. i oa ND. LI wn 4H MUNN RB. G wi | Wil MM 8SU0000024 11 <4CHAPTER 1 THE MORAL AGENT Introduction SF former times, nothing seemed more plausible and more certain than morality. It was a tower of strength where men sought refuge in the tnidst ofall the doubts and conflicts of life. This was especially the case during the age of Enlightenment. Men were beginning to believe less absolutely in the religion handed down to them, but they all clung all the more to morality. Metaphysical speculation and theoretical endeavors to reveal the innocent essence of things encountered growing opposition, yet morality was welcomed as something Superior to all complications, and valuable to all. It was held to be the pivot of Archimedes, which gives stability to the whole of life In our days, morality has ceased to be a matter of such unquestionable certainty and has been drawn into the wave of disintegration which is Passing over our minds. Formerly, the scientific definition and accurate conception of morality were matters of contention; but it is now the fundamental idea of morality that is questioned. 7General Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: . Recall rules they have to follow; Explain why they have to follow rules; ae Explain the difference between moral and non-moral standa! . Detect a moral dilemma; and : Explain why only human beings can be ethical saeNe LESSON 1 Orientation of the Course Introduction It seems that people don't like rules as they represent a kind of restrictions, but in fact life can't be organized without rules. People always need rules and laws to be able to live and deal together. Can you imagine even a game without rules; of course it will be a kind of mess. When they are playing a game, they must follow its rules or it will be unfair. Also everything in our life should be restricted with rules or it becomes a mess and unfair. If there are no rules and everyone is free to do whatever they want, most people will probably behave selfishly. We need rules to help us get a long together and show respect to each other. All the rules and laws have the same purpose. They organized the relations between individuals and the society to make it clear what is tight and wrong and what happens if someone breaks the rules. They are designed to ensure fairness, salety and respect for other people's right. ; Rules and Its Importance bid refer to a set of guidelines which have been put in place in different counties an draninities and have been accepted by all. Rules are useful tools in guiding and monitoring the interactions of humans in the society. A rule is a rescribed guide for conduct acti i i a or action. Rules help guide actions toward desired When used appropriately, rules pr , tules provide a sense of i consistency for people, thereby Promoting physical, moral, oil nalett aul , L, La ional safety. At the heart of ethics is a concern about Something or someone other th ourselves and our own desires and self-interest, mavasabaniunl ”s interests, with the interests of society, Ethics is concerned with other peopl interests, with "ultimate goods ht to with Go So when a person ‘thinks ethically’ they are giv" something beyond themselves. of norms of behavior, regulations, and laws established immunity, These norms secure the order and ts of rules available nowadays have undergone ® sons and transformations applied. gat least some thous} Rules are specific s oon purpose to regulate the life in the co allow avoiding total chaos. The set tong formation process. There were many variati Due to that, nowadays we have a well-established social, governmental and anisms that work as a clock accurately, simultaneously and in availability of rules is a crucial criterion allowing call zed and well developed. educational mech an organized way. Thi ociety civi nowadays § Why Do We Have Rules? Rules help people in many aspects of all the processes correctly, starting from hi complicated issues as the functioning of as whole country. Rules ar modes of behavior that secure a regulated flow of all processes. manity to avoid chaos and many life. They enable people to organize ‘ouse chores and ending with more specific A well-developed system of rules help hu problems that may be caused by the lack of regulations. Laws dictate what is proper and what is wrong. In many spheres of life, we have guidelines to follow. Norms enable people to interact, to work together and contribute to the global development. Moral rules assist people in the ‘establishment of shared values and in accordance to which an honorable member of society can be identified. norms Importance of Rules Rules are import society as they might be in a disa rules are used in the right way ant because they tend to protect the weaker class in the dvantageous position if rules are broken. When They provide a stable environment and human co-existence in a society which leads to peace and development, The process of setting rules aims to cralt ‘me desired results. For example, rules in schools and other s and discipline in a bid to establish desirable rules in line with sor institutions promote trust, fairne relationship among students and people. Besides, rules are vital in one’s life because peace and order are maintained, an important ingredient for society's development. As a way of maintaining these rules, many societies have adopted and changed them into law. These assure that no rules will be broken. If one violates the rule, a corresponding punishment is imposedMost of us are basically honest, and knc try to follow them. One reason we do is to a argument for following the rules is to make the The Subject: Ethics Ethics, or moral philosophy, may be defn scientific study of moral judgments. Ethics is the 3s morally good and bad, right and wrong. The term or theory of moral values or principles, The subject of Ethics consists of the fundamental making, and its major concerns include the nature of standards by which human actions can be judged right or wrong. Atits simplest, ethics is a sys thake decisions and lead their li individuals and society and is als, tem of moral principles. They affec ves. Ethics is concerned with what is © described as moral philosophy The term is des habit, character or religions, philosophies and cultures, They ink human rights and professional conduct, Ethi also abor Ethics i hich can mi of ethics have been ‘use debates on topics like abortion ics is not only about the morality ut the goodness of individuals and S particularly concerned with the m. of particular courses of action, what it means to live a good |; ‘oral character of human bei Branches of Ethics One way to try and define m. ‘orality is through ethics, of morality. In the field of ethics, the philosophical morality is often defined in one of ty study WO Ways societies to develop code: others as you would hav: ethics, since you are deter allowing S of conduct for behavior. The Golden Rule S e them do unto you, is a classic F normatiy % "mining morality through your actions . The other side of this is descriptive ethics. If normative 4While normative ethics actually defines what is right and wrong, descriptive ethics defines morals in terms of their cultural or personal significance. Morals are seen as part of a greater system that is not objective or unbiased but is created by a culture, like language. So, while in normative ethics we may say that it is moral to turn ina lost wallet, in descriptive ethics, we simply define that a certain society sees this as moral. We don't actually judge it as right or wrong. These two branches of ethics are just a few of the ways we try and define morality. While there are many more, most of them can be broken into the same divisions as these two. Some theories define what is right and wrong as objective truth, others see morals as entirely subjective, only definable through their respective societies. Why Study Ethics? Nevertheless, the serious student of Ethics will find this work both profitable and interesting to the highest degree. His understanding of moral problems will be widened, as he becomes acquainted with the thoughts of other men upon problems of good and evil, justice and injustice, virtue and vice, the rights and duties of the individual and of society. His critical faculties will be trained. He will know the reasons for his moral convictions, and also the reasons for the moral convictions of others. His reverence for duty will be deepened. On the whole, he will become more tolerant, but his moral judgments in becoming more discriminating will not become laxer. He will not confuse charity with condonation of vice and wrong, Far from finding that “to comprehend all is to forgive all” is a universal principle, he will learn that while sometimes to comprehend is to forgive, at other times it is to condemn with severity, though never with ignorance or injustice. The study of Ethics will enable a person to understand better what his conscience is, how he acquired it, how far he is likely to be able to trust to its deliverances with safety, and how he can improve it and make it more intelligent. He will gain a clearer insight into his claims upon society, and the duties that he owes to society. He will learn to discriminate between the respects in which all individuals are mutually interdependent and those in which each is responsible for his own life, and ought to insist upon freedom of initiative. Finally, while a book on Ethics can by no means prescribe for anyone what should be his vocation in life, or his avocations, it can at least proffer some considerations, from the standpoints of self-realization, self-sacrifice, and service, that ought to help anyone in making such decisions.pase enn en Rg nce Date: ——————_ ‘Name: Score: ——————— Year Level: Gem: activity 1 Why are rules important to social being? What would happen if there are no rules in our society? [eeses: activity 2 Based on your experience, what rules do you find restricting? List down five tules that restrict you? Why?