Review of Books on the Book of Mormon 1989–2011

Volume 8 Number 2 Article 13

1996

Lance S. Owens, “Joseph Smith and Kabbalah: The Occult of

Connection”
William J. Hamblin

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Hamblin, William J. (1996) "Lance S. Owens, “Joseph Smith and Kabbalah: The Occult of Connection”,"
Review of Books on the Book of Mormon 1989–2011: Vol. 8 : No. 2 , Article 13.
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 Title “Everything Is Everything”: Was Joseph Smith
Influenced by Kabbalah?

Author(s) William J. Hamblin

Reference FARMS Review of Books 8/2 (1996): 251–325.

ISSN 1099-9450 (print), 2168-3123 (online)

Abstract Review of “Joseph Smith and Kabbalah: The Occult

Connection” (1994), by Lance S. Owens.
Lance S. Owens. " Joseph Smith and Kabbahlh: The
Occult Connection." Dialogue 27/3 (1994): 117-94.

Reviewed by William J. Hamblin

"Everything Is Everything": Was Joseph

Smith Influenced by Kabbalah?

For everythin g has everything in itself, and sees

everything in everything else, so that everyth ing is
everywhere, and everything is everythin g and each thin g
is everything.
Plotinus, Enneads, 5.8.4'
The Mormon History Assoc iation recently awarded Lance S.
Owens's "Joseph Smith and Kabbalah : The Occult Connec tion"
its Best Article Award for 1995. 2 With sllch an imprimatur the

Translation mine. The Loeb translation reads: "Each therefore has eve-
rything in itself and sees all things in every other. so that all are evcrywhere and
each and evcryone is all." Plotinus . Enneut/s, tra ns. A. H. Armstrong ( Harvard:
Harvard University Press. 1978-84), 5:248-49. Stephen Mac Kenna's trans-
lation rC:lds: "And cach of thcm contains all within itself, and at thc same time
sees all in evcry other, so that everywherc there is all . and all is all and each all. "
Th e Enlleads (New York: Pengui n, 19( 1). 4 14. I would like to thank Becky
Schuhhies for assistance in researching thi s paper, ami George Millon and
Daniel Fcterson for helpfu l comments. I would also like to than k Robert L.
Millet. Stephen E. Robinson. and L'ury E. Dahl.
2 All parenthetical citations are to Owens's article unless otherwise indi-
cated. A shorter. IlOPulari7.cd version of Owens's paper appeared as "Joseph
Smith: America's Hermetic Prophet." Gllosi.f; A Journal of th e !Vesum Inner
Tradition s 35 (S pring 1995): 56-64. It is interesting to compare Owens's pres-
entation of his theory to a non· Mormon, New Age audience with that found in
Dialogue. The Mormon History Association Best Article Award is mentioned in
The Mormoll History A.ssociation Newsfelfer (Summer 1(95): I. Recently. D.
Michael Quinn has uncritically acceptcd Owcns's thesis; sec The Mormon Hier-
archy: Origins of Power (Salt L:!ke City: Signature Books in association with
Smith Research Associates, t994), 265 n. I, 639, 643, 649.
252 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 8n ( 1996)

article deserves a closer crit ical evaluation than it has appare ntly
he retofore received. 3 Owens's basic thesis is thal

T hroug h his associat ions with cere mon ia l magic as

a young treasure seer, [J oseph ] Smith cont acted sym·
bois and lore taken directly from Kabbalah. In hi s pro -
phet ic translat ion of sacred writ, hi s hermeneutic
method was in nature Kabba listic . With his init iat ion
into Maso nry, he e ntered a tradition born of the Her-
mctic- Kabba listic tradition. T hese associat ions c ulmi -
nated in Nauvoo, the period of his most i mportan t
doctrinal and rit ua l innovat ions. During these last years,
he enj oyed frie ndship with a European Jew [A lexander
Nc ibaur l well-versed in the standard Kabba li stie works
and possibly possess ing in Nauvoo an unu sua l eo l1 ee·
ti on of Kabbalistic books and manuscript s. By 1844
S mit h not only was cog nizant o r Kabbalah, but enlisted
Iheosophic co ncept s taken d irect ly from its princ ipal
text in hi s most important doc tri na l sermon, the" Kin g
Fo l1ell Di scourse." (p . 119)

A llhough impoTiant ele ments or his attempt to link Joseph

Smith to kabba lism arc new, Owens's o vera ll conclu sion s broadl y
parall cl those round in D. Michael Qu inn' s Early Mormonism (llId
rhe Magic World View and John L. Brooke 's recent Ute Refiner 'S
Fire .4 Owe ns reels Ihal Brooke's work is "a well con structed
sunul)ary of th is lill ie understood intersec tio n" of hermetic ism,
alc he my, and rad ical Christianity.5 Hc sees Brooke's work as .. a
valuable co ntribut ion " show ing that " the [hermeti c/alche mical]
trad it ion'S parallcls in Mo rmon ism are many and striking. " For
Owens, Brooke's is " a seminal work, a study that will be co n sid·
ered by every sc holar who hencefo rth attempts to rctcll the story

3 Owens antici pated a "vio lent respo nse from tradi tionalists" ( p. 119),
perh :~rstaci tl y recogni zi ng that his thesis is not immu ne \ 0 c riticism.
O. Mic hael Quinn. Early Morm onism and the Magic World Vie w (Sal!
L.1ke City: Signature Books. 1987); John L. Brooke, 111t! Refiner 's Fire: The
Mak.ing of Marmo/! Cosmology, 1644- 1844 (New York: Cambridge Un iversi ty
Press, 1994).
5 L.1ncc 5 , Owens, "The Divine Trans mutation," review of The Rcfil1 er '$
Fi re, by l ohn L. Brooke, m a/oglft! 27/4 (1994): 187.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMfTfI A.ND KABBALAH (HAMBLI N) 253

of Joseph S mith."6 Owens feels Brooke "d raws simi lar co ncl u-
sions" to his ow n (p. 160 n. 83). However, neither Qu inn's,
Brooke's, nor Owens's methods and conclus ions are beyond criti-
cism, and Owens's work suffers from many of the same problems
fou nd in Broo ke.? As thi s st udy will show, because of nu me rous
problems with evidence and analysis, none of Owens's major
propos it ions have been substantiated .

Problems with Sources

Owens's article beg ins with a lengthy introduction to the
"occ ult " sciences. S Indeed, over half of hi s article (pp. 117- 54)
is a rather pedestrian review of secondary sources on the matter.

6 Owens, 'The Divine T ransmu tation:' IR8, 190. Owens is not e nt irely
positive abou t Brooke's work. He criticizes Brooke for "pursuing the trail of
counterfeiting" (p. 190), and for "entirely ignor[ing] the less world-affirmative
clements of both classical and Renaissance hermeticism" (p. 188). Nonethe-
less. Owens's overall review is quite positive. cr. Owens's comments in a simi -
lar vein in "America's Hermetic Prophet," 63-64. Owens docs not cite Brooke i n
his article, since Brooke's work appeared only as Owens's article was going to
press (p. 160 n. 83). As will be noted below, Owens relies on Quinn extensively
and unc ritically.
7 On Brooke. see William J. Hamblin. Daniel C. Peterson, and George L.
Mitton . "Mormon in the Fiery Furnace: or Loftes Tryk Goes to Cambridge." Re·
I'iew of Books OIl /hc Book of Mormon 6/2 (1994): 3- 58. An abridged version
of this essay 3ppcarcd in lJYU Stu(/ics 34/4 (1994- 95): 167- 8 1, along with il
review by Davis BiUon on pages 182- 92. Unpublished reviews by Grant
Underwood ("A Brooke Review") aoo David Whitaker ('"Throwing Water on
Brooke's Fire") at the 1995 Mormon History Association were also quite nega-
tive. as were those by Philip L. Uartow, "Decoding Mormonism," Chris/ian Ccn -
/"0' (17 January 1996): 52- 55, and Rich3rd L. Bushman, "The Secret History of
Mormonism." SUlls/One (March 1996): 66-70. It is interesting to note that the
positive reviews of Brooke's book tend to be from people who are nOI special-
ists in Mormon studies. For reviews of Quinn, see Stephen E. Robi nson, 8 YU
S//ulies 27/4 (1987): 88-95; and Stephen D. Ricks and Daniel C. Peterson, 'The
Mormon as Magus," Slim/one (January 1988): 38- 39; a detailed rev iew of
Quinn's ElIrly Mormoni~'lrl awaits the second edition. promised for wimer 1996
(Signatllre Books 1996 ell/a/O!;, 8).
8 It is unfortunate that Owens uses the misleading term occill/ to describe
the esnleric tradition. In modern p,lrlance occult often conjures up images of
demonic black magic, while ils original meaning was merely "hidden" or
"esoteric." For a laiC twentiet h-century audience kabbalism and hermeticism arc
much better descrihed as ewteric rather than occult.
254 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 8/2 (1996)

Unfortunately, the background material presented by Owens is

oflen dated or misrepresented. Owens's use of sources, both pri4
mary and secondary, is problematic at a number of levels. First, he
ignores nearly all earlier writings by Latter-day Saint scholars o n
the significance of the poss ible parallels between Latter-day Saint
ideas and the Western esoteric tradition. There is, in fact, a grow-
ing body of Latter-day Saint literature that has exam ined some of
these alleged parallels, and presented possible interpretat ions of
the reiali onship between the esoteric tradition and the gospel. Why
is Nibley not even mentioned by Owens. despite the fact that he
has been writing on this subject for four decadcs?9 Robert F.
Smith' s discuss ion of many of these issues is ignored. 10 A recent
publication, Temples in the Ancient World, contains much material
that could have been considered by Owens. I I
Perhaps Owens feels that such studies by "traditionalis ts"
(i.e., believers [po 119}) are not worthy of his atte ntion . If so, it
still provides him no excuse for hi s failure to consu lt many of the
most rece nt and important works on the Western esoteric tradition

9 Hugh W. Niblcy, "Prophets and Gnostics." and "Prophets and My s-

tics." in The lVorM alld the Prof/lieu, 3rd ed. (Salt Lake City: Descrct Book and
FARMS. 1987 li st cd. 1954]), 63- 70, 98- 107: "One Eternal Round: The Her-
metic Version:' in Tel/lfllt! of/d COSIIlOS: BeyoJ/d This IgllorOlzt Present (Salt Lake
City: Deseret Book :md FARMS, 1992). 379-433. a speech originally presented
in 1989 that covers much of the same ground as docs Owens, though in less
detail and with different conclusions. Nibley's forthcoming book, al so
tent:ltively entitled One Eternaf ROil/rd. will further develop this theme. Much of
Nibley"s other work :llso nbounds with references to early Gnosticism. which has
import nm links to the hermetic and alchemical traditions of late antiquity.
10 Robert r. Smith. "Oracles and Talismans. Forgery and P::msophia:
Joseph Smi th. Jr. as a Renaissance Magus." This 191-pnge unpublis hed manu-
script (dated August 1987) was widcly circulated through the Latter-day Sain t
"underground." Although idiosyner~tie. it is informed and perceptive and con-
tains a number of interesling ideas. It should at least have been consulted by
someone studying the relationship between Mormo ni sm and the e.oteric tradi·
lions.

" Donnld W. Parry. cd .. Temples oj {Ire AI/dell/ World: Rillluf alld Sym-
bolism (S;llt L:lke City: Descrct Book and FARMS, 1994): my article. "Temple
Motifs in Jewish Mysticism," 440-76, e)(amines some of the anteceden ts 10
Kabbalah :md hrieny alludes to the possible connections between Kabbalah and
Masonry. 461 - 63. Cf. Hamblin. Pelerson, and Mitton. "Mormon in the Fiery
Furnnce," 5S n. 95 and 57 Zl. 98, for additional references to Laue r-day Sai nt
studies that should have been consu lted by Owens.
OWENS, JOSEPH S MITH AND KABIJA[AH (HAMBLI N) 255
by leadin g non-Mo rmon scholars. Despite the fact that serious
academic study of the esoteric tradition is a relati vely recent phe-
nomenon, many of Owens's secondary sources are over a quarter
of a century old-some over a century old ,
The absence of any discussion of astrology is interest ing, since
one of Owens's major sources, D, Michael Quinn, lays some stress
on it,l2 Does Owens feel that Quinn's claims of astrolog ical influ -
e nces on Joseph Sm ith are un founded? If so, he shou ld have
menti oned this. For his understandin g of Christian Kabbalah.
Owens relies almost entirely on two books by Frances Yates, both
of wh ich arc nearl y Iwo decades old and neither of which deals
d irectl y with Ch ristian kabbalism (p p, 127-34),13 Owens' s bi bli -
ography on hermetici sm is equall y inadequate, again ci tin g o nl y
Yates (pp. 129- 34). He quotes the Hermetica either in the dated
and in adequate translation of Walter Scott , or from seconda ry
sou rces, I4 None of the recent, often revolutionary studies are

12 Quinn, Early Mormonism, SS- 66, 7[ -78, 213-19. and other refer-
ences in the index.
13 Frances A. Yates, Th e Occult Philosuphy j/l the Eliwbelhml Age
(London: Routledge, 1979), (md Giordano I1rllllO muJ the Humetic Tr(J(/itioll
(Chicngo: University of Chicago Press, 1964). Both of these books discuss
Christian Kabbalah. but it is not their focus. Basic introductory works on Chris-
tian ka bbal ism not consulted by Owens include: Joseph L. BI,1O, The Chrisriflll
ImerpretflliOll oj rhe Cabala ill/he Renaissance (New York : Columbia Uni versi lY
Press, 1944): Chnim Wirs1.ubski, Pico della Mirantlo/a 's EIICOllnler wi/I, Jewi.rll
Mysficism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); Antoine Fnivrc and
Frederick Tristan, Kabbalis/l's chrltiens (Paris: Albin Miche l, 1979); Fran~o i s
Secret, Les kabbalisres chretiells de la renaissance. 2nd ed. (Paris: Arma Arti s,
(985). For a basic introduction, see G. Mallary Masters, "Ren3issance
Kabbal3h," in Modem Esoteric Spirilllalit)', ed, Antoine Faivre and Jacob
Needleman (New York : Crossroads, 1995), 132- S3, with bibliography on ISI-
53. On the general intellectual contex.t in which Christian kabbnlism arose, see
Jerome Friedman, Tile Mosl Ancient Teslimony: Sixteefl/h Celllllry Chris/ian-
Hehrnica in the Age oj Renaissance Nostalgia (Athens: Ohio University Press,
1983), especially 7 1-98,
14 Walter SCOII, cd, and tran~ .. Hermerica, 4 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1924-36; reprint, Boston: Shambala, 1985), Owens fails to note thai this
source is a reprint of a sixty-year-old work, giving the impression that it
represents recent scholarship. Since Seoll worked before the establishment of
the critical edition- A. D. Nock and A,-J. Fcstugicre, ed. and trans_, Corp/IS
HermeliCUIII. 4 vo1s., 3rd. ed. (Paris: Belles Lctues, 1972 li st ed. 1946- 54])-
his tra nslat ion is unreliable. As Brian P. Copenhaver notes, "scholars have
256 FARM S REVIEW OF BOOKS 8n ( \996)

re fe re nced. IS On John Dee, Owens' s onl y source is the three-

decades-old work by Peter French (p. 133), agai n ignoring the
recent fl ouri shing of Dee studies. 16 Rosicrucian studies fa ir no
better. Owens would have us be lieve that "th e best recent sc hol-
arl y su mmary of the Rosicruc ian moveme nt is Francis [sic ] Yates"
(p. 138 11 . 48), ignori ng the rcccnt revolution in Rosicruc ian
stud ies. 17 Even in his discu ss io n of Freemasonry (p p. 149- 5 4),

generall y confirmed Rcillcnstein 's harsh verdict on the lext [o f SCOU], whic h is
a jungle of excisions. interpo lat ions and tra nsposi ti ons so d is tant ly related to
the manuscripts thai scole s trans lation can only be rega rded a trans lation of
Scon . not of the Hermetic authors." lIermelicu (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni ver~
sity Press. 1992). li ii. Note. however. th at Seott's three vol umes o f commentary
"remain indispensable" (ibid), Owens's main secondary source is Ya tes.
GiordallO IJrt/llo (/lid Ih e Hermetic TrodiliOIl. a superb though now dated study.
15 Two indispe nsable new studies are Garth Fowden. The £g),I'l iall
Hermes: A lIistorical Approach 10 the /"(IIe l'agall Mind (Princeton: Princeton
University Press. 1986). and Copenhaver, Herm etiC(l, wh ich provides a brief
intellectua l history of the study o f the Hermctica. with full bib liography (PI>.
xlv- tix). Eli zabeth Ann Ambrosc. The Hermetica: All Alillotated Bibliograp hy
(SI. Louis: Center for Reformm ion ReSearch. 1992) is also import:ml.
16 Peler French. The World of all Elizabetlwn Maglls (New York: Dorset ,
1972). While th is is an excellent work. much more has been do ne si nce: Nieho·
Itls Clu lee. 101m Dee's Naruml Philosophy: fJetween Sciell ce alld Religion
(London : Routledge. 1988); Wi ll iam H. Sherman. 101m I)l;e: The Politic.s of
Neadblg (md Writing ill the English Rellaiss(llrce (Amherst: Uni versit y of
Massachusetts Press. 1995): R. W. Barone, "The Reputation o f John Dee: A
Cri tic;}1 Appraisal" (Ph.D. diss" Ohio State Unive rsity, 1989). Recent ed itio ns
of primary sourecs on Dee's esotcrica incl ude Gerald Suster. 10hn Dee: Esscm ial
Neadhigs (WC! lingboroug h: Crucible, 1986); Chr isto phe r Whi tby. cd .. Jolin
Dee's Actions with Sp irirs, 2 vols. (New York: Garland . 1991). I would li ke t o
tbank George Millon for assistance o n these and several su bsequent notes,
17 Owens refcrs to Frances Yates, The NQsicrllcian Enlightenment
(Londo n: Routledge, 1972). At a recent conference on the Rosicru cia n Enl ig ht-
e nment (Ces ky Krumlov, Czech Republic. September 1995), a leadi ng Rosicru-
cian scholar. Adam McLean, noted that Yates's wo rk . though pioneeri ng and
brillian t, is now a quarter century old and is being superseded by the discovery
and interpretatio n of many new docu me nts (lecturc given II Septe mber 19 95.
tape recordi ng in the possession of George L. Milton). Especiall y importan t is
th e work of Corlos Gilly and others at the Bibliotheco Philoso phiea Hermeticn at
Arllsterdam, wh ic h is e ll pected to reS Ult in majo r new studies on Rosicrucian ori-
gins. Provisionally. see Carlos G ill y. cd .. Gimelia Rhodos/(lUfotica: Die Rosen·
krellzcr im Spiegel der zwisdren 1610 lIIuJ 1660 ell ts/(wdcllelr Halldschrijlen IIIld
Dmcke (Amsterdam: Pelikan n. 1995). Sec also studies by Chris tophe r Mci n tosh.
The Rosicrucians: The W s/Or)'. MythQlogy alw Riluals of 0/1 Occillt Order. 2 nd
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBALAH (HAM BLIN) 257
which is quite important to hi s overall thes is, Owens relies on dated
studies and late nineteenth-ce ntury Masonic mythologies (p. 149
n. 65),18 ignoring the seminal recent work of Stevenson and ot h-
ers. 19
Owen s's failure to lise the broad ran ge of recent studies on the
esoteric tradition is compounded by an occas ional uncritical
evaluati on of the limited secondary sources he does use. 20 Fur-
thermore, for the most part, Owens 's account of the Western eso-
teric traditi on docs not rely on primary sources, or eve n tran sla-
tions of primary sources. but on secondary summaries. which he
often mi sunderstands or misrepresenrs. Thi s unfamiliarity with
both the primary and secondary sources may in part ex plain the

cd. (London: Crucible, 19S7), and his The Rose CroH (//u/lhe Age of Reaso n
(Lciden: Brill, 1992). For ~dd itional bibliogruphy see also Roland Edighoffer,
" Rosicrucianism: f rom the Sevc nlcenth to the Twentieth Century," in Modern
ESOIeric SpiritIHIIi/y, 186- 209,
18 Owens's major sources arc Douglas Knoop and G. Jones. The Genesis
of Preeml/Sollry (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1949): Robert F.
Gould. The History of Freemasonry. 4 vols. (New York : Yorston. [885-89);
Robert MilCOY, Gelltrtll Nistory. Cyclopedia t/lld Dictionary of FreeIlUison/")'
(New York : Masonic. 1872).
19 David Stevcnson. The Origifl$ of Freemasonr)'.' Tire Scollish Century
/590-17/0 (C;lmoridge: Cnmbridge University Press. 1988) : (lnd his Th e First
Freemasons : Seotlalld's /:,'(lrly Lot/gel' (llltl Their Members (Aberdeen: Aberdeen
Univcrsity Press. 1989): John Hamill, Till! Grtlft: A History of En glish Freelflll-
sollry (Wellingborough: Crucible. 19S6): R. William Weisberger, SpecIIllllive
f-reemasonry fl/ul Ihe EnlighlCnnlt'Tll (Boulder: East European Mo nographs.
1993): Margaret Jacob, Tilt' Radical Enfigllllmmem: I'(lmllt'ists. fret'lIU1l'Ons (lfuf
RelJublicmrs (London: Allert & Unwin, 1981).
20 Owens maintains that "Smith·s best overall biogra phy rcmains Fawn
M. Brodie" ("America's Hermetic Prophet." 64 n. 3), in spite of the negative
reviews the book has received. For a semicentennial retrospective ;Jnalysis of
Faw n Brodie. wilh full references 10 reviews. see Louis C. Midglcy, " F. M.
Brodie-' TIle fa sting Hcrmi t and Very Saint of Ignorancc': A Biographcr and
Her Legcnd," pagcs 147- 230 in this issue of FARMS Rel'iew of Books. Note the
warning of Quinn, The MormOT' Hierorchy, 27 1 n. 18-hardly a Lattcr·day Silint
"apologist"-"Some may wonder why I rarely cilc Brodie. Brodic·s biogra-
phy is nawed by its inattention to t rucial ;rrchival materials and by her pench;lOt
for filtering evidence ilnd anJlysis through thc perspective that the Mormon
prophet WJS either a ·parrl]wh· who believed his own lies or a fraud,'· Other ex-
amples of Owens's uncri tical approach to both primary and secondary sources
will be given below ,
258 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS sn (1996)
numerous errors that occur throughout his article (discussed
below).
I am certainl y not ad vocatin g bibliography padding,2 1 but
the absence of a number of important reccnt studies from
Owens's notes-many of which tran sform our understanding of
the issues Owens raises-should alert readers to the need to ap -
proach many of his interpretations skeptically and carefully.22

Errors of Fact
The need for carc and skeptici sm is confirmed by the nume r-
ous errors of fact thai occur in Owens' s gene ral history of esoteri ·
cism in the West.
• Owens maintains that Chri stian Kabbal ah began "first with
the Flore ntine court of Lorenzo de Medici at the end of the fif-
tee nth century" (p. 120). However, according to Scholem, " hi s -
torically. Chri stian Kabbalah spran g fro m two sources. Th e fi rst
was the c hristo log ical speculations of a number of Jewish co nverts
who arc kn ow n 10 us fro m the end of the 13th century until the
pe riod of the Spanish expul sio n lof the Je wsJ."23 The second and
most impo rtant source was Pico della Mi rando la's c ircle in the late
fiftee nth -century Platonic Acade my o r the Medic is at Flore nce,
menti oned by O wens. Owens's claim that "Jewi sh Kabbali sts ..
assisted IPico de lla Mirando la] in translating a considerabl e po r-
ti on o f Kabba li stic lite rature into Latin " (p. 130) is misleadin g. In
fa ct Pico took no part in the tmnslation, whic h was largely the

