Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Theoretical, numerical and experimental analysis of thick walled fiber

metal laminate tube under axisymmetric loads
Tomasz Nowak a,⇑, Jerzy Schmidt b
a
ABB Corporate Research, Starowislna 13A Street, Cracow, Poland
b
Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 Street, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper investigates and compares different methods of analyzing thick walled FML cylinders exposed
Available online 10 June 2015 to an axisymmetric load. First, a theoretical model is introduced, and because of the comprehensive nota-
tion, the closed-form solution for a multi-layered structure subjected to a general thermo-mechanical load
Keywords: was derived. A numerical example was given and validated later by FEM analysis. Finally, experimental
Layered structures work is described, making use of strain gauge measurements and AE technique. It was generally observed,
Analytical modeling that the applied test pressure of 65 MPa caused high stresses within the metal tube, reaching the level of
Finite element analysis
its elastic limit. Some deformation processes and negligible fracture phenomena occurring within the
Acoustic emission
composite have been identified as AE signals in the frequency range between 280 kHz and 370 kHz.
It must be noted, that all applied methods delivered very reliable and consistent results in terms of pre-
dicted displacements, strains and stresses.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Multi-layered cylinders subjected to thermo-mechanical load-
ings are common structural elements used in various industries.
For centuries, steel tubes have played a major role in a wide range
of applications including barrel cannons, pressure or vacuum cham-
bers, piping systems, hydraulic actuators, etc. Also the theory of
steel cylinders, including for example Lemé’s equations and models
of plastic flow, is well elaborated, since it has been studied exten-
sively over several decades [1–7]. With the increasing use of com-
posite materials in various sectors of industry, the need for
composite cylinders is evident. However, due to the more complex
mechanical behavior of the laminated circular structures, which, for
example, exhibits axial–torsional coupling, their analysis requires
slightly different principles and material models. The fundamental
theoretical background for analysis of the anisotropic bodies was
provided by Lakhnitskii [8], and his work has been referenced later
in a large number of textbooks dealing with composites [9–12]. The
application of the orthotropic material model into cylindrical struc-
tures was given by Scherrer [13], Pagano [14], Wilson and Orgill
[15], and Pindera [16]. The solid description of the analytical solu-
tion for the laminated circular tube subjected to the mechanical
loading was provided by Herakovitch [17]. Also hybrid structures,
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 124244118.
E-mail address: Tomasz.Nowak@pl.abb.com (T. Nowak).
like Fiber Reinforced Metal (FRM), or fiber metal laminates (FML)
are of interest, [18–20]. Nowak and Schmidt [21] showed, for exam-
ple, the mechanism of the internal load distribution between the
thin-walled composite reinforcement and the steel liner working
in its elastic–plastic regime. Today, with the growing popularity
of numerical methods, theoretical investigations are strongly sup-
ported by FEM analyses [22–24]. On the other hand, there is a clear
practical need to monitor the structural integrity of complex com-
posites. In this context the application of the acoustic emission
technique, which facilitates detection of the potential damage and
identification of its location, appears to be very beneficial [25–
27]. AE is a passive method of monitoring, which makes use of
the elastic energy released when a material undergoes a change
at the atomic scale, such a plastic deformation or cracking [28].
Piezoelectric sensors, attached to the surface of the structure, detect
the elastic waves, which exhibit a unique behavior when traveling
in flat plates or tubular products. The waves are bounded by the
external surfaces and become subjected to the wave-guide effects,
causing them to propagate as longitudinal waves (in the plane of
the surfaces), and transverse waves (perpendicular to the plane of
the surface). These two modes are known as zero-order Lamb wave
modes, and they are often referred to as extensional and flexural
waves, or S0 and A0 waves, respectively [29]. Using the relationship
between extensional and flexural modes it is possible to classify
deformation events and distinguish between fracture mechanisms
occurring in the object under study. In addition, the information

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.06.019
0263-8223/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
638 T. Nowak, J. Schmidt / Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644

