressure at each corner of the footing and show the pressure distribution in a sketch similar to
Figure 6.17. Determine the size of the equivalent uniformly loaded footing and compute the
equivalent bearing pressure.

6.9 The two columns in Figure 6.19 are to be supported on a combined footing. The vertical dead
loads on Columns A and B are 500 and 1400 kN, respectively. Using the ASD method for
­ultimate limit state design, determine the required dimension B2 so the resultant of the column
loads acts through the centroid of the footing and express your answer as a multiple of 100 mm.

6.10 In addition to the dead loads described in Problem 6.9, Columns A and B in Figure 6.19 also
can carry vertical live loads of up to 800 and 1200 k, respectively. The live loads vary with
time, and thus may be present some days and absent other days. In addition, the live load on
214 Chapter 6  Shallow Foundations

B1 = 1.5 m B2
A B

0.5 m 3.0 m 1.0 m

PA PB

0.7 m
Figure 6.19  Proposed combined footing for
Problems 6.9 and 6.10.

each column is independent of that on the other column (i.e., one could be carrying the full live
load while the other has zero live load). Using the ASD method for ultimate limit state design
and the dimensions obtained in Problem 6.9, and the worst possible combination of live loads,
determine if the bearing pressure distribution always meets the eccentricity requirements de-
scribed in this chapter. The groundwater table is at a depth of 10 m.

6.11 Repeat Problem 6.9 using the LRFD method with ASCE 7 load combinations.

6.12 Repeat Problem 6.10 using the LRFD method with ASCE 7 load combinations.

6.13 Derive Equations 6.5 and 6.6. Would these equations also apply to circular spread footings?
Why or why not?

Section 6.4 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressure

6.14 A 1.5 m square footing is founded on a clay soil at a depth of 0.5 m. The ground water is at the
ground surface. The footing is loaded at its centroid and carries a design load of 170 kN. Does
this footing meet the presumptive allowable bearing pressure of the International Building
Code? If not, design the footing such that it does meet these requirements.

6.15 A footing is carrying a design column load of 22 k and a moment of 5 k­ -​­ft in one direction.
The footing will be founded on sand at a depth of 2 ft. The water table is 3 ft below the ground
surface. Design the footing width for a square footing that will carry the design loads and meet
the presumptive allowable bearing pressure per the International Building Code.