21 P:lrtieu l:lrly egregious eX:lmples can be found in Q uinn's Tire Mormon

H ierarc hy :lnu his " Ezra Taft Benson :lnd Mormon Po litical Conn icls," D ialogut'
26/2 ( 1993): 1-87.
22 It is :llso cie:lr from hi s work th:lt Owens does not read Latin, Arnmaic,
or lIebrew, siltt' q(l(l I WII for the study of KabbJ l(lh and the Weste rn esoteric tra-
ditions. As will be noted below, this is most Significan t when O wens is forced to
re ly on an earl y twen tieth-century Eng lish translation of the Zolw r in attem pting
to understand what Alexander Neibaur and Joseph Smith could have allegedl y
lenrned from the original Aram(lie.
23 Gershom G. Seho1cm, Kabba/ah (New York: QU:ldrangle. 1974). 197.
Thus the origins of the e:ldiest clements of Christian Kabbalah are nearly con,
tem pOf,lry with the origins of the movement as ,I whole. BI ~u. Tile Chri s/iall
IlIIerpr/'l(l/;OIl of th e Cl/IJlIh!. 17- 19. and Secret, Les kabb(llis/e$ chretiel/.f. 2 -
23. mention sever,l! pre-Pico. Christian kahbalists. The best study of Pico is
Wirszuhski. Pico del/a Mirando/a's £tICOwrler.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAUoH (H AMBLIN) 259
work of "the very learned [Jew ish! convert [to Christian ity]
Samuel ben Nissim Abulfaraj also known as Flavius
Mit hradates. "24
• Owens asserts-w ith no evidence- that "the Tabula sma-
ragdina [Emerald Tablet ] probably dates to the fi rst or second
century C.E," (p. 132 n. 31). In reality, "the Kirab Sirr a/-
Khaliqa wa $anCat al-Tabica (Book of the Sec ret of Creation and
the Art of Nature) .. contains the firs t occu rrence of the tabula
smaragdina (Ar. law}, af-zul1Iurrud)." This tex t is part of a gro up
of eSOleric and alchemical works assoc iated with Jabi r ibn Hayyan
(Lati n: Geber) dat ing to the nint h- not the first--ce nl ury.25
• Owcns makes an un supportcd claim that the alchemists'
'''p hilosopher's stone' [was] the antecedent of Joseph Smith's
'seer's stone'" (p. 136). In fact, the phi losopher's sto ne (lapis
phi/osophorum) was thought to have been composed of primor-
dial matter, the quintessentia-the fi fth clement after ai r, water,
fire. and eart h. Unl ike Joseph's seer stone, it was not rcally a literal
"stone" at all, but primordial matter (materia prima)-"this
stone therefore is no stone," as notes a famo us alc hemical text. 26
Sometimes described as a powder the co lor of su lfur, the phi lOSO-
pher's stone was used for the transmutat ion of matter and had
litt le or not hing to do wi th div ination. Indeed, the usc of stones
and mirrors for divination antedates the ori gin of the idea of the

24 Scholcm. Kabbalah, 197. The translation by Flavius Mithradates

totaled some 5500 manuscr ipt pages. of which about 3000 survive in archives:
Wi rszubski, Pico della Mirmrdola's Encolllller. 10. These mate ri als were neve r
pubtished .
25 Sycd N. Haq. Names, Natures wuI 71!ings: The Alchemist Jabir ibn
Han'an and his Kil(lb al·Ahjar (8o()k 0/ Slones) (Boston: Ktuwer, 1994), 29: cr.
204. Didier Kahn. Hermes Trismegisle: w "Table d'Emeraude"" el sa tradilion
alc1zimique ( Pari~: Les Belles Leures, 1994). provides a modern study of the
various permutations the Emerald Table\ has undergone. The cta~sical study is
J. Ruska. Tabrl/a Smaragr/illll. Ein Beitrag ZJlr Geschic1lle der nerlllelisciren Lil-
era/ur (Heidelberg: Winter, 1926). For ge neral background 011 Jabi r, see "Djabir
b. Hayyan." in Encydopedia 0/ Islalll. cd. B. Lewi s et al. (Lcidell: Brill. 1965).
2:357-59.
26 Trlfba Plti/osopnorum, cited ill C. G. lung. Mysterillln Conirmcliollis,
trans. R. F. C. Hu lt, 2nd cd. (Prince ton: Princeton Universit y Press. 1970), 42-
43
260 FARM S REVIEW OF BOOKS sn ( 1996)

phi losopher's sto ne. T here is no re lationship beyond the fact that
both happen to be called a slonc. 27
• Owens's descript ion of the " blosso min g fof Kabbalah] in
twe lfth -century Spain" is m islead ing. Kabba li sm origi nated in latc
twe lft h-century Prove nce in southern France; Kabbalah in Spa in
" blossomed" in the thirtee nth and fourteenth cen luries. 28
• Owe ns mainta ins that the "sy mbol s lof the sun, moo n, an d
stars) combin ed o n the fayadc of the Nau voo Temple to e mbod y
in sacred architecture a vision of Divin ity unique to Hermeticism,
Rosicruc ianism, and alche my" (p. 137. emphasis added). Fur-
thermore , after di scussing sy mbolism of the sun , moon, angels,
trumpets. sacred wedding, beehi ves, and the all- seeing eye, O wens
asserts-without even the se mblance of a footno te-that " the se
are the propagating sources of the sy mbols fin all y earved in sto ne
upon Joseph 's Nauvoo Te mple. To thi s He rmetic-alche mical
trad ition a nd its unique vision alone did [these sy mbols] pertain ,
fro m it alon e came an asserti on of their sac red import. Earl y
Mo rmonism' s affin it y for and incorporatio n of the same sy m-
bo lic mot ifs strong ly ev idences its ililrinsic link with the Hermetic
tradi tion " (p. 145, e mphas is added). Uniqu e? Al one? Int rinsic?

27 For gener,1 1 descriptions of the philosophe r's stone, see Jung. Mys·
/e rilllll COIli/me/iollis, 42-48, and indell under lal,is (p. 672) and prima lIIateria
(p. 68 1): ~-l ircea Etiade. The Porge and the Cfllcihfl': Tl1I' Origins wul StfilC/lires
of Alchemy. 2nd cd. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1(56), esp . 160 -
68: Ric h:mi Cavendish. The IJfn ck Ar/s (New York: Capricorn, 19(1), 143 - 80.
gives a populari7.ed summary. Divination through rellective surfaces is much
older than the idea of the ph ilosopher' s stone: see Theodore Besterman. Cryswl -
Gming: A 51l1d)' ill lire Hislo,}', DislribwiOlI, 71'1.'0,.)' alld Practice of Sc ry ing
(Hyde P;1rk: University Books. 1965). 9- 15, 40- 51. 72- 91. for references !O
evidence, much of whic h dmes earlier tha n alchemy and the philoso pher's stone.
John Dec and Ed wa rd Kelly used an Aztec obsidian divi nation mirror (now in the
British museum) for scrying (ibid .. 20-21). Ancient Olmecs used polished iron
mi rrors fo r divination: see John B. Carlson. "Olmec Concave Iron-Ore Mirrors:
T he Aesthet ics of a Lith ic Technology and the Lord of the Mi rror," in Tile Olmec
nnd Their Neighbors, cd. Elizabeth P. Benson (Washington: Dumbanon Oaks.
1981). 11 7-47. esp. 126- 27. See Justi n Kerr and Bruce M. White. Tire Dllllec
World: Rill/al ww Rlliersh ip (Princeton: The An Museum of Princeton Univer-
sity. 1996). 233. 254. for fi ne color photographs. T hese pre·Colu mbia n,
Mesoamerican ellamples could hard ly have been influenced by the phi losopher's
stone.
28 Gcrshom G. Seholcm. Origins of Kabbalah ( Princeto n: Princeton Uni-
versity Press. 1987).
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBALAH (HAMBLI N) 261

Reall y? Owens seems to be claiming that no other religions ever

used the sun, moon, stars, trumpets. and angels as sacred symbo ls.
Can none of these things be found , for example, in the Bible? And
was there really an all-seeing eye or a beehi ve on the Nauvoo
Temple? If so they seem to have escaped the attention of all art
hi storian s. 29
• Owens's unsubstantiated claim that "Albertu s Magnus
( 1193- 1280) became an adept of alchemy and authored numer-
ous alchemical wo rk s" (p. 135) is mi sleadi ng. Albertus's third
book of hi s Mineralill1/l does discuss alchemy- as any medieval
book on natural science would. But nearl y all other alchemical
works ascribed to Albertus are pseudepigraphic. 30 Cofllra Owens
(p. 152). the alchemical Philosophia nQlIlralil· was not written by
Albcrtus, but is a pseudcpigraphon .
• Thu s Owens's claim that Albcrtus Magnus pro vides "one of
the earliest allegorical representations of the sy mbols ... [or thel
compass and the square" (p. 152, fig. 10) is simply wrong. 31

29 Laurel B. Andrew. The t.art)' Temples oJthe Mormons: The Architecture

of the Millellllial Ki"Kt/OIll jn the Americnn \Vesf (Albany: State Uni\·crsity of
New York Press, (978), notes the existence of an all·seeing eye in a drawing of
the Nauvoo Masonic hall. but not on the N;)uvoo Tcmple (pp. 86-90). An all-
seeing eye can be found on the ccntral tower of the west f~ade of the Salt Lake
Temple (ibid, I II fig. 43).
30 Some of the numerous Albcrtus alchemical pseudepigr:lpha arc briefly
discussed by Lynn Thorndike, A lIistory of Mc/Sic wid t.·xperimefllal Science
(New York : Columbia University Press, 1(23), 2;517- 92, esp.569-73
(:mother seminal work on the Western esoteric tradition that Owens could hayc
read to his benefit). For general background and bibliography on Albcnus, sec
Joseph Strayer, Dic/il.JIlory of the Middle Ages (New York: Scribncr·So (982).
I: 126-30. Numerous esoteric works were anributed to Albertus in the Middlc
Ages; thc most famous is the Uber Secretoml/!; Til e Book of Secret~· of Alber/liS
Magfws of tile Virtues of Herbs, Stones and Certai" Beas/s. ed. Michael R. Bcst
and Frank H. Brightman (Oxford: Oxford Unh·ersity Prcss, 1973).
31 There are many archaic cxamplcs of thc cosmological usc of the com-
pass that arc older than the 1650 Philosophia fl(//llralis: see. for example, the
1625 Vi(l/or;llm Spasyricllm- rcproduced hy C. G. Jung, Psychology (uid
A/chern), ( Princeton: Princeton Unversity Press, 1968), 372-a 1484 tombstone
on which a skeleton wields the square and compass. reproduced in Chrislian Jacq
and Francois Brunier, Le mesJ·oge tics bminellrs de cl/IhldmleJ (Paris: PLON.
(974). ;lnd W. H. RyJands. ··Symbolism on Tombs:· QlIiUllor Cor(JIl(l{i 8 (1895) :
86; a fifteenth-cen tu ry Flemish miniature shows Zoroaster in his study . with the
sqU:lTC and compass. reproduced in Encyc/ol'c(/ill of World Reli[:ioll (London:
262 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

• Owens claims that the concept that "God was once as ma n

now is .. could , by various exegetical approaches, be fo und in
the Hcrmetic-Kabbalistic tradi tion" (pp. 178-79). It is un der-
standable that he prov ides nei the r primary nor secondary evidence
for th is assertion, si nce no hermetic or kabbalislic texis make such
a claim . Un like Laucr-day Saini concepts of God a nd di vinizat ion.
the metaphysical presuppositi ons of bot h hermetic ism and kab-
balis m are fund:.unent all y Neopi ato nic. 32 " Kabbali stic psyc ho l-
ogy .. developed among the Spani sh Kabbalists and in the
Zohar in the wake of Ncop lalonic psyc ho logy."33 "O ne can d is-
tinguish a l least four main streams that converged to give shape to
medieval kabbalah , , , images and mot ifs c ulled fro m the
aggad ic-midras hic literatu re, Mcrkavah myst icism, theosoph ic-
mythic speculation preserved in texts like Sefer ha- Bahir. an d
Neo pl alo ni s m,,,34

Octopus, 1975), 136; God using il compass in creation is found in the Bible
Moraliscc (thirteenth century) in W. Kirk MoeNulty, Freemasonry: A Journey
Ihrough Rimal alUl Symbol (London: Thomes and Hudson, 199 1), 33; or the
Holkhnm Bible (fourteenth century). reproduced in Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi,
KClbbalah : TradiliOll of Hiddell IVi,HlolIZ (London: Thames and Hudson, 1979),34.
Exomples could be fu rt her multiplied. As a coutionary example of the dangers of
ossuming that paralle l equals causality. one can usefully study the funerary s ilk
b:mner of f;ln Yen Shih frum Astana in eighth-century Chi na, which includes an
example of the symbolic use of both the compass and the square in a cosmic
setting; for an illustration. see Giorgio de Santill:!na and Henha von Dechcnd.
Ilamln's Mill: All ESiay (JII Myth alld the Frame of Time (Boston: Gambit,
1969). 273. Arc we to assume a caus;)1 relationship between this Chinese
example and those of Freemasonry'! I would like to thank Michael Lyon for
dr.:lwing my ;llIention to these examples. Todd Compton has provided evidence
of pre-M:lsonic usc of other Masonic symbols; see '~I"'he Handclasp and Embrace
as Tokens of Recognition:' in By Study wid Also by Faith: Essay$ ill Nailor of
Hugll IV. Nibfey. cd. John M. Lundquist and Stephen D. Ricks (Salt Lake City:
Desere! Book ond FARMS. 1990), 1:61 1-42. and 'The Whole Token: Mystery
Symbolism in Classical Recognition Drama," £poche 13 ( 1985): 1- 81.
32 Moshc Idel. Kabbalah: New PI'rSI,,'ctives (Ncw Haven: Yale University
Press. \988).42-46. with numerous other references in the index.
33 Gershom G. Scholem. 011 the Mystical Shape of Ihe Godhead (New
York: Schocken, 1991). 252,
34 Elliot R. Wolfson. Through (j SpecululII Tluu Sliines: Visioll alld fmagi·
Ilatioll in Medin·al Jewish Mysticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1994),273: Wolfson's index entry for Ncoplatonism includes numerous similar
passages, It should also be noted th:lt kabba listic and hermetic mctaphysics wcre
 ,

OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBALAH (H AMBLI N) 263

For the hermelic isls and other mystics in the broader Ncopl a-
Ionic tradition, God is the ineffabl e font of the emanati on of all
reality. Human "dei fi ca tion " is poss ible because humans are
ulti mately simply e manati ons of God .3 5 Deificat ion means to
abandon the ph ysical body and fo r the mind to ascend and aga in
become part of God' s Mi nd;36 both God and the divine part of
human s arc incorporeal. 3? Thu s the soul "cannot be deifi ed wh ile
in a hu man body," but must pass through a series of re incar-
nations into hig her and higher forms of being before reaching
div inity,38 Di vinizat ion is possible because human " mind
co mes from the very essence of god ... . In humans thi s mind is
go d . "39
All thi s is rad ica lly diffe rent fro m Joseph Smith 's un de r ~
standin g of the nature of God and human deification. From th e
perspective of the mystical movements of the Neoplatonic trad i ~
tion, human de ificat io n C<ln be called henosis (be in g made o ne
[with God ] = Latin unio mystica, mystical uni on Iwith God],
Hebrew sod ha ~yill/ld , the mystery of un ifi catio n [with God]), as
di stinct fro m theosis o r rheopoesis: be ing made a god. Wolfson
furth e r clarifies this important distinction:

There is another mode l of mystical ex pe n ence

[bes ides the /lnio myslica and he nO!iis typical of Nco~
platon ism and Kabbalah] Ihal is germane to [early]
Jew ish and later Christian apocalyptic as well as to the
He khalo t sources, a mode l that from its own vantage

not the same. despite the fact that their presuppositions were both fu ndamen tally
Neoplatonic. Occasional non-Neoplatonic forms of mys ticism nre found among
kaboalists-see Moshe Idel. The MYSfiCflI Experience if! Abraham Abu /afia
(Albany: State Un ive rsity of New York Press. 1988).
35 This pant heism is discussed in Corpld fiermelicll/II (hereafter CH),
12:2 1- 23 ",Copenhaver. fiermelica.48. For the b bbalistie understanding of
emanation. sec The lVi.wfom of Ihe Zollor: AI! Al!lhofogy of Te XIS. cd. Isaiah
Ti shby, lra ns. David Goldstein, 3 vols. (Ox fo rd : Oxford University Press.
19891. 1:27]-83.
6 CH 1:24- 26 '" Copenhnve r. lIermelica, 5-6. notes. discussion. :lIld ref-
erences 119. 121.
37 CH 4:6-7 '" Copenhaver, f/ erm elica. 16.
38 CH 10:6-8 '" Copenhaver, lIermelica, 31-32. notes. disc ussion. and
references 157- 58: quol:ltion from CIf [0: 6.
39 CH J 2: 1 '" Copcnhllver, I/erme/ico. 4].
264 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

point in vol ves the narrowing of the gap between human

and div ine. The model to which I refer, rooted in
ancient Near Eastern and Mesopotam ian mytho logy
rather than Neopiatonic on tology and epistemology, is
that of the ascension to heaven and transformation into
an angelic being who occupies a throne alongs ide the
throne of glory [of God].40

Latter-day Saint concepts of divinization bear more parall els

to the morc archaic and non-Neoplatonic theol'is mode ls, while
kabbalistic and hermetic theories of divinization deri ve from Neo-
pl atonic heno.\'i~· models. But however he rmet icists may have con-
ceived of dei fication, none woul d ever have made the claim that
"God was once as man now is" (pp. 178- 79), as Owens asserts.
T he God of the Neop laton ic traditions w~s the eterna l. ine ffab le.
unchanging One, <lnd was certain ly never incarnate. 41
Fund amenta l errors of this type suggest that readers should
li se caut io n in taking Owens as their guide through the arcan~ of
the Western esoteric Iradi lio ns.

Assertions and Lack of Evidence

Such errors of facl arc compounded by anothe r strikin g fea-
ture of Owens's article- hi s nu me rous unsubstantiated assertion s.
He readily admits that some of his "hypO!heses lare j tied to a thin
heritage of fac t: it is a type of connection that appears likel y but

40 Wotfson. Through n Speculum. 84 n. 46. Cf. Hamblin. "T emple Motifs

in Jewish Mysticism." for further discussion from a Latter.day Saini perspective.
with additio nal sources and bibliography . On Christian ascent literature. see
Martha Himmclfarb. Ascelll /tI Ileaven ill Jewish and Chris/iall Apocalypses
(Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1993), which includes a study of I Enoch,
Tes/(/men/ of Leyi, 2 EIiOCh, Apocalypse of Zephaniah. Apocalypse of Abraham,
Ascensioll of Isaiah, and 3 Baruch. most of which can be found in English trans·
lation (and with references to editions :lI1d studies) in 1:Jmes H. Charlesworth. Old
Tes/(/lIIelil PseJlclepigraplw, 2 vols. (Garden City: Doubleday, 1983-85).
41 For the hermetic understanding of deification sec r owden. Eg}'ptimr
lIermes. 95- 11 5. There is an interesting statement in the Hermetica: "the human
on earth is a mortlll god but that god in heaven is an immortal human" (elf 10:25
'" Copenhaver.llermetica. 36: cf. C1l 12:1 = Copenhaver, lIermetica, 43). This
is not to say that God was ever an incarnate human. but that human souls arc
fragme nts or emanations of the One.
OWENS , JOSEPI/ SMITH AND KABBALAH (HAMBLI N) 265

which cannot be docu men ted with certainl y" (p. 160). Phrases
like "a few tentative evidences suggesti ng" (p . 164), "s uch c on ~
tacts re mai n beyond easy doc ume nt ation" (p . 173), and
"a lthough there is no ev idence" (p. 184) abound throughout his
work- but not with an ythin g near the frequency with whic h we
should find the m.
The specu lative and hypothetical nature of Owens's thesis is
de monstrated by hi s extensive use of the word perhaps and ils
many synony ms, and hi s frcquent use of rhetorical questions in
his atte mpts to li nk Joseph with the esotcric tradit ion . Suc h te nta·
tive language is on ly occas ionall y found in the first part of his
article, which is ma inl y concerned with a summary of the hi story
of the esoteric tradi tions.42 O nce Owens begins to disc uss L att e r~
day Saint history (pp. 154- 9 1), however, the probablys become
ubiquitous. Every page of text has at least one e xamp le of such
language-one page has a phenome na l nine!4) His frequ ent fai l ~
ure to provide evidence for his pro pos iti ons leads to repeated
unsupported assert ions that are far too common to e nume rate
fu ll y. A few examples must suffi ce .
• O wens's standard of e va luating e vidence is frequent ly in tol ·
erab ly weak and broad. For ex ample, he claims that a "de pic tion
of the [tree of the} Seftroth [from s i xt ee nl h ~ and se ve nt eenl h ~
century Lat in books1 alone could have conveyed a wealth of ideas
about an e manat ional structure in the di vine life ... which were
like th ose deve loped in Mormon th eo logy" (p . 165, emphas is
added). I cha1[enge anyone unfamiliar with Kabbalah to look at
the scfi rotic tree from the Portae L/leis (p. 124, fi g. I) and rrom
that alone e xplai n the Neoplatonic emanat ion ist theosophy or the
kabba lists. More importanl ly, how could anyone possibly deri ve

42 For example. see pages 119-20. 129 n. 2 1, 13 1,1)4, ISO.

4) Exam ples of such language include: mos t liKely, may have. probably.
could have, migh t have. possibility, possible, probable. suggests, and appa r-
ently. The ni ne examples on page 184 arc: might. altho ugh there is no ev idence.
probab le (twice). may have, suggests. perhaps (th ree times). and probabl y. In
Ihi s, as in many olher thi ngs. Owens su ffers from fo llowing Quinn's ;1Od
BrOOKe's overly speculati ve methodology: on Qui nn, sec Robi nson, review o r
Early MormQ/tism. by D. Michael Quinn. n yU Suulies 2714 ( 1987): 88-95.
266 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

Mormon metaphysics-that , COnlra Owens, are not emanationi st-

from Ihi s illustration alone?4 4
• Although far less proble mati cally or e xtensively than
Brooke, Owe ns al so ignores obvious biblical antecedents to Latter~
day Saini th ought in fa vor of alleged hermetic or alche mi cal a nte-
cedents. Owens informs us that "Paracelsus also prophesied of the
coming of the prophet 'Elias' as part of a uni versal restoration,
anothe r idea poss ibl y affecting the work of Joseph S mith "
(p . 163 n. 90). Quite true. But why does Owens fail to mention the
stron g biblical tradition of the return of ElijahlElias, the clear
source for Ihi s idea for both Paracc lsus and Joseph Smith ?45
• " By the da wn o f the ninctcenlh century," O wens assures us,
" the Hermetic traditio n had devcloped sub rosa several e le ments
characteri sti c of an inc ipient hcterodox rc li gio n" (p. 157). Th e
o nl y ev idence g iven to support this state ment is comments of
Meri c Casaubo n ( 1599- 167 1) and a secondary state ment about
Robert Fludd ( 1574- 1637), both of whom li ved in the seven-
teenth , not the ni neteenth , century. Was there an inc ipient he te ro -
d ox hermetic reli gion in the United States in the earl y nineteenth
century? If so, it is O wens's responsib ilit y to prov ide ev idence of
its existe nce f ro m nin eteenth -century North America, not two
hundred years and a continent away. I will argue bel ow that pre-
cisely the oppos ite was the case .