contained in the waveforms, such as peak amplitude, frequency where Cij are the elements of stiffness matrix in the global coordi-
range and duration can suggest the nature of the event or the type nate system (due to symmetry Cij = Cji), aj are the thermal expansion
of damage. coefficients in their respective directions, and DT is the temperature
However, even if the literature covering the theory and practice change.
of steel cylinders and composite structures is quite rich, systematic The strain–displacement relationships for an axisymmetric
studies referring to various analysis and measurement methods single-layer cylinder loaded uniformly along its length take the
applied to the hybrid types of metal-composite structures are not form:
common. The topic is especially important for industrial applica-
@u w @w @v
tions, where results of theoretical studies should be correlated ex ¼ ; eU ¼ ; er ¼ ; cxU ¼ ;
@x r @r @x
with results obtained in the field. The work described in this paper
@v v @u
relates to hydraulic cylinders subjected to a cyclic cUr ¼  ; cxr ¼ ð3Þ
@x r @x
thermo-mechanical load, and which have been designed to offer
a high strength-to-weight ratio. The analyzed cylinder is designed where: u; v ; w are displacements in the axial, tangential and radial
for applications where special safety rules apply (mining industry), directions, respectively.
therefore it was assumed, that cyclic character of the load should Introducing (2) in (3) and next to (1), and neglecting the radial
not cause any yielding of the steel liner under the nominal pressure shears (sUr ¼ sxr ¼ 0), gives the second-order ordinary equation for
of 50 MPa. However, in the case of the occasional overload up to radial displacement wðrÞ, having the solution:
65 MPa, a composite overwrapping should be used to prevent the
wðrÞ ¼ Ark þ Br k þ Ce0x r þ Xc0 r2 þ WrDT ð4Þ
steel liner against extensive plastic flow. In addition, a temperature
load of 50 K should not cause any damaging effects on the cylinder. where: A; B; e0x ; c0 are constants of integration to be determined
The paper is structured in the following way – a theoretical from the boundary conditions, and: k; C; X; W are material coeffi-
basis for a thick-walled orthotropic tube is proposed first, in cients, defined as:
Section 2, giving insight into the applied material models and con- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
stitutive relations. This model is extended to be applicable for a C 22 C 12 C 23
C 26 2C 36
multi-layered structure, reflecting the composite reinforced steel k¼ ; C¼ ; X¼ ;
C 33 C 33 C 22 4C 33 C 22
cylinder. In contrast to the earlier studies, the proposed calculation        
approach and applied matrix notation offer a very comprehensive C 13 C 12 ax þ C 23 C 22 aU þ C 33 C 23 ar þ C 36 C 26 axU
description of the problem, which can be solved quickly. The W¼
C 33 C 22
results of the analytical calculations are given in Section 3, and
ð5Þ
they are confirmed later trough detailed FEM analysis. Section 4
provides a short description of the experimental work, and The two remaining displacements, axial and tangential, may be
describes the measurements conducted by means of the strain given as:
gauge technique and the acoustic emission method. The outcome
of the study, incorporating the results of analytical, numerical uðx; rÞ ¼ xe0x
ð6Þ
and experimental work as well as concluding remarks, are given v ðx; rÞ ¼ xrc0
in the last section of the article.
Next, if (4) and (6) are substituted into (3), the strains may be writ-
ten in matrix notation as:
2. Theoretical investigation
2 3 2 32 3 2 3
ex 0 0 1 0 A 0
2.1. Single-layer cylinder 6 eU 7 6 r k1 r k1
C X r 76 B 7 6 W 7
6 7 6 76 7 6 7
6 7¼6 76 7 þ 6 7DT ð7Þ
4 er 5 4 krk1 krk1 Cr 2Xr 54 e0x 5 4 W 5
The analytical model used to study a pressurized FML cylinder
assumes a general orthotropic laminate, subjected to the cxU 0 0 0 r c0 0
thermo-mechanical loading. In the most universal case, there are With the strains defined, the stresses can be described by general-
15 unknowns (3 displacements, 6 strains and 6 stresses) to be ized Hooke’s Law (2), or by directly using the constants of
derived from the equilibrium, constitutive, and continuity equa- integration:
tions. On the basis of the first relation, and using the global cylin- 2
drical coordinate system ðx; U; rÞ, it is possible to state [17]: rx 3 2 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 16 302 0 0 1 0
32 31 2 TR 3
A rx
6 r 7 6 C C C C 7B6 r k1 r k1 C Xr 76 B 7C 6 rTR 7
drr rr  rU 6 U 7 6 12 22 23 26 7B6
6 7¼6 7B6
76 7C 6 U 7
76 7C  6 7
þ ¼0 4 rr 5 4 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 36 5@4 kr k1 kr k1 Cr 2Xr 54 e0x 5A 4 rTR 5
dr r r
dsUr 2sUr sxU C 16 C 26 C 36 C 66 0 0 0 r c 0
sxU
TR
þ ¼0 ð1Þ
dr r ð8Þ
dsxr sxr
þ ¼0 where the vector of temperature related stresses [r ] reads: TR
dr r
where ri , and sij are normal and shear stresses in their respective
2 3 2 32 3
rTR
x C 11 C 12 C 13 C 16 ax
directions, and r is the cylinder radius. 6 rTR 7 6 C C 26 7 6 7
6 U 7 6 12 C 22 C 23 76 aU  W 7
The constitutive equations are normally described as: 6 TR 7 ¼ 6 76 7 DT ð9Þ
4 rr 5 4 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 36 54 ar  W 5
2 3 2 32 3
rx C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 C 16 ex  ax DT sTR
xU C 16 C 26 C 36 C 66 axU
6r 7 6 6
76
C 26 7 eU  aU DT 7
6 U 7 6 C 21 C 22 C 23 0 0 76 7
6 7 6 7 It should be noted, that the authors replaced a classical term ‘‘ther-
6 rr 7 6 C 36 7
76 er  ar DT 7
6 7 6 C 31 C 23 C 33 0 0
76 7 mal stresses’’ with the term ‘‘temperature related stresses’’. The for-
6s 7 ¼ 6 6 7 ð2Þ
6 Ur 7 6 0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0 7 76
cUr 7 mer is normally associated only with thermal expansion
6 7 6 76 7
4 sxr 5 6
4 0 0 0 C 45 C 55 0 54 cxr 5 coefficients, ai , while the new term, introduced by the authors, also
sxU C 16 C 26 C 36 0 0 C 66 cxU  axU DT includes the temperature driven coupling in the hoop and radial
directions, W.
 T. Nowak, J. Schmidt / Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644 639

