Chapter 3

Interstellar dust
Introduction!
3.1 Interstellar extinction!
3.2 Depletion!
3.3 Dust mass!
3.4 Dust emission!
3.5 Grain heating and cooling!
3.6 Grain properties!
3.7 Grain mixture models

1
Introduction

Dust = 1% in mass of the ISM but essential to 


study because of critical role in the matter cycle 

and evolution:

✤ physics : dust grains have a charge ⇒!

✤ can be accelerated in shock waves (supernovae)!
✤ coupling with magnetic field → influences ambipolar diffusion!
✤ energetics : heating via photoelectric effect, energy transfer via gaz-
grain collisions!
✤ chemistry : grain surfaces = catalyst for formation of H2 and other,
more complex molecules!
✤ star formation : dust influences accretion rate, mass of the future
star and so the IMF (initial mass function)
2
Introduction
The presence of dust grains in the ISM is deduced observationally in
one of two basic ways:!
(i) Interaction with starlight:
✤ Extinction (absorption and ✤ Polarization!
scattering) and reddening! ✤ Absorption by silicate bands or
✤ Diffusion/reflection! ice bands (e.g., H2O, CO2 ices)

3
Introduction
The presence of dust grains in the ISM is deduced observationally in
one of two basic ways:!
(ii) Emission from dust grains:
✤ Thermal continuum emission :!

✤ in the MIR-FIR from grains in radiative equilibrium!

✤ in the NIR-MIR from non-equilibrium heating of small grains!
✤ IR emission bands (e.g., PAHs)!
✤ Radio continuum emission from rotating grains
The colors represent infrared emission detected in three
wavelength bands : blue is 12 microns; green is 60 microns,
and red is 100 microns. Hotter material appears blue or white
while the cooler material appears red. The hazy, horizontal S-
shaped feature that crosses the image is faint heat emitted by
dust in the plane of the solar system. Celestial objects visible
in the photo are regions of star formation in the constellation
Ophiucus (directly above the galactic center) and Orion (the
two brightest spots below the plane, far right). The Large
Magellanic Cloud is the relatively isolated spot located below
the plane, right of center. Black stripes are regions of the sky
that were not scanned by the telescope.
IRAS view of the Milky Way (IPAC) 4
Introduction

✤ Solid, macroscopic particles composed

of dielectric and refractory materials!
✤ Size ~0.01-0.5 "m!
Composition: silicates and carbon
Interstellar grains
✤

compounds!
✤ Most of Si, Mg, Fe incorporated in the
silicate core ; ~30% of O, ~60% of C!
✤ Gas-phase species condensate on dust
grains in cold (~10K) and dense clouds
⇒ ice mantles

5
 – regulate gas phase abundances of elements through accretion and destruction proce

3.1
3.2Interstellar
Observational extinction
evidence
3.2.1 Interstellar extinction
✤ Presence of dust in the ISM first recognized by its reddening effect on
the Presence of dust
light from in the
distant ISM first recognized by its reddening effect on the light fr
stars.

Recall : Apparent magnitude of a star ⇥ given by : mobs, = m0, + A

d
where : m0, = M + 5 log = apparent magnitude if no extinction,
10 pc
d = distance,
A = extinction due to dust
⇥
Iobs
⇤ A = mobs m0 = 2.5 log , by definition of the magnitude.
I0
Let Iobs = I0 e ⇥ext ( ) , then A = 2.5 log(e ⇥ext ( ) ) = 2.5 log(e) ⇥⇥ext ( )
⇧ ⌅⇤ ⌃
=1.086
Optical depth
due to extinction
The extinction curve = plot of extinction as a function of or of 1/ .
Extinction curve is generallyA
normalized, e.g. :
λ = 1.086 τext(λ)
– A /AV 6
 3.1 Interstellar extinction

✤ Extinction curve = plot of extinction as a

function of λ or 1/λ.!
✤ Derived by comparing a star with another
one of similar luminosity and spectral
type but with negligible extinction.! B
V
✤ Extinction curve is generally normalized,
e.g., Aλ/AV, or Aλ/E(B-V), or E(λ-V)/E(B-V)
where E(λ1-λ2) = Aλ1-Aλ2 = color excess 1.8 2.3
and AB and AV are the extinctions in the B
(blue, centered at 440nm) and in the V
(visible, centered at 550nm) broad bands.
Extinction ➚ ~linearly with ➘ wavelength,
except for a peak at ~2175 Å (4.6 "m-1).

7
 Figure 3.1 –
3.1 Interstellar extinction
Figure
Figure 3.1 ––
3.1
Figure 3.1 –
Figure
Figure 3.2
3.2 – – Figure 3.
Figure 3.2 –
VA AV
Define
Define the the total-to-selective
total-to-selective extinction extinction
ratio R : ratio
R A=V R A
V RV =
:V
Define the total-to-selective
Define the total-to-selective extinction
extinction RV : RRVVV=: RVV = E(B
ratioratio V) E(B V)
E(B E(BV) V)
E( =V)
== E( V)
⌅⇤ ⇥⇥1E(E(V)
A ⌅⇤ ⌅⇤ ⇥ V)
Then AA =AA +A +A E( E( 1 V) A A
+ V)
A V R
RRVV == VE(BAVV) E(B
V A V)
= =+A +E(+ V) A
BecauseRextinction
V E(B
= V) E(B V)
rapidly decreases E(B
E(B= V)withE(BV)
increasing
V)
+ in the IR, we can write
E( E(B V) V) E(B V) E(B V)
RV =Because lim A rapidly decreases with increasing in the IR, we can write
Because ⇤⇧ A E(BrapidlyV) decreases with increasing in the IR, we can write
Therefore, Because
RV can A rapidly decreases
be determined with increasing
by extrapolating
RV = lim
measured
E( V) color inexcesses
the IR,intowe the
canIRwrite
and hence A /A
⇤⇧ E(B V)
E( V)
be determined. RV = lim
⇤⇧ E(B V) E( V)
Therefore,
Note RV can observation
: extensive be determinedhave by extrapolating
shown thatmeasured RV = lim
color
the observed excesses into
interstellarthe IR and hence
extinction A /A
(from V canthru vi
MIR
Therefore, E(B V) the IR and hence A /
⇤⇧excesses
NUV, and FUV) can be characterized by one free parameter ⇤ chosen tointo
be determined.R V can be determined by extrapolating measured color be RV . Value of RV de
be Therefore,
Note : extensive: observation have shown that the observed interstellar extinction (from MIRexcesses
determined R V can be determined by extrapolating measured color thru visible,
Therefore,
on the environment R=E(
V can be
traversed determined
by the l.o.s.by
; extrapolating
the diffuse ISM measured
has R V = color
3.1, excesses
dense intoclouds
molecular the IR
into the
NUV, and FUV) can IR and⌅⇤ hence
V) A
be⇥characterized
λ /A by can be determined:
V one free parameter ⇤ chosen to be RV . Value of RV depends
RV be⇥4 A 6 (see A fig. 3.2).
on thedetermined
environment : AV +Aby
traversed VV)theE( l.o.s. ; V) 1 E(has RVV)= 3.1, dense molecular clouds have
the diffuse ISM
Then = =E( = +1= +1
RV ⇥ 4 A 6 V(see fig. 3.2).AV ⌅⇤ ⇥ AV RV E(B V)
Interstellar A A
curve separates AVinto
+A4VpartsE( : V) 1 E( V)
Note
Then
: extensive
=observation have
=
shown that the
+ 1 =
observed interstellar
+ 1 (from MIR thru
extinction
– NIR : A ⌅ curve
Interstellar AV separates A
1.7 into
V 4 parts : AV RV E(B V)
1.7 1
NUV,NIRand
––visible : A: FUV)
A⌅ ⌅ can be characterized by one free parameter ⇤ chosen to be RV . Value of RV depend
– visible
environmentNote
: A
– 2175Å bump (4.6µmby⌅: extensive
1
traversed observation
1 ) the have shown
l.o.s. ; the diffuse ISM hasthatRV the observed
= 3.1, interstellar
dense molecular extinction
clouds have
8 RV (
3.1 Interstellar extinction
✤ Note : extensive observation have shown that the observed interstellar extinction
(from MIR through visible, NUV, and FUV) can be characterized by one free
parameter → chosen to be RV.
✤ Value of RV depends on the composition
and size of the interstellar grains and so on
the environment traversed by the l.o.s. :!
✤ the diffuse ISM has RV ~ 3.1!
✤ dense molecular clouds have RV ∼ 4−6

✤ Extinction and hydrogen column density :