The Decline of the Western Esoteric Tradition

Owens insists that "allY backwood s rods man di vin ing fo r
buried treasu res in New York in 1820 may have kn ow/! abo ut
the [esote ric] tradit ion" and thai "the re un do ubtedly e xi sted

44 Owens·~ argume m in this section rests on the hidden and uns ubstanti ·
ated assumption th:ll Joseph somehow had access to, and was innuenccd by. rare
si;l;teemh· and seventeenth·century Latin esoteric le;l;ts. If Joseph did not have
access to such tC;I; ts, how W;lS he supposed to have sccn and been innuenced by a
picture of the Trcc of the Serirot?
45 The loci c1unie; 011 the return of Elijah arc Malachi 4:5-6 :md Matt hew
16: 14; 17:3. 12. Note that Elias is thc Grceo·L:ltin form of Elijah: see Hamblin.
Peterson. and Millon. "Mormon in Ihe Fiery Furnaec:· 39-43, on Brookc·!', more
egregious railure to examinc the biblica l antecedents of Mormon thoughl. One is
reminded of the I)octour of Phisik in Chaucer-··his studic was but lite! on the
Biblc·· (ClIIHcrbu,.y Tales, 1:438).
OWENS. JOSEPH SMITH A ND KABIJALAII ( HAMBLIN) 267

individuals lin the early ni neteenth-century United States] who

were deeply cognizant of Hermetic ism, its lore, rituals, and
aspirat ions. And this group probably included an occasiona l
associate of treasure d iggers" (p. 159). Elsewhere Owens asserts
that " there must have bee n more than a fe w" peopl e in frontie r
New York who had been in flu e nced by the hcrmctic, kabbalistic,
and alc he mical traditions (p. 165. e mphasis added to all these c ita-
tions). Evidence, please! Who exactly were these indi vidual s? What
exactly did they know? How exactly did they gain their un usua l
knowledge? Exactly when and where did they live? With whom
exactly did they associale? What exactly did they teach the ir asso-
c iates? What ev idence- any evide nce at all--does Owens pro vide
for any of his specul ations?
In fact, two rece nt surveys of e ighteenth- and ninetee nth -
century hermeticism by Joscelyn Godwin and Anto ine Faivre
mention I/O hermcticists in North America before the beg inni ngs
of the Spiri tualist movement s in 184 8. 46 Furthermore, from
Godwin we find that the profil e of the typica l e igh teenth- and
earl y ni ne teenth-century European hermetic ist was that of a
wealt hy, highly educated, Latin -reading dilettante who was
disaffected from Chri sti anit y and idled away his lime in small
cliques of like-minded hedoni sts- hardly the c ircles in which the
pove rty-stricke n. ill-educated, and deepl y Chri stian Joseph Smit h
moved. If there were as many hermeti cists in the earl y ni netce nth-
century United States as Owens cl aims, why do the histories o f
Godwin and Faivre fail to menti on them? More importantly, why
does Owens himself fai l to name even one promi nent North
Ame ri can hermeticist who was acti ve in the first half of lhe
ni netee nth century?",7

46 Joscelyn Godwin. The Thcosophical EllliglllelllllclII (Albany: Slate

University of New York Press. 1994): Antoinc Filivrc. Access 10 Wes/em
Eso/cricism (Albany: Slate University of New York Press. 1994).
47 [n a priva te conversJtion with Joscely n Godwin (Ccsky Krum lov.
Czech Republic. Septembe r 1995). I asked II' there wcrc :my hCrmCllcists pr:le tlc-
ing in North Americ:l before the occult reviv:ll after 1848. He rep lied that there
were few. if any. beeause there were illmost no hermet ic books in thc Unitcd
States: they were too rare :lnd eltpensive and were limited to libraries or we;llthy
collectors in Eu rope. If Owens wishcs to :ugue that such esoteric tClt ts ..... ere ac·
cessible on the fro ntie r of the United Stmes il is his responsibili ty 10 provide
268 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 (1996)

The sign ificance and influence of the esoteric traditions had

dramatically declined by the mid-eighteenth century in the wake
of the Enlightenment- an intellectual movement about which
Owens is strangely si lent. Indeed, one could argue that Joseph
Smith li ved in precisely the time (the early nineteenth cent ury)
and place (the frontier regions of the New World) in which knowl-
edge of the Western esoteric traditions had less significance and
impact than al any other time or place in Western c ivilization since
the invention of printing. In other words, I am arguing that before
the Enlightenment and after the occu lt revi val of the latc nin e-
teent h century, esoteric lore was more accessible than during the
period between the Enlightenment and the beginnings of the
occu lt rev iva l. Furthermore, rhe frontier regions of the New World
(as opposed to Europe) were the least likely to havc books or
materials on esoteric subjects. 48
As is well kn own, hermeticism entered a period of se ri ous
decline following Isaac Casaubon's demonstration in 1614 th at
the hermetic texts datcd to after Christianity, not before Plato. 49
Thereafter, although a few sc holars ignored the implications of
Casaubon's study, "by the eighteenth cen tury, Casaubon's
debunking of hermet ic antiquity had e ntered canonical accounts
of intellectual history."SO Thus "aft er 1630, no new or repri nted
Greek editions [of the HcrmeticaJ appeared until Parthey's
Poemander of 1854," after which an interest in the Hermetica
revived, "much of it provoked by the theosophical movements of
the latc nineteenth ce ntury."51 Thu s Joseph Smith li ved in the
period of the least influ ence of the Hermetica on Western intel-
lectua l and reli gious thought si nce the Renaissance.
The pattern with Kabbal ah is precisely the same. In the
wake of the messianic and mystical excesses of the Sabbalean

some evidence. Owens's prepostcrous altcmpt to transform Lumilll Walter into a

hcrmeticist will be discussed below.
48 Herbert Leventhal provides a study of the relative decline of the eso-
teric world view in English colonies in the ~eventecnth and early eighteenth
centuries; scc 111 Ihe Shada .... of the Enlightenment (New York: New York Uni-
versity Press. 1916). esp. 10. 262- 11; see also the quotation on p. 211 below.
49 V'lIes. Giordano Bruno. 34'11--403. 422--41: Copenhaver. Hermelica. I.
nn. 63- 64. provides more recent bibliography .
50 Copenhaver, ItcrmetiC(I, I.
51 Ibid .. Ii. with full bibliography in nn. 65- 66.
OWENS, JOSEPH S MITH AND KABBA LA H (H AMBLI N) 269

movement, Rabbi Jacob Emden (1697- 177 6) and others

subjected the Zohar to the strictest intellectual and theol ogical
sc rutiny.5 2 Although ori ginall y a believing kabbali st, Emden, in
hi s study Mitpal}at Sefarim 53 effectively "d ivested Rabbi Simeo n
ben Yoha! [second century A. D.] and hi s di sciples completely of
the authorship of the Zohar." Instead it was shown [ 0 be the work
of "Rabbi Moses de Leon [died 1305 1. or contemporaries of
hi s. "54 The effect among Jews was similar to that of Casaubon's
redatin g the Hermcti ca-it seriously undermined the antiquity ,
authority, and importance of the tex t. Thereafter, "Scholars of the
Enli ghtenment (Haskalah) period [c. 1770s- 1880s}, apart from
one or two, ... regarded the kabbalah as a black stain on the fab-
ri c of pure Judaism . . . . Their fi erce oppositi on to kabbalah [was]
full of contempt and di sd ain ."55 Ne ibaur, Owens's supposed
candidate for the role of Joseph Smith 's kabbalistic mentor, li ved
squarely in the middle of thi s Jewi sh Enlightenment.
Owens speculates at great length about possible Rosicrucian
inOuences on Joseph Smith (pp . 138-54), asserting (with abso-
lutely no ev idence) that Luman Walter was influenced by Ros icru -
cian ideas (p . 162). Once again , however, Owens ignores the
annoy ing fact that the Rosic rucian movement was effec tive ly dead
at the time of Joseph Smith . In England "the Gold and Rosy
Cross appears to have had no Engli sh members and was virtually
extinct by 17 9 3."56 There was no "independent , formali zed
Rosicrucian order fun ctioning in En gland in the 183 0 s."57 Th e
situati on was the same in the Un ited States. Mcintosh is ske ptical

52 On Ihc Sabbalcan movc mcnt, Ihe standard study is Gershom G.

Stholem. Sabbetai Seli: The M),stical Messiah. 1626- 1676 ( Princeto n:
Princelon University Press, 1973). Por background on Jacob Emden. sec Moshe
Shraga Samet. "Emden. Jacob." in Encyclopaedia l udaica. ed. Cecil Ro th.
(Jerusalem: Ketc r. 1972. hereaftcr EJ). 6:72 1- 24: :md Tishby. Wisdom oj the
Zoha r, 1:38-43.
53 Jacob Emden. Mitpa!wl Sefa r;1II (Altona: Be·vct ha·mehabcr. (768).
54 Tishby, Wisdom of tile Zvlwr. I :42. The major arguments bolh for and
against Ihc anliquit y of Ihe Zohar arc summarized by T ishby, Wisdom of the
Zolwr. 1:55- 96.
55 Ibid.. 1:43. T ishby surveys Ihc mosl important wor ks on Ihe ?ollar
published dur ing the late eighteenth and e,lrly nineteenth century. 1:43- 50.
56 Godwi n. Tireosopiliwl EllligizlclIlIZ('lJ/. 121.
57 Ibid .. 120.
270 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 (1996)

about alleged Rosicrucian influences o n Pennsylvania German

mystica l communities (such as that in Ephrata), but even if {hey
existed, these influences were very mild and the movements had
all but di sappeared by the early nineteenth century,5 8 "The first
man , however, to promote Rosicrucian ism widely in America was
Paschal Beverly Randolph " who "began hi s occult activities
about 1858. "59 a bit laIc 10 have influenced Joseph Smith. Even
th is was largely pseudo-Rosicrucianism, having on ly a vague
similarity 10 its alleged seventeenth-century antecedents. As
Randolph himself admitted, "very nearly all that I have g iven as
Rosicrucianism orig inated in my soul ; and scarce a single th oug ht,
only suggestions, have I borrowed from those who in ages past,
call ed themse lves by that name."60
Thus Joseph Smith was alive precisely during the period of the
leaSl influ ence of Kabbalah , hermetici sm, and Rosicruc ian ism, all
of which had seriously declined by the late e ighteenth ce ntury-
before Joseph's birth- and wou ld revive onl y in the late nin e-
tee nth century, after Joseph 's death . Owe ns nevcr recognizes these
developments, but instead consistently quotes sources earlier and
later than Joseph Smith as indicative of the ideas supposedly
found in Joseph 's day .

The Fallacy of Semantic Equivocation

Owens's entire thesis al so suffers repeatedly from semantic
equ ivocatio n- usi ng a term " in two o r more senses within a si ngle
argume nt , so thai a conclu sion appears to foll ow when in fact it
does nOI. "61 Owens does not adequately recognize the fa ct that
the semantic domain o f words can vary radi call y fro m indi vidual
to indi vidual, through translation , by shi fts in mean in g throu g h

S8 Mcintosh, The Rosicmciu/ls. 129. Edighoffer. "Rosicrucianism." 203-

9. briet1y charts the fate of various Rosicrucian movements in the eighteenth and
nineteenth century: it becomes obvious th:1I they disappeared in the late eight-
eenth century nnd reappeared only in the late nineteenth.
59 Mcintosh. The /{osicfllcialls. 129-30: ef. Godwin. TheosopJrical EII-
Iightt'III11I!IJt. 247-61. Claims of alleged Rosicruci:m innuence-such ;:IS those
m;:lde by Owens-need to be viewed with a good deal of skepticism.
60 Cited by Godwin. Theosophical 1~lIiigJII{,lIIfle/Jf. 259.
(,1 D;:Ivid Fischer. J/islOriu/ls' Fal/acies: TmwJftI (l wgic 0/ Historical
Thol/ghl (New York : H,Jrpcr Torchbooks. 1970). 274.
OWENS . JOSEPH SMITH AND KA8BAl.A H (H AMBLI N) 27 1

time, or because of id iosyncratic use by differenl cont emporary

communities .62 For Owens it is ofte n suffi cient to assert that he
feels that kabbalistic or hermetic ideas "resonate" with his und er-
standin g of Latter-day Saini thou ght (p. 132). Thus, in an attempt
to demonstrate affili ations between the Latter-day Sai nt world view
and that of esotericisls. Owens presents a number of ideas that he
claims represent parallels between his understand ing of the
kabbali stic and hermetic traditions and hi s view of Latter-day
Saint theology, but that , upon closer in spection, tu rn out to be
only vaguely similar. if at all .
Rigorous thought is possibl e only when definiti ons of words
are explicit, precise, narrow, and unamb iguous. Owens' s method -
ology re peatedly uses language imprecise ly, amorphously,
broadl y, and ambiguously. Ahhough he is belief informed on this
matter than Brooke-who makes not the slightest effo rt to defin e
his tec hnical lerms63 ----Qwens still seems largely unaware of th e
raging debate in academic circles concernin g the definition o f
magic and the immense technical literature on the subject. Instead,
he informs us that "o ne is ill-ad vised to argue he re with Quin n's
ge nera l approach or defin it ion of mag ic and its world view,"
includ ing the cla im that "its intent is ofl cn coerci ve" (p. 156). In
rea lity there is absolutely no sc holarly consensus on the mean ing
of magic.64 Like Brooke, Owens also makes no effort to define
hermeti cism, despite the fact that seriou s questi ons have bee n
raised about its nature and scope. The term lI ermelicism
is given more clarity and autonomy {by some modern
sc holarsJ than the (historical J currents it describes, and

62 1 urn rem inded of a conversation 1 had in September 1995 with a New

Age esotericist in Cesky Krum lov. Czcch Republic. She was astonis hed when [
me ntioned the messiology of kabbalis m. asking me what the Messiah had to do
wi th kabbalis m. As we discussed the matter further . I came 10 realize that. for her.
ka bbali sm was simply a New Age meditative techniq ue in whic h the .fejirOl were
used as symbols for focusi ng the mind. while for me Kabbalah was a complex.,
centuries-old historical phenomenon encompassing a wide ra nge of te)(ts. ideas.
and practices in both Judais m and Christianity.
63 See Hamblin. Peterson. and Minon. " Mormon in the Fic ry Furnace:'
10- 13.
64 John Gee. "Abracud"bra, Isaac and Jacoh." Nt'view tJ/lJooks 011 ,"e
Book 0/ MormOIl 7/1 (1 995): 46- 66. provides an e)(tcnsive survey of the wide
range of scholarly definitions of magic.
272 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 8(2 ( \996)

hence an ex planatory function far beyond what it can

de liver. " Hermetic ism" is a notoriously slippery con-
cep!. ... It still remains to show that Hermeticism
ever fun ctioned as an important, independe nt world
view."65

Scho larship based on such no ndefinition s is an uuerly fruitl ess

endeavor.
Owens frequ ently implicitly redefi nes kabbalistic and herme tic
terms in a way that would have been fore ign to both the origi nal
esoteric bel ievers and to earl y Latter-day Saints. In an effort to
make ideas see m si milar, he is forced to severe ly distort bot h what
esotcric ists and Laue r-day Saints believe. r have ne ither the lime
nor the inclination to exami ne carefull y Owens's instances o f
se manti c equi vocation in the ir entirety. I will focus o n a major
exa mple--Owens's use of the words prophet and reve/atioll .66
As with most of his technical terms, Owens neve r provides us
with an unambiguous definition of prophet or revelation; we are
forced to search for impli ci t meanings. Owens often uses the
words in a fundam enlall y un-Mormon way. When Owens says that
the nature of the reve lations of Joseph and those of the kabbali sts
is esscrlliall y the same, he is speakin g from his own mod e rn
Jungian perspecti ve-not thai of either the kabbali sts or the
Lauer-day Saints. For Owens it seems a prophet is one who ha s a
transcendent psycho logical experic nce with God. and revelations
are the intuitions about life and the uni verse one derives from
such experiences.
In many ways Owens's fun cti onal definition of prophet is
closer to that of a mystic. Thi s allows kabbalistic myst ical revela-
tions to be sccn as similar to Owens's revisionist understandings of

65 Shennan. lulm Dee, 20. citing Charles B. Schmidt. "Reappraisals in

Renaissance Science:' review of Hermeticism lUlll tire Sci('lltijic RevollltiOlI. by
Rohert S. Westman anti J. E. McGuire. His/()ry of Science 16 (1978): 208.
66 Interested readers shou ld carefully examine Owens's use of the terms
~I!(Hlic (pp. 121 - 22). vis ioll (p. 123). plurality of gods ( p. 126). divine
mOlhf'r (p. 126). sacred marriage (p. 126 ). the origills of the human sou/
(p. 132). ;md proxy ( p. 136). among m;InY others. Owens's discussion of
prop/INS in the eSOIeric traditions can be found on pages 120-26.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBALAH (HAMBLIN) 273
Joseph Smith' s re ve latory ex periences: prophet = mystic. 67 Thu s
it is poss ibl e to concl ude, since Jose ph was a prophet/mystic and
kabbalists are mystics/prophets, that the experiences of Joseph and
the kabbalists represent different manifestations of the same phe-
nomenon . But kabbali sts' own desc riptions of their my stical ex-
periences are fundamentall y dissimilar to Joseph's descriptions of
hi s prophetic experiences.
Now it is true that some kabbalists claimed tran scendent mys-
tical experiences, which they sometimes called "p rop hecy."
Moshe Idel describes one such example.
Abulafia [1 240-91 J describes this systcm lof
KabbalahJ with two basic terms: p rophetic Kabb alah
and the Kabbalah of Names. The forme r term (which I
have generall y tran slated as ecstatic Kabbalah in the
body of this work) refers to the goal of thi s mystica l
path : namcly, the attainment of " proph ecy" or "ec-
stasy," i.e .• manifestations of revelati on and union wi th
the Divine (devequt) , designated by the class ical term
prophecy (nev:l,wh) in the absence of any other more
suitable, comprehen sive term .68
Ide I makes an important point: Abu1afia (and by extension
other kabbali sts) believed that their mystical experiences were
similar to, if not preci sely the same as, the ex periences of the
biblical prophets, and thu s called these experiences " prop hecy."
But the ecstatic mystical expe ri ences of the kabbalists, eve n
though so metimes called prophec y, bear little resemblance to the

67 Attempts to understand Joseph Smith as a mystic are not new to Lauer-

day Saint studies: !lugh Nibley showed the fallacy of viewing Joseph's experi -
ences as mystical. "Prophets and Myst ics," 98-107. For a basic bibliography o f
such efforts. see Louis C. Midgley, ''The Challenge of Historical Consciousness:
Mormon History and the Encounter with Seculor Modcrnity," in lJy Study (JJw
Also by Failh, 2:532 n. 56. Cf. Midgley's discussion of JOII Shipps's cvolving
understanding of Ihis idea in 'The Sh ip ps Odyssey in Retrospect."' Rel·i/,w of
Books on Ihe Book of MOrlllon 7/2 (1995): 242--46.
68 Ide!. Mystical EXflcril'lzCf'. R, the best introduction to Abul <lfia. Note
that "Abulalia was considered hy the Christian Kobbalist Johannes Rcuehlin ;lS :l
pillar of Christian K<lbbal:lh .. .. Ch ristian Kabb:ll;zh is based to a considerable
extent upon the thought of Abulafia, whose writings were translmcd into L:ltin
and Italian" (ibid., 10).
274 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 (1996)

experiences of J o~eph Smith. Modern scholars such as Idel recog-

nize a fundamental distinction between the prophetic experiences
desc ribed by biblical prophets and those of the kabbalists . Recog-
ni zing Ihe idiosyncratic use of the word prophecy by the kabbal-
ists. Idel consistently uses the term proph ecy in quolntions
throughout his book when referring to the ex periences of
Abulafia, preferring the term ecsrasy.69 Owens would have us
believe that the substance of the experiences of Joseph and the
kabbalisis was similar because they used the same word to describe
their fundamenlally different experiences.
Owens's approach thus obscures significant differences
between the Mormon understanding of revelation and that of the
kabbalists. For example, Owens desc ribes Joseph's reve latory
experiences in kabbalistic terms as "num inous and uniquely indi ~
vidual ex perience[sJ" that were "persona l and se lf-contained"
(p . 16 1). This, of course, ignores the fact that many of Joseph's
visions were shared by others- the experie nce of the Three Wit-
nesses, the restorat ion of the Aaronic Priesthood, the revelation of
section 76 of the Doctrine and Covenants, and the dedication of
the Kirtland Temple, to name just a few.70
It is important to di st inguish between the nature of the vision-
ary experiences of the eartier biblical and Merkavah " mystic s"-
that more closely para ll el the ex periences of Joseph Smit h- from
those of the late r kabbalists. 71 Owens fails to make thi s necessary
and most Sig nificant dist incti on. Kabbali stic visions were ge ne rally
had by individuals alone (seld om, if ever, with groups simultane-
ously . seeing the same thin g), were induced by myst ical
" lec hniqu es,"72 were tran smitted from master to disciple, and

69 Idel. Myslical E lperience, 8, 55. 57. etc.

70 For the testimony of the Three Witnesses. see Richard L. Anderson. I,I '
l'I':slig(llillg the Book oj MormOl1 Will/esse~· (Sa il Lake City: Deserel Boo k,
1981); concerning the Anronic Priesthood. Doctrine and Covenants 13, HC
I :39-42. Joseph Smilil - llislory 68- 73. Doctrine and Covenants 76, He 1:245-
52; concerning the dedic:nion of the Kinland Temple. Doclri ne and Covenants
110. HC 2:435- 36.
71 Wolfson. Through a Speculum . 13- 124.
72 Among the kahb~listic techniques for obtaining mystic~1 unificat ion
with God we find: chanting or reciting the Di vine Names (Idel. Mystic{l/ [xperi.
(,11("(,. 14- 22). recombination of the leuers of the Divine Name (ibid .. 22- 24.

lde1. KalJba/llil. 97- 103). controll ing ore:J(hing (Idel. Mp·licui EXI'erieli ce.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAVlf/ (HAMB LIN) 275

were fundamenlall y nonmateriali st ic. Many of Joseph's prophetic

experiences were mate rialistic and e mpirica l. He saw di vine and
angelic beings with rea l bodi es of fl esh and bone. He was physi-
call y touched by these beings. They gave him rea l mate ri al Objects
(e.g., the golden plates). As noted above, on occasions these heav-
enl y messengers were see n and heard by several people simulta-
neously, who all reported see ing the same thing. Kabba listic vi-
sions ("prophecies") were of the " imagi nat ion" and "inte ll ec t"
in the Neoplatonic sense. 73 God, being pure Intellect, was appre-
hended by pure inte ll ectual faculties. God could not be seen with
our physical eyes or touched with our hands. 74 For the kabbalists,
when God revea led hi mself, yo u would " imag ine" the " image"
of God in you r "imagination." Unlike the modern naturalistic
understandi ng, thu s " imagi nin g" God would be superior, no t
inferior, to a materiali stic vision. Thus the gO<l1 of the kabbalists
was to obtai n "the tota l unity between man's intellect and the su-
preme Bei ng, whether thi s is understood as God or as the Active
Inte ll cct."75 Th is understa nd ing is radicall y di fferen t from that of
Mo rmoni sm.
Another fo rm of reductioni sm Hnd semantic equ ivocat ion in
which Owens indu lges is his attem pt to de fi ne revelation as a fun-
damenta ll y psychological phenomenon. For Owens, revelation is

24-28). visu;llizations of the leHers of the Divine Names (ibid .. 30- 33).
contemplation or the navel (ibid., 34- 35), listening to musie (ibid., 53-64 ),
ritual weeping (ldel, Kabbalah. 75- 88), and visualil.ation of colors (ibid., 103-
I I). None of these practices, as mystical tec hniques, can be found in
Mormonism. T hese techniques could be seen as attempts to compel God to reveal
himself. Joseph Smith. on the other hand, maintained that although man may
sce God, "it shall be in his [God's] own time, and in his own way, and according
to his own will" (D&C 88:68).
73 Wolfson, Through a Speculum, deals elltcnsively with these types of
dis tinctions. The imagif/(lliOf/ wa5 where images could be formed in the mind.
while the inteflect was the site or pristine intellection without the senses or v is-
ual imagery. From this viewpoint, pure intellection of God is superior to imagin-
ing God, and both are superior to materialistic understandings such as those held
by Joseph Smith.
74 This, of course, is the opposite of Ihe Latter-day Saint view. Sec. for
ell ample. Doctrine and Covenants 130:22 <lnu the useful study by David L.
Paulsen, 'T he Doctrine of Divine Embodiment: Restoration. JUdeo-C hristian.
and Philosophical Perspectives:' nyu Sludies 35/4 (1995-96): 6-94.
75 Idel. Abu/a/ia. 13.
276 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 8!2 (1996)

Jung ian " archetypal manifestations consisten t with a recurrent

type of 'revelatory' experience" (p. 16 1).1 6 Owens provides an
exp lanatio n for historical causali ty that ignores the poss ibility of
real revelation : ··Whether this [Joseph' s translation} was a
renection of Joseph's contact with Kabbalah or just of Joseph
remains an open question" (p. 166), he informs us. That it could
have been true revelation seems a closed question. Owens docs n OI
explicitly deny the existence of revelation, he merely rede fines
what revelat ion means: "Men can have experiences," he assures
us, "call them intuitions or vis ions- that carry revelatory power
and the savor o f di vine orig in" (p. 123 n. 12). The admi ss io n that
s uc h vision s could be "empirical psycholog ical realities" (p. 126)
should not be seen as a ringing endorsement of the Prophet
Joseph, since "empirical psycho logica l realities" include events
that have no ontological basis outside human brain che mistry .
Owens's termino logica l muddle on this po int is further con-
fu sed by hi s reading of Harold Bloom (pp. 11 8- 19). For Owens.
" Bloo m' s intuition Ilinksj the prophet' s [Joseph Smith 'sJ vis ion-
ary bent with the occult as pirations of Jewish Kabbalah "
( p , I 18),77 As I understand Bloom, he rcductioni stica ll y equates
prophecy with poetry. arti stic genius. and a good imagination. By
thus ex panding and conflatin g the definitions o f both poctry and
prophecy. Bloom maintains that good poets are frequently proph-
cts,78 prophets are simply literary geniuses, and re ligion tS
"spi lled poetry,"79 While Bloom the agnostic speak s me taphor i-
ca lly-s ince there are no real prophets. their revelations are neces-
saril y '<\ form of literature-Owens wishes to historic ize Bl oo m 's