This notation simplifies the analyzing and shortens the further load may be computed from (7), stresses from (2) or (8), and dis-
line of reasoning. In particular, in some applications it is more con- placements according to (4) and (6).
venient to use the comprehensive engineering representation for
stresses, rk . In this case: 2.2. Multi-layer cylinder
    h   i
rk ¼ A C 2j þ kC 3j rk1 þ B C 2j  kC 3j rk1 þ e0x C 1j þ C 2j þ C 3j C Having a single-layer orthotropic cylinder analyzed as pre-
h   i
þ c0 C 6j þ C 2j þ 2C 3j X r  rTR rTR sented in previous section, the multi-layer structure could be
k k
h   i investigated. In this case, every additional ith layer introduced into
¼ DT C 1j ax þ C 2j aU þ C 3j ar þ C 6j axU  C 2j þ C 3j W ð10Þ the cylindrical structure provides four constants of integration: Ai,
Bi, exi, ci. However, one can apply the compatibility requirement,
for k ¼ ðx; U; r; xUÞ and j ¼ ð1; 2; 3; 6Þ, respectively. which assumes that all the layers are perfectly bonded. It requires
Next, it is necessary to determine the four unknown constants that all displacements, including axial and tangential ones, should
of integration: A; B; e0x ; c0 . The set of required equations is com- be continues from layer to layer, what implies that: exi ¼ e0x , and
prised of two radial stresses (pressures) acting on the inner and ci ¼ c0 . It finally drives to the conclusion, that every additional
outer surfaces of the cylinder, the axial force equilibrium condition, ith layer involves just two equations in order to specify unknown
and the torque equilibrium condition: integration constants Ai and Bi. These two additional conditions
8 may be derived using continuity of layers’ interface in terms of
>
> rr ðrin Þ ¼ pin
>
> radial displacements as well as radial stresses as:
< rr ðr out Þ ¼ pout  
R rout ð11Þ wðrÞ Wi DT i  Wi1 DT i1
> Px ¼ 2p rin rx rdr  M prin pin
2
> )
>
> R
: T ¼ 2p out s r 2 dr
r
rr ðrÞ rr TR i1  rr TR i
x xU
" #
r in ki1 1
r rki1 1 Ci1  Ci ðXi1  Xi Þr rki 1 rki 1
¼
where constant M is equal to 0 in the case of an open-end cylinder, ari1 rki1 1 bri1 rki1 1 cri1 cri ðdri1 dri Þr ari rki 1 bri rki 1
and 1 in the case of close-end cylinder. 2 3
Ai1
The first two equations can be easily derived based on (10) 6B 7
using j ¼ 3. The following two, after integration, are given by: 6 i1 7
6 0 7
6 ex 7
6 7 ð15Þ
Px C 12 þ kC 13  kþ1 kþ1
 C 12  kC 13  kþ1 kþ1
 6 c0 7
6 7
¼ r out  r in Aþ r out  r in B 6 7
2p kþ1 k þ 1 4 Ai 5
h   i r2  r2 h   i
þ C 11 þ C 12 þ C 13 C out in 0
ex þ C 16 þ C 12 þ 2C 13 X Bi
2
If the multi-layer cylinder is considered to have N layers, the
r 3out  r3in 0 r 2
 r 2
1 Tx 2ðN  1Þ interface conditions, as provided by (15), should be added
c  rTR x
out in
 Mr2in pin
3 2 2 2p to (13) and finally solved for integration constraints. It should be