[Comes Activity 3 What is ethics? What are the reasons why we S should study Ethics? [Leses: Activity 4Name: Date: Year Level: Score: CE MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it down on the space provided in each item: Ls Rules are vital in one’s life because: A. People are dictated to follow it. B. Society likes it. C. Peace and order are maintained. D. Some are trouble makers. These are the reasons why we study ethics except: A. He will gain a clearer insight into his claims upon society, and the duties that he owes to society. B. His understanding of moral problems will be widened. C. Itstimulates mental awareness. D. His critical faculties will be trained, . The philosophical study of morality: A. Rules B. Norms C. Ethics D. Character This kind of ethics actually defines what is right and wrong. A. Normative ethics B. Descriptive ethics C. Moral ethics D. All the above 5. Ethics is sometimes called ~ A. Ethical standard B. Moral Philosophy C. Philosophy of right and wrong, D. None of the above . Which of the following statements is true of culture? A. Nature is culture. B. Archaeologists are scientists. C. Culture is a power that create something, D. Artis part of culture.ee 7. With imagination, our focus can be on — A. Things that are impossible. B. Things that might be possible. C. Things that are present. D. Things that are probable. ' 8. As fields of study, the humanities emphasize analysis and ~ A. Exchange of ideas B. Limitations of humans C. Possession of wealth D. None of the above 9. Which of the following is true? ‘imagination is thinking of something, B. Artisa discipline, C. Philosophy develops intellectual abilities, D. Allof the above 10. Philosophy means ~ A. Love of material thing B. Love of wisdom C. Goals D. All the above % 10LESSON 2 The Moral Agent Introduction Philosophers often disagree about which of these and other conditions are vital; the term moral agency is used with different degrees of stringency depending upon what one regards as its qualifying conditions. The Kantian sense is the most stringent. Since there are different senses of moral agency, answers to questions like ‘Are collectives moral agents?” depend upon which sense is being used. From the Kantian standpoint, agents such as psychopaths, rational egoists, collectives and robots are at best only quasi-moral, for they do not fulfill some of the essential conditions of moral agency. It is well, however, that reason should know its limits, and we are not to seek for the origin of moral obligation in any of what are merely results of its exercise. The constitution of moral agents, and the grounds and conditions of moral action are matters open to the investigation of reason; but the sense of obligation can result only from Divine authority apprehended or believed to be somehow, manifested or revealed. Morality Morality can be defined as the standards that an individual or a group has about what is right and wrong, or good and evil. Morality is not imposed from outside, but innate and can even be unconscious. We have a fundamental urge to connect. Ultimately, it’s our moral qualities that force us to'live in harmony with the unconscious; doing so is the highest form of morality. Morality is an informal public system applying to all rational persons, governing behavior that affects others, and has the lessening of evil or harm as its goal. Morality is a complex of concepts and philosophical beliefs by which an individual determines whether his or her actions are right or wrong. Often, these concepts and beliefs are generalized and codified in a culture or group, and thus serve to regulate the behavior of its members. Conformity to such codification is called morality, and the group may depend on widespread conformity to such codes for its continued existence. A “moral” may refer to a particular principle, usually as informal and general summary of a moral principle, as applied in a given human situation (Darwall, 2005). lithink that a single definition of ns. One reason for this is that descriptive sense and a There does not seem to be much reason to morality will be applicable to all moral discussions. O1 morality” seems to be used in two distinct broad senses: a ed either ‘e sense, More particularly, the term “morality” can be us eat Es ively to refer to certain codes of conduct put forwar Y a i : ly oup (such as a religion), or accepted by an individual for his/her own normative 1. dese behavior, or ; a 7 : normatively to refer to a code of conduct that, given specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational persons. Key Features of Morality To understand morality in its true sense, let us identify the six (6) features: |. People experience a sense of moral obligation and accountability. One cannot doubt successfully a phenomenon of his own existence—namely, his moral experience. Even secularists like Kai Nielsen recommend that one Ought to" act or follow some rules, policies, practices, or principles. (Nielsen, 1973) Even atheist Richard Dawkins declares that there are “moral instructions on how we ought to behave.” (Dawkins, 2006), 2, Moral values and moral absolutes exist. It’s hard to deny the objective reality of moral values—actions like Tape, torture, and child abuse are not just socially unacceptable behavior but are moral abominations, (Craig, 1994) = 8 r 2 a 8 & : g g Fd a 8 8 oO =a 8 3 g z a 8 gS we 8 B 3 8 g CS. Lewis demonstrates the existenc sho quarrel ~ the man who makes rema man's behavior does not ha pen to please hi: ; Kind of standard of behavior that fo ve ni Out is rather “ppealing to some (Lewis, 2003), © expects the other man to know about, * x a 2 x 5 8 = 5 a = Z 5 z a x because early philosophers thought th oral law is als it by nature. Different ciyi © called Law of Natt ; at generally speaki er 7 lizat, ‘ Peaking, ev, different” moralities fa rons and different ages only have “shee cant presenta coun quite different moralities” Ono le who had been Kinde ie Proud for double-crossing all theMen may have differed as to whether one should have one wife or four wives but people have always agreed that one must not simply have any woman he likes. Will and Ariel Durant: “A little knowledge of history stresses the variability of moral codes, and concludes that they are negligible because they differ in time and place, and sometimes contradict each other. A larger knowledge stresses the universality of moral codes, and concludes to their necessity.” (Durant, 1968). 5. Morality is objective. Morality is absolute— there is a real right and real wrong that is universally and immutably true, independent of whether anyone believes it or not. Since almost all people assume certain things to be wrong—such as genocide, murder of babies for feast, and rape—the best explanation is that such things really are wrong and morality is objective. (Kleiman, _). Moral judgments must be supported by reasons. Moral judgments are different from mere expressions of personal preference—they require backing by reasons, and in the absence of such reasons, they ate merely arbitrary. (ames, 1999) Man as a Moral Agent A moral agent is a being that is “capable of acting with reference to right and wrong”. A moral agent is anything that can be held responsible for behavior or decisions. “It is moral agents who have rights and responsibilities, because it is moral agents whom we take to have choices and the power to choose”. If you do not believe that anything or anyone should ever be blamed or deemed responsible, then you are going against the idea of moral agency, and denying the concept of responsibilities and rights. ‘A moral agent is an intelligent being who has the power of choosing, and scope to act according to his choice; one to whom the Supreme Governor has given a cognizable law, with its proper sanction, by which to regulate his volitions and actions, and who is placed in circumstances which present no physical obstruction, either to obedience or disobedience. Moral action, therefore, is action which springs from choice, and is not necessitated either by mental propulsions or external circumstances: intelligent, free, and account able, it is distinguished on the one hand from instinctive action, which is the result of an undeviating and unfailing but blind propulsion, and on the other from Divine action, which though certain as instinct, is yet in the fullest sense intelligent and free. When something or someone is deemed a moral agent, it does not necessarily mean that they are successfully making moral decisions. It means that they are in a category that enables them to be blamed. If someone is unable to be blamed, then they do not have rights. Being a moral agent means that they can be held responsible for their decisions and behaviors, whether they are good or bad. 13je to comprehend ral ager ea living creature, as they must be abl A moral agent must be % splices abstract moral principles and apply them to decision making. : “self-consciousness, memory, moral principles, other values, and the reasoning faculty, which allows him to devise plans for achieving his objectives, to weigh alternatives, and so on’. Also, in order to weigh the options in decision making, a moral agent must “attach a positive value to atts that conform to his moral principles and a positive value to some of the results that he can adiere by violating his moral principles”. This means that in order to be a moral agent “you must live in a world of scarcity rather than paradise”. If all of your v alues could be easily and immediately be achieved, you wouldn’t have to pick between your moral and non-moral goals, and you couldn’t practice moral agency. In order to be a moral agent who makes decisions about justice and takes action based on those decisions, one must live in a society with others who they consider to have moral rights. If one lives alone or with others who do not have moral rights, then they are unable to make decisions regarding other's rights. In order to act morally, one must be free to act. If one is unable to act, then they do not have moral responsibility. As long as each person does not violate the rights of other moral agent, then each moral agent has the right to make decisions and take action on these decisions. A being capable of moral agency is one who possesses the means of judging rightly, and power to act accordingly; but whether he will do so or not, depends on the voluntary exercise of his faculties. Aristotle and