Observations (e.g., Rachford et al. 2002)
have shown that on average, 

NH/E(B−V) ≈ 5.8×1021 cm−2 mag−1.
Therefore, for diffuse clouds (RV = AV/E(B − V) = 3.1, i.e. E(B − V) = AV/3.1), we
have: NH = (AV/3.1) × 5.8×1021 cm−2
N.B.: Ratio not universal ; more generally:

⇒ NH = 1.9×1021 AV cm−2
AV/NH = [5.35 - 6.42(3.1/RV - 1)]×10-22 mag cm2
9
3.1 Interstellar extinction
! Properties of the extinction curve
(a) UV-visible (0.1-5 "m) : 3 distinct spectral regions due to different
grain sizes/compositions (e.g. Whittet et al. 1976, Witt et al. 1984)
λ (µm)
0.1
1) 1-2"m-1 : linear curve ~λ-1 (slope changes 0.5

~2.2 "m-1)

→ grains with size < λ ~ 0.1 "m!
2) ~4.6 "m-1: large extinction feature called
the 2175Å bump (sometimes 220nm bump)

→ particles rich in carbon (graphite,
hydrogenated amorphous carbon grains, or
various aromatic forms of carbon)

Note: strong function of the metallicity of
the gas!
3) beyond 6 "m-1 (FUV): non-linear increase

→ very small grains with size ≪ λ ~ 0.01
"m
10
3.1 Interstellar extinction
! Properties of the extinction curve
(a) UV-visible (0.1-5 "m) [ctd]

Can be fitted with analytic functions
(Fitzpatrick & Massa 1986, 1988, 1990)
E( V) 1 1 1 1
= c1 + c2 + c3 D( , , 0 ) + c4 F( )
E(B V)
Linear 2175Å
FUV rise
background bump

✤ c1, c2, c3, c4 : constants, depending on l.o.s.!

✤ D = Drude function/profile ; similar to
Lorentzian but easier to interpret physically
(absorption cross-section) :
 2

 D( 1
, , 0
1
)= ⇣ ⌘2
2 2 2 2
0 +
Open circles = data, solid line = analytical fits
✤ F = polynomial
8
function : (Fitzpatrick & Massa 1988)
>
<0.5392(
> 1
5.9)2 + 0.0564( 1
5.9)3 for 1
> 5.9µm 1
1
F( )=>
> 1 1
:0.0 for < 5.9µm 11
3.1 Interstellar extinction
! Properties of the extinction curve
(b) IR-submm (5-1000 "m) : !
✤ Variation as ~ λ-2 

→ Amorphous and crystalline dust Silicate bands
in the Rayleigh limit (2(a/λ ≪1)!

Aλ/E(B-V)
✤ 2 large absorption features around
9.7 and 18 "m 

→ silicates (Si-O elongation and O-
Si-O bending modes).


✤ A band at 11.3"m has been tentatively identified with Si−C stretch

modes, and is usually seen in dust envelopes around Carbon stars.

Note: Because these compounds are attached to solid objects, the energy
levels are distorted from the pure molecular bands seen in the
laboratory, making exact one-to-one identification difficult.
12
3.1 Interstellar extinction
! Other features in the extinction curve
✤ 3.4"m Aliphatic C-H feature: !
✤ Broad extinction feature seen along l.o.s. where
the interstellar extinction is very high (AV>10)
associated with refractory grain material.!
✤ Identified as a C-H stretching mode in
“aliphatic” hydrocarbons (organic molecules
with carbon
Interstellar Dust
Interstellar Dust atoms in straight or branched
chains).




 Comparison of the 3.4 "m absorption

 features toward CRL 618 and Galactic
center source GCS 3 with the 3.4 m
Ethane
Ethane Isobutane
Isobutane
emission feature of IRAS 22272+5435.
The
The origin
origin ofof this
this feature
feature is is stillunclear,
still unclear,but
butsuggestions
suggestionsinclude
includealiphatic
aliphatichydrocarbon
hydrocarbonresidues
residues
produced
produced byby
UVUV photolysisofoficeicemantles
photolysis mantlesonongrains,
grains,hydrogenated
hydrogenatedamorphous
amorphouscarbon,
carbon,and
and Two types of laboratory analogs are
✤ Origin still unclear, but one suggestions is
hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon mantles
mantles onon silicategrains.
silicate grains. shown for comparison. The vertical
Interstellar
Interstellar Ices:
Ices: dotted lines indicate the asymmetric
aliphatic
TheThe strongest
strongest
hydrocarbon
iceice feature
feature is isthethe3.1
3.1mmO-H
residues
O-Hstretch
stretchband
bandininwater
produced
water(H(HO)O)ice,
22 ice,two
twounidentified
unidentified
by vibrational modes of C-H bonds in
UV features
photolysis
features
A&A,
A&A,
at at
6.16.1
315,
315,
and
L375
L375
and
andand
of
6.86.8m,m,and andaice
below).Other
below).
band mantles
a bandatat 15.2mmidentified
15.2
Othericeicebands
bandsare areCO,
CO,CH
on
identifiedwith
withCO
CH, NH
44
COgrains,
, NH, and
33
22 ice(see
ice
, andCH
(seeWhittet
CHOH.
33
Whittetetetal.al.1996,
OH.These
Theseare
are
1996, methyl (3.38 "m) and methylene
groups (3.42 "m), and the symmetric
hydrogenated
generally
generally
clouds.
thought
thought
clouds.IceIce
toto
mantles
mantles
arise
areare
amorphous
arise
ininicyicy“mantles”
notfound
not
“mantles”that
foundonongrains
thatencase
grainsininthe
encasecarbon,
dustgrains
dust
thegeneral
grainsfound
generalISM,
foundin
ISM,asasexposure
and
indense
densemolecular
exposuretotothe
molecular
thegeneral
general vibrational mode of methylene groups
hydrocarbon
interstellar
interstellar
cloud
cloud areare
only
radiation
radiation
only seen
seen
mantles
field
field
when
when
sublimesthe
sublimes
AA 3.3).
VV
theices
3.3).The
onbandssilicate
ices(for
(forexample,
Theiceicebands
example,HHOOice
are
22
aresmeared
smearedout
grains.
icefeatures
featuresininthe
outinto
intobroad
theTaurus
Taurusdark
broadfeatures
dark
featuresbecause
because
(3.48 "m). From Goto et al. (2002) 13
 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. They are seen towards PNe, HII regions, reflec
and young stellar objects, primarily in dense regions. All of the PAH features have
3.1 Interstellar extinction observed in the diffuse ISM (see Mattila et al. 1996, A&A, 315, L353).

! Other features in the extinction curve

✤ Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) features:!
Anthracene Pyrene Benzopyrene Cor
✤ Family of five narrow emission bands at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 8.6, and 11.3"m,
In aromatic carbon ring molecules the optically-active vibrational modes are variou
sometimes with associated weaker
C bending features
and stretching visible
modes in bright
which correspond sources,
reasonably well to the observed
and underlying continua.3.3 !m feature is associated with C-H stretching, the 6.2 m and 7.7 m bands are C
modes, and the other bands are associated with various C-H in-plane and out-of-pla
✤ Seen towards PNe, HII regions, reflection
modes. Detailed associationnebulae, and young
is difficult because laboratorystellar
PAHs are expected to d
those
objects, primarily in dense found in interstellar
regions. All of space.
the Other suggestions
PAH features forhave
the carriers
been of these feature
grains consisting of hydrogenated amorphous carbon (HACs) or carbonaceous com
observed in the diffuse ISM (see Mattila
(sometimes called QCCs, etQ=Quenched),
al. 1996, A&A, and solid 315,
carbon L353).
particles (“coal”).

✤ Most likely carriers appear to be

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
The 3.3"m feature is associated with
C-H stretching, the 6.2"m and
7.7"m bands are C-C stretching
modes, and the other bands are
associated with various C-H in-
plane and out-of-plane bending
modes. 14
PAH Emission features in the reflection nebula NGC7023 (5-15 m)
3.1 Interstellar extinction
! Other features in the extinction curve
✤ Interstellar ices:!
✤ 3.1"m O-H stretch band in water ice, 15.2"m band from CO2 ice (see
Whittet et al. 1996, A&A, 315, L375). Other ice bands are CO, CH4, NH3,
and CH3OH. !
✤ The ice bands are smeared out into broad features because they are in a
solid state phase condensed onto a solid grain.The shape of the ice band
depends on the presence of H2O and the state of the molecules in the ice
phase.
(Whittet et al. 1996)
(Gibb et al. 2000)

W33

15
3.1 Interstellar extinction
! Measuring AV
• 2)counting
(a) Star Les comptages d’étoiles in
: variations : stellar density due to presence of dust in

the l.o.s.!
• Consiste à attribuer les variations de densité stellaire à la présence de matière sur
✤ Classical
la ligne de visée.
method (Wolf 1923, Bok 1937) : count number of stars in
• magnitude
Méthode proposée
intervalparinWolf
region(1923)
of: interest
compter leand
nb d’étoiles par intervalle
in reference field with
de magnitudes,
same size:
 dans des boîtes de taille fixée -> diagramme de Wolf (Bok,
1937).
log– N(m−1/2 ≤ m′ ≤ m+1/2) as a function of m = Wolf diagram
logN*(m-1/2 3 m’ 3 m+1/2) = f(m).
Log(N)= a x m +b
log N = am + b
d
fiel
n ce
r e
Refe d
lou
r kc
Da

Av

Wolf diagram for an extinction of 1.5 magnitude. 