C 26 þ kC 36  kþ2 kþ2
 C 26  kC 36  kþ2 kþ2
 also noted, that compatibility requirements for axial as well as tan-
¼ r out  r in Aþ r out  r in B
kþ2 k þ 2 gential displacements imply that the integration of axial and shear
h   i r3  r3 h   i stresses, as described in (12), must be extended to sum up all layers.
in 0
þ C 16 þ C 26 þ C 36 C out ex þ C 66 þ C 26 þ 2C 36 X For example, in a two-layer cylinder there are six integration
3
constraints: four as specified by (13), and two for interface condi-
r 4out  r4in 0 r 3
 r 3
c  sTRxU
out in
ð12Þ tions as given in (15): A1, Bi, e0x ; c0 , A2, B2. These constraints can be
4 3 derived by:
Finally, the unknown vector of integration constants can be derived 2 3
pin þ rr TR 1
from: 2 3 6 7
2 3 A1 6 pout þ rr TR 2 7
2 3 rTR 6   7
pin r 6B 7 6 X2 2 r 2 7
6 7 6 17 6 Px þ r i i1
rr i þ 2 Mr0 pin 7
TR 1 2
6 p 7 6 rTR
r 7 6 07
6 ex 7
6 2p
6 2 7
7
6 out 7 6 7 6 7 ¼ ½Z 1 6 i¼1 7
6 Px 1 2 7 þ 6 TR rout rin 7
2 2
6 c0 7 6 7 ð16Þ
4 2p þ 2 Mr in pin 5 6 rx 7 6 7 6 
X r3 r3
2  7
4 2 5 6 7 6 Tx 7
Tx 3 3
r out r in 4 A2 5 6 2p þ i
3
i1
s TR
x U i 7
2p sTR
xU 3 6 i¼1 7
2 3 B2 6 7
ar r k1 k1
br r in cr dr r in 2 3 4 W2 DT 2  W1 DT 1 5
in A
6 a r k1 k1
br r out cr dr r out 7 rr TR 1  rr TR 2
6 r out 76 B 7
6 76 7
¼ 6 rkþ1 r kþ1 rkþ1 rkþ1 r2out r 2in r 3out r 3in 76 0 7 ð13Þ where
6 ax outkþ1in bx out in
cx dx 74 ex 5
4 kþ1 2 3 5 2 3
0
rkþ2 r kþ2
axU outkþ2in bxU
r kþ2
out
r kþ2
in
c xU
r 3out r 3in
dxU
r 4out r 4in c 6
ar1 r 0k1 1 br1 r0k1 1 cr1 dr1 r1 0 0
7
kþ2 3 4 6 0 0 cr2 dr2 r2 ar2 r 2 k2 1
br1 r2 k2 1 7
6 7
6     7
6 X 2 X 2 k2 þ1 7
where: 6
r
6 ax1 1
k1 þ1
r
k1 þ1
0
b x1
r
k1 þ1
1
r
k1 þ1
0
c xi
r 2 r 2
i i1
d xi
r 3 r 3
i i1
a x2
r
k2 þ1
2
r
k2 þ1
1
b x2
r
k2 þ1
2
r 1 7
7
k1 þ1 k1 þ1 2 3 k2 þ1 k2 þ1
6 i¼1 i¼1 7
½Z  ¼ 6
6
7
7
ak ¼ C j2 þ kC j3 6 r1
k1 þ2
r0
k1 þ2
r1
k1 þ2 k1 þ2 X
r 0
2 
r 3i r 3i1
 X 2  r 4i r4i1
 k þ2
r 22 r 12
k þ2
r2 2 r1 2 7
k þ2 k þ2
6 axU1 k þ2 b xU 1 c xU i dxU i axU 2 bx U 2 7
6 1 k 1 þ2 3 4 k2 þ2 k 2 þ2 7
bk ¼ C j2  kC j3 6 i¼1 i¼1 7
6 7
  6 r1k1 1
r1k1 1
C1  C2 ðX1  X2 Þr1 r1 k2 1
r 1 k2 1 7
4 5
ð14Þ
ck ¼ C j1 þ C j2 þ C j3 C ar1 r 1k1 1 br1 r1k1 1 cr1 cr2 ðdr1 dr2 Þr 1 ar2 rk12 1 br2 r1k2 1
  ð17Þ
dk ¼ C j6 þ C j2 þ 2C j3 X
If more than two layers are involved, the last two rows in matrix [Z]
For k ¼ ðx; r; r; xrÞ and j ¼ ð1; 2; 3; 6Þ, respectively. should be repeated for every additional interface, with respective
If the integration constants are found from (13) the strains in a indices for material parameters and radii. In addition, the summa-
single-layer orthotropic cylinder subjected to thermo-mechanical tions in the rows describing the axial force and torque equilibrium
640 T. Nowak, J. Schmidt / Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644