Moral Responsibility Aristotle was the first to discuss moral responsibility. He stated that it is “sometimes appropriate to respond to an agent with praise or blame on the basis of his/her actions and /or dispositional traits of character”. He discusses that “only a certain kind of agent qualifies as a moral agent and is thus properly subject to asctiptions of responsibility, namely, one who possesses a capacity for decision” From Aristotle's perspective, “a decision is a particular kind of desire resulmag from deliberation, one that expresses the agent's conception of what re good”. In reference to modern ethical theories, which separate actions and questions about them, Aristotle would not agree. “Praiseworthy and blamewerth. actions ticular template of rules or principles and reveal a certain type of character” s ; aracter Moral agency is not just about which rules to follow, it comes ror a way of life which Aristotle called the virtuous i i ee us life, which necessitates a unison of thought and 4 fen ie aeDate: ——_—————_ Name: Eee eee cee Year Level Score: [Comes ACTIVITY 1 Moral law is also called Law of Nature because early philosophers thought that generally speaking, everybody knows it by nature. In this case, do hui beings knew that there is such a moral law? Defend your answer. ACTIVITY 2 From Aristotle’s perspective, “a decisionis a Particular kind of desire resulting from deliberation, one that expresses the agent's conception of what is good”. In this connection, what kind of moral agent does Aristotle want? Describe this agent.ACTIVITY 3 [pe rality is absolu! te? Cite examples to support your answer. When do we say mor 16‘Name: Rating: Year & Section: Date: TEST YOURSELF MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it down on the space provided in each item: 1, Aristotle discusses that “only a certain kind of agent qualifies as a moral agent and is thus properly subject to ascriptions of responsibility, namely, one who possesses —” A. Capacity for decision B. Capacity to reason Cc. Will D. None of the above In order to be a moral agent who makes decisions about justice and takes action based on those decisions, one must live in a society with others who they consider to have - A. Moral rights B. Free will C. Mental awareness D. All the above A moral agent must be a— A. Spirit B. Living creature C. Reincarnated person D. Ethical person Moral judgments must be supported by — A. Knowledge of the idea B. Motivation and freedom to explore C. Reason D. Action Moral law is also called — A. DivineLaw ” B. Ten Commandments C. Formal law D. Law of Nature18 6. 10. Ss SS Es This refers to a code of conduct that, given specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational persons. ‘A. Normative B, Descriptive C. Constructive D. Destructive This can be defined as the standards that an individual or a group has about what is right and wrong, or good and evil ~ A. Ethics B. Morality C. Philosophy D. Things that are probable A being capable of moral agency is one who possesses the means of ~ H A. Judging rightly B. Power to react accordingly C. Ethical action D. None of the above A moral agent is an intelligent being who has the following characteristics except — A. Power of choosing. B. Scope to act according to his choice. C. One to whom the Supreme Governor has given a cognizable law, with its proper sanction, by which to regulate his volitions and actions. | D. Who is placed in circumstances which present no physical | obstruction, either to obedience or disobedience. | Philosophy means ~ : ‘A. Love of material thing | B. Love of wisdom : C. Goals : D. All the above iLESSON 3 / Standards and Dilemmas Introduction To call something “right” in the abstract tells us Jittle. To tell what the cr are for making that assessment, we need a context. Otherwise we simply don’t know what it means. value judgments and prescriptive judgments, although both normative may be either moral or non-moral. This statement does not tell us what makes judgments moral other, of course, than that they are made on moral ground; that is a difficult and controversial issue. But it is enough to indicate the importance of recognizing these distinctions, which are interrelated as shown in the diagram. ‘teria The point is, from the practical activities of evaluating and directing conduct, different frames of reference (ot points of view) have emerged that contain criteria for appraising conduct as right or wrong in different areas. These frames of reference include (but are not limited to) etiquette, the law; economics, religion, self-interest, fascism, Marxism, sexism, and racism. The actions they prescribe can and often do conflict, just as the things considered to be valuable can vary radically among them. White supremacy, for example, is a form of racism that attaches highest value to-the flourishing of the so-called white race, and typically prescribes actions prejudicial to nonwhites. Such prescriptions can and do conflict with laws that prohibit discrimination. Whatever its exact nature, morality has also emerged in human affairs and represents a frame of reference along with these others. And whatever the most plausible account of how one judges right and wrong from a moral point of view, what is believed to be morally right and wrong clearly often conflicts with what is right and wrong from other perspectives. Differences Between Moral and Non-Moral Standards ‘A moral standard refers to the norms which we have about the types of actions which we believe to be morally acceptable and morally unacceptable. Specifically, moral standards deal with matters which can either seriously harm or seriously benefit human beings. The validity of moral standards comes from the line of reasoning that was taken to back or support them, and thus are not able to be formed or changed by particular bodies of authority. Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and moral principles.The foundations of evolving moral systems rest on a complex cybemet, process, scientific study of control and communication, that sustains and presery¢, the human species. This is a dynamic process that drives the creation of moral anq ethical standards. Every human action inspires a corresponding reaction whether subtle in nature or violent. Some people are more emotionally reactive than others Emotions can get out of control if not regulated by laws, customs, moral codes, professional codes and even the rules of etiquette. Rules are a stabilizing force that enhances the survivability of individuals, families and nations. Mathematically the initial point evident in human behavior is the survival of the species. It is defined and redefined in many ways, such as a concer for public safety Developing a moral compass in children is a responsibility that should be shared by the family, educational institutions and the community at large. Each one of them has a role to play in instilling personal and collective values and supporting the development of the individual's ability to judge what is right and wrong and to know how to act accordingly. It is important to remember that the moral development of young people depends on the ethical capacities of the adults who interact with them on a daily basis — especially parents, but also teachers, members of their extended family and other adults in the community. Every young person needs both a role mode! to inspire them and an environment that holds up good values and celebrates them Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules. Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be ethically relevant depending on some factors and contexts. Etiquette refers to the norms of correct conduct in polite society or, more generally, to any special code of social behavior or courtesy. The rules of etiquette are prescriptions for socially acceptable behavior. If you violate them, you're likely to be considered ill-mannered, impolite, or even uncivilized, but not necessarily immoral. If you want to fit in, get along with others, and be thought well of by them, you should observe the common rules of politeness or etiquette Statutes are laws enacted by legislative bodies. The law that defines and prohibits theft is a statute. Congress and state legislatures enact statutes. (Laws enacted by local governing bodies such as city councils usually are termed ordinances.) Statutes make up a large part of the law and are what many of us mean when we speak of “laws.” Limited in their time and knowledge, legislatures often set up boards or agencies whose functions include issuing detailed regulations covering certain kinds of conduct—administrative regulations. For example, statelegislatures establish licensing boards to formulate regulations for the licensi of physicians and nurses. As long as these regulations do not exceed the board's statutory powers and do not conflict with other kinds of law, they are legally binding. People sometimes confuse legality and morality, but they are different things. On one hand, breaking the law is not always or necessarily immoral. On the other hand, the legality of an action does not guarantee that it is morally right. Somewhere between etiquette and law lie professional codes of ethics. These are the rules that are supposed to govern the conduct of members of a given profession. Generally speaking, the members of a profession are understood to have agreed to abide by those rules as a condition of their engaging in that profession. Violation of a professional code may result in the disapproval of one's professional peers and, in serious cases, loss of one’s license to practice that profession. Sometimes these codes are unwritten and are part of the common understanding of members of a particular profession—for example, that professors should not date their students. In other instances, these codes or portions of them may be written down by an authoritative body so they may be better taught and more efficiently enforced. Given their nature, professional codes of ethics are neither a complete nor a completely reliable guide to one’s moral obligations. Not all the rules of a professional code are purely moral in character, and even when they are, the fact that a rule is officially enshrined as part of the code of a profession does not guarantee that it is a sound moral principle. As a professional, you must take seriously the injunctions of your profession, but you still have the responsibility to critically assess those rules for yourself. How Are Moral Standards Formed? There are some moral standards that many of us share in our conduct in society. These moral standards are influenced by a variety of factors such as the moral principles we accept as part of our upbringing, values passed on to us through heritage and legacy, the religious values that we have imbibed from childhood, the values that were showcased during the period of our education, the behavior pattern of those who are around us, the explicit and implicit standards of our culture, our life experiences and more importantly, our critical reflections on these experiences. Moral standards concern behavior which is very closely linked to human well-being. Most, if not all, people have certain moral principles or a moral code that they explicitly or implicitly accept. 