➀ foreground stars ; ➁ stars mixed with dust ; 
 16
➂ background stars
 • Consiste à attribuer les variations de den

3.1 Interstellar extinction •

la ligne de visée.
Méthode proposée par Wolf (1923)
de magnitudes, dans des boîtes de ta
! Measuring AV 1937).
– logN*(m-1/2 3 m’ 3 m+1/2) = f(m).

(a) Star counting (ctd) :!

✤ Drawback of classical method : fixed region size
(compromise between stellar density and spatial
resolution) !
✤ New method (Cambrésy 1998, 1999) : fix the
number of counted stars per cell (adaptative grid)

(Cambrésy 1999) 17
3.1 Interstellar extinction
! Measuring AV

(b) Color excess : AV ∝ E(λ1-λ2) ; works well if :!

✤ stellar population is well known (e.g. AGBs) : allows to determine
mean color from reference field!
✤ the chosen color shows little dispersion, e.g. AV = 15.9 E(H-Ks)

(Rieke & Lebofsky 1985, Lada et al. 1994)

Extinction map of the Lupus 3 molecular cloud (Teixeira et al. 2005) 18

 3.1 Interstellar extinction
✤ Qext can be divided into absorption and scattering terms : 

Qext = Qabs + Qsca (= 1 − fraction of transmitted radiation), with!
✤ Qabs : absorption efficiency (fraction of absorbed radiation)!
✤ Qsca : scattering efficiency (fraction of scattered radiation)!
✤ Scattering part commonly expressed in terms of the grain albedo ω : 

ency (fraction of scattered radiation)

 Qsca
xpressed in terms of the grain albedo ⇤ : ⇤ =

 Qext
g grain would have ⇤ =pure-scattering
An idealized 1, whereas a puregrain
absorbing
would grain
havewould
ω = have ⇤ = 0. a pure
1, whereas
absorbing grain would have ω = 0.!
Qscat ⌅✤ Q abs ,icy
For butparticles
Qabs , 0.QThus even
scat ≫ Qabsthe most
, but strongly
Qabs scattering
≠ 0. Thus grains
even the absorb
most strongly
on and heat up. Thisgrains
scattering means absorb
that theysome
mustof then
theemit at leastradiation
incident some thermal emis-up.
and heat
→ they must emit at least some thermal emission.

can be calculated using the Mie theory (by solving Maxwell’s equations with
tions). For small grains, 19
 3. background stars : lines are parallel, displacement corresp
3.2 Depletion l.o.s.
✤
3.2.2 Depletion
Gas-phase abundances of elements in the diffuse ISM can be
estimated by measuring the relative strengths of interstellar
As discussed
absorption lines (electronic in Ch. IV,
transitions of we can or
atoms estimate
ions).! the gas-phase abund
✤ relative strengths
Measured abundances of relative
are given interstellar absorption
to solar systemlines.
abundances
and are expressedMeasured
as
 abundances
⇥ are ⇥given relative to solar system abun

 NX NX

 [X/H] = log log
NH NH ⇥
Solar value
✤ Fordepletion,
[X/H] is also called many of the heavy elements, [X/H] < 0, i.e. the observe
D(X)!
✤ todepleted
Also define the solar values, and by
fraction inference
: δ(X) = 1 - 10we
D(X)conclude

 that the “missing
dust are
δ(X) = 0 ⇔ atoms grains.
all inThis
the removes
gaz
 them from the gas-phase, making them
δ(X) = 1 ⇔ atoms are all in grains!
✤ e.g.: D(Fe) = -2 ⇒ In
δ(Fe)
fact,=it1has
- 10been
-2 = 0.99, i.e. 99% of iron is depleted
shown that depletion is correlated with con
article by Savage & Sembach [1996, ARAA, 34, 279]).
20
 3.2 Depletion 308 SAVAGE & SEMBACH

✤ For many of the heavy elements, [X/H] < 0, i.e. the observed abundances
are strongly depleted relative to solar values → the “missing” atoms are
panel of Figure 3. This weak line, which provides an example of the type of data
necessary to detect weak intersystem lines of abundant elements (see also Meyer
et al 1994), is particularly useful for establishing the C abundance in the inter-
stellar medium because the resonance line of C II near 1334 Å is very strong and
is almost always too saturated to yield a reliable carbon abundance. The absorp-
tion lines of rare elements also often have equivalent widths of less than 1 mÅ
and must have high S/N ratios in order to be detected. Examples of weak-line de-

Annu. Rev. Astro. Astrophys. 1996.34:279-329. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

tections for several heavy elements (Ga II, Ge II, Kr I) for the Oph sight line are
shown in the middle right panel of Figure 3. Heavy elements such as these (and
locked up in the solid-phase in dust grains. This removes them from the others such as As, Sn, Te, Tl, and Pb) extend the study of interstellar chemical be-

by Universite Toulouse 3 -Paul Sabatier on 10/05/09. For personal use only.

havior into the fifth and sixth rows of the periodic table and provide information
gas-phase, making them inaccessible to absorption-line studies.

✤ Trends : !
✤ Greater depletion is observed in
regions of higher density. !
✤ Cold diffuse clouds also show greater
overall depletion than warm diffuse
clouds.!
✤ Less depletion along sight lines that
pass through the Galactic halo
(observed towards bright QSOs). A Figure
comparison
5 A comparisonof the
of the gas-phase
gas-phase abundances,
abundances, [X/H] = log(X/H) log(X/H)
cool and warm diffuse clouds toward Oph at heliocentric velocities of 15 km s 1 and 27 km
[X/H]
⇤ , in the =
log(X/H) − The
s 1 , respectively. log(X/H) ⊙, in
elements are arranged theof decreasing
in order cool gas-phase
and warm diffuse
abundance (which is
approximately one of increasing condensation temperature). The dashed line indicates the column
clouds toward
density-weighted ζ average
sight-line Oph. The There
abundances. dashed line
is a general indicates
progression in abundancethe
column density-weighted average abundances in the
differences as a function of elemental depletion (see text). The data used to construct this plot are
listed in Table 5. 21
l.o.s. (Savage & Sembach 1996, ARAA)
3.2 Depletion
✤ Strongest correlation is between depletion and condensation temperature
TC (see, e.g., review article by Savage & Sembach [1996, ARAA, 34, 279]).

✤ As dust grains form in a cooling,

expanding AGB star atmosphere,
those elements with a high TC
condense out first, and will (10% in gas-phase)

continue to be depleted further as

the atmosphere cools. Elements (1% in gas-phase)

with lower TC condense out later,

and thus are less depleted by the
time that grain formation halts
(e.g., when the circumstellar
envelope finally dissipates) as
they have had less time to get
locked into grains.

22
(Savage & Sembach 1996, ARAA)
 3.2 Depletion
✤ The observed depletion patterns seen in the interstellar medium are
therefore giving us important information on the formation and
destruction histories of the grains. What elements will be depleted
depends on the environment of the grains during formation (i.e., grains
forming in regions with very different abundances will result in different
depletion patterns). Similarly, as destroyed, they return elements to the gas
phase, altering the depletion pattern. The research challenge is how to
translate the depletion pattern into the grain history.

"Our solar system is different than the space right

outside it and that suggests two possibilities," says
David McComas the PI for IBEX (Interstellar
Boundary EXplorer). "Either the solar system
evolved in a separate, more oxygen-rich part of the
galaxy than where we currently reside or a great
deal of critical, life-giving oxygen lies trapped in
interstellar dust grains or ices, unable to move freely
throughout space." Either way, this affects scientific
models of how our solar system – and life – formed.
23
Credit: NASA/Goddard
3.2 Depletion
! Implications for grain composition

Studies of the most abundant products of stellar nucleosynthesis (C, N, O,

Mg, Si, S, and Fe) tell us about the primary constituents of grains. Elements
formed by the r- and s-process are rarer, but may hold clues as to how the
elements are processed through grains (either the incorporation or release of
atoms from grains).!