2 3 2 3
conditions must be modified for N layers. Finally, the second row, ar1 1
expressing the pressure acting on the external surface, needs to 6 7 6 7
6 ax1 7 6 2t 7
be corrected for the respective radius of the last layer. 6 7 E 6 7
6 br1 7 ¼ 6 7
6 7 ð1 þ tÞð1  2tÞ 6 2t  1 7 ð19Þ
6 7 6 7
4 cr1 5 4 t 5
3. Numerical example
cx1 1t
3.1. Analytical calculations
Unsurprisingly, E symbolizes Young modulus, and m is the Poisson’s
ratio of steel material.
The object under study is constructed out of two co-axial cylin-
It should be noted, that even if there is only an internal pressure
drical parts, made of different materials, as shown schematically
acting (without thermal load or axial force) as many as five differ-
in Fig. 1:
ent equations are needed to solve the problem. Further simplifica-
tion of (18) is possible if the plane strain conditions are assumed
– the inner part, marked as, ‘‘1’’, represents the metal liner (hav-
(for a very long or infinite tube, e0x =0). In this case the third row
ing thickness from r0 to r1)
and column can be omitted from the square matrix of (18).
– the outer part, marked as, ‘‘2’’, symbolizes the composite shell
In the analyzed example, a steel-composite co-axial tube,
(between r1 to r2),
exposed to the nominal internal pressure of 50 MPa plus 30% over-
– the composite shell consists of several layers of basalt fibers ori-
load, is considered. The thickness of the steel liner /185/204 was
ented at different helical angles and embedded in an epoxy
dimensioned in order to obtain the elastic limit of 540 MPa at
resin matrix. The orientation, number, and thickness of fiber
the nominal load. A further increase of the internal pressure to
layers are unrestricted, and practically they preferably form a
65 MPa would generate equivalent Mises stresses at the level of
symmetrical structure, e.g.: [a/a. . .]S,
660 MPa, which correspond to 0.2% of plastic yielding. In order to
– all layers are perfectly bonded,
avoid any plastic flow in the material, the steel tube was over-
– equivalent properties of the orthotropic composite are calcu-
wrapped by a thick composite tube /204/234. The reinforcement
lated on the basis of the classical theory of laminates, while
was manufactured as an angle-ply, symmetric structure
for the steel part (inner tube), anisotropic elastic material prop-
[+5°/5°]S out of basalt roving. The fibers, having a diameter of
erties are assumed,
13 lm, were embedded in the matrix made of EPOLAN2500 epoxy
– an open-end cylinder is considered.
resin by AXSON (volume fraction of fibers, f = 0.55, was determined
by the microscopic analysis of the microstructure). The material of
Based on the theoretical background given in Section 2, in a
the fibers was selected because of economic aspects, particularly
two-layer cylinder there are six integration constraints: A1, B1,
the low cost of basalt roving. The arrangement of the winding
e0x ; c0 , A2, B2, which can be determined by (16). However, one can take
angles supports the circumferential direction, since hoop stresses
advantage of the fact that in a symmetrical and balanced composite
play the major role for the assumed load scheme. The small twist
the axial–torsion coupling does not exist, thus c0 ¼ 0. Moreover, for of 5° is selected due to winding technological reasons. In the glo-
the transversely isotropic, or isotropic metal layer: C22 = C33,
bal coordinate system the equivalent engineering constants for the
C12 = C13, Ci6 = 0, and aU ¼ ar . Thus: C1 ; X1 ; W1 ¼ 0, and k1 ¼ 1. composite are: EX = 9379 MPa, EU = 49,607 MPa, ER = 9424 MPa,
Furthermore, if only the internal pressure is considered, the vXU = 0.06, vXR = 0.38, vUR = 0.28, GXU = 3806 MPa, GXR = 3395 MPa,
respective set for required equations may be reduced to: and GUR = 3494 MPa. Introducing the engineering constants into
2 31 the stiffness coefficients Cij first, one can determine the material
2 3 ar1 br1 r 2
0 cr1 0 0 2 3
A1 6 7 pin factors given by (5), as: k2 = 2.14, C2 = 7.58e3 and
k2 1 k2 1
6 7 6 0 0 cr2 ar2 r 2 br2 r 2 7 6 7
6 B1 7 6 7 6 0 7 W2 = 2.40e6. Next, the constants of integration may be derived
6 0 7 6 r2 r2 k þ1 k þ1 k þ1 k þ1 7 6 7
6 e 7 ¼ 6 a 1 0 0 c r21 r20 þc r22 r21 a r22 r12 b r2 2 r1 2 7 6 0 7 as proposed by (18): A1 = 3.47e6, B1 = 3.16e3, e0x = 6.26e4,
6 x 7 6 x1 2 x1 2 x2 2 x2 k2 þ1 x2 k2 þ1 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
4 A2 5 6 1 r 2 C2 r k12 1 r 1k2 1 7 4 0 5 A2 = 7.49e4, B2 = 1.55e1. Finally, all of the required values of dis-
4 1 5
B2 0 placements, strains and stresses could be calculated using (4), (5),
ar1 br1 r 2
1 cr1 cr2 ar2 r k12 1 br2 r k1
2 1