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Moral star siderations, oe S are based on impartial consi ee aomictern an ie d lente acts of the interests of a coda iPaiippcin does not evaluate standards ¢ pallineeseie gc p, but one that goes beyond persona group, equal which each person’ interests are impartially counted as eq) : Impartiality is usually depicted as being f Impartiality in morality requires that we give sadpuud reioy -g “ 10 ora0494 79005 0 apoo epade fue “S540 Kos aod ut ampere 30 Sur1OU 24) 0} Siar sty -g ——— “M181 mp Te ~ dooxa aneydbpioms ayy ut se v Mus WOUTLHOD auv asanjy -y —— axoge at j02u0N -q, Amqeuawaydiyy 5 q -suuawpn{ any % "$80 uo exp “Aouaqaiuco jo andre of aeCHAPTER 2 FREEDOM AND MORALITY Introduction (Qfenenee that morality deals with the choices that define who we become and determine our eternal destiny. How we define and use our freedom would clearly affect these defining choices. In fact, it defines how we make these decisions. Whether we see our freedom as license to do whatever we want or as a mission to discern and choose what will make us better people and our lives more fulfilled inform the entire framework in which we make these defining choices. If we are off on how we understand human freedom, or moral compass is inaccurate from the very start. If we are to choose among possible goods, the goal would be to choose those goods that meet the other goals of natural law ~ making us more human, choosing and protecting authentic human goodness, being true to our physical and spiritual nature, and enriching human society. For human freedom to fulfill its purpose, we need to have not only the ability to choose, but the ability to choose what can do the greatest good for us as human beings. Put simply, true human freedom is the ability to choose the best possible good. 31eee ere ce Objectives: At the ond af the chapter, the student 1 Explain why only human being: of moral acts; 3 Pant into practice Kant’s definition of freedom and moralit¥? 1 Analyre the relationship of culture to morality: &. Detect a moral dilemma; and ©. ldentify the three levels of dilemma: LESSON 1 a Freedom and Moral Acts will be able to’ can be ethical; he mean Introduction -dom is defined as a concept which is involved in the hat should I do? wis only that I know myself tion of autonomy, which If. tis In Kant philosophy, fr vain, at the question: w! at the moral la’ ‘ moral dom asa In summary, Kant says ti vintian freedom is closely linked to the no! one law itself: thus, freedom falls obedience fo law that I created mysel therefore, respect its commitment fo compliance with oneself. fates (makes laws and requirements) of free beings, beings. Thus, practical reason is based on free person. K ical reason legish Pract ely the causality of free or more pre freedom, it is freedom. nomena, in the Kantian thought, effect of another, and so it has the p £ free will and autonomy. are subject to the law of natural causality on to infinity. Unlike the phenomenon of ower to self-start condition. Kant ethics Phe each event is the man, the moral rule is free, ie, is mainly based on the concept 0 Kant’s Morality and Freedom To act freely is to act autonomously. To act autonomously is to act according toa law I give myself. Whenever Lact according to the laws of nature, demands of 108 aw 18 ation, when I pursue pleasure and comfort, [am not acting freely. T° act freely is not to simply choose a means to a given end. To act freely to choose the end itself, for its own sake- ant’'s notion of freedom. For Kant, acting freely orally are one and the same thing. This is central to K (autonomously) and acting ™ 32 eS eeeeee : . oe ans that special The capacity to act autonomously in this manner gives human: F = dict equires us to dignity that things and animals do not have. Respecting this dignity require treat others not as means to an end, but as ends in themselves. , va eC To arrive at a proper understanding of Kant's notion of moral law and thi connection between morality, freedom and reason, let’s examine these contrasts: 1. Duty vs. Inclination (morality) ~ Only the motive of duty, acting according, to the law I give myself confers moral worth to an action. Any other motive, while possibly commendable, cannot give an action moral worth. 2. Autonomy vs. Heteronomy (freedom) — I am only free when my will is determined autonomously, governed by the law I give myself. Being part of nature, I am not exempt from its laws and I'm inclined or compelled to act according to those laws (act heteronomously). My capacity for reason opens another possibility, that of acting according to laws other than the laws of nature: the laws I give myself. This reason, "pure practical reason’, legislates a priori - regardless of all empirical ends. 3. Categorical vs. Hypothetical Imperatives (reason) ~ Kant acknowledges two ways in which reason can command the will, two imperatives. Hypothetical Imperative uses instrumental reason: If I want X, I must do Y. (If I want to stay out of jail, I must be a good citizen and not rob banks). Hypothetical imperative is always conditional. If theaction would be good solely as a means to something else, the imperative is hypothetical. If the action is represented as good in itself, and therefore necessary for a will which of itself accords with reason, the imperative is categorical. Categorical Imperative is non-conditional. "It is concerned not with the matter of the action and its presumed results, but with its form, and with the principle from which it follows. And what is essentially good in the action consists in the mental disposition, let the consequences be what they may. What is Categorical Imperative? This question can be answered from the idea of a law that binds us as rational beings regardless of any particular ends. Here are two main formulations of the Categorical Imperative: 1. Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. "Maxim is a rule, a principle that gives reason to action. This is a “universalizing test" that checks whether my action puts my interests and circumstances ahead of everyone else's. My action will fail the test if it results in a contradiction. 33- ay Example: want a loan, but I know I won't have money to repay st!" considering making a promise I know I can't keep. Can I make this a univer>@! law, the law that says "every time one needs a loan and has no money to reP 4 it, one should make a false promise"? Imagine everyone then acting accordin® this maxim. We quickly realize that this would result in negating, the whole institution of promise-keeping. We arrive at a contradiction. >. “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your ow? person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but al the same time as an end.” For Kant, human existence has in itself an absolute value - itself and the only ground of a possible categorical imperative ays at it is an end in The Role of Freedom in Morality The personal aspect of morality— which might more properly be © ethics— is about the cultivation of virtue: the development of character traits 0 that choosing the good becomes a matter of habit. Buta person, in order to be truy virtuous, must be free to cultivate the virtues, or not Thereisno virtue in being temperate when youare being forced not to indulge ‘There is no virtue in being charitable when someone is forcing you to give up hat is yours. Virtue can be guided by cultural traditions and social institutions, but it cannot be coerced. A virtuous man must also be a free man. The interpersonal aspect of morality is more about rule following. These rules are important because, they prevent us from “colliding” with each other. They permit us to live together in harmony, and they also make us recognize, apart from the mere consequences to ourselves, the rights of others. Here too, liberty is essential. When some people are permitted to dominate others, they treat others as merely a means to an end, rather than ends in themselves. Not only does this fail to honor the basic dignity within each person, it also stifles the flourishing of human eat and creativity. A society of domination will be a society that never reaches its full potential in the human sciences, physical sciences, and creative arts. Liberty affords us the greatest i s space possible to purs ina way ‘ us to live well with one another. a Havir : faving a final end does not obviate the need for liberty. Freedom remains essential. Freedom is so preci . precious that God wii 7 ee badly misuse that freedom. In other word: eae et we're not free to walk th Pe ean get eG We te Soret, 1 toad. Th human life tall the levels of morality, eee et eect ey es ne Oo 34Freedom: The Foundation of Moral Act Freedom is humans’ greatest quality and it is a reflection of our creator. Freedom is the power rooted in reason and will, to act or not to act, to do this or that and so to perform deliberate actions on one’s own responsibility. Having, freedom means having responsibility. Every action you choose further determines our character. Are animals free? Do they have freedom? What separates human from animals? Reason (Intellect) and will (moral action). Freedom