✤ Oxygen: Depending on the assumed (O/H) total abundance, something

like 120−450 oxygen atoms per 106 H atoms reside in dust grains. In the
diffuse ISM, the general absence of the 3.1"m H2O band suggests that
<0.02% of this Oxygen is locked up in H2O ice (~10% in molecular clouds).
Most O is probably incorporated into silicates and oxides of Fe and Mg.!
✤ Nitrogen & Sulfur: These show little or no incorporation into dust grains.
N in the gas phase as N2, chemically very stable!
✤ Mg, Fe, Si, Ni, Cr, & Mn: All of these elements show a high degree of
incorporation into dust grains, in many cases nearly depleting the gas
phase in favor of grains in dusty regions.
24
3.2 Depletion
! Implications for grain composition
✤ Carbon: The C/H abundance in dust ranges from ~90−130 per 106 H
atoms. This is small compared to the carbon content of dust grains inferred
by the MRN or Draine & Lee dust mixtures.



The “Carbon crisis”, or “Where is all the Carbon we need for interstellar
dust?” : The observed total C abundances are about 0.2dex below Solar for
B stars (the best source of total C abundances because no dust can survive
in a B-star atmosphere). Given the observed gas-phase abundances, the
implication is that there is less C available than is needed by typical dust
mixtures to explain the strengths of features in the interstellar extinction
curve due to carbonates. 

However, more recent models (e.g., Dwek 2004), taking into account more
dust compositions and more constraints have managed to fit the B star
abundances. Could the crisis be solved?

25
 3.3 Dust mass
✤ Assume spherical dust grain with radius a. Can define :!
⇥ Figure 3.6 – Figure 3.6 –
✤ geometric
⌅ cross-section
12
: σg = ( a2!
nal form : ⇥⌅ = ⇥0 , at ⌅ ⇥ 10 Hz
✤ ⌅0 extinction cross-section : σext = σg Qext = ( a2 Qext
effective 

GHz) ISM 3.4
where Dust
CSQdisk
ext mass
= extinction 3.4 Dustofmass
efficiency dust grain, function of a, λ, m
⇤ 0.004 ⇤ 0.02
✤ Recall: 
 d 1⌅ = ⌅ ds = ⌃⇥⌅ ds d ⌅ = ⌅ ds = ⌃⇥⌅ ds
⇤2 ⇤

 ⇤ with ⇥ = mass absorption 2 g 1 ) coefficient (cm2 g 1 )
with ⇥ = mass absorption
tionally, in the case ⌅ ⌅1, I⌅ ⇧ B⌅ ⌅ = B⌅ ⌃⇥⌅ ds coefficient
⌅ (cm
⇤ 
 ⇤ dA⌃ = mass density (g cm 3⌃)= mass density (g cm 3 )
F ⌅ = I⌅ d = I⌅ 2
d
⌥⇧R 2 dAQext ⇧a2 3Qext
subtended by sphere
✤ Mass absorption of radius R at distance
⌥extcoefficient 2d
Qext ⇧a : ⇥⌅3Q : d = ext d2 =d2 4)
= ext = = ⇥
⇥⌅ = =⌅ 4⌅ = mgrain Functional
⇧a 3⌃
form 4⌃a
: ⇥⌅ = ⇥0
⌅
, at ⌅ ⇥ 1012 Hz
⇤ ⇤ m grain
dA ⌃⇥⌅ B⌅ ⇥ 3 ⇧a 3 ⌃ 4⌃a 3
⌅0
re F⌅ = A s B⌅ ⌃⇥⌅ ds 2 = 2 ⌅ ds dA 12 (⌅0 = 230GHz) ISM CS disk
d : ⇥⌅ = ⇥d0
Functional form A, at s⌅ ⇥ 10 Hz
⌅0 ⌥ ⌃⇧ ⇥0 ⇤ 0.004 ⇤ 0.02
(⌅0 = 230GHz) ISM CS diskvolume ⇤2 ⇤1
⇥0 ⇤ 0.004 ⇤ 0.02⇥⌅ B⌅ ⇤
✤ Cantoshow that : Observationally, in the case ⌅ 1, I⌅ ⇧ B⌅ ⌅ = B
Mdust is equal ⌃V, therefore
⇤2 F =
⌅ 1
⇤ Mdust ⇤ ⇤ dA
d2 ⇤ We measure F⌅ = I⌅ d = I⌅ 2 26
Observationally, in the case ⌅ 1, I⌅ ⇧ B⌅ ⌅ = B⌅ ⌃⇥⌅ ds d
3.4 Dust emission
1) The “Extended Red Emission” (ERE)!
✤ Broad featureless emission band peaking between ∼ λ6100Å and 8200Å.!
✤ In some nebulae this can contribution as much as 30-50% of the flux in
the photometric I band (centered at ∼ λ8800Å).
✤ Almost certainly photoluminescence :
absorption of a UV or optical photon
followed by re- emission. In some
nebulae the conversion efficiency can
be as high as 10%. 

The most likely photoluminescent
material is some kind of carbonaceous
material, but no conclusive
identification with a particular carrier
(PAH, tiny silicate or carbonaceous
grains, etc) has yet been made. The ERE could be due to transition from the excited
(S1) to the ground (S0) electronic state of a charged
PAH cluster. (Rhee et al. 2007) 27
3.3 Dust emission
2) Thermal continuum radiation from dust grains. There are two forms :!
(a) 3-30"m continuum : non-equilibrium heating of tiny grains (sizes of 5 −
50Å) to temperature of a few hundred to Dust
Interstellar a few
Grains thousand K. 33

(b) FIR (λ > 60"m) continuum : warm

> 0.01"m (100Å) grains in thermal
equilibrium with the ambient
radiation field (Td ≈ 0 − 40K). 

These include cooler “cirrus”
emission (grains in equilibrium
with the ISRF) and warmer dust
associated with star clusters, esp.
in star formation regions.
Figure 14: Observed emission from diffuse interstellar dust. Crosses: IRAS (Boulanger &
Perault 1988); Squares: COBE-FIRAS (Finkbeiner et al. 1999); Diamonds: COBE-DIRBE
(Arendt et al. 1998); Heavy Curve: IRTS (Onaka et al. 1996, Tanaka et al. 1996). The total
power ∼ 5.1 × 10−24 erg s−1 /H is estimated from the interpolated broken line.
(Draine 2003 ARAA)

In general, the thermal emission not well

(Draine & described
Lazarian 1999). We knowbythat BBFe contributes
radiation, a significantbut
also possible, including thermal magnetic dipole radiation from magnetic grains
fraction of

rather is a BB spectrum modified by a compounds,

λ-dependent emissivity (λ−1 emitor
the interstellar dust mass; if some of this Fe is in ferrimagnetic
grains containing these compounds would
or
λ−2dipole
).28 ra-
ferromagnetic
magnetic
3.3 Dust emission
3) Continuum+line emission from PAHs!
!
(2)+(3) yield the “standard” dust spectrum below