(7) and (8), respectively. The summary of the results is provided in

ð18Þ
Table 1.
where the coefficients of the composite: ax2, ar2, bx2, br2, cx2, cr2 are One can note, that a pressure of 65 MPa acting on the inter-
defined as in (14), and the steel factors simplify to: nal surface results in significant tensile stresses in the hoop
direction, reaching about 507 MPa at the inner surface of the
1. Steel liner, and about 89.5 MPa at the outer surface of composite
X layer. In contrast, both, the metal liner and the composite tube
2. Composite
exhibited marginal strains and stresses in the axial direction.
The whole cylinder is under compression in radial direction,
and the stress value at the inner radius r0 is equal to the test
pin pressure of 65 MPa. The equivalent stresses are thus primarily
r2 driven by the hoop component, with a small contribution being
α made by the radial component. The displacement of the inner
r1 wall (inner radius, r0) was calculated to be 0.237 mm, while
the outer wall (radius, r2) shows 0.212 mm. It was also noted,
that whilst the temperature load has virtually no influence on
R
radial stresses, it amplifies axial stresses and reduces hoop ones.
r0
As a result, the presence of a thermal gradient at the level of
Φ 50 K reduces the equivalent stresses in the steel tube by about
30 MPa. Thus, one can conclude that the thermal load above
ambient temperature safely moderates stresses caused by the
Fig. 1. Geometrical model of the cylinder under study. internal pressure.
 T. Nowak, J. Schmidt / Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644 641

Table 1
Results of the analytical calculations for the internal pressure of 65 MPa.

Material ri Radius [mm] Axial direction Hoop direction Radial direction Mises stress [MPa]
Strain [le] Stress [MPa] Strain [le] Stress [MPa] Strain [le] Stress [MPa] Displ. [mm]
Steel r0 92.5 626 4.4 2563 507.2 1066 65.0 .237 540.8
r1 102.0 626 4.4 2241 456.4 743 14.2 .229 461.6
Composite r1 102.0 626 4.9 2241 105.7 1896 14.2 .229 115.5
r2 117.0 626 0.4 1808 89.5 483 0.0 .212 89.8

3.2. FEM analysis
The analyzed design of the open-end cylinder was also con-
firmed by FEM calculations. Eight-node elements with parabolic
shape function were applied [30]. Fifteen finite elements were used
across the thickness of the analyzed cylinder: 6 for the steel liner
and 9 to model the composite reinforcement. It is important to
note, that the FEM analysis assumed a non-linear behavior of
32HA steel, exhibiting the onset of plastic behavior at the yield
level of about 540 MPa (rEQ = 540 + 1563ePL ^0.391). The results
of equivalent Mises stresses in the steel liner and composite shell
are separately presented in Fig. 2.
According to the FEM study, the maximum value of the equiva-
lent stress in the metal liner reaches the level of 541 MPa, and the
outer surface of the composite tube shows 89.4 MPa. Both values
are very close to the numbers derived from the analytical proce-
dure, Table 1. It can be clearly noted that, at the level of about
65 MPa of pressure load, the steel material of the liner reaches
the end of the elastic range. Above 550 MPa of the effective stress,
the plastic flow is expected.
The FEM results of strains and displacements, Fig. 3, are equally
consistent with the theoretical outcome. The hoop strains at the
interface radius are about 2251 le, while the analytical calcula-
tions predicted 2241 le. Similarly, the radial displacement of the
interface was calculated by FEM to be 0.2287 mm, while the ana-
lytical model showed 0.229 mm. The differences in the results pro-
vided by the theoretical analysis and FEM study are well below 1%.
One should point out the role of reinforcement, Fig. 4, which is
visualized by the relation between the equivalent plastic strains
and the internal pressure for the steel tube only and for the hybrid
cylinder supported by the composite jacket. When the steel tube
approaches plastic flow starting at the load level of 65 MPa, the
hybrid structure still works in its elastic regime. Moreover, with
increasing hydraulic pressure, more load is taken by the composite
reinforcement, thus the steel liner is secured against extensive
yielding.
4. Experimental measurements
The numerical calculation procedure presented in this paper
has been validated by full-scale laboratory measurements involv-
ing the strain gauge technique and the acoustic emission method.
During the experimental procedure the load was applied by a high
performance Zwick Z100 testing machine, powering and steering a

Fig. 2. Mises stresses [MPa] in metal liner (a) and composite (b), at the internal pressure of 65 MPa – FEM analysis.