76 As in this passage. Owcns has the annoying habit of frequently putting

the tcrm rel'dation in quotations-that scems 10 imply Ih~t the "revelations" arc
only so-c<llled, Owens describes himself as a "Jungian" in "America's I-Icrmetic
Prophct," 64. His papcr manifests many of the well-known wea knesses of
Jungian methodology whcn applied to historical questions.
77 For reviews of Bloom from a L-11Icr-day Sai nt perspective. sec M ,
Gerald Bradford. (.'<.1 .. "Four LOS Views on Harold Bloom," BYU Siudies 35/1
( 1995): 173- 204.
78 Sce. for c)(;lmple. lI ~rold Bloom's understanding of Dmllc as ;I
"prophet:' in Tire IVt'J/em CllllOn: Tire Booh (In(1 School (If 1/1(" Ages (New
York : Harcourt Iklce. 1994).81. 88. 93, 97. 101.
79 H<'lrold Bloom, The Am('l'iC(1IJ ReligiolL' The EmCI'Kf'nCf' of IiiI' Pas/-
Chris/hili Nwion (Ncw York: Simon & Schustcr, 1992).80.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KA BBALAII (HAMBLI N) 277

lilCrary " intuiti o n" (p. 11 8), maintaining that "care ful reeva lua-
tion of historical data suggests there is both a poetic and an un -
suspected factual substance to Bl oom's th es is" (p. 11 8). For
Owens, Joseph didn ' t mere ly have a creati ve poeti c imaginati o n
like the kabbali sts-as claimed by Bl oo m~h e was historically in -
flu enced by them !
A fin a l significant probl em re lated to se mantic equi vocati on is
the blurring of the di stincti ons between kabbalism and herme ti -
c ism, as if they were a single syste m of tho ught. So me branc hes o f
the Western esoteric traditio ns were indeed confl ated b y
Re naissance magi based on their theory of prisca theologia-th e
primordia l re ve lati on of God to pagan philoso phers.80 But even if
we were to concede that Joseph indeed read Jewish kabbali stic
texts, as Owens alleges, this would not provide ev idence for kno wl -
edge of the Hermctica. Although so me Christian ka bbali sts did
indeed merge hermeticis m with Kabbalah in the sixteenth and sev-
enteenth centuries . traditio nal 1cwish kabbali sts were not greatl y
influenced by Christian he rmetic ism. Thus Joseph could not have
been influenced by any "he rme ti c" ideas fro m reading Jewi sh
kabbalistic tex ts. Contra Owens. Herbert Leve nthal noted,

The late seventeenth and earl y eighteenth centuries s..'1W

the gradual disintegration of the "E li zabethan world
pi cture" [which included the hermetic and esoteric
world view as major co mponents ] in the American
colo nies. II no longer ex isted as a gestalt, as a unifi ed
set of interlock ing and rnUlu ally supporting ideas. A
pe rson who believed in one aspect of it d id nOI neces-
saril y, or even probably, be li eve in the rest SI

Sophi st icated researc he rs must carefully distingui sh the indi-

vidual paths of hi storica l development of different bra nches of th e
Western esote ric tradition. Atten tion must a lways focus on primary
texts in their o riginal hi storica l contex ts. Instead , Owens sy n-
cretistica lly sy nthesizes the mythology of mode rn esotericists,
modern academic theories. Renai ssance pri.\·w ,"e%gio , medieval

80 On the idea or the prism Ihe%gia. see Daniel P. Walker, The Andenl
Theology: Sru(/ies in Chris/iall Phl/ollism Jrom 'he Fif/('(·ltlll 10 l/ie £igill('clHir
Cenl/Uy (London: Duckworth. 1972): cf. Yates. Ciordmw lJomo. 17-18.58.
81 Leventhal. tl' llie S!w(/ow oJ IIII' EII/iglllellllwlII. 262.
278 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

kabbalism, and ancient hermeticism with reck less abandon. As will

be demonstrated below , he seldom pays adequate attention to the
hi storical and linguistic contex ts of primary texts. Indeed, he sc l~
da m deals with primary texiS at all . The validity and significance
of his proposed parallels arc seriously undermined by his failure
10 define his terms properly and 10 contcxtualize ideas. Only those
fundamentally unfami liar with the carly modern esoteric tradition
will find Owens's assertion s plausible.

Problems of Causality
Granting. for the sake of argument, that Owens can establish
leg itimate paraliels between Latter-day Saint and esoteric ideas, v.e
must now turn to the quest ion of the nature of the relationship and
the potential causes of such alleged parallels. Like Brooke, Owens
suffers from unrestrained para ll elomania, making little effort to
distinguish between ana log and causal antecedent. Owens's me-
thodology in dea ling with parallels suffers from precisely the
same n aws previously noted in Brooke.
Th roughout his entire book, Brooke is plagued
with the problem of analog ue versus causal antecedent,
which he himself recognizes on occas io n. The pro bl e m
of causality has been well summari zed by Jonathan Z .
S mith: " Homology [causal antecedent] is a si milarit y
of fo rm or structure bel\veen two species shared from
their common anceslOr; an analogy is a si mil ari ty of
form or structure between two spec ies not sharing a
common ancestor. " Brooke wou ld have done well to
follow Jonathan Smith's excellent anal ysis of the
problem.
It is agreed that the state ment "x resembles y" is
logically incomplete ... [because itl suppresslcs
thel multi -term statement of analogy and differ-
ence capable of being properly ex pressed in
fo rmul ations such as: "x resembles y more than
z with respect to ... ;" o r, "x resembl es y more
than IV resembles z with respect to .... "
That is to say, the statement of comparison is
never dyadic, bu t always triadic; there is always
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KA BBALAH (H AM BLI N) 279

an implicit " more than," and there is always a

"wi th respect to."
Brooke's land Owens's l great methodo logical fai l-
ure is that he does not clearly identify the "more
than" or "with respect to" in hi s alleged parallels
between Mormon ism and hermeticism.82

For Owens and Brooke the assert ion of any alleged para llel
between hermetic and Mormon ideas- most of which are eit her
very weak, based on mi sunderstandings, or derived fro m bi bl ical
antecedents- is suffic ient to all ow us to assume causality. Indeed,
causa lity between the alleged parallels is almost always assu med; it
is almost neve r argued or demonstrated.
Again, like Brooke, Owens's entire thes is is an extended exer-
cise in the fall acy of the perfect analogy; he is constant ly assertin g
that if one parallel can be demonstrated between Mormoni sm and
hermet icism, then the ent ire systems must somehow be in terre-
lated .83 Again, referri ng 10 a parallel di scuss ion on Brooke,
Brooke is a rhetorica l master at the fa llacy of per-
fect analogy, wh ich "consists in reasoning from a par-
ti al resemblance between two entities to an entire and
exact correspondence. It is an erroneous inference
from the fact that A and B are similar in some respects
to the false conclus ion that they arc the same in all re-
spects." Reade rs shou ld be on the lookout for frequent
use of an extended version of th is fallacy. Brooke re-
peatedly argues as follows: Item 1 has characteristics A
and B; item 2 has characterist ics Band C; item 3 has
characteri stics C and D; therefore. since 1 and 2 share
one characteristic (B), and 2 and 3 share one charac-
teristic (C), 1 and 3 must share some characteristics. Bu t

82 Hamblin. Peterson. and Milton. "Mormon in the Fiery Fucnaee." 44-

45 ; ef. Jonatban Z. Smith. Dmdger), Oil'ille (Chicago: Universi ty of Chicago
Press, 1990), 47 n. 15.51. Scholars positing parallcls between Mormoni sm and
either Joseph's nineteenth-century environment or nntiquity should carefu tly
study this essay.
83 ~lambl i n. Peterson. nnd Milton. "Mormon in the Fiery Furnace." 45.
cr. Fi scher. HiSlorilllu' F(ll/(lcies. 247.
280 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS sn (1996)
the A and B of 1 have nothing whatsoever to do with
the C and D of 3. 84
Again paralle li ng Brooke, Owens fa ils to ack nowledge, let
alone explain, the exi stence of the far more nume rou s differe nces
between Mormoni sm and Ihe Western esoteric traditi ons.85 Owens
a lso ignores the far more detailed, precise, and extensive resem -
blances between Latter-day Saint esoteri c ideas and the esote ric
doctrines, texts, and ritual s of the ancient world, which offe r much
more complete parallels than does late medieval and early mode rn
csote rici sm.86 Why is it that the clements in kabbali stic thou g ht
that mosl closel y paralic I Joseph 's ideas are those that also occ ur
in more archaic th ought, whi le the un ique medieval acc retions-
li ke ge matria, sefiror, emanations. etc.-are never explicitl y me n-
ti oned by Joseph Smith ?B7 Owens neithe r recogni zes this ph e-
nomenon nor atte mpts to ex plain it.
O we ns's brief di scussion of causality is weak and incomple te.
He sees four possible e xplanations for his alleged parallels:
I. Joseph " had significa nt int eraction s with tile He rme li c-
Kabbali slic mythos," but this poss ibl y had no " impact on hi s
re ligious- makin g vision" (p. 160).
2. Th e alleged parallels maybe "sy nchron ous rather tha n
causal " (p. 160), which essentially mean s they arc " pure happe n-
stan ce" (p. 16 1).
3. The parallel s re present Jungian "arche typal manifestati ons
consistent with a rec urrent type of ' reve latory' e xpe ri e nce"
(p . 161 ).

84 ]·I:lmblin. Peterson, and Minon. " Mormon in the Fiery Furnace." 45.
85 Ibi d.. 55-58.
86 For Broo ke' s problems in this regard. sec Hamblin. Pelerson. and
Mitton, "Mormon in the Fiery Furnace." 55- 57. This is not necessa rily to a rgue
th~t the nncien! p:U<lllcis arc compieic and nbsu lute. nor is it to argue a ca usal
connection. Rmher. it is simply to point out th ill the :ugumenl of ,I causal rela-
tionship between Mormonism and Western esotericism cannot be understood
unlil the nature ,md cause of the paral lels between Mormonism and nncien t
esotericism arc clucidmcd.
87 On the ideas of gematria. sec Scholc m. Kahhalall . 337--n. On 5l'jirot.
sec Tis hby. Wi5dom of tire Z}har. 1:269- 370: Scholem. Kahbalah. 9 6 - 116:
Scholem. Major Trl'ml5. 205-25: and helow, p. 300 n. 140. On emaf\:l tioni sm.
see Tishby. lVi5dolll of fh e Zohar. I :273- 83: and above. pp. 263-64.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KAB1JAUH (HAMBLIN) 28 1

4 . Jose ph 's ideas derive from " independent, personal cogm-

lion or 'revelati on'" (p.1 6 1).88
In all this Owens ignores two othe r obv ious explanations: that
both esoteric and Latte r-day Sai nt ideas deri ve from a sim ilar
source, e.g. , the Bible, or that Joseph Smith received true revela-
tion, as opposed to some ill-defin ed type of Jungian " perso nal
cogn it ion."

Alleged Examples of Joseph Smith and Hermeticism

Turn ing at last direct ly to Joseph Smith, Owens maintai ns that
Joseph was intimately con nected with fo lk magic duri ng his earl y
life (pp. 16 1- 62). He provides three examples of Joseph's alleged
relati onship with fo lk magic: magica l arti facts held as heirloo ms
by Hyru m Smit h's descendants (pp. 16 1- 62); Luman Walter(s) as
Jose ph's supposed oceu lt mentor (p p. 162- 63); and Joseph's
relation with Freemasonry as a possible condui t of esoteric know l-
edge (pp. 166- 73). O n the fi rst two points Owens is ent irely
derivati ve fro m Michae l Quinn. On none of these points does he
provide any substantia l new evidence. Each will be ana lyzed
be low.
Magical Artifacts. Rely ing entirely on Quinn's flawed work,
Owens ins ists th at Joseph Smith or me mbers of his immediate
fam il y owned a magica l talisman, a ceremonial dagger, and
parchments earl y in thei r lives. 89 Based on Qu inn 's claims, Owens
maintains the fo llowing seven propositions:
I . Joseph himself owned these items (p. 161).
2. His possession dates to his earl y days of "t reas ure
see king" (p. 162).
3. He used them fo r mag ical purposes (p. 162).
4. He made the m himsel f or commiss ioned the m (p. 161).
5. He therefore must have used magic books to make them
(p. 162).

88 Owens' s syntax is unfonunately ambiguous here. It is unclear whether

he intends per$onaI cognition to be in gramm:ltical apposition to rel'elation or
something distinct from it. Note again the usc of quot:ltion marks around the
word reve/arion.
89 Based on Quinn. Early Mormo/lil'/11 alit/rile Magic World Vie .... 57. 65-
72.96-111. See n. 7 in th is p:lpcr for refc rcnces to reviews of Quinn' s work .
282 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS sn ( 1996)
6. He therefore must have had an occult mentor to help him
with the difficult process of understanding the mag ical books and
making these items (p. 162).
7. This occult mentor tran smitted extensive arcane hermet ic
lore to Joseph beyond the knowledge necessary to make the arti~
facts (p. 163).
In reality, Owens's seven propositions are simply a ti ssue of
assumptions, assertions, and speculations. There is no contempo-
rary primary evidence that Joseph himself owned or used the
parc hments or dagger; one late source claims he had a talisman in
his pocket at the time of his death.90 We do not kno w why Joseph
had the tali sman , or even if he really did. And we do not know- if
he had it-what he thought of it. We do nOi know when, how, or
why these items became hei rl ooms of the Hyrum Smith family .
Again, there is no contemporary primary ev idence that mentions
Joseph or anyone in his famil y using these artifacts-as Quinn
himself noted. "possess ion alone may not be proof of use."91
There is no evidence that Joseph ever had any mag ic books. There
is no ev idence that Josep h ever had an occu lt men tor who helped
him make or use thesc ite ms.
The mcthodology used by Owens is a classic example of what
one cou ld ca ll the miracle of the addi ti on o r the probab ilities. The
case of Quinn and Owens relics on a rickety tower of unpro ven
propositions that do not prov ide certainty. rather a geometrically
increasing improbability. Probab ilities are multiplied, not added.
Combin ing two proposi tions, eac h of which has a 50% probabilit y,
docs not create a 100% probability, it creates a 25% probabilit y
that both are true together. Allow ing each of Owens's seven
propositions a 50% probability-a very gene rous allowance-<:rc-
alcs a .0078% probability that the combinati on of all hi s seven

90 II is. of course. possible Ihal Ihe Bidamon lalism:ln (and perhaps olher
Bidnmon arlif:lcls) did nOI in facl belong 10 Joseph Smith. Charles Bidamon may
have been a modern counterpart uf the medieval relic mongers, who- for the
right price-could dredge up a lock of hair or bil of bone of any required early
s:linl. The question of the authenticity of some of the Bidamon :lrtifacts is worth
further stlldy.
91 Quinn. /:'arly Mormol!i;l'J/!, 57.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KAilBALAIl (HAMBLIN) 283

propositions is Iru e.92 And this is onl y one eleme nt of a very

comp lex and convoluted argument , with literally dozens of similar
unverified assertions. The result is a monumentall y high improb-
ability that Owens's overall thes is is correct.
Based on the ev idence of these artifacts alone, it is just as plau-
sible to speculate that these items were obtained from Masonic
friends or European converts late in the Nauvoo period; Ihat they
were owned by Joseph's fri ends or family rather than by Joseph
himself; that they were essentially heirlooms, good-luck charms,
or ornamcnt s for Mason ic pageantry; or that neither Joseph nor
anyone associated with him had any idea what they wcre " rea ll y"
made for. 93 If there were some solid contemporary primary evi-
dence from Joseph or othcr early Mormons of magical activity-
lik e Mark Hofmann 's forged "Sa lamander Lettcr'>94- then these
artifacts mi ght provide useful circumstanti al con firmati on. But
there is no such solid corroborating contemporary primary evi-
dence!
Owcns makes an important point on this matter. Contra
Quinn , Owens observes that:

the treasure digger's "mag ic world view" . . . must be

distinguished from the more com plex Hermetic vision .

92 Assigning eaeh proposition a probability of 20% yields an overall

probability of .0000128%; 10% probability = .0000001 %. Owcns's overal l
argumcnt exhibits several examples of aucmptcd addition of probabilitics.
93 For example. it is possible thnt the artifacts described by Quinn (Earl),
Mormonism. 65-72. 96- 111) were not used by the Smith family but were con-
fiscated by them from other saints who are known to have been condcmned for
practicing mngic (sec Ilamblin. Peterson. and Mitton. "Mormon in the fi ery
Furnace," 18. ror several examples). Brooke, Refiner'S Fire , 239. di£cusses the
confiscation and destruction. by George A. Smith. of magical itcms in the pos-
session of early English converts. Such itcms could have been put in a trun k.
forgonen. and rediscovercd dec:ldes l:lter by another generation who had no idea
whcre they h(ld odgin:llIy come from or wh(lt they h(ld been used for. I am not, of
course. arguing that such was actually the C(lSC, only thnt it is just as plausible as
the speculations of Quinn. Brooke, and Owens.
94 On lhe Hofmann forge ries. see Richard E. Turley Jr., Victims: 'fhe LDS
Church tIIul the Mark Hofllllllln CllJ'e ( Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
1992): Linda SillilOC and Allen Roberts. S{liammrder: TIre SlOr), of IIII' Mormoll
Forgery Mur(lers. 2nd ed. (Salt Lake City: Signature Books. ]989). Robinson.
review of Early MorlllO/rism, 94. (lstutely notices the "huge salam::rr!dcr-shapcd
hole" in Quinn's theory.
284 FARMS REV IEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

. . . What a young Joseph S mith cou ld have learned

from a rodsman, ensconced on ly in a [folk ] magic
world view, is less important to his re li g ious develop-
ment than the kinds of ideas a Hermetic initiate might
have stimul ated . (pp. 159- 60)

The rea l question, of course, is whether Joseph ever e ncounte red

such a " Hermetic initiate"-and whet her such peop le even
exi sted on the American frontier. If Owens' s assertion that Joseph
wou ld have requi red a hermetic mento r to use the artifac ts is
true-and it is nothi ng but an assert ion- it shoul d be see n as evi-
dence not that Joseph had such an occult mentor , but ralher that
he d id not make or usc the mag ical items in question.
LIlIIIan Wa!ter(J) as an OCCIlII Mentor. In o rder to provide a
" Herme tic initiate" as a source fo r Joseph' s all eged expertise in
hermeticism. Owens resurrects the dub ious proposition that Joseph
stud ied magic with Luman Wal ter ( pp. 162- 63). In thi s matter
Owens is aga in complete ly de pendent upo n Qu inn , but g oes
beyond even Qu inn's exaggeration of the evidence .9S The d iffe r-
ence between the little that is actu all y known about Walter and hi s
e ver-e xpand ing role as the occult me ntor of Joseph Smi th is q uite
striki ng-rather a case o f the di stinctio n between the Walter o f
hi sto ry and the Luman of fa ith .
The Luman o f fai th is a Renaissance magus wit h "co nsid e r-
able knowled ge of Hermetic trad itions" (p. 162), who "stood in a
trad iti on dominated by the medical and esoteric wri tings of
Paracelsus 11 493- 154 1], steeped in alchemy, and assoc iated
close ly with Rosicrucian phi loso ph y" (p. 162). The Walte r o f his-
tory was an obscure "d ru nke n vagabond, " a frontier snake-oil
salesman who used hocus-poc us to can the superstit ious. 96 The
Luman o f fai th was a maste r of Parace lsian medicine . The Walter
o f hi sto ry wou ld have stud ied medicin e- assuming he did so at
all- in the late eightee nt h or early ni netee nth cent ury . But Para-
ce lsian medicine, the supposed condu it of esoteric lore to Walter,
had been supe rseded amo ng physic ians by the earl y eighteenth

95 Quinn. /;'orl)' Mormo/!i£lII. 82-84 .

96 The very limiled evidence concerning Lum:m Walter is su m m~ f i zcd by
Qllinn. Early Mormolli£lIl. 8 1- 84; need less to s~y. I diS;lgree wi th Qui nn's inter-
pretation of lhe signilieance or the evide nce.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITU AND KABBALAH (HAMBLIN) 285
century .97 Even nonprofessionals were aware of the collapse of
Paracelsian ism, as witnessed by the discussion of the issue in the
1818 novel FralikellMein. 98 It is as unlikely that Walter-
assuming he had any medical trainin g at all-would have studied
Paracelsus as it is that a modern medica l school would be tcac hin g
phrenology.99 The Luman of faith was an intimate acquaintance
of Joseph who revealed to Joseph arcane magical secrets; IOO not
onl y does proximity equal contact-s ince they could have met,
they must have met-but unsubstantiated contact proves und em-
onstrated influ cnce. IOI The Walter of hi story li ved in Sodus, New

97 Paracclsianism nourished in the sixteenth and seventeenlh centuries;

sec Allen O. Debus. The French Paraceisi(lns (Cambridge: Cnmbridge University
Press. 1991), and his The t.;nglish Plirace/simlS (London: Oldbourne Press,
1965). Paracclsianism declined dramatically in the early eighteenth century; sec
Debus. French Paraee/sians. 183-208. Lester S. Kin g, Transjormlilions ill
American Mpdicinc (Baltimore: lohns I-Iopkins University Press, 1991). docs
not mention Paracelsianism as an clement in American medicine in the eight-
eenth and early ni neteenth centuries. Likewise, Lester S. Ki ng, The MnliC(l/
World ojlhe Eighteentlt Celltur)' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).
60, 7 1. mentions Paracclsus only as someone whose ideas had been rejected by
the !:lte eighteenth century.
9R Mary W. Shelley, Frankel/stc;". or. The Modern Prometllells (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1994), part I. chapler 2. 40.
99 Owens's assertions that Ne ibaur and his father also could have been in -
nuenced by Paracclsianism and hermeticism because thcy had studied medicine
(pp. 174- 75) or that John Bennett was obviously interested in hermeticism
because he had studied medicine (p. 170) fail on precisely the same grounds.
100 Owens altempts to turn a highly debatable proposition-that young
Joseph ever even knew Luman Walter-into hi storical cert:linty: Walter was
··known 10 have been in Joseph' s and his family's circle of acquaintances prior
to 1827"' (p, 162),
101 This is a classic manifestation of the f:lllacy of the possible proof.
whic h "consists in an :lItempt 10 demonstrate that a f:lctua l statement is true or
false by establishing the possibility of its truth or falsity," Fischer, HiJ"lOriam"
Fallacies, 53. As an analogous example of this fallacy , 13m on the mailing list
of a New Age bookstore in Salt L1ke City, which I have visited on occasion.
Should this contact be secn as evidence th:u I am a follower of New Age philoso-
phy'! I <1m not. The problem of contact being seen as evidence for inllucnce was
vividly illustrated by my misunderstanding of Owens's relationship with GItOS;.I'
magazine-a New Age publication. In the Spring 1995 issue of G,iosis (in which
Owens published hi s "American Prophet'·), Lancc S , Owens is listed as a
"Contributing Writer."' I assumcd that this implied that Owcns shared thc New
Age presuppositions of Gnosis. In private correspondence [ was informed by
2'6 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

York, almost a two-day journey (25 miles) fro m Pal myra; o nl y

viru le nt anti -Mormons claim Joseph S mith and Walter ever met.
So differe nt are the Luman of fa ith and the Walter of history that
one wonders if this is not a case of Joseph Smith being infl uenced
not by Luman Walter, bul by a diffe rent man of the same name.
Freemasonry as all Alleged Comillil of the Esoteric Tradi tions.
The re lationship betwccn Freemasonry and Mormoni sm is 100
complex 10 be dealt with in detai l here. A lthough Owens adds
nothi ng ne w to forme r d iscuss ions. it is worth recogniz.in g
Owens's met hodological mudd le on the subjcc!. For a correct
understand ing of the relati onship between Joseph Smith a nd
Free masonry, it is vital first to clearly di stinguish between the vari-
ous types of Freemasonry, especiall y between the esoteric a nd
nonesoteric forms. Ne xt, we must establi sh when and where the
differe nt types of Freemasonry ex isted, and what ideas were u ni-
versal or un ique to a particular branch. Finally, it is important to
identify which types of Freemasonry were accessible to Joseph
S mith, and when,I02
With this in mind, Owe ns's asse rt ion that Joseph had a n
"almost twenty-year associat io n with Ma sons" (p, 169) is hi g hl y
misleading in light of the fact that Joseph himself was a Mason fo r
o nl y the last two years of his li fe, I03 The fact that Hyru m Smith
beca me a Mason in the 1820s tells us nothi ng about Jo seph 's
kno wledge of, o r attitudes about, Freemasonry, beyond the bare
propostion that he knew it ex isted and was pro babl y not ill-
di sposed to the mo vement. I 04