is a power rooted in reason and will, to act or not to act. Good and evil are forged in freedom. To the degree that a person reaches higher level of freedom, he becomes capable of higher levels of morality. The sinful person becomes slave. The existence of freedom is a central premise in Catholic morality. Our secular culture greatly exalts freedom. Yet it also questions whether freedom really exists. Freedom and Free Will. While the existence of freedom is a central premise in Catholic morality, we arenotall equally free. There are many possible limits to our freedom: both external and internal. External freedom is a freedom from factors outside ourselves that limit or destroy our free will. Internal freedom is a freedom from interior factors _ that limit our free will. Requirement of True Freedom True freedom is dependent upon truth, “You will know the truth, and the truth will set you free” (John 8:32). Example, lying to a teacher or to friends. True freedom is oriented toward the good. We should not understand freedom as the possibility of doing evil. Evil enslaves us and diminishes our ability to be free. True freedom requires responsibility. There is no such thing as irresponsible freedom. Human Acts vs Acts of Humans Human acts make use of his knowledge and free will. Example: love your enemy, pray to God, sacrifice for others. Acts of human do not make use of his intellect or will knowledge. His action is natural. Examples of acts of human are breathing, blinking, and sneezing. True freedom liberates us to develop our God-given talents in a responsible Way so we can live our lives for others and for God. True freedom serves what is g00d, just and true. 35Man is created by God as a human person who can begin and control his own actions. He is meant to seek God and gain perfection by clinging to him. By freedom which is rooted in his intellect and will, man has the power to act or not to act. He can shape his own life, mature in goodness, and gain a perfection which is rooted in God. Until man attains God, he can choose to do good or evil, to grow in perfection or to sin, Because human acts are free, they are worthy of praise or blame. By constantly doing good, man grows in freedom. Doing evil leads man into a "slavery of sin" (Rom 6:17). A person is responsible for his voluntary acts. By progress in virtue, in knowledge of good, and in self-discipline, he gains greater mastery. Man's responsibility and imputability can be lessened or nullified by ignorance, fear, habits, or inordinate attachments or other factors. God confronted Eve, "What is this that you have done?" (Gen 3:13). He also confronted Cain, "What have you done?" (Gen 4:10). A person is responsible for any directly willed act. Also, an action can be indirectly voluntary (from negligence or ignorance). A person is not responsible for an evil act if he did not will itand did not intend it as a means to an end. For example, a person might incur death while trying to help another. A person is responsible if they could have avoided the evil asa drunk driver killing someone. Every human person must recognize the right of freedom in others, Exercising freedom, especially in moral or religious matters, is an inalienable tight of the human person. This must be protected by civil authorities within the limits of public order. Human freedom who refused God's love becomes a slave to sin. The first sin has led to so many others. Human history attests that the probleme of man come from man’s abuse of freedom. Freedom does not give man the right to sa and do everything, because man's purpose is not his own earthly satisfaction, Man's blindness and injustice destroy the cultural conditions needs 2 freedom. Deviating from the moral law violates man’s own freedom ani impr hii within himself. ‘Prisons him “For freedom, Christ has set us free" (Gal 5:1) and saved us fo... "Where the Spirit ofthe Lord is, there is freedom’ (1 Cor 17), S "™ iN's power. Christ's grace is not a rival to man’s freedo m. The pe nt freedom by being docile to God's Spirit. "Take aw, Person grows in inner ay from us all that i we may freely accomplish your will”. 's harmful so Whenever man deliberately chooses, he is the “father of his acts." chosen acts can be morally evaluated as good or evil Acts." These freely il a —_—,The object directly chosen by the will determines the basic morality (good or bad). The person's intellect sees this as according to moral standards (good) or not according to moral standards (evil). the act's morality. An loving God). One act and also to The person also has an intention which determines intention can guide many acts or even a whole lifetime (as I can have a multiplicity of intentions (Doing a favor to help someone receive a favor in return). act into a good one. A good However, a good intention can never turn an evil ention can make a good act purpose cannot justify evil means. However, an evil inte into an evil one, such as giving alms to gain praise. Only the act and the intention make an act good or bad. The circumstance can increase or diminish the goodness or evil. For example, stealing a large amount of money increases the evil, while fear of harm can lessen a person's responsibility. Circumstances can never make an evil act into a good one. ‘An act is good when the object, the intention, and the circumstances 21° all good. A good act is vitiated by an evil intention like praying in order to be seen as good. Some acts are evil in themselves as fornication and are always wrong to ‘choose. Therefore, the person's intention and the circumstances, such as pressure or evil act, such as murder, blasphemy, or a duress, cannot change a morally dultery, into a morally good act. We cannot do evil so good will come from it 37Name: Date: Year Level: Score: [EewS: activity Central to Kant's notion of freedom is acting freely and acting morally are one and the same thing. Why? How? Support your answer. [eee activity 2 True freedom is dependent upon truth, and based on John’s gospel “You will know the truth, and the truth will set you free”. What does it mean? Cite examples of this gospel. 39[eegs: acrivitys What will happen to usif there is unlimited freedom or the ab: Tear souseran absabe? Deter toe aadeaee lc IHU enName: Year & Section: Rating: —_ Date: —_—————_ MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it down on the space provided in each item: 1. Making use of his knowledge and free will A. Human acts B. Acts of human C. Freedom D. Allof the above Only the act and the intention make an act good or bad. A. True B. False C. Neither of the above D. Nocomment Natural action of human A. Human acts B. Acts of human C. Freedom D. Free will . True freedom is based on - A. Reason B. Idea Cc. Will D. Truth .. The following are elements of a good act except — A. Object B. Intention C. Circumstances D. None of the above . For Kant, acting freely (autonomously) and acting morally are — ‘A. one and the same thing B. elements of morality C. Culture is a power that create something. D. Artis part of culture. 41——10. 1 42 in's Own. Deviating from the moral law violates mai A. freedom B. Rights C. Free will D. Actuality This is the power rooted in reason and will. A. Human Acts B. Acts of human C. Freedom D. Free will Which of the following is true? A. Only the motive of duty, acti be seen as good C. For freedom, Christ has S set us free, D. Allof the above A B. means itself C Goals D. All the aboveIntroduction In a review essay on morality and culture, Mary Douglas pointed out that there exists little communication between anthropologists writing on morals and the (Western) moral philosophers. Anthropological findings enter the ethical discussions as ‘exotic examples." She expects this situation to last for quite some time. : Two conversations are running parallel: one the philosophers’, about the rational foundation of ethics, another the anthropologists’, about the interaction between moral ideas and social institutions. The conversations, as they are set at the present time, seems will never converge. Anthropologists are confident that they are speaking about the role of culture in human life and societies. Moral philosophers are sure that they are discussing moral issues. So far so good. But the problem begins when anthropologists turn to. the investigation of the morality of a culture and when philosophers try to account for the role of culture in the formation of morality. The central difficulty has to do with the way the relation between morality and culture is perceived. In fact, the problem is more fundamental than Douglas assumes. According to her, it is possible to reduce the gap between anthropologists and philosophers if the latter were to give up some of their (culturally determined) views on morality. True, but this is not the whole story. The anthropologists have difficulties too while accounting for the morality that philosophers speak about. What is Culture? Culture is derived from the Latin word “cultura” or “cultus” which means care or cultivation. Culture as cultivation implies that every human being is a potential member of his own social group. He is endowed with certain innate qualities to make use. However, he cannot develop these inborn talents without the other people. He/she needs other people who can provide him/her with the needed opportunities so he/she can translate these potentialities into realities called achievements. These accomplishments not only help him achieve self- actualization but also make him/her a contributing member of his society. 