Ad hoc and Wireless Sensor Networks 3-6 Wireless Sensor Networks - Introduction and Architectures

has a temperature quantity above absolute zero, then it emits heat energy as
radiation. It is radiating the heat energy at infrared wavelengths. This radiation is
invisible to the human eye. However, that can be detected by PIR motion
detectors.
5. Ultrasonic Sensors - Ultrasonic sensor operates similar to sonar or radar devices.
The transducer used in ultrasonic sensor converts energy into ultrasound or
sound waves. The range of these sound waves is above to human hearing range
and is called an ultrasonic transducer. Ultrasonic sensors can be classified as
active and passive ultrasonic sensors that can be distinguished based on the
working principle of sensors.
6. Touch Sensors - Touch sensors are available in the form of switches. These
switches can be activated by the touch. There are different types of touch sensors
that are classified based on type of touch switch such as capacitance touch
switch, resistance touch switch, and piezo touch switch.

3.2 Sensor Node Architecture

A sensor node is a device that can be used in a sensor network for performing data
gathering, processing and communicating with other sensor nodes in the network. The
following section explains the architecture of a sensor node.

3.2.1 Single Node Architecture

The basic components of a sensor node are as follows :
1. A sensing unit 2. A processing unit
3. A communication unit 4. A power supply unit
The architecture of a sensor node is shown in Fig. 3.2.1.

Fig. 3.2.1 Architecture of a sensor node

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Ad hoc and Wireless Sensor Networks 3-7 Wireless Sensor Networks - Introduction and Architectures

1. Sensing Unit - Sensors are used to measure the physical quantities like
temperature, pressure etc. from their environment. They are hardware devices;
each sensor node is used to produce a quantifiable response to a change in
temperature or pressure of the environment.
Sensors produce analog signals. An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is used
to convert the analog signal into digital signals. The digitized signal can be sent
to controllers for further processing. Some sensors may contain the required
electronic components to convert the raw signals into readings. In general, sensor
nodes are small in size and consume energy during operation.
2. Processing Unit - The micro - controller placed in the sensor is used to perform
specific tasks, processes data and controls the operation of other components in
the sensor node. Usage of memory in sensor node is purely application
dependent. External memory is used to store the collected information. Usually,
flash memories are used in sensor nodes due to their low cost and high storage
capacity.
3. Communication Unit - Sensor nodes use transceiver to communicate with other
nodes. The wireless communication media used in sensor networks are radio
frequency, optical communication and infrared.
4. Power Supply Unit - Sensor node consumes power for sensing, data gathering,
communicating and data processing. Energy required for data communication is
more when compare with other process. Changing the battery in sensor node can
be costly and inconvenient. So it is very important to ensure that the sensor node
has adequate energy for performing operations continuously.

3.2.2 Hardware Components of a Sensor Node

The four basic hardware subsystems of a sensor node are as follows,
1. Computing subsystem
2. Power supply subsystem
3. Communication subsystem
4. Sensing subsystem.
1. Computing Subsystem - Each sensor node consists of a microprocessor to
control the sensor. Microprocessor unit of every sensor node is responsible for
executing and managing communication protocols. This subsystem is also
responsible for data processing and manipulation, error correction and
encryption, digital modulation and demodulation.

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6. Security related applications

 Providing security on parking areas, banks, shopping malls, houses and other
areas which needs alertness
 Detect children playing behind the parked vehicles
 Sensors are attached to taxi cabs in a large metropolitan area to study the traffic
conditions and plan routes effectively.
 Wireless surveillance sensor networks for providing security in a shopping mall,
parking garage or at some other facility.
 Sensor networks can increase alertness to potential terrorist threats.

3.7 Sensor Networks - Design Challenges

Due to the varied applications, sensor networks pose a number of unique technical
challenges due to the following factors.
1. Sensor nodes are randomly deployed and hence do not fit into any fixed
topology. Once deployed, they usually do not require any human intervention.
Hence the setup and maintenance of the network should be entirely autonomous.
2. Sensor networks are infrastructure less networks. Therefore all routing and
maintenance algorithms need to be distributed.
3. While designing the sensor node, cost is also an important factor to be
considered.
4. The sensor nodes are battery driven. But it is very difficult to change or recharge
batteries. Sensor nodes are usually deployed in remote places; it is designed
based on the applications to minimize the energy consumption so as to increase
the battery life.
5. In forest, sensor nodes would be throwing from aeroplane to deploy on ground.
In such a situation, it is the responsibility of sensor nodes to form network,
identify its connectivity and distribution.
6. The sensor nodes are not connected with any energy source from outside. There
is only a finite source of energy exists. So in order to make optimal use of energy,
communication should be minimized as much as possible.
7. Maintaining network life time for a prolong period is a major design issue in
WSNs. Thus the design of a good WSN needs to be energy efficient.
8. To identify the location of sensor nodes, location discovery protocols are used.
Location discovery protocols must provide accurate positional information.

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9. Performing secured operations using sensor network is very critical in the

military areas. Some of the security issues that have to be addressed are, secured
key exchange, key establishment, authentication, authorization, secure routing,
trust setup and prevention of physical attacks.

3.8 Sensor Network Architecture

A large number of sensors deployed on different areas would form a network to
communicate with each other. Each sensor has a wireless communication capability.
Therefore, a sensor node can gather information from other sensor nodes and can
disseminate the processed information to other sensor nodes which is in the network.
Two different types of sensor architectures are, layered architecture and clustered
architecture.

3.8.1 Layered Architecture and Unified Network Protocol Framework (UNPF)

A layered architecture consists of a single powerful Base Station (BS) and the layers of
sensor nodes around it. Layered architecture use military sensor based infrastructure with
in-building wireless backbone. In this scenario, the BS acts as a fixed access point to a
wired network. The small sensor nodes form a wireless backbone to provide wireless
communication in the sensor network. The users have hand-held devices to communicate
with BS via small nodes.
For the complete implementation of layered architecture, the sensor network uses
Unified Network Protocol Framework (UNPF).
Unified Network Protocol Framework (UNPF)
UNPF integrates three operations in its protocol structure
Operation-1 Network initialization and maintenance protocol operation
This protocol organizes the sensor node into different layers. The layered architecture
is shown in Fig. 3.8.1.
The Base Station (BS) can communicate with all nodes using one-hop communication
over the shared media. The BS broadcasts its identifier (ID) to the sensor nodes using
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) code and the sensor nodes which receive the ID
of BS will store it. As a response message, each sensor node sends it's ID at lowest power
level. This can be listened by BS at layer one because all the nodes are single hop distance
away from BS. Now, the BS broadcasts control message to all the layer one nodes with
their IDs. All sensor nodes send a beacon message again.

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