O wens thm Ihis is not the case, Here we find far more cvidence of Owens be ing
closely associated with the New Age movement than we h~ve for Joseph Smith's
alleged associmion wit h hermeticists, Yet Owens insists that he does not share
New Age presuppositions, Might not the same be true of Joseph Smith?
102 Michael W. Homer. "'Similarit y of Priesthood in Maso nry': The Rela-
tio nship between Freemasonry and Mormonism." Dialogue 27/3 ( 1994): 1-1 16.
is useful and provides helpful bibliography. but fre{luently fails to follow t hese
methodological impermives.
103 See. further. the comments in Hambli n, Pcterson, and Mi llo n.
"Mormon in the Fiery Furnacc," 52-S8.
I 04 Witne~s the endless con fusion and contradiction on the issue of the so-
callcd ·'Cadianton Masons." Many critics or the Book of Mormon agree that t he
Gadi:l!ltons :1rc jll~t Masons in disguise, but no o ne can comc up wit h a coherent
explanation of why Joseph-if he au thored the book- never used the Book of
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAUH (HAM BLI N) 287

Owens is completely uncri tica l in hi s asserti ons about the

potentia l of Freemasonry to transmit esoteric knowledge to
Joseph. While prov iding no evidence. he asserts that Albert Pi ke 's
187 1 "views [on the esoteric backgrou nd of Freemasonry I
refl ected lore already established in Masonry du ring the [Nauvool
period" (p. 168). If this is so he shoul d demonstrate it with evi-
dence fro m the early 1840s rather than 187 1. Followi ng Michael
Homer, Owens asserts that "t he Scott ish Rite developed by [t he
same AlbertJ Pike was an evo lution of the eighteenth-cent ury
French Masonic Rile de Perfection, wh ich in several degrees wa~
influenced by Kabbalah" (p. 168) .1 05 Thi s is an intriguing claim ,
since "the actual exi ste nce of thi s Rite [of Perfection I has bee n
placed in doub!." T he ev idence for the supposed Rite de Perfec-
tioll cons isis of "a ' tmdit ional' list [o f gradesJ which was pu b-
lished by Masonic writers (m(l~:onn o log !les) of the ni neteenth and
twentieth cent uries." 106 We are thus ex:pccted to believe that
Joseph was influenced by a fo rm of Masonry that apparen tl y did
not even ex:i st! Bu t even if Pike in the late ni netee nth century wa'i
copy ing a real- as opposed to mythological- French Mason ic
rite of the eighteenth centu ry, how can Pike's late nineteenth -
century esoteric version of Freemasonry possibly have influ enced
Joseph Smith ?
In a similar mlle hoc clai m, Homer also appeals to the Rite of
Adoption as a poss i bl~ sou rce of infl uence on Joseph Smi th.I07
John Brooke has made a simi lar argument , to whic h we have
responded elsewhere:
Brooke indu lges in another ante hoc fa ll acy b y
claim ing that the Mormon temple ceremony could
have becn influe nced at its origin by "th e Europea n

Mormon as a Masonic cxpose. On the failure of the "Gadianton Mason" theory.

sec Daniel C. Peterson. " Notes on 'Gadianto n Mason ry,'" in Wmfare in lir e
Book of Mo rmol/. cd. Stephen D. Ricks and William J . Hamblin (S;)1I Lake Ci ty:
Desere! Books and FARM S, 1990). 174-224.
l OS Owens fOlilcd 10 provide a refere nce to his citation of Homer (p. 168 n.
108); see l lomer. "S imi larity of Priest hood in Mnsonry:' 94.
106 Dnnicl U gou. cd .. Dklionll(l;r{' de /(1 Frtlllc· MII!,olll!"I'i{' (Paris: Presses
Universitaires de Fr:mee. (987), 1020.
\07 Homer. "Sim ilarity of Masonry:· discusses Adoptive M,lsonry on 29,
40. 94 .
288 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

Lodges of Adoption," despite the fact that " the Rite of

Adopt ion has never been introduced into Amer-
ica." (A failed atte mpt was first made in 1855.) 108

Owens has wisely avoided explici tl y claiming Adopti ve

Masonry as a possible antecedent fo r celestial marriage, hintin g
instead (hat pluf;}1 marri age was introduced into Mormonism
under the influence of Caglioslro's "Egy pti an" Masonic rites,
because Cagliostro introduced wome n- not polygamy- into his
orga nizatio n (p. 153). Thi s avo ids the appearance of anachroni sm,
but nOI the reali ty, since Cagli oslfO'S "Egy ptian " Masonry was
it self Adopt ive. Thu s Cag lioslro's "Egypt ian" Masonry was also
not found in the contemporary United States, and indeed had
been suppre ssed in Euro pe shortly after the fall of Napoleon, two
decade s before Joseph beca me a Mason!1 09 How Joseph co uld
have been inn llenced by esoteric french or hal ian Masoni c
orders, thousands of miles away, which did not ex ist whe n Jose ph
was initiated, remains a mystery ,I 10
Unfort unately for Owens's thesis . Joseph was initiated into one
of the least esoteric systems of Freemasonry. the York rite,! II
Owens tacitl y recog nizes that Joseph 's direct co ntacts with Free-
masonry we re insufficient to account for its alleged hermetic

108 Hnmblin . Peterson, :md Mitton, "Mormon in the Fiery Furnace," 52;
cf. Albert Mackey, All Encyclopedia oJ Freemw.onry (C hi cago: M:lsonic His-
wry, 1921). 1:29 .
109 After a decade of preliminary attempts. the Rite of Egypt ( Rife de Mis-
wim) was founded by Cagliostro in Venice in 1788 and was introduced in France
after 1810. where it was li nked wi th anti-Roplist Ilonapartist ci rcl es. As such,
it was suppressed in 1820 and bricny revived between 1838 ~lnd 1841. Li gou,
Dietjolr/wire de /a Frwrc.Ma~O/ml'rie, 13. 178-8 1. 1018- 19. On C:lgliostro. see
ibid .. 176-84. and tl.b ssimo Intfo vigne, "Arcana Arcanorum: Cagliostro's Leg-
acy in Contemporary Magical Movements." Sy:ygy: iOllrtlll/ oJ A/terrllllil'/! Re-
ligion mul Cllilllre I (S pring/Summer 1992): 117-35.
110 It is possible thai \ale eightee nth- century Engl ish Freemnsons were
first inlluenced by developments on the Comineni, then either translmed Of
orally tran~mitled this lore to Engli sh M ason~. wbo tben somehow passed it on
to American fromier Masons in the mid-nineteenth ccntury. If Owens wishes to
mainl1lin sllch a C!lllsal develop ment. he needs to demonst rate it witb contempo-
mry primary ~Ollrees. not simply assert it.
III Also known as Blue Lodge. DwellS himself ackn owledges that the basic
three degrees of the York rile into which Joseph was initiated hild l'Cw "I aye rings
of esoteric accretions" (p. 169).
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAlAH (HAMBLIN) 289
influence. He therefore asserts that "lJoh n C.] Bennett may very
well have brou ght something more than I York] Blue Lodge
Masonry to Nauvoo" (p . 172), and that " the Masonry LBennett l
brought to Nauvoo had several unu sual occult aspects" (p . 170) .
Does Owens provide any e vide nce for these asserti ons? Simply a
furt her asserti on that "Be nn ett 's interests, including re li gion,
medicine, the mi litary , and Masonry, suggest a person inclined
towards investi gating the more esoteric aspects of Ma so nry"
(p. 170). Just why interest in re li gion, medicine, and the military
suggests an inclinat ion toward esotericism is never explained.
For an intelligent di scuss ion of these issues to be unde rtak en
we need specific evidence of whi ch Masonic rites were used in
Nauvoo, when, by whom. what the rites contained, and whm lore
they claImed. Because some Masoni c rile, somew here in Europe ,
in a non-Engli sh context, decades befo re or aft er Joseph was born ,
had some esoteric content , we cannot therefore concl ude that
Joseph Smith in Nauvoo in 1842 wa.. influenced by these ideas.
Owens's thesis requires us to believe that Joseph was influenced
by forms of Free masonry that did not exisl in the United States,
that had ceased to ex ist before his birth . that devel oped on ly after
hi s death , or- as in the case of the Rite de Perfection- that proba-
bly didn ' t even ex ist at all.

Joseph Smith a nd Kabbalah

We now come to the hear! of Owe ns's art icle, the co nte nti on
that Joseph was influe nced by Kabbalah . Th is is the only part of
hi s argume nt for which he provides new evidence and analys is.
BUI. like the rest of his thesis, this argument evaporates under criti-
cal sc rutin y. Owens's thes is is that Alexander Neibaur possessed a
library of kabbalistic texts that he read with Joseph Smith, or, at
the very least. that Neibaur discussed the ideas found in the Zohar
and other kabbali stic books with Jose ph. The basic argument run s
as follows: 112

112 I ha ve slightly rea rranged the order of O we ns·s presentat io n 10 cllifi fy

the logical re lationship of Ihc argu ments.
290 FARMS REVIEW or BOOKS 8/2 ( 1996)

I . Neibau r knew Hebrew and tutored Joseph in that lan guage

(pp. 174, 177).2. Ncibaur menl ions or c ites from kabbali stic
texts in an article in Times lind Seasons (pp. 175_76).113
These first two proposit ions arc indisputab le; beyond this
Owens increasingly enters a domain of airy speculation.
3. Neibaur had actually read the texts he ciles in Times and
SeasolZS-spcc ifically the Zohar-rather than excerpting them
from a secondary source (pp. 176_78),114
4. Ncibaur therefore had the actua l texts mentioned in th e
Times and Seasons in his possession in Nauvoo ( pp. 11 9, 176-
77).
5. Since Ncibau r had this kabbal ist ic library, and taug ht
Joseph Hebrew, Neibaur therefore taught Joseph Kabbalah
(p p. 177-78).
6. Innuence of these kabbali stic ideas can be found 10
Joseph's King follett discourse (pp . 178- 84),
Owens's position on the prec ise degree of Joseph's direct
exposu re 10 Ka bbalah is ambiguous. There are three options:
Ncibaur had read kabbalistic texts and simpl y to ld Joseph about
some of the ideas found therein; Neibaur read kabbalislic texts to
or with Joseph ; Ncibaur introduced Joseph to the tex ts, which
Joseph read and interpreted o n hi s own. Owens's rhetoric consis-
tently emphasizes Joseph's direc t co ntact with Kabba lah.
"Neiba ur had read to Joseph from" the Zohar (p. 178) i.lnd
Joseph "contacted symbols and lore taken di rect ly from
Kabba lah" (p.1 19), He "co nfronted" the Zohar (p. 178),
"quofes almost word for wo rd" (p. 178), and "agrees, word for
word," wi th it (p. 180). Joseph's words arc "almost identical with
the ZollClr's phrasing" (p. 18 1), and the Zohar con tains "exactl y
Joseph Sm ith 's read ing" (p. 18 1). The "o ld Bible" to which
Joseph referred in the King Follett discourse was the Zohar

113 Alcxandcr Ncibaur, "The Jews," Times WId Seasons 4 (I June 1843):
220- 22; 4 (15 June 1843): 233- 34.
114 Owens does recognizc the possibility that Neibauf could have tDken
notes from kabbalistic books hc read in Engl:md and therefore did not have the
texts in Nauvoo, or that Neibaur could have obtained his information from a sec-
ondary source (p. 176). As noted below, his paper consistently argues for direct
acccss to kabbalistic tcxts.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITFI AND KABBALAH ( HAMBLIN) 29 1

(p . 183). All th is rhetoric strongly implies that Owens believes that

Joseph had direct access to a copy of the Zohar. 115

Could Joseph or Neibaur Have Read Kabbalistic

Texts-S pecifically the Z ohar?
Owens recogni zes that the "study fof Kabbalahl at th is bas ic
level required some know ledge of Hebrew, access to origi nal
Hebrew Kabbalistic tex ts ... rand] an adept Kabbali st as a gu ide"
(p. 165). Consistent ly throughout his article, Owens speaks of the
import ance of the knowledge of Hebrew fo r a stu dy of the Zohar
(pp . 16 1, 165, 176). This is very odd, since the Zohaf- the kab-
ba list ic text Owens claims Joseph qUOled "almost word for wo rd"
(p. l78)- was written largely in Aramaic, not Hebrew. 116 Yet
neither the importance nor even the ex istence of Aramaic in the
kabbalistic tradition is ever men ti oned by Owens. Although
Hebrew and Aramaic are related languages-rather like Spani sh
and Italian- they are nonetheless distinct. Indeed, "t he Arama ic
of the Zohar has no li nguistic para ll el" and is an "artificial co n-
st ru cti o n."117 Hebrew and Ara maic are different enough th at
both medieva l kabbalists and modern sc holars have actuall y
trans lated the Aramaic Zohar into Hebrew! I 18

115 In:l pcrson:!1 Intcrnct communication, Owcns insists th:lt he never in-
tended to cl:lim that Joseph h:ld personally read the Zollar. If this was Owens's
original position, he unfortunately d id not m:lke it clear in his article.
116 Of the 24 major divisions of the Zoi1ar d iscussed by Seholem.
Kabbalah, 2 16- 19. only one, the Midrash ha-Ne'lam, "is a mixture of I-Icbrew
and Ararn:lic" (ibid .. 217; cr. 226). The rest of the Zoh{lr, excepting quotations
from older Hebrew texts, was written in Arnm:lic (ibid .. 226). Cf. Tishby, Wis-
dom of the 7.,o}wr, 1:64- 68.
117 Scholem, Kabbalah. 226.
118 '1 'he question of translating thc lohar into Hebrew had :!Iready arisen
among the Kabba tists of the 14th century." Schotern, Kabblliall. 239. Seholem
cites eight partial or complete transl:llions of the Zohar that were nude through
the early ni neteenth century (ihid., 239-40): none were published. The modern
edition of Yehudah Ashl:lg (Jerusalem: Press of the Researc h Center. 1945-58)
includes a Ilebrew tr:lnsi:ltion: Isaiah Tishby also tmnsl:lled selections into
Hebrew-Scholem, K(lbbalah, 238. 240, (1957-61); Tishby's work has been
translated into EngJish- Tishby (The Wisdom of the Zohor); sec xxi-xxxi for a
discussion of its translation history. Note lliso the existence of II large number of
Aramaic T:lrgums, transilltions of the Hebrew Bible into Aramllie; see Stephan A.
292 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

Would Joseph Smith's introductory knowledge of Hebrew

have a llowed him to read the Zolwr in Aramaic? Th ere is one
piece of evidence that could indicate that it mi ght. 119 Portions of
len chapters of the Old Testame nt are in Aramaic (called Chaldean
in the carly nineteenth ce ntury).120 A student of Old Testament
Hebrew mi ght learn enough Aramaic to deal wi th these verses . In
a reprint from a newspaper, Joseph Sm ith is quoted as having said,
;'as a Cha ldcan might exclaim : Scram elai c lauh be shmayauh
gauhah rauzeen . (Certainly the re is a God in heaven to reveal
scc rcls.)" 121 This c itation is from Danie l 2:28, which is in
Aramaic, an indication thai so me basic study of Cha ldeanfArama ic
mi ght have occurred at Kirtland or Nauvoo in relati on to these
Aramai c biblical passages. Docs this demonstrate that Joseph
Sm ith knew enough Aramaic to read the untranslated Zolwr?
A contex tual reading of the Time; and Seasons art icle shows
that thi s passage is a political attack on Joseph Sm ith reprinted
from the Globe newspaper, to whi ch Joseph responded in the pre-
vious article in Till1 es {lnd Seasolls. The Globe is not fa vorable to
Joseph ; it call s him one of the "quad rupeds" in a poli tical
" me na ge ri e" in the subsequent parag raph. The Globe presents
this Aramaic quotation as a statement by Joseph Smith. But where
did the Globe get this passage? Was it from a printed essay? Wns it
transcri bed from a speech? Or Jre these words put into Jose ph' s
mouth by hi s ene mies? Part of the thru st of the article is to moc k
Joseph's lack of education, sayi ng ironically-in the next line-
"Joseph is unquesti onl y {sid a great scholar as well as finan c ier."
I\ssu ming thi s is an authentic quotation from Joseph- and it is
not at all clear that il is- what does it tell us of hi.') knowledge of
Aramaic? In facl, the passage is a mi squotation. Th e word tran-
sc ribed as gail/wI! should read gall/al! (g ale'). Somehow the" L "
has dropped out. It may be that a transcriber mi sheard the state-
ment (if it was spoken), or it may be a typographical error by an
editor. On the other hand, it cou ld be an indicat ion that Joseph did

Kaufman, "Aramaic," in The Anchor Wble DiCliOltary, ed. David Noel Freedman,
(New York: Doubleday. 1992).4:173-78.
119 I would like to thank Clark Goble for bringing this to my attention.
120 Ezra 4:8- 6:18: 7:12- 26; Daniel 2:4-7:28, alo ng with a few semtercd
words and phrases.
121 TimesGlldSetlSolls5{18April 1844): 511.
OWENS. JOSEPH SMITH AND KA8BALAJI (H AMBLIN) 293

not know Aramaic well, and was in fact mispronouncing o r mis-

quoting. Since Hebrew and Aramaic use the same script. it is quite
possible to pronounce Aramaic without being able to read it well,
in the same way that someone today can pronounce Lati n without
being able to understand it . Since Joseph was quot in g a biblical
tex t for which an English translation was available, it would be
poss ible for him to work from the King James Version to the
Aramaic without know ing Aramaic well. Joseph similarly occa-
sionall y quoted Latin in his Nauvoo-period speeches. Are we to
assume that he knew Latin well, or was he merely using s uch quo-
tati ons as rhetorical flourishes acco rdin g to the oratorica l custo m
of his day?
But even assum in g Joseph coul d read biblical Aramaic, th e
dialect of biblical Aramaic is different from that of the Zohar. l22
Furthermore, th e Zolwr is a very arcane and comp li cated tex!. A
basic knowledge of biblical Aramaic would not necessari ly be suf-
ficient to allow someone to read it. On the other hand, this passage
from the Globe is at least some evide nce- though relatively
weak- that Joseph cou ld read some Aramaic. Iron ically, although
thi s support s Owens's thesis, it does not help his original paper
since he didn ' t present this ev idence or even deal with the dist inc-
tion between Hebrew a nd Aramaic at all. The question st ill
re main s: even if Joseph knew suffic ie nt Aramaic to read the
Zohar, did he have access to a copy of the Zolwr?
Another q uestion is never addressed by Owens: did Neibaur
know Aramaic? The study of Aramaic was part of a trad itio na l
rabbi nic educati on because muc h of the T al mud is in Aramaic.
Did Neibaur receive a traditional rabb ini c education and the refo re
know enough Arama ic to read the Zohar? In fact, there are good
indications that he did not. Traditional Jew ish education in Europe
at the turn of the nineteenth century began with the ~I ede r
(primary sc hool), for st ude nts from abou t age fi ve to thirteen, in
whi ch Hebrew, the Torah, and introductory M ish nah were taught.
So me rudimentary biblical Aramaic was occas ionally introduced,
but hardly enough to pre pare one for the arcana of the Zoilar.
Formal Aramaic instruction was for the most part reserved for s tu-
dents fourteen and older in the yeshi vah, which focused largely on

t 22 Scholcm. Kabbu/tlh. 226.

294 FARMS REVIEW OF 800KS 8/2 (1996)

the Ara mai c Talmud . and whic h was intended as preparation fo r

the rabbinate. 123
However, begi nning in the late e ighteenth ccntury, E urope an
Jewish education underwe nt a maj or transfo rmation as part o f the
Ha skalah ~th e 1cwish Enl ighte nment (c. 177 0 s- 1880s).124 In
new Haskalah schools, alth ough study o f Hebrew and the T orah
were retained , "the traditi onal study of Mishn ah and Talmud was
abandoned , even in the secondary sc hoo ls."t25 Did Ne ibaur
attend a tradi tio nal yeshi vah from the age o f fourtee n to se ven-
teen, when he e nte red med ical school (p. 174), or did he attend
one of the ne w Haska lah sc hools, whic h had aba nd oned thc stud y .
of Ara maic and the Talmud for more secul ar studies? T he fact
that Nc ibaur at age seventeen had lea rned eno ug h Latin to be
ad mitted int o the Berlin medical school is an excelle nt ind icati o n
that he had au ended a Haskal ah school where Latin cou ld be
studied, rather tha n a yeshi vah. If Neibaur studied in a yesh ivah
from fo urteen to seventeen, how d id he lea rn eno ug h Latin to
enter med ical school? If not. how d id he learn enoug h Aramaic to
study the Zohar? S ince we know that Neibaur knew Latin (p. 174),
it would appear that he must have studied in a Haskalah schoo l,
and there fore did not study Arama ic extensively.
Another important impact o f the Haskal ah educati on system
was that its graduates were e manc ipated from the g hetto, received
secul ar uni versit y degrees, assimil ated to main stream genti le soc i-
ety, and went on to important secul:u careers in the middle class.
Many abandoned Juda ism and converted to Christianily.126 In
thi s regard Neibaur is also a classic e xample of a Haskalah Jew-
he attended a gentile uni versit y, embarked o n a career as a dentist,
converted 10 Christi anity, and assimilated 10 gentil e society. And ,
as Sc holem notes, there was a "fervent assault on the Kabba lah b y
the Haskalah movement in the 19th century." !27 Indeed , as not ed
above, the stud y of the Zollar was decreasing in both Chri stian and

123 William W. Brickman. "Education," in EJ 6:382-466, es p. 413- 26;

lhe article provides a genera! background on the history of Jewish education.
124 Ychuda Slutsky. "Haskalah," in EJ 7: 1433- 52 .
! 25 Brickman. "Education," in EJ 6: 422.
126 Jacob Katz. Ow oflhe Glrel/o: Tire Social Backgr-oulld of Jewish Eman·
cil'alion. 1770- 1870 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973).
127 Scholem, Kabbalah. 86: cf. Tishby, Wisdom of the Zolra r. 1:28.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMrrH AND KABBAlAH ( HA MBLIN) 295
Jew ish c ircles in the late eighteent h century, at whic h t ime
"students of the Zohar decli ned in numbe r, and the Kabbalah
became once more , particu larly in the East, a secret doctrine co n-
fi ned to restricted c ircles ." 128 T hus we find Owens claiming that
Neibaur and Joseph were infl uenced by kabbali stic ideas during
precisely the peri od of kabbali sm ' s least influence- between its
decline in t he mid-e ighteenth century and its revival in the laic
nineteenth .
Finall y, although Ne ibaur had so me earl y Jewish educatio n in
whic h he learned Hebrew, he s topped Jewish education at the age
o f seventeen to pursue secular stud ies at the Uni versity o f Berlin,
convert ing to C hristi anity at about twenty (p. 174) ; thus, e ven if he
had attended a traditi onal yeshivah, his study of Jewish Aram aic
lite rature must have remained fa irly superfici al. Furthe rmore,
according to traditional kabbali stic practice , initiates into th e
mysteries o f Kabbalah we re to be at least thirty years o ld and well
vc rsed in rabbinic literacure. 129 So why wo uld any kabbali st ha ve
taug ht Ne ibaur- a teenage yeshivah dropout who con verted to
Christianity at age twenty- the sac red mysteries of the Zolwr,
which were not to be taught to anyone younger th an th irty? As
Owens himself notes, kabbalis tic tex ts are so arcane that students
in variably need an "adept Kabbali st as a g uide" (p. 165). Thu s,
even if Neibaur could read Aramaic we ll- which is unli ke ly-it
does not demonstrate t hat he had read the Zohar, on ly that he was
capable of reading it. l3O
A lthough it is imposs ib le to know for sure, the scant ev ide nce
indicates that ne ither Neibaur no r Joseph Sm ith had more than a
basic know led ge of b ib lical Aramaic. Th e fact that Joseph was
tut ored by Neibaur in languages indicates that whatever the level

128 Tishby. Wisdom of Ilze Zolwr, 1:29; on the declin¢: of Christian

Kabbalah, see ibid., 1:27.
129 Ibid. , 1:29.
130 There is, howeve r. one piece of eviden.::e that Neibaur might have
known some Aramaic. tn his rimel' ann Seasons article he states '1lle pl aee
where those who roll them se lve.~ ... is Mount Ol ivet, according to the Chaldaic
translation ILe., Targuml 8:5 , Song of Solomon. So lomon prophesies the re tha t
at the resurrection. Mount Olivet will open itself so tho:Jt the ri ghteous may come
out of it"' (Ncibaur, 'T he Jews," 222). I will argue below that Ncibou r was ciling a
seeondory source here. 1 would like to thon k Clark Goble for bringing this
passage to my aUention.
296 FARMS REV IEW OF BOOKS sn ( 1996)

of Joseph' s knowledge of Hebrew and Aramaic, il was inferi or to

Ncibaur' s. It is unlikely that either man had a suffi cient grasp of
Aramaic to de lve in to the ex tre mely arcane, abstruse, and untra ns-
lated Zohar. 131 Since Neibaur converted to Christi anity before the
requ isite age of thi rty , it is highly un likely that he ever stud ied
Kabbalah . But, granting for the sake of argument that either
Neibaur or Joseph knew Arama ic suffic iently well , the q ue stion
still remains-is there any ev idence that they in fac t actually read
the Zohar?