Power Mass
~10Å
≳100Å PAH 21% 6%
VSG 14% 6%
BG 65% 88%

(Désert et al. 1990) 29

 ⌅ =ext (⌅)
= ngr , the density of dust grains (cm ). mgr ⌅ ext (⌅) ext
=gr ⌅
N ext Ngrext
⌅(⌅) =ext ⌃a (
mgr ⌅ ⌅ext (⌅) = ext ngr ds
⌅
⌅ ext (⌅) = ext ngr ds ⌥ ⌃⇧
⌅ ext (⌅) = ext ngr ds
3.3 Dust emission ⌥ ⌃⇧
Therefore
Therefore ⌥ : ⌃⇧
I⌅ = ⌃a
=Ngr
=Ngr 2
: I2⌅Q=ext⌃a QgrextB(⌅)N
(⌅)N ⌅ (T )g
2
⌅ ext (⌅) ext Ngr ext⇥(⌅) = ⌃a
=Ngr =
⇥⌅⇥ ⇥
⌅ ext (⌅) = ext Ngr ⌅ ⇧ = ⌃a2 Q⇧ext (⌅)Ngr (
ext (⌅)
⌅ ext (⌅) = ext Ngr ⌅ 2
ext (⌅) = ⌃a Qext (⌅)Ngr (usingRecall
Recall that ⇧ that
=: I⇤⌅0=⇤⇧⌃a
the ⇤definition
Therefore ) ⇧ ⇤gr⇧Band
0and
of=2 Q⇤ext (⌅)N Q(Text
)
⇤
⇧0 ext 0 ⌅
2
Therefore : I⌅ = ⌃a Qext (⌅)Ngr B⌅ (T )⇥⇥ ⇥ ⇥ ⇥
⌅⇧ ⇥ ⌅
2
Therefore : I⌅ = ⌃a Qext (⌅)Ngr B⌅ (T ) We write We : write
I⌅that
Recall ⇥=⇥ ⇤Q :⇧ 0=I⌅⇤0= Q0 and B⌅ (T B
⇤ ⇧).Q(IR
ext⌅(
⇧ ⌅ 0 ⇧0 ⌅ 0
⇥⇥ Recall that ⇤⇧ = ⇤0 and ⇤ ⇧ Q⇥ext⇥ (from⇥ eq.(3.1))
⇥ ⇥
⇧0 (⇥+5) (⇥+5) ⌅⇥
⇧ We write⌅ Q ⇥: ⇥I⌅ =⌅Q0 ⇧ ⌅
B⌅ (T ). (IR-
Recall that ⇤⇧ = ⇤0 and ⇤ ⇧ Qext (from eq.(3.1)).
i.e. Therefore,
I⌅ ⇧i.e. I ⌅ ⇧ ext ⇧ ⌅ 0 ⇧ .
⇧0 ⌅ (T⇧).B0T(IR-submm)
⇥ ⇥
We write : I⌅ = Qe0hc/⌅kB Tehc/⌅k
⌅0 ⌅ (⇥+5)
B⌅1 1 ⌅0
⌅ i.e. I⌅ ⇧ hc/⌅k T
We write : I⌅ = Q0 B⌅ (T ). (IR-submm) ⌅ (⇥+5) e B 1 5
⌅0 i.e. I⌅Peak
⇧ hc/⌅k ofPeak
emission : ⌅max T: =⌅max
of emission 2900T =529
(⇥+5)
e BT
Peak
1
of emission : ⌅ T = 2900
⇥+5
⌅ max
i.e. I⌅ ⇧ hc/⌅k T 5 ⇥+5
e 1 Peak of emission : ⌅ max T = 2900 µm K (“modifi
B
At longAt wavelengths
longwavelengths
wavelengths(Rayleigh-Jeans
⇥ + 5 (Rayleigh
At long (Rayleigh-Jeans r
5
Peak of emission : ⌅max T = 2900 µm KAt
(“modified” Wien’s(Rayleigh-Jeans
long wavelengths displacement regime), law) h⇧ ⇥
⇥+5 In the R-J regime :
At long wavelengths (Rayleigh-Jeans regime), h⇧ ⇥ kB T ⌅ I⌅ ⇧ ⌅ (⇥+4) , for ⌅ ⇤ ⌅max

Variations of the emission spectrum of an interstellar dust grain as a

function of T (top panels) and β (bottom panels). Left-hand side figures
are not normalized. Right-hand side figures are normalized to the
30
maximum of the emission spectrum.
3.5 Grain heating and cooling

✤ Heating:!
- absorption of a photon!
- collisions with atoms, electrons, CR, or other dust grains!
- absorption of energy from chemical reactions occurring on grain
surfaces (e.g., H2 formation)!
✤ Radiative heating expected to be important because of the large energy
density of starlight (~0.5 eV cm-3) and because of the grain’s high
opacity to starlight.!
✤ Cooling:!
- emission of a thermal photon!

- collision with cold atoms or molecules!

- ejection of atoms or molecules from the surface of the grain!

✤ Under most ISM conditions, radiative cooling is expected to dominate

and set up equilibrium.
31
3.5 Grain heating and cooling
! Photo-electric heating

✤ FUV photon absorbed by grain or PAH → energetic electron (several

eV) → diffusion in grain → energy loss by collision ↔ heating of grain!
✤ If reach the surface with enough energy to overcome the work function
and coulomb potential if grain positively charged → injection in the
gas with excess K.E. ↔ heating of gas 32
 3.5 Grain heating and cooling
! Photo-electric heating
⇤
✤ Gas heating efficiency for grains:




 Y(h W ⇥C )
⇤grain =

 h
= 
 = ⇤ 5eV
W = work function of grain (= global electrostatic potential) ~ 5eV

= ϕC = coulomb potential if grain is positively charged

yield = Y = yield = probability
e that e - escapes (complex function depending on
grain structure)



For large grains (≳100Å), Y ~ 0.1 → e - rarely escapes

For small grains (~10Å), Y ~ 1

100Å Y ⇤ 0.1 ⇧ e
For typical FUV photon of 10 eV, ε ≤ 0.05-0.5 for large and small grains
resp. ; smaller
⇤ 10Åvalues
Y ⇤ 1if positively charged.
FUV eV ⇤ ⇥ 0.05 0.5

33
 ⇤ 10Å Y⇤1
3.5FUV
Grain heatingeVand cooling
⇤ ⇥ 0.05 0.5
! Photo-electric heating
✤ Heating efficiency for PAHs:


 1 h IP

 ⇤PAH = fn
2 h


1/2 goes into electronic excitation energy

fn = fraction of neutral PAHs that can still be ionized ; function of T,
fn T I
ISRF, ne, fN
nC 0.2
⇥(number ⇥ 0.95 and
of carbon atoms), H i of recombination rate ;
NC ~ 0.2 in PDRs, ~0.95 in H I clouds

Typically, hν ~ 10 eV, IP ~ 7 eV (small PAH) → ε ~ 0.02 - 0.15

h ⇥ 10 eV IP ⇥ 7eV ⇤ ⇥PAH ⇥ 0.02 0.15


Note: PAH heating more efficient than grain due to larger neutral
fraction.!
✤ Photo-electric heating rate :


 24 1 3
pe = 10 ⇥ n G0 erg s cm


G0 = intensity of radiation field in units of the average ISRF 34
 H2 H

3.5 Grain heating

H > pe and cooling
2

! H2 formation on grain surfaces

H2
✤ The heat of formation of H2 on grain surfaces (~4.6 eV) leaves the
newly formed molecules momentarily highly vibrationally and
2 rotationally excited on the grain surface.!
✤ What happens is⌅ unclear but if the newly formed H2 is quickly
ejected from the grain, a fraction εgrain (≥ 0.2) of the chemical
energy may be available for gas heating, the rest going into grain
heating! H2
✤
⌅Gas ⇤ 0.2
chem chemical heating rate:



28 nH n 1 3

 chem = 2.16 ⇥ 10 ⌅chem erg s cm
1 + ncr /n


(constant takes into account the reaction
kd rate)!
✤ Important in dense clouds where UV photons play little role
H2

35
3.5 Grain heating and cooling
! Dust-gas heating/cooling
✤ Often, Td ≠ Tg ; if Td > Tg, atoms/molecules bouncing off grains can
Tbe T gimportant
d ,an Td > T g
gas-heating (grain-cooling) source!
✤ Gas heating rate from gas-grain collisions:


 ⇥1/2
8kB T g

 g d ⌥ n nd ⇤d (2kB T d 2kB T g )
⇥m


33 2 1/2 1 3

 ⇧ 10 n T g (T d Tg) erg s cm

✤ Γg-d increases if:!

✤ gas and grains are charged (cross-section increases)!
✤ dust moves relative to gas at high velocity, e.g. near bright star
(radiation pressure) or in shock fronts

36
 2. Collide with cold atoms or molecules
3.5 Grain heating and cooling
3. Ejection (sublimation) of atoms or molecules from the surface of the
! Equilibrium heating
Under most of grainsradiative cooling is expected to dominate and s
ISM conditions,

✤ Consider a3.5.1
spherical dust grain
Equilibrium withofradius
heating grainsa. The balance between
energy absorbed by the grain and thermal energy emitted by the grain
is given by : Consider a spherical dust grain with radius a ; The balance between en
thermal energy emitted by the grain is given by :
⌃ ⌃
2
Absorption in I ⇥a Qabs ( )d = 4⇥a2 Qem ( )⇥B (T gr )d Emission in
the UV/visible 0 0 the IR/submm
⌃ ⌃
⌅ I Qabs ( )d = 4 Qem ( )⇥B (T gr )d
0 0
integral over the product of:! integral over the product of:!
- the incident fluxIf per
the grain
unit is located at a distance
frequency d away
- surface from
area of a star !with luminosity L
the grain,
from the star at distance d ! - and the emitted spectrum, which
- and the effective ⌃absorption
L⇥ ( ) 2 cross- ⌃is a blackbody with temperature
2
⇥a
section of the grain (the geometric
2
Q abs (
cross-)d = 4⇥a Qem ( )⇥Bby(T gr
Tgr modified an)d emission
section of the grain,0 "a4⇥d
2, multiplied by 0 efficiency Q (ν)
em
the absorption efficiency, Qabs)
The left side is an integral over the product of the incident flux per u
37
distance d and the effective absorption cross-section of the grain (the geom
3.5 Grain heating and cooling