43developed one of the classic »x whole which includes apabilities and habits ds, culture refers to the totality of fs, cultivated landscapes, via knowledge and meaning, a His theory defines kes up social ideas an Englishman, is that comple Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor, and other © definitions of culture. He said, “Culture knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom, acquired as a member of society.” In other wor the humanly created world, from material culture an social institutions (political, religious, ‘economic etc.), a something that human has created and learned in a OC culture in descriptive terms as the “complex whole” thal and institutions. hom te -tivity, from the ects of human ac cae y behavior to the development In Tylor’s view, culture includ techniques, designs and fine arts to popular entertainment, from everyda: of sophisticated technology. It contains the plan, rules, policies for living. On the other hand, sociologists defined ct followed by people, and everything learned an (Hunt, et. al, 1994). According to Landis (1992), cul and shared beliefs, customs, skills, habits, traditions, members of society. ulture as the entire way of life 'd shared by people in society ture is a complex set of learned and knowledge common to The Influence of Culture in Moral Development Culture has been with us since the dawn of human existence. Significant as it is, a culture considerably shapes its members on how they live and relate within themselves and with other cultures (Bretzke, 2004). Culture is a social environment in which a person is born and wherein he or she lives together with other persons. Hence, culture has a great impact in the development of the human person in varied ways; may it be in physical, knowledge, thought, relationship, religious or moral development. Moreover, culture is a person’s social heritage that has been passed from one generation to the next basically through the relationship that binds the society together. It necessarily says on what are the things a member of the society must do, what to do and how to do things. It teaches and conditions members on how to relate and live with the other members of the society and even to people outside of their own culture. At its fundamentals, culture has important characteristics, . » As I emphasize, culture is rooted from the collective “human experienc: = rou is always transmitted, shared or acquired through learning. Cane oo human needs as a social being. And culture tends towards the participation of the members of the society.Therefore, culture functions to mold and establish a social identity that brings people as well to the knowledge of common objectives which members would try to achieve. Culture, indeed, provides norms, customs, laws, and moral demands that are to be followed. So to speak, in general, in a culture there is consistency and systematic pattems of behavior (Palispis, 2007). In general, culture plays a vital role the development of the human person. In every aspect of the human person, the cultural background can be very visible. In particular, culture has an essential influence on the moral development of the human person since morality is just one of the cultural aspects. Culture would tell,'as I have mentioned above, the members on what to do, how to do things and what are the things that should be done as well as those things that should be avoided. So to speak, culture imprints the existing moral principles into its members, thus, shapes the character of its members as well. Indeed, this is a process from infancy to adulthood, effectively presented by Kohlberg in his theory on the stages of moral development. At this point let us particularize how culture influences the moral development of the people. The points below are the following: 1. Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people towards one another and their experience as a people are the culture’s meadow. It is in this relationship and communal experience that culture influences the moral development of its members. It is important to note that morality as principle is promoted because primarily of the relationship within the community. Laws and rules and standards of attitudes and behaviors are setand promulgated by the community to promote that relationship that binds them together as a people. And culture as it is being handed down from one generation to another forms as well the morality of that particular generation. Yet, the kind of morality may not be absolutely the same with the previous generation due to changes that would inevitable occur. 2. The culture defines’the normative principles and behaviors of the society. It defines which particular principle and behavior that should be kept that would serve the best interest of the community. There would be a definition on what are the principles and behaviors also that should not be promoted or rejected. This kind of influence of culture in moral development is best seen in terms of relational level. Again, it is basic that it is in the relationship within the community and in their experience of that relationship that the community would able to form certain normative principles and behaviors. These defined. normative principles and behaviors inform and indoctrinate the members as they live and relate with the community. These would shape also the kind of moral judgment a person has, which is most of the time congruent to the general moral judgment. 45Moreover, a culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops restrictions and sets boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one another. These restrictions and boundaries serve as protection among themselves. These would create an atmosphere of promoting the welfare of the community. Indeed, anyone who tries to step beyond these is subject to punishment or consequences set by the community embedded in the culture. Culture here draws this consciousness into the moral development of its members. 4. As culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people, it also includes their moral character. Culture conditions the mind ~ the way people think and the way they perceive the world and their relationship with one another. Henceforth, a culture which characteristic is aggressive tends to be aggressive in terms of its relationship with one another or with other cultures, Yet, the character that is being shaped by a culture may not always be just and rightful. A culture like many others may shape a character that is unjust and mistaken in the general perspective of human morality. 5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups. They are the symbol of guidance and control. In many cultures, men are always regarded as the leaders who oversee the order of the community and give guidance, which is true in patriarchal societies, Through their roles and responsibilities in the community within the given culture, may it be patriarchy, matriarchy or whatever; people submit themselves to their authorities. By their very authority as they represent the general populace, the members look at them as people who promote and keep ‘the set of rules and laws that govern the community. Their moral judgments are considered essential in moral issues of the community. In particular, in domestic level the Parents of a child are the first authorities who set and teach the child essential for the moral development of their child. Evidently, culture is very significant in the development of the human person and in moral development particularly. Furthermore, as one would look at it, culture has a tight grip on the moral development of the people. Culture is the conditioning principle of the moral development of its members. Nevertheless, culture as the principle that surrounds the moral development of the people may not always promote what is good and just for all. It is certain that a i" t iors that actually hinder good relationships are principles, attitudes and behavior indeed difficult i and violate the welfare of the others. These are in le’ ‘i iat immediately in a culture, yet, they should be subject fo people's f the wellare aed proper changes and modifications have to be done fo eee and justice for everybody.‘Name: Date: Year Level: : — Score: [aw activity 1 How do you think your cor mmunit i: : : porcine: ity influences your behavior? Discuss with [ess: activity2 Tylor, an Englishman, developed one of the classic definitions of culture. Explain the meaning of culture according to Tylor. 47| - [eess: activirys How does culture help in generating the Explain and cite some examples. character and identity of its People>Se: ‘Name: —___ «Rating: —————_ Year & Section: fee YOURSELEI I MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it down on the space provided in each item: 1. The sum total of human creation A. Culture B. Language C. Beliefs D. Values ____—2. That culture is created and developed by man implies that it is — A. Learned B. Shared C. Cumulative D. Dynamic 3. Culture is cumulative because — A. Itis fixed or static B. It is continuous C. It varies from one culture to another D. Ithas a tendency to grow and expand 4. According to Tylor, culture includes the following except — A. Laws B. Mores C. Customs D, Nature 5. Which of the following is true of culture? A. Culture has a tight grip on the moral development of the people. B. Culture is the conditioning principle of the moral development of its member. C. Principle that surrounds the moral development of the people D. All the above ——-6. Which of the following statements is true of culture? A. Languages are culture. B, Archaeologists dig up culture in their excavations. C. Culture is a powerful tool for survival. D. Allof the above 49 |. Who first defined cul 2 Iture as that complex whole? A. E.B. Tylor B. Tylor Edwards C. Frank Wagnalls D. John Macionis . Culture is — A. The same thing as society B. Limited to humans C. Possessed only by males D. None of the above . Which of the following is true? A. Culture is static. B. Culture is limited. C. Culture compensates to many human physical limitation. D. None of the above ). National pride is conceived when nation has common — A. feelings B. aspirations C. goals D. all the aboveLESSON 3 Dynamics of Culture Introduction ‘The cross-cultural relationship is the idea that people from different cultures can have relationships that acknowledge, respect and begin to understand each other's diverse lives. People with different backgrounds can help each other see possibilities that they never thought were there because of limitations, or cultural proscriptions, posed by their own traditions. Traditional practices in certain cultures can restrict opportunity because they are “wrong” according to one specific culture. Becoming aware of these new possibilities will ultimately change the people that are exposed to the new ideas. This cross-cultural