Did Neibaur Have a Kabbalistic Library?

Owens argues that Alexander Neibaur "a pp are ntl y . .
lo wned ] an impre ss ive library of Kabbal istic writin gs" a nd
"ev ide nt ly new Isic l Kabbalah and its princ ipa l wri tten wo rk s"
(p. 173). Owens repeatedl y assen s d ifferent versions of this idea:
Ne ibaur " no t onl y knew someth ing of Kabbalah, but appa re ntl y
possessed a collection of origi nal Jewish Kabbalist ic works in
Nauvoo" (p. 175). Ne ibaur " pro ba bl y both possessed the
lkabba lislic \ texIS and had a ge neral know ledge of the ir con te nt s"
and " had access to the works he quoted" (p . 176) . T hese po ssi-
bi liti es are e ventuall y turned in to actua liti es when Owens spe aks
unequi vocally of the kabbali stic " book s Ne ibau r possessed"
(p. 177 ). Owens admits that "whe re and how Ne ibaur first c ame
in contact with Kabbalah remain s a mystery" (p. 174).
O ne e xplanati on for th is " myste ry " is, of course, simply th at
he never stud ied Kabbalah at all. What e vide nce does Owens pre s-
e nt that Ne ibaur had thi s alleged kabba listic library? No
kabbali stie books have survived. No o ne in Nauvoo e ver suw o r
mentioned these alleged books. Despite the ir undoubted ly g reat

13 1 Wi rswbski maintains that "Pica [de lla Mi randola l could wri te an e xer-
c ise in lIebrew prose compos ition moder,lIcly welL But to read a kabbali stic
book in the ori gi nal his mastery of l-Iebrew would have had to be of an ent irely
d ifferent order which wou ld lake yea rs 10 acquire. . It is qui le o ut of the ques-
tion th:11 Pico could nt Ih:ll time [1 4861 have read an unlransbtcd kabba lislic
book unaided." Pico dd/n M ir(U,dO/(I'J Encoullter. 4 (Wirswbski is not d iscuss-
ing the Aramaic Zohar here. bUI Hebrew k;Jhbalistic lexls). If Pico. one of the
greatest polyma th k schal:lrs of Ihe Renaissance. was unable 10 read kab bal iSl ic
tex Is afte r his introductory slUdy of Hcbrew. why should we assume Jose ph Smi th
would h;1Ve been able to'!
OWENS, JOSEPH SMrrH AND KABBAlAH (HAMBLIN) 297

value and bulk, they are not men tioned in Ne ibaur's estate.
Ne ither Ne ibaur nor anyone e lse ever quoted from them before or
after the Times and Seasom' article. No ulliquely kabba listic ideas
or terms surface in Latter·day Sa int thoug h!. For a ll intents, these
rare val uabl e books-important enough to supposedly transform
Latter-day Sai nt doctri ne in the King Follett Discourse-simpl y
vanished off the face of the eart h. And all this study of kabbali stic
tex ts was purported ly goin g on at prec isely the time Joseph was
ex hibiting the Egyptian papyri . If, as alleged , Joseph believed the
Zollar was the "o ld Bible" ( p. 183), why did Joseph not exh ibi t
the Zolwr and other rare kabbalistic texts along with the Egypt ian
papy ri?
Owens's argu mem is that since Neibaur quotes kabba listic
texts in hi s Times alld Seasons article, he must have had direct
access to those texts. There is, of course, a coun terexp lanation-
that Neibaur obtained the in fo rmat ion he presents in his art icle
from a secondary source. 132 Owens main tains that "a sing le
uncited compi lati on of kabba li stic materia ls contai ni ng this wide
collecti on of c itations has not yet been brought to my attent ion"
(p. 176 n. 127). Let me ass ist. The probab le source for Ne ibau r's
in formation is the SeIer Nishmat Hayyim of Manasseh ben Israel
( 1604- 1657), originall y published in 1651. 133 Manasseh was a
brilli ant man, "regarded in the world of scho larshi p as the leadi ng
representative of Hebrew learning, "134 who fo unded the firs t
Hebrew printi ng press in Amsterdam in 1626. He wrote the
Nishmat in the prime of his intellec tua l li fe. Manasseh's Nishmat is

132 Owens recognizes this possibility (p. 176 n. 127), along wi th the op-
tions that NeibauT studied the lexts in Europe, but did not have the m with him i n
Nauvoo.
133 For basic background on Manassch (or Menasseh) ben Israel, see Yoser
Kap lan, lIenry Mechou lan, and Richard H. Popkin, Men(lsseiz ben Israel (llld His
World (Leiden: Brill, 1989); Jesse Ross, "A Study of Manasseh ben Israe l's
·Nishmath Hayyim'·' (master's thesis. Hebrew Union College, 1931); Judah J.
Siolki, Menasseh ben Ismel: His Life ,mel Times (London: Jewish Religious Edu-
cational Publications, (953); Cecil Roth. A UJe oj Menasseh ben Israel (1935:
repri nt, New York: Arno Press. 1975): Ma nasseh ben Israel, Seier Nishmal
I/a)"im (1651; reprint, Brook lyn: Saphrograph, 1984 or 1985). In personal cor-
respondence with me Owens suggested that Manasseh's work might be a possi -
ble secondary source ror Neibaur's article.
\34 Cecil Roth. "Manasseh ben Israel." in EJ 11 :856.
298 FARMS RE VIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

the first text quoted by Neibaur in hi s Tim es and Sea sons articl e.
All other te xts cited by Ncibaur date from before 1651 , and the re-
fore could ha ve been read and quoted by Manasseh. A compari -
son of Manassch's sources used in the N; shmal sho ws that most of
the sources ciled by Neibaur were also used by Manasseh. 135
Finally. Manasseh's Nishmat was reprinted in 1841 , the year
Neibaur le ft England for Nau voo. and would therefore have been
casily access ible in a conte mporary edition . 136
Owens's theory requires that Nc ibaur have access to dozens o f
rare Hebrew books, some available o nly in edition s thai we re two
or three hundred years old . Neibaur must have read all these
books and personally se lected those passages relating to the th e me
of hi s short essay. Aftcr all this immense labor, for some un e x-
plained reaso n Neibaur never refers to or cites from thi s e xtensive
library of rare books aga in . Furthermore, for some arcane reason
never ex pla ined by Owens, Neibaur appears to have studi ed onl y
book s publi shed before 1651 , ignoring all the more accessible
and ine xpensive works published in the subseq uent two centuri es !
The alternati ve theory requires th at Neibaur have access to onl y
one boo k. , reprinted in the year before he publi shed hi s article, a
book by a world-fam ous Je wi sh sc holar who wrote an entire bo ok
on the subject of Ne ibaur's short essay , who had been an inte rna-
tional book dealer. and who is known to have read and cited
nearl y all the works me ntioned by Neibaur. Thu s onl y one book
need ha ve been misplaced or overlooked in Ne ibaur' s estate,
rather than an entire kabbali stic library.137

135 Ross. "A Study of Man:lSSe h ben Israel"s . Nishmath Hayyim:" 10-23.
provides a list of the main sources used in Manassch's Nishmal , which can be
compared with the sourees cited by Neibaur in the Times and Seasons (see appen-
dix). Ross notes that Manasseh quotcs from all the standard Talmud ic litera ture
:md the Zoha r.
136 Ma nasse h ben Israel. SeIer Nishmat Hayim ( 165 1; reprint, Ste nin :
Schrent1.el. 184 1).
137 I have nei the r the time nor the incl ination to read Manasseh's ent ire
work searchi ng for the possible refe rences cited in Nciba ur's Times ami Seaso ns
:lTticle. Fu rthe r resea rch in this direction could conclusive ly de mo nstrate one way
or another if the Nish I/WI was Neibaur's major or sole source for his art icle.
•

OWENS, JOSEPH SMITII AND KABBALAH ( HA MBLI N) 299

Did Joseph Smith Cite the Zohar in the King Follett

Discourse ?
The heart of Owens's thesis is th at Joseph S mi th wa<; in fl u-
e nced by the ZohaT in deve lop ing the ideas found in the Kin g
Follett discourse (pp. 178-84). The King Follett discourse focuses
on a number of unique Latter-day Sain i doctri nes: the possibi lity
of hu man de ification, the plurality of gods, the hierarchy and
council of the gods, and the idea that God was once a<; man is
now. 138 In hi s atlcmpt to establi sh paralle ls between Kabbalah and
the Ki ng Fallen Discourse. Owens takes both the Zolwr and
Joseph's sermon o ut of context and serious ly distorts their ideas.
He provides two exa mples from the King Fo ll ett discourse in
which he claims Joseph is q UOI ing "almost word fo r word from
the first sect ion of the lohar" (p. 178). These examp les are
highly problematic, and will be analyzed in detail.
Genesis J: J and the CreatiOIl. Owens asserts that Joseph
derived hi s interpretation of Genesis I : I, at least in part, fro m the
Zohar, which " agrees, word for word, with Josep h's readi ng"
(p. 180), and is "exac tly Joseph Smith's reading" (p.181). A
carefu l analysis of these texts demonstrates that Owens is, at best,
exaggeratin g. T he entire passage from the Zohar will be ci ted in
order to provide a fu ll context fo r the ideas that alleged ly in fl u-
e nced Jose ph. The porti ons of the text that Owens q uotes are

138 The King FoileH Discourse is available from several different publica-
tions: Donald Q. Cannon and Larry E. DahL The Prophet Josel,1I Smith's Kiltg
Follell Discourse: A Six Co/um'l Comp(lrison of Origin(ll Notes mul Ama/gama-
lions (provo. Utah: BYU Religious Studies Center, 1983) (hereaJter Cannon).
provides six parallel columns of the four journal sources, the standard edition (=
Time ollLi Seosons. II C, and Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smj/h) , and Stan
Larson's amalgamated text: Stan Larson. ''The King FolleH Discourse: A Newly
Am:lIgamated Tcxt," BYU Studies 18J1 ( 1978): 193-208 (hereafter Larson).
which is also in the Cannon and Dahl collection. Critical editions of the journal
sources can be found in Andrew F. Ehat :md Lyndon W. Cook. Tlu Words of
Jos eph Smith (Provo, Utah: BYU Religious Studies Center, 1980); tile standard
text was first published in Times (lnd Sew;{)/l.I" (15 August 1844). reprinted in HC
6:302- 17, and in TPJS. 342- 62. For general background on the King Follell
Discourse, see Donald Q. Cannon, 'The King Follett Discourse: Joseph Smith ' s
Greatest Sermon in Historical Perspective:' lJYU Smdies 1811 (1978): 179- 92.
Van Uale, "The Doctrinal Impact or the King Follett Di scourse," BYU Studies
1811 (1978): 209- 25.
300 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

hi ghli ghled in bold face. Readers can decide for the mselves how
mu ch thi s passage " resonat es" with Latter-day Saint Ihough!
whe n read in its proper contex t. 139

At the outset the dec ision of the King [Keter =

Cro wn = En Sof, the first seJiraJ l40 made a tracin g in
the supernal e ffulgence, a lamp of scintillations, and
there issued within the impenetrable recesses of the
mysteriou s limitl ess a shapeless nucleus enclosed in a
rin g, ne ithe r while no r black nor red nor g ree n nor of
any col our at all. When he [Crown = En SofI took
measurements, he fa shioned colours to show within a nd
wilhin the lamp there issued a certain efflu ence from
which col ours were imprinted below. The most myste-
rious Powe r [Crown = En SoO enshrouded in the li m-
itless cave, as it were, without cleav ing its void, remain -
ing wholly unknowable until from the force of th e
strokes there sho ne fo rth a superna l and mysterious
po int [l1okhmall = Wi sdom = second . . efira ). Beyond
that po int [Wisdom) there is no knowab le, a nd the re-
fo re it [Wi sdom) is call ed Reshirh (beg inning), the
creati ve ulle rance which is the starti ng-point of all.
It is written: A"d the intelligent shall shine
(yazhiru) like the hrightne....... (whar) of tlte firmament,
aud 'hey tltat tllm mmly to righteou~'" eH like the slars
forever alld ever (0::,". 12:3). There was indeed a
-"brightness" (Zohar). The Most Mysterious [C rown =

139 In order to mnteh Owens's tran~l:llion. I will use Ihlrry Sperling and
M ~uriee Simon. trans .. The Zolwr, 5 vols .. 2nd cd. ( Londo n: Sonci no. 1984);
the first ed ition. with the same pagination. was published from 1931-34. Refer·
ences to the ZIIhar will be made to the editio princel's pagination. with the
Sperling and Simon pages following an equal sign. A superior translat ion of
much of the Zoh(Ir. with very useful notes and commentary can be found in
Tish by. Till' Wi.HlolII of Ihe Zohar. which 1 ha vc used in my intcrpre tat ion. For
the original Aramaic text I have used Stier I/(/-Zolwr (Jerusalem: Yarid ha·
Sefarim. 1994).
140 '111e ufirol arc ten emanations of divine will. :lUthority. Clealive power.
or spiritual force. which were fir~t mentioned in the Sefer Yel~ira (sixth ce ntury
A.D. or earlier). and which were the objects of extensive discussion :lIId
specul;ltion in bbbnlistic liternture. See Tishby. Wisdom of Ihe loh(lr. 1:269-
370; Scholem . Kabb(llah. 23-26.
OWENS. JOSEPH SMITH AND KA8BALAH (HAMB LI N) 301

En Sof] struck its void, and caused this point to shine.

This " beginning" [reshith = Wi sdomj then extended,
a nd made for itself a palace [Binah = Palace = thi rd
sefira l for its honour a nd glor y. The re [i n Pal ace =
Binah] it [Begi nni ng = Wisdom) sowed a sacred seed
which was to generate for the benefi t of the universe.
and to which may be applied the Scri ptural words " t he
holy seed is the stock thereor' (I s. 6:3). Again there
was Zollr [brightnessl in that it sowed a seed for its
glory, just as the sil kworm enclose's itself, as it were, in a
palace of its own producti on which is bot h usefu l an d
beautifu l. Th us by means of this " beg in ni ng"
[bereshith = Wisdom] the Mysterious Unknown lEn
Son made th is pa lace [Aram . heykala, lit. "te mple" =
Binah]. This palace [B inah } is called Elohim, and this
doctrine is contained in the words, "By means of a
beginning [W isdom] (it) [En Son cr eated Elohim
[Palace = Binah] ." The Zollar [brightness] is that fr om
which were created all the creati ve utterances through
the exte nsion of the point of this mysterious brightness.
Nor need we be surpri sed at the use of the word
"c reat ed" ]baNd in thi s connecti on, seeing that we
read furt her on, "And God created ]bara l man in his
image" (Gen. 1:27). A furth er esoteric interpretation
of the word bereshith is as fo llows. The name of the
starting-point of all is Eh yeh (l shall be). The ho ly
name when insc ribed at its side is £lohitn. but when
inscribed by circumscription is Asher, the hidden and
recond ite temple, 141 the source of that which is mysti-
call y called Reshith. 14 2 The word Asher [i.e., the letters
Aleph, Shill , Resh from the word bereshithl is ana-
grammatically Rosh [head], th e begi nni ng which issues
from Reshith [W isdom ). So when [ ISh I the po int
[Beginni ng = Wi sdom l and the temple [Pa lace = Binah

141 The Aramaic reads he yka/a, literall y "temple," or " palace," as

translmed here. Howeve r. Spcrli ng and Simon occasionall y translate th is term a~
" palacc" (as above), which ma kes the re lations hips in their tra nslation uncle:1f.
142 The laha r is he re spceulnting on the name of God. "£hyeil Asher !:.· hyeh
= [ am who [ am," found in Exodus 3: 14.
302 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 811 (1996)

= Eloh iml were firmly established together, then

bereJhith combined the supernal Beginning [En Sof]
with Wisdom. Afterwards the c haracter of that temple
[Temple/Palace = Binah = ElohimJ was changed, and it
was called " hou se" (bayirh). The combination of this
with the supernal point whic h is called rash gives
bereshith,14 3 which is Ihe name used so long as the
house was uninhabited . When , however, it [bayilh =
Binah = Elohiml was sown with seed (by Wisdom] to
make il habitable, it was called Elohim, hidden and
mysterious. The Zohar (bri ghtn ess] was hidden and
withdrawn so long as the building was within and yet to
bring forth, and the hOllse was extended on ly so far as
to find room for the holy seed . Before it had concei ved
and had extended sufficientl y to be habitable, it was not
called EfoiJim, but all was still inc luded in the term
Bereshilh. After it had acquired the name of Efohim , it
brought forth off.spring from the seed that had bee n
implant ed in it. 144

Could Joseph possibl y have formu lated the ideas in the King
Follett di scourse from this passage in the Zohar? Even the bold -
face passages selective ly taken out of context by Owens bear little
resemblance to Joseph' s King Follett Di scourse:
I will go to the very first Hebrew word-
BERESHITH- in the Bible and make a comment on
the fir st sentence of the hi story of creation: "In the bc-
ginnin g... " [ wanl to analyze the word BERESHITH.
BE- in, by , throu gh, and everyth ing else; nex t,
ROSH- the head; ITH . Where did it come from ? When
the inspired man wrote it , he did not put the first part-
the BE- the re; but a man-an old Jew without any

143 The Hebrew lellers B-Y-T (bayjlh ) when anagra ma lically added 10 R-'-
Sh (rash) ean spell B-R-E-'-Sh-Y-T "'" be- re 'shill! = in the beginning.
144 Zolmr, 1:15a- 15b = 1:63- 64. See also Tishby's Iranslation with exten-
sive annotation in Wi.tI/olI! 01 rile ZO/r(lr. 1:309- 13. Tishby's essays on En Sof,
eman:Jtion. and the slj"irol are all extremely useful. Wisdom of th e Zohor. 1:229 -
55. 269-307. The eventual offspring of the feminine/mother Palace = Binah =
Elohirn are the seven other l·cfirut.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBALAH (HAM BLI N) 303

authority- put it there. He though t it too bad to beg in

to talk about the head of any man. It read in the first:
"The Head One of the Gods brought fo rth the God s."
Thi s is the true meani ng of the words. ROS HITH
[S ARA ELOHIMJ signifi es [the Head] to bri ng fo rth
the Elohim. 145
A comparat ive chart of the two readings gives the fo llow ing:

Joseph reads Genes is I: I as fo llows:

roJh lilh ] bara elohim
the Head rGod] brought forth the gods

Th e Zolwr interprets Genes is 1: J as follows:

be reshith bara elohim
by means of the Beg inn ing lit1 created the palace
#2 Ho khm ah #1 Keter = #3 Binah
= Wisdom En So f
Con trary to Owens's claim that the Zohar's interpretati on is
"exactl y Joseph Smith's readi ng" (p. 18 1), I fi nd that Jose ph 's
understandi ng is qu ite different.
I . Joseph drops the Hebrew particle be, because it was added
by "an old Jew wi thout any a ut ho r ity."146 The Zohar retains the
particle, understand ing it in an instru mental sense-"by means
or'- rather than the usual temporal sense-"al the time 0 f"
(both are withi n the normal range of Hebrew usage).147
2. Joseph transforms reshith into ils trilitera l Se mit ic root rosh,
droppi ng the itl! (presu mably because it, loa, was added by the
Jew without authorit y). He understands rosh to mean "the Head
lGod}." The ZoJwr retains reshith, understanding it as a prope r

[45 King Follett Discourse: Cannon. 37: Writings of Joseph Smith. 345,
350-5[,358; Larson. 202; TPJS. 348. I am citi ng the Larson version.
! 46 King Fol[ett Discourse: Cannon. 37-38: Writings of Josef,1! SlIIilh.
358; L:lrson, 202: TPJS, 34~. One might reasonably ask why Joseph wQuld have
considered the 7.ohar to be the authoritative "old Bib[e" when it kcpt the
unauthoritative bl'.
147 For the grammar or the Hehrew particle be. sce Emi[ Kaut zsch. ed ..
Gesenius' Ifebrew Gmmlll(lT, 2nd ed. (1910: reprint, Oxford: Oxford Universi ty
Press, 1983) , 379-80.
304 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS sn ( 1996)
name, " Beg inn ing," a metaphorical reference to the second
seJira, Wisdom. For the Zollar the " Head God" would be the first
sejira, KctcrlEn sor, not the second sefira, Wi sdom/Beginning.
3. Joseph understands bara to mean to "bring forth" or to
"organize." He ex plicitly rejects ex "ihilo creation.
The learned doctors who arc preaching salvation
say that God created the heavens and earth out of
nothing. . . . You ask them why. and they say.
" Doesn' t the Bible say He created the world?" And
they infer that it mu st be out of nothing. The word cre-
ate came f rom the word SARA , but it doesn't mean so.
What docs BARA mean? It means to organize; the same
as a man wou ld organize and use things to build a
s hip. Hence, we infer that God Himse lf had materials to
organize the world out of chaos----c haotic matte r-
which is elemen t and in wh ich dwells all the glo ry.
Ele ment had an ex iste nce from the time He had . 148

Although the Zohar has a compli cated unde rstanding of c rea~

tion by emanation, its fundamenta l understandin g of bara is " to
create" ex nihilo. "W hen the Ho ly One, blessed be He, created
Hi s worlds, He created them from nothing, and brou ght them into
actua lity, and made substance out of them; and you find the word
bam (H e c reated) used always of someth ing that He created from
nothin g, and broug ht into actuality. "149 Thus Joseph 's under-
stand!ng of creation is exact ly opposite that of the kabbali sts.
4. Joseph and the Zolwr each have a differe nt subject for th e
verb banI. Joseph sees rosh, the " Head IGodJ." as creating. while
the Zo/wr understands an implied pronoun it, referring to the first
sefira-Keter/C rown/E n Sof-as d oing the creating. by means of
the Beginning (reJ hirh ). a metaphor for the second Jefira Wisdom.
For the ZoJwr "the B egi nnin g"-re~'hi rh - i s not the g rammatical
subject of the verb bara, while for Joseph it is.