✤ The star emits primarily at UV, visible, and near-IR wavelengths,

where Qabs ∝ ν1−2, so most of the grain absorption is also preferentially
in the UV/visible/near-IR range.!
✤ Most of the emission of the grain, however, is in the mid- to far-IR,
because of the small dust temperature (typically a few 10s of Kelvin to
at most a couple of hundred K).!
✤ For the purposes of making order-of-magnitude estimates, it is
conventional to evaluate the integrals by recognizing that the grain
size distribution cancels out to first order, and then introducing two
averaged quantities to replace the absorption and emission
efficiencies :!
✤ ⟨QUV⟩ = Planck-averaged absorption efficiency in the UV.!
✤ ⟨QIR⟩ = Planck-averaged emission efficiency in the IR.
[Derive expression for Tgr] 38
constant. Solving for the dust temperature gives:
1/ 4 1/ 4
Q L 1/ 4
1/ 4
TgrL QUVUV L
3.5 Grain heating and cooling Tgr ⇤ ⌥QQIR ⌅ 4⌥Q16⌅T2 4d 2
4⇤d2 QIR
UV 16IR d gr
Note thatLas
NoteHere
that as expected
expected
is the
the
the total temperature
temperature
luminosity of ofofthe
the the grain
grain
star gets
gets
located cooler
cooler thedthe
distance further
further
away, it⌅gets
it gets
and from
is from
the the the star.
star.
Stefan-Boltzmann
⇤
constant.
In
In general,
general, QQIRIR isisaafunction
functionofofboth
bothTgrTgrand
and thethe grain
⇤grain size,
size,
⌅1/4 a. a. Simple
Simple expressions
expressions can can be derived
be derived to to
⌥Qtemperature ⇥ 1/4
L assuming that the grain emissivity
give us some
some
giveSolving
us feeling
forfeeling
the dust for
for thebehavior
the behavior
temperature ofofthe
gives : the grain
grain
T gr
UV
⌅ temperature by ⇤by
assuming that the grain emissivity
p ⌥QIR 16⌅⇤d 2
scales like Q
scales like Q p,,where where0<p<2.
0<p<2.
NoteFor
thatQ
For Qas expected11
, , QQIRthe temperature
2 2 10 10 3 3 of the grain gets cooler the further it gets from the star.
a amTmgrTgr
IR
In general, ⌥QIR is a function of both T gr and the grain size, a. Simple expressions can be derived to
For Q
For
give us some Qfeeling22, ,forQQIRthe
IR 4 4 10
behavior 10 6 62 2 2 2
a athe
of mT Tgrain
mgr gr temperature by assuming that the grain emissivity scales
like Q⇥ ⌃ ⇥ p , where 0 < p < 2.
Where aa isis the
thegrain
grainsize sizeininmicrons
microns(see (seeDwekDwek et et
al.al.
1980, ApJ,
1980, ApJ,238, 140).
238, TheThe
140). totaltotal
IR flux fromfrom
IR flux the the
– For Q⇥ ⌃ ⇥, ⌥QIR ⌅ 2 ⇥ 10 3 aµ mT gr 5 5 6 6
grain, Q
grain, QIRIR BB (T (T ),),therefore
2 ,grgr thereforescales
scales like
6 a mlike
T Tgroror
2 T 2gr
TgrTgrdepending
depending on on
thethe
slope of the
slope of emissivity
the emissivitylaw. law.
–
This is For Q ⌃ ⇥ ⌥Q ⌅ 4 ⇥ 10 4
This is much
much ⇥ steeper than
steeper IRthanthe theTT grgrscaling
4 µ
scalingexpected
gr
expected forfor
a perfect
a perfectblackbody.
blackbody.
Where aµ m is the grain size in microns (see Dwek et al. 1980, ApJ, 238, 140). The total IR flux from the
It must
It must be borne ininmind that Qdepends
thatQscales critically 6 on thethe
compositions and sizes of the
of grains in in
grain, ⌥Qbe
IR borne
⇤B⇥ (T gr ),mind therefore depends
like T gr5critically
or T gr on
depending compositions
on the slope and sizes
of the the grains
emissivity law. This is
question.
question. For example,
Forthan
example, for amorphous
for amorphous carbon grains (e.g., Draine 1981, ApJ, 245, 880):
much steeper the T gr 4 scaling expected carbon grains
for a perfect (e.g., Draine
blackbody. It must1981, ApJ,in245,
be borne mind880):
that Q⇥ depends
4
critically on the compositions and sizes ofQ the 6.7 in10
IR grains
Q
a T
6.7 question.
10 4ma grmFor
Tgr example, for amorphous carbon grains
IR
AgainDraine
(e.g., with a1981,
in microns.
ApJ, 245, Other
880)grains
: ⌥QIRhave ⌅ 6.7 ⇥ 10 4 aemissivities
different µ mT gr . (see, for examples, the figures in
Again with a in microns. Other grains have different emissivities (see, for examples, the figures in
Draine & Lee 1984, cited in the section on dust mixtures).
Draine & Lee 1984, cited in the section on dust mixtures).
TheEmitting dust is highly
dust “temperature” absorbing
derived frominthe
theobserved
UV and spectrum
visible, sowill
thatthus
⌥QUV ⌅ 1. critically
depend This is notona the
badform
approxi-
of
The dust
mation
assumed “temperature”
foremissivity law. derived
the big grains that from the
For dominate
example, the observed
FIR
as the spectrum
emission,
power law will
and which
index of thus
have depend of critically
sizes(e.g.,
Q steepens the
Q same
changeson the
order asform
from UV of
assumed emissivity law. For example, as the power law index of Q steepens (e.g., Q changes from
wavelengths.
39
3.5 Grain heating
Qq and cooling
Qqexemples:
exemples:

*Grainàà l’équ.
*Grain l’équ. thermique,
thermique,à laà distance r=0.5pc
la distance d’une étoile
r=0.5pc d’une O 6 (R*=1.1
étoile O610
12 m
(R*=1
Some examples Tg= 650K: (Tgrain < Tsublimation, si réfractaire: Ts'1000K)
Tg= 650K: (Tgrain < Tsublimation, si réfractaire: Ts'100
✤ Grains in thermal equilibrium at distance d = 0.5
pc from an O6 star (R∗*Grain du milieu
= 1.1×10 diffus, soumis à l’ISRF:
12 m, T∗=40000 K)
*Grain duTgraphite=18.8K,
a=0.1!m, milieu diffus, soumis à l’ISRF:
Tsilicate=15.4K
⇒ Tgr = 650 K (Tgr < Ta=0.1!m,
(Modèle de ,Draine
1000K for(1984))
& Lee
Tgraphite=18.8K,
sublimation a Tsilicate=15.4K
refractory grain)
 (Modèle de Draine & Lee (1984))

✤ Grains in the diffuse ISM, under ISRF, with a =

0.1 "m : 

Tgraphite = 18.8 K, Tsilicate = 15.4 K (model of
Draine & Lee 1984)

* Grain d’un globule de Bok : T ~ 14K.

✤ Grain in a Bok globule: T ~ 14 K

* Grain d’un globule de Bok : T ~ 14K.

40
3.6 Grain properties

✤ Complex index of refraction : m = n + ik#

✤ If the real part (n) is large, the grain is an effective scatterer, like
silicates of icy grains.!
✤ If the imaginary part (k) is large, the grain is an effective absorber,
like metallic grains (e.g. graphite)

✤ Optical properties can be expressed in terms of the dielectric constant :

ε = ε1 + iε2.!
✤ m and ε are related through:
ε = m2 ε1 = n2 - k2 ε2 = 2nk

✤ Optical constants are measured in the laboratory (graphite, carbon,

amorphous silicate) and are used in models.
41
 (skip) For(skip) For icyQparticles
icy particles m =⌅n Q
scat +Qabs
ikscat Qabs
index
⌅
,=but Q of,,refraction
abs but
0. Q
Thus 0. Thus
(complex)
abs ,even even strongl
the most the mo
some
some of the incident incidentIfand
of theradiation theheat
real up.
radiation part (n) is
andThis
heat up.large,
means Thisthe
that grainmust
means
they is an
that e⇥ective
they
thenmust sc
emitthe
at
3.6 Grain properties sion. silicates) or icy grains.
sion.
If the imaginary part (k) is large, the grain is an e⇥ective
✤ Value for Qabs andValueQsca for
can be calculated
graphite).
and Qsca
using the Mieusing
can be calculated
theory. ! theory (by
the Mie
Value for Qabs and Qsca
abs can be calculated using the Mie theory (by solving M
✤ Parameterize sizes
appropriate of grains
appropriate
boundary in terms
boundary
conditions). Forofsmall
conditions).dimensionless
For small grains,
grains, size parameter
(relates grain size to wavelength of It incident
is convenient light) :!
to parameterize the sizes of the gr
2⇧a
! There are There are twocases
two limiting x
limiting
= cases offor
of ⇤interest interest for scattering
scattering : :
✤ There(see twode(see
arevan vanfor
limiting
Hulst decases
aHulst
full offorinterest
a fulltreatment)
rigorous rigorous treatment)
for scattering
: :!:
– Long-Wavelength (skip)
Case This
: relates
small x(a the
⇤ grain
) size to the wavelength
– Long-Wavelength
✤ Long-Wavelength Case : small
Case : small x (a ≪ λ) 
 x(a ⇤ )
classical
= Rayleigh classicalscattering.
Rayleigh treatment in Inwhich
thecase we shall case
simplified treat light as elec
of dielectri
= classical
= classical Rayleigh scattering.
scattering. In theInsimplified
the simplified case of of dielectric
dielectric spheres
real), we have will encounter semi-classical treatments (which conside
spheres with no absorption
real), we have (m is real), we have:

dering 2
non-equilibrium
2 heating of tiny grains.