relationship provides hope that new opportunities will be discovered but at the same time it is threatening. The threat is that once the relationship occurs, one can no longer claim that any single culture is the absolute truth. The concept of cultural relativism as we know and use it today was established as an analytic tool by German-American anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 20th century. We recognize that the many cultures of the world have their own beliefs, values, and practices that have developed in particular historical, political, social, material, and ecological contexts and that it makes sense that they would differ from our own and that none are necessarily right or wrong or good or bad, then we are engaging the concept of cultural relativism. Cultural Relativism Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture. The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of ‘one’s own culture. Using the perspective of cultural relativism leads to the view that no one culture is superior than another culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc. It is a concept that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a specific social context. This is also based on the idea that there is no absolute standard of good or evil, therefore every decision and judgment of what is right and wrong is individually decided in each society. The concept of cultural relativism also means that any opinion on ethics is subject to the perspective of each person within their particular culture, Overall, there is no right or wrong ethical system. In a holistic understanding of the term cultural 51remjm jeuonippe ase aio ' eaming 4 sebeweapesiq pue sebewenpy {€261 PET) Ar2p05 10 ssed uo Aya100s ou pur ‘uondo jeuosiad, J0 zone e stn Buc Sa aes H Aes ues ouo ony ‘soumyno ie 01 sazdde yoryas paoprne a 23 wo at Saou ites nts ea a Pouruuoiap st Suosa pur wu saimnsuo9 wey aymonge foe pa Yin Sora yoIyAK ‘wstapef feomgo 01 pos Koso) 3 2aspedsind nau pind ew prpmy 240} aouaysro ueuinyjo suo eu ehbo oq somone eens sistBojodonypue s,Aepoy “peg pue pood zo Suosm puv ysis jose 29 04 ou st “jarfaq res0us BuRGUOD IO 2804p UDA reba jo ave pw oso) Kon az Temyay -4Bojodonjue wsepour ut padae -(o002 “wxdnog) suondumsse axquas0uy9 oqo SumeBiy one yo sueou © asoqodonne sto po Sunesk 51d 20 pougour vs uy Sujaidsoqur pue Sumureydxo 105 ampaood Jo poxsn IM St wIstanepar susan sou 2m Susp fa pees 0 See en meen uso £q you a2uanas TesTHTn2 4 2 Set names mu 1aeu s 7 anne pus aayonuisuo? 20U! 24 syeou8 pu -spasuy Sue $e y>ns sau 1 soppouss soar A > ea 6 Sumo jm 39 Pr are yeyy saonedHereunder are the advantages of cultural relativism: 1. It is a system which promotes cooperation. For the most part, humanity is strong because of the differences we all have. Every individual has a different perspective that is based on their upbringing, experiences, and personal thoughts. By embracing the many differences, we have, the cooperation creates the potential for a stronger society. Each individual definition of success allows us to pursue stronger bonds with one another and potentially achieve more because there are no limitations from a group level and what can or cannot be accomplished. 2. It creates a society where equality is possible. In any society, people rise by climbing on top of other people. It is a socially acceptable way of creating discrimination. We see this today in the wage gap that women face, the educational opportunities that minority groups face, and the violence we see because of political oppression. Cultural relativism allows the individual to define their moral code without defining the moral code of others. Each person is separate in such a society. That separation creates equality because each person can set his/her own definition of success. 3. People can pursue a genuine interest. In the modern society, people are funneled toward certain career options because of their circumstances. If you can’t afford to go to college, then you pursue a vocational career or some sort of entrepreneurship instead of a career that requires a graduate degree. If you can’t afford to buy a house, you go rent an apartment. In cultural relativism, you get to pursue your own interests without restriction. You set the definitions of what you can have and what you cannot have. When implemented successfully, each person would get to focus on his/her strengths instead of his/her weaknesses. 4. Respect is encouraged in a system of cultural relativism. People come from different cultures. They have different ideas. They pursue different definitions of success. Because such a system promotes the individual's definition instead of a group definition, a society can evolve because there is a natural level of respect built into the process. Each person is naturally given the right to pursue life through his /her own specific perspective and then learn from his/ her experiences in a way that works best for him/her. 5. It preserves human cultures. Humanity is a very diverse set of thoughts, traditions, ideas, and practices, Many times, the traditions of humanity are set aside so that a set of standards can be appeased. Native and First Nations tribes in North America did this by signing treaties which would help them to preserve some lands, but limit their rights by being subject to a new governmental authority. They were forced to trade some of their culture. Under the theory of cultural relativism, such a trade would not be necessary. It wouldn’t even be a consideration. 33. Cultural relativism creates a s¢ . Moral relativism can be excluded from cultw ._ It stops cultural conditioning. People tend to ada » are so trained ment. We society without judge ga second thought that we don’t even 8) Hee judgment. Under to judge others in today’s world that ee A me, Looking at someone and saying, es away. The only person that the theory of cultural relativism, judgment 8 7 ie with you are able to set judges you is yourself, People who might disaBi"’’- bubble. Instead of their own codes and standards for their oa ale an r abou! . worrying about others, you only worry geese ral rel ? ¢ cultural relativism. This means be treated as an individual under the theory of peda touplétihiet the moral codes of a culture can be defined and an expec Se ee that people follow it. Although other cultures may not set up Fost and others might say such a restriction isn’t a true form o} i ee people in such a system can do what makes the most sense for :) focusing on the customs of a culture, not the morality that is imposed’ upon those customs. . We can create personal moral codes based on societal standards with ease. To determine if a decision would be “right” or “wrong,” cultural relativism allows individuals to consult with the standards of their society or culture. It is a simple test to determine the course that a person should take in such a circumstance. By consulting with the moral code of the culture, one question must be asked: does the action conform to the cultural moral code? If it does, then the action is permitted. Although this process can allow for disturbing results, most cultures are based on inclusion instead of exclusion. It is only in structures where apartheid, segregation, or purging where disturbing outcomes are typically present. 7 pt their attitudes, thoughts, and béliefs to the people they are with on a tegular basis. This is Set conditioning and itprevents people from having an individualistic nore,cccn Cultural relativism stops this. Petree The disadvantages are as follows: L 54 It creates a system that is fueled by per natural bias to it because of how humani to be with others who have similar thou, : themselves into neighborhoods, comminitcg tt felings, So they segregate specific perspectives. When people are given the pant 8'Oups that share moral code, then they will do so based on their hese to define their own no longer a group perspective People follow iy sresPertonal bias. There i Code at the expense of ‘sonal bi, i nal bias, Every Society has a certain operates. People tend to prefer others.. It could limit moral progress, When we look at the i It would create chaos. People who can follow their own moral code because there is no “wrong” or “right” would be allowed to pursue any life they preferred under the theory of cultural relativism. If you're upset with your neighbor, then you can kill that person without consequence if your moral code allows for murder. Instead of purchasing something, you could steal it if you see stealing as “right” to do. There is no real way to protect people in such a society, so each person becomes responsible to protect themselves, It creates a system that is Darwinian in practicality, where only the strongest can survive. It is an idea that is based on the perfection of humanity. Many people strive to do good every day. Most want to see everyone have the chance to pursue happiness in some way. That is why the idea of cultural relativism often seems to be inviting. The only problem is that people are not perfect. We can be forgetful. We can lie, We can become aggressive when a driver cuts you off while driving and puts your family at risk Without a group moral code in place to govern decisions, anything could happen when we experience these moments of imperfection. » It could promote a lack of diversity. Cultural relativism promotes an individualistic point of view, so although it seems to promote diversity, it actually removes it from a society. Cultural relativism would allow slavery to return to the US South. It would allow men to exclude women from voting once again. It would stop employers from paying someone a fair wage - ot even paying them a wage at all. The only standards that are in place are those which are set by the individual involved, which means everyone is pursuing his/her own position of strength. We cannot create diversity when the emphasis of a society is individualistic gain that can come at the expense of others. . It draws people away from one another. Although cultural relativism can promote people coming together to share their strengths, it can also encourage People to draw apart from one another. CS, Lewis, in his description of Hell from The Screwtape Letters, envisions a place where people are constantly going away from each other to avoid the demons that each person has, Because each person is uncertain of what codes and standards another is following, the natural inclination for self-preservation causes people to draw might develop a close-knit community at first, but as Lewis descr demon causes people to back away from one another instead of co away. You ribes, each ming closer. idea of moral progress, we think of becoming more inclusionary instead of ex clusionary. This inclusion is reflected in the laws and customs of the culture. The current debate on the 55isa good example of as is ind Tex is/her bathroom transgender bathroom laws in noe sould be able 7 = Ne fe bathe this. In cultural relativism, aed vt everyone ne wr either choice of choice ora ual pes - tae ld be complet : “e ae reality, it could hold people back. ity’ te 7. It could limit humanity's progress. met oa i ait relativism as progression, but ee n Spon the compa. 