148 King Follctt Discourse; Cannon. 45-48; Writillgs of Joseph Smith.

345.350-5 1. 358: Larson. 203; TPJS. 348.
t 49 Zohar f/(ul(l sh, 8f're~·hit. 17b, in Tishby. Wisdoll1 of the Zolwr, 2; 5 72;
see 2:549-55 for a di scussion of the complexities of the kabbalistic underSland·
ing of creation.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KAIWA/AH (HAMBLIN) 305

S. The on ly simi larity between these two interpretations is that,

for both, elohim is the object rat he r th an the subject of the
ve rb. I SO But even there, Joseph understands eloh im as the objec t
of the sentence, and inte rprets it li terally as "gods." While the
Zohar also sees elohim as the object of the sentence, it interprets it
qu ite metaphorica lly as "palace," referring to the thi rd c ma na-
tion, the seJira Bi nah (Understandi ng).
When read in context and understood correctly, it is very d if-
fic ult to see how this passage from the Zohar "agrees word for
word" (p. 180) or is "cxac tl y" (p. 18 1) li ke Joseph's inte rpreta-
tion. Indeed, I am baffled as to how anyone cou ld be expected to
read this passage from the Zohar, and come up with Joseph
Smith's understanding of c reatio n and the nature of God.
Plurality of Gods. Owens next alleges that Joseph's concept of
the plura lity and hierarchy of the gods derives- at least in part-
fro m his reading the Zo/wr. Speaking of Joseph's understand ing
of the word elohim, Owens maintains that
Smi th translates Elohim in the pl ural, as " t he
Gods." The word is indeed in a plura l Hebrew form,
but by the orthodox: interpretative conventions Joseph
was taught in hi s Kirtland Hebrew class.. it is read as
singu lar. In the Zohar, however, it is in terpreted in the
plural. This is wi tnessed throughou t the lahar and
appea rs clearl y in the fo llowing paragra ph fro m the
opening sections of the work,15 1 where the phrase "Let
us make ma n" (Gen. I :26) is used as the bas is fo r a
discussion lin the Zoharl on the plurality of the gods:
" , Us' certai nly refers to two, of which one said to the
ot her above iI, ' let us make,' nor did it do anyt hing
save with the permiss ion and direction of the one above
it, wh ile the one above did noth ing without consu lt ing

150 It should be nmed that Joseph's reading is standard English syntax

with Hebrew vocabulary.
15 1 Owcns provides no cvidenee for his 3ssertion that the te rm elohim is
consistently used with plural verbs in the Zohar. The idiosyncratic use of clohim
in the Zohar is d iscussed below (sec pp. 30S-11). In the KJV Bible. when the
verb associated with elohim is singular. it is gcnernlly trnnslatcd liS "God_"
When the verb is plur.ll. elolJim is generally tr;mslated as "gods," or occasion-
ally "angcls."
306 FARMS Rr:;VIEW OF BOOKS 8/2 (1996)

its col league. But that whic h is called 'the Cause abo ve
all cau ses,' which has no superior o r even equal, as II is
written, 'To whom shall yc lik en me, that I should be
equal?' (Is. 40:25), said. 'Sec now that I, I am he, and
Eloh im is not with me,' from whom he should take
counsel. ... Withal the colleagues ex.p lained the word
Elohim in this verse as referri ng to other gods." Within
this passage is both the concept of plurality and of th e
hie rarchy of Gods act ing "w ith the pe rmi ss ion and
direction of the one above il. whi le the onc above did
nothing without consulting its co ll eag ue ." Thi s inte r-
pretation is of course ec hoed in the Kin g Fo llett dis-
course and became a foundation for all su bsequ en t
Mormo n theosoph y.152 (p. 182)

Owens's analysis he re is replete with diflicult ies . Owens cl aims

that the passages he qu otes are a commentary on Genes is 1: 26.
Whil e it is true that this passage is found in the ge nera l section o n
Genesis 1:26 (Zolwr I :22a-24b = I :90-97), the spec ific text ci ted
by Owens is actu ally-i n typical Zoharic fashion - a le ngth y
digression on De llteronomy 32:39 (Zohar I :22b- 23a = 1:92- 94),
which reads "See now Ih at I. I am he, and elohim is/are not with
me." Here is the e ntire passage in question, with the section s
quoted by Owens in bold Iype.

Rlabbil Simeon then proceeded, taking as his lext:

.See IIOW that I. I am he, alld Elollilll is 1101 with me, etc.
(Deul. 32:39). He said: "Friends, here arc some pro-
found mysteries which I desire to reveal to you now
that permiss ion has been g ive n 10 utler them. Who is il
that says, 'See now Ihal 1, I am he'? Thi s is the Cause
wh ich is above all those on hi gh, that which is ca lled the
Cause of causes (Wi sdom = HokhmahJ. It is above
those other causes [the Sefiroth l, since none of th ose

152 Citing Zollar 22b-23a '" 92-94. Owens' S page references from th e
7.nlwr arc inaccurate. He claims that the passage is fro m 1:23b (p. IR2 n. (43).
while in fact the material before the ellipses is from I :22b = 93 and the material
afler the ellipses is from 1:23a = 94; cr. Tishby. Wisdom of Ihe Zohar. 1:258-
59. Incidentally. despite Owens's rhetoric. it is not at all clear that Mormonism
has a ··theosophy."
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBA LAH (H AMBLI N) 307

cause s does anything till it obtains permiss ion from that

whi ch is above it , as we pointed out above in respect to
the e xpression, 'Let liS make man ' [in Ge n. 1: 26 \. 'Us '
certainly refers to two, of which onc IW isdomJ said to
the other above it lEn So fl, 'let us make', nor did it
(Wi sdomJ do anything save wilh the permission and
direction of the one above it, while the one above did
nothing without consulting its colleague. But that
which is called 'the Cause above all causes' [Crown =
Keler = En Son, which has no supcrior or even equal,
as it is written, 'To whom shall ye liken me, that I
should be equal?' (Is. 40:25), said, 'Sec now that I, I
am hc, and Elohim (the third Sefirah BinahJ is not
with mc' [De ut. 32: 39 ), from whom he should take
counsel, like that of wh ich it is written. 'and God said,
Let us make m,m· ."
The colleagues he re inte rrupted him and said ,
" Rabbi, allow us to make a remark . Did you not state
above that the Cause of causes [HokhmahlWisdom) said
to the Sefirah Kether [En SofJ . ' Let us make man' ?"
He answered, " You do not listen to what you are
saying. The re is somethin g that is called 'Cause of
causes' [HokhmahJ , but th at is not the 'Cause abo ve all
causes' lEn Sofl which I me nti oned, which has no
colleague of whi ch it should take coun sel. for it is
unique, prior to all , a nd has no partne r. There fore it
[Crown = Keter = En Sof] says: 'Sec now that I. I am
he. and Elolzim is not with me ', of which it should tak e
coun se l, since it has no colleague and no partner, nor
even number, for there is a 'o ne ' which connotes
combinati on, such as ma le and female, of whom it is
writlen, ' for I have called him one' (Is. 5 1:2); but thi s
[En SofJ is one without number and without combina-
tio n. a nd therefore it is said : 'and Elohim is not with
In e' ."
They all rose and prostrated themselves befo re him,
saying , "happy the man whose Master agrees with him
in the expositi on of hidden mysteries which have no t
been revealed to the ho ly an ge ls."
308 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 (1996)

He proceeded: "Friends, we must expound the rest

of the verse ! Deuterono my 32:39]. since it contains
many hidden mysteries. The next words are; I kill and
make alive, etc. That is to say. through the Sefirolh on
the ri ght side I make ali ve and through the Sefirolh on
the left side I kill; but if the Central Column lof the
Tree of the SefirotJ does nol conc ur, sentence cannot
be passed, since they form a court of three. Sometimes,
[23a] even when they all three agree to condemn. there
co mes the right hand which is out st retched to receive
those that repen t; this is the Tetragrammatoll. and it is
also the Shekinah, which is ca lled 'right hand ', from
the side of [the Sefi ra J Hesed (kindness). When a man
repents. this hand saves him from punishment. But
when the Cause which is above all causes [En Son con-
demns, then 'there is nOllc that dclivers from my
hand'." I DellI. 32:391
Withal the colleagues explained the word Elohim
in this verse [Deul. 32:39 1 as referring to other
gods,!53 and the words "1 kill amI make alivc" as
meaning "I kill with my Shekin ah him who is guilt y,
and preserve by it him who is innocenl."
What, however, has been said above concerning the
Supreme Cause [En Sofi is a secret which has been
transmilled on ly to wise men and prophets. See now
how many hidden causes there are envelo ped in the
Sejirolh :lnd , as it were, mounted on the Sefirolh, hid -
den from the comp rehension of human beings: of
them it is said, ' for one higher than another wateheth'
(Eccl. 5:7). There are li ghts upon lights, one more clear
than another, each o ne dark by comparison with the
one above it from which it receives its light. As for the
Supreme Cause lEn Sof], all lights are dark in its pres-
ence,

153 Thc 1994 Aramaic edition of Seier /w -Zohar I consulted has a lmost an
additional page of Aramaic tcxt before and after this passage that is not found in
the Sperling and Simon translation, again indicating (hc importance of consult-
ing the original texts Smith and Neib:lur supposcdly read, rather than relying on
a translat ion from :lImos! a century later.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAU,H (HAMBLI N) 309

Anot her ex planation of the verse "Let us mak e

man in our image after o ur likeness" was g iven by the
collcagues, who put these words into the mouth of the
mini steri ng ange ls. Said R. S imeon to them, "S inc e
they {the angels] know what has been and what will be,
they must have known th at he [AdamJ was destined to
sin. W hy, then, d id they make thi s proposal [to create
Adam]? Nay more, Uzza and Azael [two angels, who
eventuall y fe ll] actuall y opposed it [the creation o f
AdamI . For when the Shekhinllh said to God ' Let us
make man', they [Uzza and AzaelJ said, 'What is man
that thou shouldst know him? Why desi rest thou to c re-
ale man, who, as thou knowest, will sin befo re thee
throu gh his wife? Who is the darkness to his light, light
being male and darkness female?,,'154

The passage from the Zolwr c ited by Owens before the e ll ip-
ses is, in fact, a digression within a digression, referring back to the
orig inal the me of the entire section of the commentary, Genesis
I :26. Owens uses ellipses to c ut an en tire page o f the tex t in the
English trans lation, during which time the theme shifts to
Deu teronomy 32:39. The antecedent o f "t hi s verse" in Owens's
post-ell ipses phrase "w itha l the co llcagues explai ncd the word
Elohim in this verse as referring to other gods" is not Genes is
1:26 as Owens cla ims (p. 182), but Deu teronomy 32:39!
In con text it is qu ite clear that the Zolwr makes no menlion of
the hierarchy or council o f the gods mentioned by Joscph;155 the
lohar speaks in stead of the participation of the sefirol (em a-
nations), the ministeri ng angels and the Shekirwh (l iterall y the
"d we lli ng," but rou ghly the Hol y Spi rit), none of which are
mentio ned by Joseph . The exac t antecedent of the phrase "o th e r
gods" in this passage is amb iguous. It may well be a technical
term from the Old Testament referring not to the true God, but 10

154 ZQhar, 22b-23a '" 1:92-94. Cf. Tishby. Win/om of tire Zolwr. 1:258-
59.
155 King Follett Discourse: Cannon. 37; Writirrgs of Joseph Smjtir. 345.
350-51,358: Larson. 202-3; TPJS. 34K, and [he book of Abraham 4 ;rod 5 for
information on the council of the gods.
310 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 (1996)

the fa lse pagan gods. 156 Contra Owens, who claims that elohim in
the Zohar refers to a plurality of gods (pp. 182-8 3), the term
elohim has a technical meaning in the Zohar. "The name Elahilll
is oft en used for three Sefirol joi ntly; Binah [#3 Understanding1,
Cel1llrah [#5 PowerJ, and Malkllllt [#10 SoYcre ig nl yl."157
Another sel of code names for the sefirol includes

a ran ge of len names [of God] . [which] are a ppli ed

parti cularly to the tcn sefirot. The names in the orde r of
the ufirot are : EIJyeh f= I; #1 Crown ], Yah [ =
shortened form of YHVH; #2 Wisdom] , YHVH with the
vocalization of Elohim [= YeHoViH; #3 Understand-
ing] , £1 [= God; #4 Love }, Elohim 1= God/gods; #5
Power], YHVH [= YahwchIJchovah; #6 Beauty], YHVH
Zeva'ot [= Yahweh o f Armies, tran slated in the KJV as
"Lord o f Hosts"; #7 Eternity]. Elohim Zeva'OI [= G od
of Hosts; #8 Majesty ), Shadda; 1= Almi ght y: #9 Foun+
dation], Adollll; [= Lord: #10 Sovere ignty] ."158

Thu s, when properly undcrslOod , thi s passage docs not refer to a

plura lit y of gods, but to spec ific .~efirol that are given the name
elohim by the kabba ii sis.
For the kabbali st, these names of God, mcJuding dohim, d o
not represe nt ontologically separate di vine beings- as in Joseph
Smith's understandi ng- but different powers or emanations of
the sin gle divine reality, "The Torah can be seen as a great store·
house of the names of God in different combinat ions, all of which

156 'nle loci classici are Exodus 20:3 and DeUleronomy 5:7 "thou s hl tt
h:wc no OIiJer god)' berore me." The phrase OIher g(){/s (I-Iebrew elohim akherim)
is ubiqu itous throughout the Old TCSllmcnt (sec, for example, Deuteronomy
6: t 4: 17:3: 28:36; Judges 2:19: 1 Kings 14 :9; Robert Young, Analytical
Concordtmce to the fJib/e (Grand Rapids: Ecrdmans, 19741,7231', provides many
other references), almost alwa ys referring to fa lse pagan deities.
157 Ti shby, Wisdom of the Zo/wr, 1:294.
158 Ibid., sec Tishby, Wisdom of {he Zo/wr, 1:269, d, 269-307 for a
detailed disc ussion of the $cjirol in the Zollll r. ''There is hardly any mention of
SejirOI [by that name in the Zohar l, apart from the later sectio ns. Instead we have
a whole st ring of names: ' levels.' 'powers.' 'sides' or 'areas' (sil ri,,), 'worlds,'
'firmaments,' 'pillars,' 'lights,' 'colors,' 'days,' 'gates,' 'slreams,' 'garments,'
'crowns,' and others" (Ti shhy 1:269). Note that the term elohim is not included
in Tis hby's list of the usual names for the sejirot.
r

OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABllAlA11 (H AMBLIN) 3 11

des ignate specific forces of ema nati on." IS9 Although some Jew-
ish opponents of kabbali sm accused them of polythe ism, the kab -
bali sls the mselves rejected this criticism. The sefirot were not sepa-
rale gods, but were emanations or instrument s o f God. Kabbali sis
frequently described the re lation ship between God a nd the .~efirol
metaphorically as the relationship between a coa l and its flam e or
a lamp and its light. 160
Allthropomorphism . Another significant differe nce between
the kabbali stic and Joseph's understanding of G od is divine
anthropomorphi sm. 16 1 Joseph Sm ith' s understand i ng of God is
e xplic itly and unrcpenlanlly ant hropomorph ic. "God Himself
who sits enthroned in yonder heavens is a Man like unto one of
yourselves- that is the great secret! . . If you were to see Him
today, you would see Him in all the person, image, fashion, a nd
very form of a man, like younelves." 162 A lth ough kabbalistic lit-
erature uses anthropomorphic lan guage extensive ly, the kabbalists
were insistent that such language was strictly metaphorical and did
not literally describe the nature o f God . As the fourteenth -century
kabbalist Joseph Gi kat illa exp lains it

There is no creature that can know or u nde rstand

the nature o f the thin g called " hand " or "foot" or
"ear" (of Godl and the like . And even thoug h we are
made in the image and likeness (of Godl, do not think
for a moment that "eye" (of God] is in the form of a
real eye, or that " hand " ro f God} is in the form of a
real hand .... Know and understand that between Him
and us there is no likeness as to substance and shape.
but the forms of the limbs that we have denote that they
arc made in the likeness of signs that indicate secret,

! 59 Tishby . Wisdom of Ille Zollar, 1:293- 94.

160 Ibid., 1:237-46. PIOlinus <l Isa uses the metaphor of the re lation of 11
scent 10 perfume bottle, £/Ilrelllk 5.1.6.
161 Tishby. Winfom of lire Zohar. 1:286.
162 King Fo llett Discourse: Cannon. 27- 33; Wrilillgs of JOS('fJh SlIIilll.
344, 349, 357; Larson. 200-2Ul; 7P JS, 345-47; cf. Doctrine and Coven<lnts
t30:22. Cf. Pau lsen. 'The Doctrine of Divine Embodiment:' for many further
e~amples .
312 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 8/2 ( 1996)

celestial matters, which the mind cannot know except

throu gh a kind of reminder. J 63

No two concepts of God cou ld be further apart.

In summary, Owens mi sleadingl y presents his own mi sreadin g
as if it were the o riginal intent of the Zollar. For Owens's thesis to
have any validity we arc thus required to believe that Joseph
derived support for his concept of God from Owens's own late
twentieth-cen tury misreading of an early twentiet h-century Eng -
lish translatio n of a document that the kabbalistic adept Ncibaur
supposedly read to Joseph from the Aramaic o riginal!
WI/at I s life "Old Bible "? Owens offers a final instance of
alleged innucnce of the Zollar on Joseph Smith .

In the King Follett Discourse, Joseph stated that he

would go to the "old Bible." In Kabbali stic lore. th e
commen tary of the Zollor represented the oldest bibli-
cal interpretation, the secret interpretati on imparted b y
God to Adam and all worthy prophets after him . . .
Was then the "old Bible" he [J osephJ used the Zohar?
( p . 183)

Besides the obv ious probl e m that a rhetorical questi on doe s

not eq ual ev ide nce . it is in fact quite clear that the term " 0 I d
Bible" was generall y used by early Latter-day Sai nts to refer to
the O ld Testament. just as Joseph Smith does in the Kin g Follett
Di scourse. Joseph in sisted that he could prove hi s doctrines " from

163 Ciled by Tishby. Wisdom of Ihe Zo/wr. 1:286-87: Tishby concludes

Ihm for:l kabbaliSI "10 take the [:mlhropomorphic] symbols lite rall y as denot-
ing the actual essence of God is considered 10 be a form of idolatry" ( p. 287).
Wolfson. Through a Spec ululII . provides numerous details nnd references to the
various views of :lnthropomoTphism throu ghout ancient and medievlll Jewi sh
thought. providing evidence Ihat the more <lTchaic Jewish thou ght was more an·
thropomorphic (and therefore closer to Joseph Smith's). while I:lter t:llmudic and
medie val Jewish Ihinkers reintcrpreted early Jewish :mlhropomorphic language
met:lphorically. For example. Moses M:limonides. The Guide of the />upll.-.rell.
tmns. Shlomo Pines. 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chkago Press. 1(63). 84-
85. maintains that those who believe in divine corporeality "hate" God. They :Ire
worse than ido!aters: they arc infidels. I would like 10 thank Daniel C. I>ete rson
fo r this reference.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBALAH (HAMBLIN) 313

the Bible."164 "1 suppose I am not allowed to go into an investi-

gat ion of anythin g that is not contained in the Bible," Joseph
cont inued. "If I should, you wou ld cry treason, and I think there
are so many learned and wise men here who would put me to
death for treason. I will, then, go to the old Bibl e and turn com-
men tator today."165 Joseph then proceeded with his exegesis of
Genesis I: I that Owens maintains was based on the Zolwr. Are we
to believe that Joseph Smith said that if he used sources other than
the Bible people would "cry treason," and then promptly
proceeded to quote from the Zohar in order to avoid this criti-
cism?
Early Lauer-day Saints clearly understood the term "o ld
Bible" to refer to the Old Testament or even the Bible as a whole.
Orson Hyde disagreed with the view that "that Old Bible was for
the Jews, and has nothing to do with us; thai is the Old Testa-
ment. " Becau se of this, he maintained, "t he Christian world by
thei r prejudices have dr iven us away from the Old Bible, so \\'e
must now appea l to the New Testa ment."166 Heber C. Kimball
used the phrase in the same sense: "Was there any revelation that
we should come to the mountains? Yes. and there were predictions
in the old Bible that we shou ld come here . "167 John Taylor even
used the phrase to refer to the New Testament: "any man that has
the testi mony of Jesus has the spirit of prophecy; for 'the testi-
mony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy?, so says the old
Bible."J68
The Abl"ence of Uniquely Kabbali.~tic Ideas. The great meth -
odo log ical prob lem of Owens-again mirrored in Brooke' s
method- is hi s failu re to prov ide parallel s between unique kab-
balistic ideas and Lauer-day Saint thought. 169 There are hund reds
of uni quel)' hermetic, alchemical, and kabbalistic au thors, people,

164 King Follett Discourse: Cannon, 29-30: Wrilings of Joseph Smilh,

345: Larson. 201: TPJS. 346.
165 Kin g FoUel( Discourse: Cannon. 37; Wriling.~ of Joser/II SlIlil/l, 345;
Larson, 202; TPJS. 358.
166 Orson Hyde, 6 October 1856. JD 2:79-110 .
167 Heber C. Kimball. 9 February 1862, JD 9:374: with reference to Isaiah
2:2.
168 John T<lylor. 23 August 1K57. 1D 5: 147. citing Revelation 19: I O.
169 Hmllblin. Peterson. and Minon. ··Mormon in the Fiery Furnace:· 39-
43.
314 FARMS REvIEW QF BOOKS sn ( /996)

books, and terms. Why is it thai not a single one of these appears
in the writings of Joseph Smith or other early Latter-day Saints?
Why arc Joseph's a lleged references to esoteric thoughl always
vague and allusive, never spec ific and concrete? Why do the
alleged parallels between Joseph and esoteric thought genera lly
find bib lical antecedents, to which Joseph often explicitly refers?
Owens 's claim that Joseph was influenced by the Zohar offers
an excellent lest in ou r search for unique kabbalistic ideas. When
Owens insists that the " inte rpretation of Genesis 1: 1 [that influ-
enced Joseph] is not deeply hidden in the Zohar, but constitutes ils
openin g paragraphs" (p. 181), he is seriously mi srepresenting the
structure of the lahar. He repeatedl y asserts that the passages he
exami nes are "from the openin g sectio ns of the" lohar (p. 182).
o r "from the first section of the lohar" (p. 178). In reality the
passages c ited by Owens cannot possibly be described as const i-
tuting the "opening paragraphs" of the Zohar. They are, in fact,
one-fourth of the way into the first volume-pages 93 and 94 of a
376- page translation .
Owens's thesis requires us to bel ieve that Ncibaur or Josep h
waded through forty-five pages l70 of arcane esoteric Aramaic
(n inety-four pages in Eng li sh translation) to have arrived at the
pas sages that allegedly influenced Joseph . If Joseph accepted the
201wI" as the authoritative "old Bibl e" (p. 183). and had read
forty-five pages of Aramaic to get to the passages he is "q uot in g
almost word for word" (p. 178), should we not find so me evi-
dence of the uni que ideas from the OI her pages that Joseph or
Neibaur must have read to get to the passages Owens claims he
quotes? Where in the thought of Joseph Smith . fo r example. are
the fo llowi ng ideas from the Zolwr:
• the importance of Rabbi Simeon ( 1: la = 1:3. ff.)] 7 l
• spec ulations on th e mystical interchangeability of mi (who)
and mal! (what), and eleh (these), and elohim (god/gods) ( 1: lb-
I :2a = 4- 7)

170 The early printed editions of thc whar :lrc refercnccd by onc number for
hoth the rt'(:fQ and \·er.w p:lgcs. Thus page 23:1 from whic h Joseph supposedly
quutes. is in fact the forty-fi fth page of the lohar.
17 t In the (ollowing citations. the first reference is ( 0 the t'llilio f,rill Cep5
of the Zollar. whilc thc second is to the Sperling and Simon tr:lIlslntion.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAUIU (HAM BLI N) 315

• the story of the personificati on of thc Hebrew Alphabet and

the select ion of the leiter aleph for the creation ( I :2b-3b = I :9-
13 )
• the "six chief supernal directions" (I:3b = 1:13)
• the celesti al lamp ( I :3b = I: 14)
• the ce lestial ascent of Rabbi Hiya and his encounter with the
angel ic R. S imeon (I:4a-4b = 1: 15- 18)
• the importance of esoteric interpretati on of the Torah
(lAb- Sa = Ll 9-21)
• the miraculous appearance of Rabbi Hamnuna to Rabbis
Eleazar and Abba, and his esoteric teachings (I :5b-7a = 1:22- 28)
• the idea of the hi gher and lower garden s of Eden ( 1:7a =
1,29)
• Elisha's use of the seventy-two mystical names to resuscitate
the son of the Shunammite widow ( I :7b = 1:30-31)
• speculations on the bride and Shekifwh (I :8a- 9a = 1:32-
37)
• angelic ignorance of Arama ic ( 1;9a-9b = 1:38- 39)
• the seven leve ls of hell ( I :9b = 1:39)
• the archange l of the gentil es ( 1: IOa = 1:4 1-42)
• kabbali stic demonology (I :9b = 1:39-40. 1: lOb = 1:43-44)
• the heavenl y academy (I: I Ob = 1:44)
• the fo urteen precepts of the Torah and their relat ionsh ip to
creat ion ( 1: llb- 14b = 1:47-60)
• how the study of the Torah transforms men into ange ls
(Ll2b = L52)
• the importance of phylacteries (I: l 3b- \4a = 1:57-58)
• the importance of having in tercourse on the Sabbath without
using cand les ( 1: 14a- 14b = 1:60)
• the myst ical ori gins of the Hebrew letters and vowels ( I : 15b
= L 65).172
Are we really to believe that Joseph se lected onl y these items
from the Zohar fo r whic h he himself prov ided biblical support,
ignoring these and many other ideas that are unique to that
document?