Fig. 3. Hoop strains [le] (a) and radial displacement [mm] (b) in the composite layer at the internal pressure of 65 MPa – FEM analysis.
642 T. Nowak, J. Schmidt / Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644

Equivalent stresses and Plasc strains in steel tubes vs. Internal Pressure
800 0,025
steel Only-Stress
750
Hybrid-Stress

Equivalent Plasc Strain [-]

Equivalent Mises stress [MPa]
700 steel Only-Strain 0,020
Hybrid-Strain
650
stress taken
600 by composite 0,015

550 elasc limit

500 0,010

450

400 0,005

350

300 0,000
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Internal Pressure [MPa]

Fig. 4. The influence of composite reinforcement on equivalent stresses and plastic strains in steel tubes vs. internal pressure. The curve marked as ‘‘steel Only-’’ represents
the metal liner without any composite jacket, while curves noted as ‘‘Hybrid-’’ refer to the liner in steel-composite cylinder.

specially designed piston. The design of the test member, Fig. 5, derived from the condition that radial stress at the external radius
was dictated by the industrial application of the analyzed object, is zero. Thus the third equation in (2) may be rewritten as:
thus its large diameter and high value of testing pressure.
C 31 ex þ C 23 eU
er ¼  ð20Þ
4.1. Strain gauge measurements C 33
Introducing (20) into the first two equations of (2) it is possible to
Foil strain gauges were attached on the external surface of the provide the relations for axial and hoop stresses, as measured by
composite tube, and were calibrated using the IOtech strain gauge the strain gauges:
bridge. The sensors were positioned in the central part of the cylin- 2 3
drical sample, and were spaced by 120° on the circumference of  C 11  C 13C C 13 C 12  C 13C C 23  ex
rx 6 33 33 7
the tube. The test cylinder was subjected to a hydraulic pressure ¼4 5 ð21Þ
cycled between 0 MPa and 65 MPa, whereas the hoop and axial
rU C 23 C 31
C 21  C C 23 C 23
C 22  C eU
33 33
strains were monitored. At a load level of 65 MPa of the hydraulic
pressure it was observed, the hoop strains exhibited an average To finalize the strain gauge measurements, one can calculate the
value of approximately 1909 le, while the axial strain gauges radial displacement, w, as:
showed about 555 le, Table 2. w ¼ reU ð22Þ
It is important to note that the readings of strain gauges are
quite stable. The individual results differ from the average values When comparing the results of all three analysis methods: analyti-
by no more than 5%, and the measurements do not change signif- cal, numerical and experimental measurements, Table 3, it can be
icantly over the load cycling. stated, that the observed outcomes are quite consistent.
The strain in radial direction could not be directly measured at Both calculation methods predicted hoop strains at the same
the external surface of the composite tube. Instead, it can be level of about 1810 le, while the strains measured experimentally

0° 120° 180° 240° 360°

9 4

5 6 10 5 9 4 6 10 5

C C B A
A B
420

2
8 7 1 8 2 1 7 3 8
3

φ185/204

φ204/234

Fig. 5. The test sample made of 32HA steel and reinforced by basalt roving. The positions of sensors are as marked: (1–6) AE resonance sensors, (7–10) AE wideband sensors,
(A–C) strain gauges.
 T. Nowak, J. Schmidt / Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644 643

Table 2
Hoop and axial strains [le] measured by foil gauges at the external surface of the composite layer.

Load cycle Hoop strains [le] Axial strains [le]

Gauge A Gauge B Gauge C Average Gauge A Gauge B Gauge C Average
1 1928 1911 1884 1908 584 583 521 563
2 1923 1916 1892 1910 577 567 517 554
3 1921 1914 1889 1908 574 558 514 549
Mean: 1909 Mean: 555

Table 3
Strains, stresses and displacement of external surface of the composite layer as given by different methods.

Analysis method Hoop direction Axial direction Radial direction

Strain [le] Stress [MPa] Strain [le] Stress [MPa] Strain [le] Stress [MPa] Disp. [mm]
Analytical (orthotropic material model) 1808 89.5 626 0.4 483 0 .212
Numerical (finite element method) 1816 89.8 612 1.0 491 0 .213
Experimental (strain gauge measurements) 1909 94.9 555 0.6 553 0 .223

are about 100 le higher. The difference is not excessive, about 5%,
and likely can be attributed to the manufacturing and material fac-
tors. The laboratory production of a single test sample is not the
same as a full-scale industrial process, thus the quality of the test
member could be reduced. For example, the cross-sections of the
composite overwrapping were not ideally circular. Also the
assumed material properties contribute to the uncertainty of the
results. The equivalent properties of the composite winding were
not directly measured by the authors. Instead, they were estimated
using the rule of mixtures and Classical Lamination Theory, based
on fiber and resin mechanical modules delivered by material sup-
pliers. A slightly bigger discrepancy is visible in the values of axial
strains. This disagreement between 626 le and 555 le is driven
by the fact that the analytical model assumes a constant axial
strain for the whole tube, while in the real cylinder (and FEM anal-
ysis) the axial strains marginally vary with the length of the tube.
All the methods predicted almost the same values of radial and
axial stresses, which are virtually zero.
4.2. Acoustic emission technique
An additional experimental investigation was conducted to ver-
ify whether the applied pressure of 65 MPa could cause a plastic
deformation of the steel liner or fracture the composite layer. In
order to classify the type of deformation and possible damage
occurring within the test cylinders the acoustic emission technique
was used. The extensive research program was conducted for var-
ious combinations of layer thickness, and also involved optical as
well as electron microscopy to study the microstructure and cracks
in the analyzed samples.
In contrast to the strain gauge method, the AE technique is able
to monitor processes in the whole volume of the object under
study. The main advantages of AE are its ability to identify the loca-
tion of the material flow or fracture, and the ability to classify the
mechanisms of the possible damage. The readings of six resonance
SE25-P sensors, produced by Score Dunegan, were used in the sig-
nal analysis and classification process. In order to evaluate the