2 the ability to judge one standard from inst a past one is removed as well of placing a current society or culture apace each is successful in No definition of success can be implement re ‘omen to vote as the “right” its own way. We might consider the ability a oa ‘women to vote was also thing to do today, but in past societies, not all ow i “right,” there’s no way to “right” from a cultural standpoint. Because both ar judge progress. : d 8. Cultural relativism can turn perceptions into truth. It's a es night ts is warm outside. A teen is walking down an alley wearing a oe Sidi o hood is up. His hands are jammed into his pockets and there is a bulge in one of them. In this scenario, some people may automatically assume that the teen is up to “no good.” The bulge might even be a weapon under that assumption. In the world of cultural relativism, that bias becomes a truth that can be acted upon. It doesn’t matter if the bulge is a gun or a package of Skittles. The decision to act becomes a righteous one because of the individual truth that the culture allowed through the bias it Perpetrates. The cultural relativism’s advantages and disadvantages which are discussed are based on the theoretical implement tation of such a system. Originally proposed by Franz Boas in 1887, it is an idea that has never boo. implemented cn sfc cultures cy landarls make senseina person'sculture Byore ge individualized cultures, on singular or larger scales, it d eon aualea ‘ Joes become eas, the traditions that humanity has developed over the wai 0 keep and e Carolina @ n | progress, but in : concept of cultural ane When you remove ily mbraceDate: Score: ACTIVITY 1 ‘ Based on your experience, how does your family differ from other families in your place. List down these differences and compare it with your own. [eeaes: acTIViTY 2 Identify one advantage and one disadvantage of cultural relativism and explain. 57but good in other society, ‘/country- [es: activity s 58Name: Ratings —__—_———~ year & Sections ates — MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer and write it down on the space provided in each item: 1 The goal of cultural relativism is to - A. Promote cultural practices that are not typically part of one’s own culture. B. Tur perception into truth. C. Limit humanity’s progress. D. Create chaos. . Cultural relativism stops this kind of perspective: A. Individualistic perspective B. Cultural perspective C. Universal perspective D. Multiculturalism . The culture that every individual longs for - A. Real culture B. Ideal culture Cc. Values D. Beliefs ._ The opposite of ethnocentrism ‘A. Xenocentrism B. Temporocentrism C. Cultural relativism D. Culture universal . Variations of culture A. Cultural relativism B. Universal culture C. Cultural diversity D. Culture lag ; . Respect is encouraged in a system of cultural relativism because ~ ‘A. People come from different cultures. B. People have different idea C. They pursue different definitions. D. Allof the above 59N . Cultural relativism creates yecil . These are shared rules of conduct that specify biases boca yho have similar thoughy, ith othe! A. People tend to prefer to be wi! ‘ and feelings, sone another: B. People are conditioned t0 Lee Bee C. People are indoctrinated wil D. None of the above how people ought to think and act. A. Values B. Folkways C. Mores D. Norms .. The feeling that their particular way of life is superior and right ang that all other cultures are inferior and often wrong. A. Cultural relativism B. Counterculture C. Bthnocentrism D. Subculture . Refers to the notion that each culture should be evaluated from the different culture, A. Ethocentrism B. Cultural relativism C. Xenocentrism D._ Temporocentrism standpoint of its own standard rather than from the standpoint of aLESSON 4 The Filipino Way Introduction Our culture is a big reflection of our gr by most of the people we have interacted with. A blend and Hispanic culture with the influence from Chinese, ‘Asian cultures really contribute to the customs and tradition eat and complex history. Its influenced of the Malayo-Polynesian Indians Arabs, and other ns of the Filipinos. Filipino culture is unique compared to other Asian countries, and beliefs applied every day in the life of the Filipinos reveal how rich and blessed the culture the people have. The Filipino Customs and Traditions What is it about the Philippines that makes it different from the rest of the world? Well, for one thing, it is all about their culture. When children or young people greet or say goodbye to their elders they typically do so by taking the right hand of the elder with their right hand and place the back the elder's hand lightly on their forehead. It is a way of giving respect to the elders and it is believed that is also a way of receiving blessing to the elders. “Mano po” is the term used when kissing the hands of elders. ‘Mano is a Spanish word for “hand” while po is used at the end of the sentence when addressing elders or superiors. ‘The Filipinos are one of the most hospitable people you may find anywhere. Foreign visitors in the country are treated with the utmost respect. This trait is usually seen during fiestas and holidays where many Filipinos are giving their best to entertain their visitors well. Itis amazing to see that even the simplest home along the road opens its door toa stranger. For Filipinos, to be able to serve others gives them honor of showing true friendship. Filipino hospitality is a trait you can't take away from them 1. Having close family ties is also one of their unique traits. It is one of the outstanding cultural values that Filipinos have. The family takes care of each other and is taught to be loyal to family and elders by simply obeying their authorities. This is one of the unique characteristics of Filipinos Having fondness for family reunions during secular and religious: holidays 612 1 24 05 spuany sry pue wou 4g nm ee Swazed oxp yey joyy AyBty sean yf uoHD2; Seat4d & Jo aouteyp ayy acy poo ay ye\p 39edx9 JOU pInom unos ap jhun em. 04948 “uos sty o} aysmur punosSyoeq aup sopraoad tonya fensn uoumasut ayy paceyd puatyy sy 20 sjastuty WeU ax, “sia8uIs| . DE OUM spudty aqeur sty Xq paruedusoa2e st ay ‘Aq[EWLON -asnoy sAppj Suno< aug jo yuo ut Suos aay e Burs oj uew Zunod ayy armbar prnom 'V “wewos © 0} suonuajuT sty yr snoLlas Az9A st He BEY MOUS OH Psa se Y 1 jo 0 es iqare am ‘sounds sv ri jdoad ourntly Roman Catholic h and often praying The Philippines is one of two predomi Their habit of going to chur: a deep faith and belief when it comes to religion imes many take the risk of their Manila). For many, it is just Religion nations in Asia-Pacific acts that Filipinos have y devoted to religions that somet h the Black Nazarene (in Quiap: 4 fears, refle They are ver lives just to touc a choice between their faith an¢ Filipinos believe that having a stron and their guidance to face everyday lite Superstition — In the Philippines, superstitious the country. These beliefs have come from the different sayings and bel varancestors that aim to prevent danger from happening or to make a pe refrain from doing something in particular. These beliefs are part of our culture, for one derives his/her beliefs from /her customs, traditions and culture have dictated the influences of what his/ to explain certain phenomena or to scare people. Some are practiced pra ly if they will comply with because Filipinos believe that there is nothing to lose these beliefs. . Marriage and Wedding Customs In the country, marriage is a sacred union of man and woman after a period of courtship and engagement It is a sacrament between two people who love each other. For many Filipinos, the eternal quality of dedication to God perv ades a truly sacred marriage. A sacred marriage isa covenant between two who love each other in God and with God, whose joining becomes an expression of the desire of each to love and serve God together. Death — Death in the Philippines is one of the most important occasions in family life. For many Filipinos, a death of a relative is an opportunity to strengthen ties in the family. To pay respect and honor the relationship to the d, long lost relatives, friends, and even relatives working abroad are .z devotion may lead to a better lite beliefs have grown throughout ts of erson decease reunited. The Philippines is the home of some unique death rituals that are partly religious and mostly superstitious. The mourning, and the weeping are stl present, but a happy and welcoming atmosphere would usually envelop the place to help the deceased on his/her journey to the afterlife ‘After the death of a person, a nine-day period of having a novena of prayers and masses offered up to the deceased is held, although the beginning of the “siyam na araw” varies, but usually ends the week after the death Another period follows after death, the 40-day mourning period. Family members indicate their state of bereavement by wearing a small, black rectangular plastic pin on their left breast or breast pocket area. A ceremonial mass is held at the end of this 40-day period. Common belief states that the soul goes to Heaven after these 40 days, following the belief that Jesus Christ ascended to Heaven after the said period of days. 63