172 The ZolUJr goes on in a similar vein for almost another thirty translaTed
pages beforc rcaching the passage Joseph allegedly citcs. Examptes of uniquely
kabbalistie ideas could thus he further multiplied.
316 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 8/2 ( 1996)

But lei us momcnlarily granl , for the sake of argument, that

Joseph o r Neibaur somehow got a copy of the Zolrar in the
Nauvoo period and misread the Aramaic in precisely the same
manner that Owens has mis read the Engli sh translat ion 150 years
later. Is such a proposit ion at all he lpful in exp lain ing the ori gin
of the idea of plurality of gods in Latter-day Saint theo logy? In
3 Nephi 28:10, publi shed in 1830, we learn that "ye [the right-
eous Neph itesJ shall sit down in the kingdom of my Father; yea,
your joy shall be full , even as the Father hat h given me fu lness of
joy; and ye shall be even as I ICh ri stl am, and I am even as the
Father; and the Father and I arc o nc." That the fait hful shall be
even as Ch rist and the Father certain ly imp lies hu man deification ,
and thereby plurality of gods. Are we to ass ume that the Zohar
influenced the writing of the Book of Mo rmon?! 73 How do the
alleged kabbali stic in fl uences on Joseph in 1844 explain Doctrine
and Covenants 76:57- 581 " And [those in the Celestial K ingdom]
are priests of the Most High, after Ihe order of Me lchizedek, which
was after the order of Enoch. which was after the o rder of the
Onl y Begotten Son. Wherefore. as it is written, they are godJ, cven
the sons of God." Thi s passage was revealed in Febru ary 1832,
several years before Joseph began studying Hebrew, and a dec ade
before hi s allegcd studies in the Zohar. Why is the concept of the
plurality of gods found in 1832, if it derives from the Zohar?
Furthermore, this phrase is explic it ly draw n from Christ's expos i-
ti on of Psalm 82:6 as found in John 10:34- 35. If someone insists
0 11 look ing beyond revelation for the o ri gin of the idea of the plu 4

rality 'of gods, then John 10:34-35 and Psalm 82:6 arc without
question Joseph 's sources for thi s doctrine. 174
In li ght of all this, Owens's claims of "substantial d oc ume n-
tary ev idence" (p. 119) to support his thesis see m exaggerated at
best.

173 I would like to th:mk Daniel C. Peterson for calling this passage to my
atten tion .
174 Doctrine and Covenants 121 :28 also does not fit Owens's theory: "A
time [shall) come in the whic h nOthing sh:lll be wit hheld. whether there be one
God or many gods, they shall be manifest:' This passOJge was written in Mareh
1839. agai n several years before Joseph's alleged kabbnlistic studies. Van 11<lle
provides a useful summary of mOJny additional sources thal refcr to Joseph 's doc 4

trines of hum;)n dciriC:ltion and the plurality of gods. '1 'he Doctrinal Impact of
the King Follett Di scourse." 224-25 .
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITll AND KABBALAH ( HAMBLIN) 3 17

Alleged Kabbalistic InOuences in Early Utah

Mormonism
Owens provides several examples of what he fee ls represent
kabbalis ti c influences o n post-Nauvoo Mormon though!.
The Seal of the Priesthood. Owens maintains that the all-see-
ing eye in the "Seal of the Priesthood" was drawn from hermeti c
sources of the seventeenth cen tury (p. 147 fig . 7), ignoring the
much more access ible Great Seal of the United States, our national
seal si nce 1782. 175 Di scussi ng the relationshi p of the "A ll See ing
eye" (al so ca lled the " prov ide ntial eye") of the Un ited States
Great Seal and Masonic sy mboli sm, Patterson and Richardson
conc lude, "i t seems likely that the des igne rs of the Great Seal and
the Masons took the ir symbol s from paralle l sources, and unlikely
that the seal designers consc iously copied Masonic sy mbols ."176
As a symbol of the o mni science and providence of God, the all -
see ing eye was fa irl y ubiquitous in the earl y nineteenth ce ntu ry.
With a crown placed over it you have a sy mbol that God is King,
or of the Kingdom of God . No links with obscure. mre, and
expens ive seventeenth -century book s need be posited.
Adam -God {H Adam Kadm ol! . Owe ns claims that " the Adam-
God doctrine may ha ve been a mi sreading (or restate ment) b y
Brigham Young of a Kabbali stic and Hermet ic concept relayed to
him by the prophet (J oseph S mith)" (p. 184). The major s upport
Owens provides fo r thi s claim is thaI in gematria the names Adam
and Jehova h both equal 45 (p. 127). 177 Using standard gematria,
Adam/ADM does equal 45 (a lef =
I, dalet =
4 , mem 40 ). =
However, Jehovah =Yahweh =
YHWH does not equal 45, but 26
(yod = =
10, he 5, vav 6, he = =
5). The equation of YHWH with

175 See Richard S. Panerson and Dougall Richardson. The £agle aM Ihe
Silield: A fIIs/ ory oJ Ihe Crem Seal oJ Ihe UIJi/ed SImes (Washi ngto n: Depart-
ment of State. 1976), 529- 32: the sea l has been on the back of all one dollar
bills since 1935. Marcus von Wellnitz, "The Catholic Liturgy and the Mormon
Temple," BYU Sllulies 21 ( 198 1): 3- 35. mentions the usc of all-seeing eye im-
agery in Catholic religiOUS 3rt.
176 Patterson and Richardson, The Eagle (!lId Ihe Shield. 532.
177 Gematria is a system of replacing numbers for the letters of a n:lme (A '"
I, B '" 2, etc.). combining and recombining the numhcrs. and speeu lming about
the mystical im plications of the resullant numbers. Sec Scholem, Kabbalah.
337-43.
3 18 FARMS REVIEW or BOOKS 812 (1996)

ADM is derived from a special system of gematri a known as

"filli ng (miflu i ) ," in which you take the spe lling of the names of
the letters thai make up the name, do a standard gematria on the
spellings, and gel a new numbe r. 178 Under one syste m of
"fi lli ng" the gematria of the names of the letters of YHWH can
equal forty- five. Arc we to believe thai Joseph Smith secretly
transmitted suc h an idea to Brigham Young? The rea l questi o n
here is what primary sources were avai lable in the early 18405-10
which Joseph had access-that expou nded thi s idea? To
de mon strate that Joseph did "filling" gematria on the name o f
Adam, it is not suffi cient to fi nd a modern secondary source that
brie fl y describes it.
Owens further ma intains thaI Adam was seen by Bri gham
Yo un g as the kabbal istic Adam Kadmoll , the Primord ial Man
(p. 184) . The fa ct that Adam o f Eden and Adam Kadrn a n ha ve
the same name is not, however, as significant as it may seem.
Owens once agai n eit her mi sunderstand s or mi srepresent s the
kabba lislic doctri ne. ADM/ Adam in Hebrew simply means matI o r
hI/mali . It is generall y not a proper name in the Bible. Adam
Kadmon. the Primordial Man o f kabbali sm. is not Adam the first
man o f the Garden o f Eden . The Adam of the Bib le was called b y
kabba li sts by a different na me: " Adam I-Ia -Rishofl [Ada m the
First], the Adam of the Bible, corresponds o n the ant hropo logi ca l
plane to Adam Kadrnon, the onto log ical primary ma n ."179 " Th e
first be ing which e manated from the light fEn Sof] was Ada m
Kadmon, the ' primord ia l man ' . Adam Kadmon is noth ing but a
first configuratio n of the divi ne light whi ch fl ows from the essence
o f En Sof. " 180 Once aga in the metaph ysica l assumpt ions o f
Kabbalah- in contradistinction to Mormonism- are fun damen-
tall y Neop lalon ic . From the En Sof emanates a great light , wh ich
becomes Adam Kadmon . From thi s Pri mordial Man e nsue further
emanations, culminat ing in "the last re fl ecti on of Ada m Kadm a n,
who makes his appearance in the lowest form o f ' making '

178 Scholcm, Ktlb ba /ali , 34\-42. As Scholcm notes. there are several dif-
ferent for ms of "filling."
179 Gershom Scholcm, M ajor Trelld£ ill l ewish M yslic i slll (New Yo rk:
Schockcn, 1946), 279, cf. 278- 80.
t 80 Ibid., 265.
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBALAH (HAMBLI N) 3 19

«asiyah) as Adam, the first man of Ge ne sis."18 1 Adam is the

earthly reflection, on the material plane, of the supernal Adam
Kadmon- this is how kabbali sts interpret man being in the image
of God. But Adam of the Garden is not onto logica ll y the same
being as Adam Kadmon, nor is either of the two Adams the
ontolog ical equ ivalent of God. 182 In li ght of all thi s. how Brigham
Young's ideas about Adam-God can be seen as based o n
kabbalisti c thought is a bit mind-bogg ling.
OrSOIl Hyde alld the Tree of the Sefirot. Owen s finally claims
that a diagram of the " Kin gdom of God" done by Orson Hyde
in 1847 (p. 1 ~6 fi g. 12) was in fact, "the most essential symboli c
element of Kabbalah, the ' mystical shape of the Godhead' co n-
tained in the image of the ITree of the l Sefiroth as redrawn by a
principa l and influential seve nteenth-century Christian kabbalist ,
IRobertl Fludd " (p. 187). Thi s is sheer fantasy. First, Hyde's dia-
gram does n't look. anyth in g lik.e the Tree of Sefirot. Second ,
Hyde never calls it a Tree of Scfirot. In hi s art icle. Hyde never
me ntion s anything kabbalistic or hermetic. Here is Hyde 's own
description of the meanin g of hi s diagram :
The above diagram shows the order and unity of
the kingdom of God. The eterna l Father sits at the
he<ld , crowned King of kings and Lord of lord s. Wher-
ever the ot her lines meet, there sits a king and a priest
unto God, bearing rule, authority, and dominion under
the Father. He is one with the Father, because his kin g-
dom is joined to his Father's and becomes part of it. 183
Hyde 's art icle goes on in the same vein. Why should any of thi s
be thought to have anything to do with Kabbalah ?

Conclusions
In summary , Owen s's thesis cannot bear the weight of cri tica l
scrutiny. He demonstrates an unfamiliarity with man y important

18 1 Gershom Scholem. 0/1 rhe Kahhalah (Uld lIS SYlIJbolism (Ncw York :
Schocken. t996). liS.
182 Sec discussion by Tishby, WisdollJ of rhe Zi)/wr. 1:295- 98.
183 Orson Hyde. "A Diagram of thc Kingdom of God:' Millelll/iat Star 9 (15
Jan uary 1847): 23.
320 FARMS REVIEW OF BOOKS 812 ( 1996)

secondary sources and recent sc ho larship, which leads to nume r-

ous errors of fact and interpretation. Because of lack of evidence
to support hi s thesis, he frequently resorts to unrestrained assenion
and speculation. He oft en fail s 10 defin e hi s te rminol ogy prec isely
and e ngages in semanti c equi vocatio n in an attempt to make fu n-
damentall y di ssimilar ideas and practices seem similar. He d oes
not adequatel y recog nize no r deal with the complex m c th od o l o gi ~
ca l proble ms of the relationship between paralleli s m and cau sality.
He pro vides no solid primary evidence to demo nstrate that Joseph
Smith had a profound knowledge of the esoteric traditions. He
fail s to di stingui sh between Hebrew and Aramaic , o r to de mo n-
strate that e ithe r Ncibaur or Joseph had sufficie nt knowledge of
A ramaic to read the Zohar. There is no evidence that Nc ibaur
owned a kabbalistie li brary, while the re is a simple count er-
ex planation for the appearance of refere nces to kabbali stie texts in
his Tjllle.~ and Scasufls article. Owe ns's interpretatio n of the Kin g
Follett Discourse suffers fro m a mis und erstand ing and mis-
representat ion of both Joseph S mith 's ideas and those fo und in
the Zo har. A care ful and critical analysis demo nslrates only vague
parallel s between Joseph's idea s and th ose of the Zohar.
Owens provides 110 exampl es of uniquely kabba listic ideas in
the writin g!; of early Mormons- the meth odo logical imperati ve if
Owens's case is to be substanti ated. He ignores the fact that man y
of the ideas Joseph supposedl y deri ved fro m Kabba lah antedate
Ne ibaur's arri val in Nauvoo. The ideas that Joseph allegedl y
bo rrowed from kabbali sm are also fo und in biblical texts, which
Jose ph S mith i!; known to have studi ed inte nsel y. Since Joseph
consiste ntly offe red biblica l precedent to support his reve lations
and teaChin gs, why do we need kabbali sm to ex plain the deve lo p-
ment of hi s thought?
Thro ughollt hi s art ic le O wens e mploys some inte resting forms
of rhetorical legerde main in an atte mpt to bo lster his flim sy case .
He is selective in which evidence he presents and which he
ignores. He repeatedl y con nates ideas from several different
trad iti ons and periods by simpl y asserting that they are all part
of one mctatraditio n. He ig nores the poss ibility of e xplaining
hi s all eged parallels by recourse to biblical or othe r shared
antecedents. Hi s relati vely few re ferences to primary sources are
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAUoH ( HAMBLI N) 32 1

frequently misrepresentat ions or misunderstandin gs. He ofte n

simpl y asserts hi s conclu sions with no support ing evidence.
My friend Matt Moore aptly described Owens' s theory as
another attempt in the grand tradition of Quinn and Brooke at
hiSlOria ex nihilo- the creat ion of history out of nothing. His
effort s to pull a magic rabbi out of hi s hat to bolster environ-
mental explanations of Joseph Smith's revelations are simpl y
smoke and mirrors. While some in the audience may applaud,
most will immediately be ab le to "bust" the trick.
322 FARMS REV IEW OF BOOKS sn ( 1996)

A ppendix: Sources Mention ed by Alexand er

Ne ibaur l 84
At the e nd of his article, Owens lists books supposed ly fo un d
In Ncibau r's " library " (p. 19 1). In orde r to demonstrate the
a vai lability of many of these texts through a common source, I
have prepa red the Follow ing list of the tex is mentioned b y
Ne ibaur, rearranged acc ording to the mati c categories . A bullet by
the te xt name ind icates that the lext is kno wn to have been c ited In
Manassch's Nishmat.

1. T ra ditional Ra bbinic a nd Talmudic Sources (Mos t

C ited by Ma nasseh )185
• 1. 1 R. Jaca nan , Rabbi Jocanan (Ncibaur 22 1b, O wens 193),
and R. Jonathan (Nc ibau r 222a): Probabl y R. Jo hanan be n
Zakkai. first-century sage and leader of rabbinic Judai sm (£J
10: 148- 54). O we n ~ docs not re late Jonat han with these other two
spellings (p. 193).
• 1.2 Be reshith Rabba (Nc ibaur 222a) : Owens ( 193) cites R.
Moses be n Isaac ha-Darshan 's Bcreshirh Rabbari, a Midrashi c tex t
o n the book of Genes is written in the elevent h ce ntury. The ea rl y
aggadic midrash on th e book of Gcnesis (from wh ich ha-Darshan
wrote hi s work) is also kno wn as Bereshith Rabbah (El 7:3 99-
402; 12:4 29).
• ' 1.3 Rabbi Akiba (Ne ibaur 222a, Owens 193): R. Aki va,
second-ce ntury Je wish leader and midrashic sc holar who exercised
a dec isive infl uence in the de velopmen t of Iw{akha h (El 2:488 ).

184 Parenthetical references in this aplX=ndi)( arc as fo llows: EJ :: Cecil

Roth, cd .. Encyclopaedia j lldaim (Jerusalem: Keter. (972): Owen~ = Lance S.
Owens. "Joseph Smith and Kabbalah: The Occult Co nnection."' Dialoglle 27/3
(1994): 117- 94: Ross:: Jesse Ross, "A Study of Manasse h ben Israel's
'Nishmath Hayyi m'" (master's thesis, Hebrew Union Co llege, 1931); Nei baur =
Alexander Ncibaur. "The Jews," Timc.~ and Seasons 4 ( I Ju ne 1843): 220-22: (15
June 1843): 233- 34.
I !:IS Ross notes tha t Manasseh quotes from "the fund;lmentaJ sources of
1ewish trddi lion, such as the Bible. Talmuds, Midrashi m, Com mentaries. Codes,
Zohar, and Bahir"' (p. 18).
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KABBAU. ff (H AMBLI N) 323

• 1.4 Rabbi Simeon, son of Jacay (Neibaur 222b, Owens

194) : S imeon bar Yoha i, seco nd-cenlury pupil of Akiva, princ ipa l
fi gure in Zohar(El 14 :155 1- 54) .
• 1.5 Talmud Tract Sanhedrim (Ne ibaur 222a, Owens 193).
Tal mud ic tractate.
• 1.6 Talmud Tract Resokim (Ne ibau r 222a, Owens 193):
Talmud ic tractate.
• 1.7 Talmud Tract Ketuboth (Ne ibaur 222b, Owen s 19 3) :
Ta lmudic tractate.
• 1.8 Book Siphri (Ne ibaur 234a, Owen s 194): ha lak hic
midrash to the books of Numbers and Deute ro no my ( EJ
14 : 15 19).
• 1.9 Rabbi Jehuda (Ne ibaur 233 b): Poss ibl y the R. Judah o f
the fo urt h ce ntu ry who wrote the Silra-part of the " mot ivat ed
halakhot"- a collectio n based o n Lev iticus (El 11:3 16). Not
identified by Owens (p . 194). Ross ( 19) lists an additio nal three
l udahs c ited by Mana sseh: Judah ben Samuel, Judah ben Jacob,
and Judah ha- Lev i.

2. Med ieva l and Early Modern J ewish W riters

• 2. 1 Rabb i Manesse ben Israel in Nis hmath Cajim (Ne ibaur
22 1a, Owens 19 1): transliterated Manasseh ben Israe l. wrote
Nislmw t Hayyim (1 651 ). He founded the earl iest Hebrew pri nting
press in Amsterdam (1 626) (EJ I I :855-57; 10:604).
• 2.2 R. Isaac Abe rhaph in Menorat Hamoor (Ne ibaur
22 Ia): Cited by Manasseh (Ross 18). Owens (pp. 191 - 9 2)
be lieves that Nc ibaur mi stake nly confused Isaac Aberhaph with
Israe l al-Nakawa (EJ 2: 672- 73). It is more like ly that Ne ibaur is
re ferrin g to Isaac Aboab (EJ 2: 90- 9 3), a fo urtee nth -centu ry
rabbi, whose Menorat ha-Ma'or was first publ ished in
Constantinople in 15 14, and was reprinted in over seventy ed itions
(El 11:344.)
• 2.3 R. Abarbane (Neibaur 222 b): Probab ly a variatio n o n
Abarbane l; sec 2.4 be low. Not identi fied by Owens.
• 2 .4 R. Isaac Abarbanel (Ne ibaur 22 1b, Owens 192): Cited
by Manasseh (Ross 18). Isaac ben Judah Abrabane l (or
Abra vane l), fam ous fifteenth -cent ury phi losopher and bibli cal
e xegete (£J 2: I 03- 9).
324 FARMS REVIEW or BOOKS 8/2 (1996)
• 2.5 R. D. Kimc hi (Neibaur 22lb, Owens 192): Cited by
Manasseh (Ross 19). R. David Kimchi, a thirtee nth-centu ry
grammarian and exegete (EJ 10: 1001-4) .
· 2.6 R. Joseph Al ba (Neibau r 221b, Owens 192-93): Cited
by Manasseh (Ross 18), R. Joseph Alba, a fifteenth -century
Spanish ph il osopher who wrote a famous treatise on Jewish articles
of faith in 1425 called SeIer ha-Ikkarim (£1 2:535- 37; 15: 179),
· 2.7 R. Le vi bar Gerohonon (Neibaur 222a, Owens 193):
Cited by Manasseh (Ross 19). Lev i ben Gcrshom , a thirteenth-
century biblical co mme ntator and phil osopher whose major work
was Sefer Miilamorltdonlli, wriuen in 1329, nOI widely c ircu lated
(El 11:92, 94).
• 2.8 Pcs ikla Raba (Neibaur 222b): Pesikta Rabbmi, a
medieval midrash on the festi va l of the year, printed severa l times,
but the critical edition was in 1880 (£J 13:335). This traditional
midrash was undoubtedly avai lable to Manasse h.

3. Kabhalistic Sources
• 3 . I R. Baccay/Bacay/Bachay (Nc ibau r 22 I a. 233 b): C ited
by Manasseh (Ross \ 8). Owens claims Nc ibaur was quoting R.
Samson Bacchi of Casale Monferrato (p. 192). Thc morc likel y
possibi lity is Bal.l ya ben Asher ben Hl ava, a thirtecnth-ce ntury
kabbali st who wrote Kad Jw-K emah, a widely circulated book on
Ihe foundati ons of faith (EJ 4:104- 5). Neibaur exp li citly re fe r-
ences this work by Bal.l ya as wcll (Neibaur 234a; Owens 194 fails
to make the connectio n betwee n the two).t 86
• 3.2 Book Rad Hake mah (Neibaur 234a): Kad ha -Kemah .
by Bal.l ya bcn Asher, a thirtcenth -ccntury philosop hcr (see 3. 1
abovc under R. Baccay).
· 3.3 Mcdrash Neclam (Neibaur 22 1b, Owens 192): Midrash
h(l -Ne/am is a princ ipal section of the Zohar. the kabbali stic

1R6 Other o ptions include Pseudo· 13atna, author of a,l the Essence of the
Soul. 1111 elevenlh or rwelflh-eemury book wriUen originally in Arabic and trans-
lated into Hcbrew in 1896 (I'd 4:103) or Ral.IY:l ben Joseph ibn P:l<\udn, :In
elevcnth-century philosopher who wrote /-/01'01 IW·LeWII'OI (Duties of the Heart),
a hook on rhe narure of Ihe soul wrinen in Amhie (\080). rrnnsl:lled inlo Hehrew
(I 161 ) and widely cireulmctl ( J:') 4: I 05-6).
OWENS, JOSEPH SMITH AND KA fJRA LAH (H AMBLIN) 325

co llection of esote ric teac hings in the Torah writte n in the four -
teenth ce ntury (£1 16: 1196) .
• 3 .4 Sohar (Neibaur 222a, 222b): The Zoha r.
3.5 Rabbi Naphtali in Emakhame lek (Neibaur 22 1b, 222a,
Owens 192): £mek ha-Melekh is an important and widely c ircu-
lated kabbali stic work written by Naphta li ben Jacob E lhana n
Bacharac h and publi shed in 1648 (£1 4:49; 10:549).
3.6 Jalkut Kodosh, Jalkut Kadash, Talku t Kadash (Ne ibaur
22 lb, 222a, Owens 192): A se venteenth-century anthology o f
kabba listic writings. Yalkut ha-Makhiri and Yalkut Shimoni are
both anthologies of aggadic midrashim possi bly written in the
fourteenth and th irteenth centuries, respective ly (El 16:706-9).
3.7 Aph kat Rackel,O phkut Rockel (Neibaur 22 1b, 233 b.
O wens 193): A seventee nth-century kabbalistic book , A bkar
Rockel.
3. 8 Avod ath Hakodash, Abodah Hakadash (Neibaur 222b):
Avodat Ira-Kodesh, a sixteenth-century kabba listic work written by
Me ir ibn Gabbay, publ ished in Venice in 1566 (£1 7:34; 12:308).

4. Unce rtain Identifica tion Because of Ins ufficient

Data
4. 1 R. So lman Jarkian (Neibaur 222 b): Not mentioned by
Owe ns. The re arc numerous class ica l and medieva l writers nam ed
So lomon. Poss ibl y Solomon ben Judah (ibn Gabrie l), who is c ited
by Man asseh (Ross 19).
4 .2 Rabbi Joshua ben Menaser (Neibaur 233b): Ci ted by
O wens as not yet identifi ed (p. 194) .
4.3 R. Elias (Neibaur 222a): One of the numerous Elij ahs
of Jew ish history. C ited by Owens as not yet identified (p. 193).
Thus, of the twent y-fi ve sources mentioned by Ne ibaur that
can be identified with relati ve cen ainty, twenty-one are know n to
have been llsed by Manasseh. It is qu ite poss ible that othe r sources
we re used by Manasse h, but were not identified or ment ioned by
Ross.