 8 Q 2
m = 1x48 2 m 1 4
Q
Qext ⇥ Qsca = x
ext ⇥ 4 sca ⌃2 4 ⌃
3 m2 +32 m + 2
by definition
by definition of x of xOptical depth due to dust : ext (⇤) = Ndust ⌥ext
✤ Short-Wavelength Case : large x (a ≫ λ)

= classical Mie–Scattering.
Short-Wavelength
– Short-Wavelength Case :⌃
ConsiderCase
large x(a
ext
:⌅
large)the
again
(⇤) = Ndust
x(apure-scattering
⇧a 2⌅ )
Qext (⇤) , case,
in the regime of m
= classical classical
=Mie − 2. Mie
≈ 1 Scattering. Scattering.
In this Consider
case :⇤ again
Consider the again the pure-scattering
pure-scattering case
case, in the re
4sca =with 4
N4dust 4
=⇥ + ndust(1ds cos ⇥)
Q ext
Qext ⇥ Qsca = 2 ⇥ Q 2 sin
sin ⇥ + ⇥2 (1 cos⇥2⇥) where ρ = 2x(m-1)
⇥ ⇥ 42
where ⇥ = 2x(m 1)
3.6 Grain properties
✤ Short-Wavelength Case (ctd)

In this case, the behavior of Qext is oscillatory. Properties:!
✤ As x becomes very large Qext → 2. In this limit the dust grain acts
like a macroscopic, opaque spherical ball.!
✤ The location of the first peak depends on the refraction roughly as
1/(m-1), and represents a resonance between the incident light and
the dipole moment of the particle

m=1.5
m=1.33
Flattens out at short λ

Sharp rise at long λ

Plot of Qext vs x for materials

with 2 different m.

Note: observed broadness of interstellar extinction curve → distribution of particle sizes,

and the relative flattening at short λ → more small grains than large grains in the ISM. 43
 3.6 Grain properties
ssical Mie scattering curve for a given grain size shows a sharp rise at long wavelengths (small x),
flattens out at short wavelengths. The fact that the observed interstellar extinction curve is so broad
✤ For absorption: if we now allow the grain to have a finite absorption
hat there must be a distribution of particle sizes, and the relative flattening at short wavelengths
term (i.e., the imaginary part to the index of refraction is non-zero), at
hat there are more small grains than large grains in the ISM.
long wavelengths : Qabs > Qsca.!
w allow the grain to have a finite absorption term (i.e., the imaginary part to the index of refraction
✤ The absorption term is the imaginary part :
ro), at long wavelengths : Qabs > Qsca
⇥
m21
bsorption term is the imaginary part : Qabs = 4xI ∝ λ-1
m2 + 2
⌅⇤ 1
abs
✤ Recall that Qext ∝ λ-1 is approximately what
⇤ 1 is approximately
l that Qextis ⌅observed what is observed
as the underlying as the underlying interstellar extinction curve
interstellar
V-to-NIR parts of the spectrum.
extinction curve in the UV to NIR parts of
the spectrum.
ain mixture models
rst comprehensive interstellar dust models is that of Mathis, Rumpl,
Qext ∝ λ-1and Nordsieck (MRN : 1977,
425). They assumed a simple power-law size distribution of the form : 44
3.7 Grain mixture models

✤ First comprehensive interstellar dust models : !

✤ Mathis, Rumpl & Nordsieck (“MRN” 1977, ApJ, 217, 425)!
✤ Savage & Mathis (1979)!
✤ Draine & Lee (1984)!
1. Particles with simple geometry ; mixture composed of:

graphite + silicates:
 - SiO2! - olivine (Fe,Mg)2SiO4!

 - silicon carbide SiC! - fayalite Fe2SiO4!
- enstatite (Fe,Mg)SiO3! - magnetite Fe3O4
2. Size distribution : MRN found that the properties of the extinction
curve can be fit by a size distribution of grains:



dn(a) = A nH a da


A = 10-25-2.0×10-27 ; γ ~ -3.5

with grains ranging from amin = 0.005 "m and amax = 0.25 "m
[Derive dust-to-mass ratio] 45
3.7 Grain mixture models
3. Grains réfractaires (Tévaporation> 1000K)
3. Refractory=grains
noyau (T
deevaporation
Silicate >entouré
1000K)de Carbonecore
= silicate amorphe,
surrounded by
amorphous +carbon
Manteaux volatiles
+ mantle de Glace
of volatile (H2(H
ices O,NH ,H2CO,CO
2O, 3CO, 2,CO,…)
CO2, NH 3,
CH3OH, ...)




















4. Thermal4. Emission à emission:

equilibrium l’équilibre Ithermique :
ν ∝ ν Bν(T), 1 ≤ n ≤ 2 (section 3.3)
n

I- 9 $-n B-(T) 1 3 n 3 2 (cf III.3). 46

3.7 Grain mixture models

Main steps to construct a model :!

1. Assumption on chemical composition, shape, size of each type of
grain!
2. Use of dielectrical properties of grain analogs, from laboratory
measurements and theoretical calculations!
3. Calculation of optical properties: absorption and scattering
efficiency for each type of grain.

e.g. for big grains: Mie theory (spheres) or discrete dipole
approximation (DDA, for porous aggregates) : divide the particle in
a finite number of elementary particles treated as oscillating dipoles,
and interaction of dipoles with light under electrostatic
approximation (a/2(λ≪1)!
4. Include radiative transfer code and compare with observations of
different physical conditions (radiation field, density, etc)
47
3.7 Grain mixture models

An ideal model should :!

✤ be consistent with all observational constraints:!
✤ extinction, diffusion, polarization and emission properties!
✤ absorption and emission features!
✤ abundance of refractory elements (C, O, Fe, Si, Mg, S, Ca, Al, Ni)
and their depletion fraction!
✤ physical conditions linked to the environment and to the processes
at play!
✤ Provide “solid” predictions of absorption and emission features to
anticipate future observations.

Such a model does not exist yet !!

48
3.7 Grain mixture models

Main models : Mathis et al. (1977), Draine & Lee (1984), Draine & Anderson (1985), Weiland et
al. (1986), Désert et al. (1990), Li & Greenberg (1997), Dwek et al. (1997), Draine & Lee (2001).!
✤ Agreements :!
✤ silicates are the main constituents of big grains (continuum emission in the submm,
bands at 9.7 and 18 "m)!
✤ continuous size distribution : nanoparticles → sub-micron!
✤ presence of at least 3 components of different composition and size:!
✤ carrier of aromatic IR emission bands!
✤ very small carbonaceous grains!
✤ big silicate grains!
✤ Differences :!
✤ dominant structure of carbonaceous grains : graphite has been proposed to explain the
220nm bump, but very difficult to form under the physical conditions of the ISM!
✤ nature and composition of grains responsible for the continuum emission between 25
and 60 "m!
✤ identification of the aromatic carriers: PAHs, carbons, nano-diamonds?!
✤ shape/dependence of the size distribution 49
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.1. Dust formation in stellar outflows

✤ IR emission from dust around red giants, carbon stars, planetary

nebulae!
✤ Dust condenses out of gaseous material!
✤ Different types of stellar outflows form different types of dust:!
✤ red giants with O/C > 1 : 10 "m emission feature → Si-O stretch in
amorphous silicates!
✤ OH/IR stars : 10 "m absorption feature → crystalline silicates!
✤ carbon stars with O/C < 1 : no 10 "m feature → no silicates ;
sometimes 11.3 "m emission feature → SiC!
✤ Physics and chemistry of dust formation in stellar outflows is complex:
the material is generally far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and the
outflows themselves are hydrodynamically complex – neither steady
nor spherically symmetric. 