WD sensors Resonance sensors

Pressure [MPa]

Pressure [MPa]

WD sensors
Pressure [MPa]

(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Amplitude [dB] and activity [hits] of AE signals (a), and activity [hits] of signals in the proposed classes (b).
644 T. Nowak, J. Schmidt / Composite Structures 131 (2015) 637–644
propagation behavior of the S0 and A0 modes also four wideband
sensors (WD, by PAC company) were monitored. Acoustic data
was recorded and processed by Vallen’s AMSY6 acquisition system.
The signal parameters used during the analysis include primarily:
number of hits, amplitude of hits, signal duration, signal energy,
and frequency spectrum of signals.
Fig. 6(a) presents the amplitude and activity of acoustic emis-
sion signals measured by four wideband WD sensors during the
load cycling. The scheme of the applied hydraulic pressure is also
visualized in this figure. It is clearly observed, that both the num-
ber of signals and their amplitudes are the biggest for the first load
cycle. For the following loads, the number of new hits is drastically
reduced, while the amplitude of the signals drops by about 25 dB
(from 65 dB to 40 dB). The higher results at the beginning of the
test are due to the process of specimen stabilization, and they
are also related to the deformation effects and friction processes
occurring due to the manufacturing process. It should be noted
that the laboratory technological process of thick composite wind-
ing resulted in some residual defects remaining after production.
They were largely released during the initial load, and the follow-
ing cycling did not cause any serious damage nor plastic flow of the
metal liner. However, a very small amount of activity related to the
composite fracture is shown in Fig. 6(b). Based on the performed
pattern recognition analysis, supported by the Visual-Class Vallen
software package, it was possible to cluster the AE signals into 6
classes. The analysis of the frequency range allowed it to be con-
cluded that, the most important are first two clusters operating
mainly between 280 kHz and 370 kHz. The class 1 is responsible
primarily for fiber rupture and their pool-out from the matrix,
while class 2 primarily reflects the matrix cracking. The remaining
classes are not correlated with the material deformation phenom-
ena. Class 6, for example, describes the mechanical interaction and
friction processes between steel liner and the composite shell.
Taking into account that the activity of signals does not increase
with progressing load cycling, and drops when the load is kept at a
constant level, it must be stated that the analyzed cylinder oper-
ates in the safe, elastic regime and should be treated as properly
designed and manufactured. This observation fully confirms the
earlier findings of the theoretical investigation and numerical
analysis.
5. Conclusions
This paper gave a theoretical background and provided results
of numerical as well as experimental tests for a thick-walled com-
posite overwrapped metal tube subjected to an axisymmetric load.
The cylindrical structure, consisting of the steel liner and thick fil-
ament winding, was analyzed first by the elastic theory of anisotro-
pic bodies, and subsequently trough experimentation using strain
gauge and acoustic emission (AE) measurements. In order to
shorten the line of analytical reasoning, the authors introduced
the comprehensive matrix notation and replaced a classical term
‘‘thermal stresses’’ with the term ‘‘temperature related stresses’’,
which covered the temperature driven axial–torsional coupling
as well as the thermal expansion coefficients. To confirm the
results of the theoretical analysis a full-scale, open-ended test
cylinder was manufactured and exposed to an internal pressure
of 65 MPa. It was found that, in general, the applied test pressure
caused high stresses within the metal tube, reaching the level of
its elastic limit. However, the elastic limit of the steel tube was
not exceeded, since the material of the liner is secured by the thick
layer of composite reinforcement. For this reason the extensive
strains and plastic flows were not experimentally observed. Some
deformation processes and negligible fracture phenomena occur-
ring within the composite have been visualized by AE signals in
the frequency range mostly between 280 kHz and 370 kHz. They
were clustered as acoustic signals describing the fiber fracture
(class 1) and the matrix cracking (class 2). Nevertheless, the very
low activity of signals, which do not increase with load cycling,
allowed the conclusion to be made that the analyzed cylinder oper-
ated in the elastic regime and must be treated as safely designed.
All calculation methods, analytical and numerical, as well as exper-
imental verifications, which were introduced during this research,
delivered very consistent results in terms of predicted displace-
ments, strains and stresses.
Acknowledgment
The second author expresses his appreciation for the Polish
Ministry of Science and Higher Education for its financial support
to the experimental part of this study (Project NR 15005906).
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