→ Cannot yet reliably describe the details of the grain formation process
50
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.2. Grain growth
a. By accretion of atom or ion from the gas ; lifetime against accretion:







Ai = mass number of atom/ion ; si = sticking coefficient ; nd(a) =
number density of grains with radii < a ; D(a) = enhancement factor
due to electrostatic effects



D ≳ 102 are found for a ≲ 10−7 cm 

grains in the CNM ⟹ ions such 

as SiII, TiII, FeII would have 

τ ∼ 1×105 yr in the CNM

51
Draine 2003
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.2. Grain growth
b. By coagulation of 2 grains at low velocity 

in diffuse clouds, large population of VSG (rapid rise in extinction
curve at short λ) ; in dense regions, the extinction at short λ is reduced
⟹ small grains coagulated into big grains.

Main mechanism leading to coagulation = turbulence

Coagulation time:
 !
3 1!

 1 8 30 cm 0.1 km s
tcoag = [nH ⌃ 3] = 2 ⇥ 10 yr

 nH 3
Σ = geometric cross-section per H ~ 0.5×10-21 cm2 for grains ≳10-5 cm 

∆v = grain-grain velocity difference

In dense regions : nH ~ 3×104 cm-3 ⟹ τ ~ 2×105 yr



Note : 

(i) can change size distribution

(ii) uncertainties on sticking efficiency
52
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.2. Grain growth
c. By ice mantle formation 

Accretion of gaseous molecules or molecule formation by surface
chemistry (see : http://userpages.irap.omp.eu/~cvastel/
astrochimie_2014_part6.pdf, p. 35+)

Gaseous species stick to grain by physical adsorption (physisorption,
van der Waals forces, weak) or chemical adsorption (chemisorption,
chemical bonds, strong).

Accretion time:

! !1/2

 1 5
4
2 ⇥ 10 cm 3
10 K

 tacc = [nH ⌃3] = 10 yr A
nH T kin


v = thermal velocity = (8kBTkin/(mgas)1/2 ~ 104 (Tkin/A)1/2 cm/s,
A=atomic weight




53
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.3. Photolysis
Production of an organic refractory residue by UV radiation (e.g.,
Greenberg et al. 2000). This residue may be responsible for the
interstellar 3.4 "m “aliphatic C-H” absorption band.

54
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.3. Photodesorption
✤ Absorption of a (UV) photon by a solid, leading to the ejection of an atom
or molecule (e.g., excitation to a repulsive electronic state)!
✤ Important in diffuse regions and edges of molecular clouds.!
✤ Decrease in mass due to photodesorption:


 dm dV da
=⇢ = ⇢ 4⇡a2 = ⇡a2 Ypd 4⇡IISRF m̄sub

 dt dt dt
ρ=density of the material (≃1 g cm-3 for ice) ; Ypd = photodesorption yield ;
IIRSF=mean photon intensity of the ISRF ; msub = mean mass per sublimated
species (2.9×10-23 g for H2O)!
✤ Ypd = desorption of a molecule per FUV photon absorbed by the grain ;
difficult to measure ; best estimates: ~10-2 for a rough H2O ice surface!
✤ Photodesorption most likely plays a dominant role in determining what
kind of accretional growth takes place on a grain. It is no surprise that the
noble gases (He, Ne, Ar) do not deplete, but the fact that some chemically-
reactive elements (e.g., Na, K, S) appear to undergo minimal depletion, at
least in the diffuse ISM, may be due to photodesorption. 55
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.3. Thermal sublimation
✤ Removal of a species if grain becomes too warm.!
✤ Sublimation rate coefficient: ksub = ν0 exp(-Eb/kBT)

ν0 = characteristic vibration frequency ≈ 1013 s-1

Eb = binding energy of the species!
✤ If there are Nmono monolayers of ice on the grain and we want it to
survive a time ∆t, the grain temperature should not exceed


 Eb /kB Eb /54kB

 T sub = =
ln(⌫0 t/Nmono ) 1 + 0.018 ln[( t/106 yr)(103 /Nmono )]


H2O mantle (Eb = 0.5 eV) 103 monolayers thick will survive 106 yr
provided T ≲ 110 K

56
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.3. Grain destruction in shock waves
✤ Shock waves can be the result of energetic outflows from newly-formed
stars, or of the explosion of a nearby supernova.!
✤ Shock wave will compress, heat, accelerate the gas, creating conditions
under which grain destruction can occur.!
✤ Grain-grain collision : !
✤ For identical grains, mean atomic mass 20 amu, and binding energy per
atom of 5.7 eV (appropriate to MgFeSiO4 silicate) complete vaporization
could occur in a head-on collision between identical grains with a
velocity difference of 15 km s−1.!
✤ At lower grain-grain collision speeds, shattering may occur. 

Expect that several percent of the large dust grains will be shattered in
shocks with vs ≳ 10km s−1. !
✤ Grain-grain collisions may be responsible for maintaining the
population of small grains in the interstellar medium.

57
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.3. Grain destruction in shock waves
✤ Sputtering : !
✤ In a fast shock, the grain material eroded by the process of “sputtering”:
individual atoms or ions from the gas collide with the grain,
occasionally ejecting one of the grain atoms.
✤ In interstellar gas, the sputtering
rate depends mainly on the
sputtering “yields” Y(E) for H
and He projectiles incident on
the grain. In ionized gas the
sputtering rates will be affected
by the grain charge.

58
3.8 Evolution of dust grains

! 3.8.3. Grain destruction in shock waves

59
 3.8 Evolution of dust grains
! Life cycle of dust (“astration cycle”) ~ 2×109 yr
• Dust forms in stellar ejecta
(time-dependent process)
• Composition of ejecta
determines grain composition:
- high densities (~109 cm-3) - O-rich (C as CO) ⇒ silicate
- Tkin ~ Tc of heavy elements cores (strong 10µm feature)
(1000-2000 K) - C-rich (carbon stars) ⇒
graphite (no 10µm feature)

Thermal sputtering by ions in

shocks:
- most important if Vshock >
400 km s-1
- occurs over 105 yr for
typical grains Grain-grain collisions: fragmentation
- only largest grains at V > 75 km s-1 for amorphous carbon
survive fast shocks and at V > 175 km s-1 for silicates 60
Summary!
Evidence for interstellar dust
Observable Interpretation
Continuous extinction of starlight Presence of small solid particles throughout the gas
Extinction ∝ 1/λ in the visible ① Particles with size ~ 0.3 µm
Rapid rise of extinction in the UV ② Particles with size ≲ 0.1 µm
Local increase of extinction near 

λ = 2175 Å
③ Small C-rich particles

①
Summary!
Evidence for interstellar dust
Observable Interpretation
Depletion of Mg, Fe, Si, etc from atomic gas Elements incorporated in solid silicates or oxides
Conversion of H into H Grain-surface reactions
Diffuse radiation / nebulae Diffusion by dust
Formation and ejection of dust, predicted by
Mass loss from old stars
chemical equilibrium calculation in stellar atm.
Spectral signatures and continuum due to
IR spectra of circumstellar envelopes
absorption/emission by particles
Polarisation of starlight Aligned particules, with size ~ λ
Taux de déplétion
Summary 

Dust composition

Component Region of formation Spectral signature

Silicates O-rich giants, novae 9.7 and 18 µm bands
Graphite (a<200Å) C-rich giants 2175 Å bump
Amorphous carbon C-rich giants, novae Absorption at 7.6 µm
SiC C-rich giants and novae Emission at 11.4 µm
MgS C-rich giants and planetary nebulae Emission at 30 µm
PAHs C-rich planetary nebulae Emission at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 11.3 µm

Ice mantles Molecular clouds Absorption at 3.1, 4.6, 6.0, 6.85 µm

Refractory organic
ISM Absorption at 3.4 et 6.0 µm
mantles
Summary 

Dust composition

Component Region of formation Spectral signature

Silicates O-rich giants, novae 9.7 and 18 µm bands
Graphite (a<200Å) C-rich giants 2175 Å bump
Amorphous carbon C-rich giants, novae Absorption at 7.6 µm
SiC C-rich giants and novae Emission at 11.4 µm
MgS C-rich giants and planetary nebulae Emission at 30 µm
PAHs C-rich planetary nebulae Emission at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 11.3 µm

Ice mantles Molecular clouds Absorption at 3.1, 4.6, 6.0, 6.85 µm

Refractory organic
ISM Absorption at 3.4 et 6.0 µm
mantles
Summary 

Dust composition

Component Region of formation Spectral signature

Silicates O-rich giants, novae 9.7 and 18 µm bands
Graphite (a<200Å) C-rich giants 2175 Å bump
Amorphous carbon C-rich giants, novae Absorption at 7.6 µm
SiC C-rich giants and novae Emission at 11.4 µm
MgS C-rich giants and planetary nebulae Emission at 30 µm
PAHs C-rich planetary nebulae Emission at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 11.3 µm

Ice mantles Molecular clouds Absorption at 3.1, 4.6, 6.0, 6.85 µm

Refractory organic
ISM Absorption at 3.4 et 6.0 µm
mantles
66