ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

1. Asexual Reproduction
Ø individuals are exact clones of the parent
with identical genetic make up.
2. Sexual Reproduction
Ø new individuals are formed from the
combination of haploid gametes to form a
genetically unique offspring.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
THREE COMMON TYPES:
1. Regeneration
Ø involves the production and differentiation
of new tissues to replace missing and
damaged parts of the body.
Ø involves cellular replication by mitosis
followed by differentiation of the tissues.
Ø highly developed in invertebrates
 REGENERATION IN HYDRAS
Hydra is a genus of small, fresh-water
organisms of the phylum Cnidaria and
class Hydrozoa. They are native to the
temperate and tropical regions.
REGENERATION IN
FLATWORMS
 REGENERATION IN
ANNELIDS

The annelids, also

known as the ringed
worms or
segmented worms.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
THREE COMMON TYPES:
2. Budding
- involves forming a new individual from
an outgrowth on the parent’s body.
Example:
Hydras produce bud that branch off from
the side of the body. Once a bud breaks off, a
new hydra will begin life independently.
BUDDING
HYDRA
 PARTHENOGENESIS

A development that involves an activated

unfertilized egg that undergoes mitosis in
the absence of cytokinesis (division of
cytoplasm).
The 2 nuclei then fuse together to form the
diploid nucleus then further develop as if it
had been fertilized.
 APHIDS
Aphids, also known as plant lice and in Britain
and the Commonwealth as greenflies, blackflies,
or whiteflies, are small sap-sucking insects and
members of the superfamily Aphidoidea.
BEES

Bee, (superfamily Apoidea), any of

more than 20,000 species of
insects in the
suborder Apocrita (order
Hymenoptera), including the
familiar honeybee (Apis) and
bumblebee (Bombus and Psithyrus)
as well as thousands more wasplike
and flylike bees. Adults range in
size from about 2 mm to 4 cm
(about 0.08–1.6 inches).
BEES
 WASPS
A wasp is any insect of the order Hymenoptera
and suborder Apocrita that is neither a bee nor
an ant.
 ANTS

Ants are eusocial

insects of the family
Formicidae and,
along with the
related wasps and
bees, belong to the
order Hymenoptera.
ANTS
 BYNOE’S GECKO
Heteronotia binoei, also known as the prickly gecko or
Bynoe's gecko, is a species of lizard in the family
Gekkonidae. The species is endemic to Australia.
 BYNOE’S GECKO
The Bynoe's gecko is of special interest to reproductive
biologists because some populations of Bynoe's consist
entirely of females; identical, genetic clones of one another
reproducing without the need for males.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Isogamy – simple eukaryotes with gametes

that are structurally similar. It is the fusion of
two gametes in similar morphology: shape and
size. They only differ in their physiology.
Both isogamous gametes are flagellated; hence
are motile. They are rounded or pear-shaped
and flagella are found in the front end. Occurs
in unicellular organisms like the protozoans.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

2. Anisogamy - most eukaryotes with

gametes that are distinctly different.
Male – producing only sperm
Female – producing only egg cell
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

3. Hermaphrodites or Monoecious – an
organism with both male and female genitalia.
In sexually reproducing organisms, males have
organs that produce male gametes, usually
sperm. Females have different sexual organs that
produce female gametes, usually called eggs.
These are mostly invertebrates such as worms, bryozoans
(moss animals), trematodes (flukes), snails, slugs, and
barnacles—are usually parasitic, slow-moving, or permanently
attached to another animal or plant.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Protandry – an organism that may start

off as male, converting to female.

2. Protogyny - an organism that may start

off as female, converting to male.

Ex. Clown fish

CLOWN FISH
HERMAPHRODITE SNAIL
HERMAPHRODITE WORM
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE
DEVELOPMENT
1. Indirect Development
Ø involves one or more intermediate larval forms
before the adult form is attained.
Fertilization follows the random release of gametes
in the environment. With only a sufficient amount
of yolk to sustain the developing embryo, this will
hatch into larval form, which feeds and grows
before metamorphosing to an adult form.
Ex. Aquatic animals, butterflies and frogs
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE
DEVELOPMENT
2. Direct Development
Ø the offspring hatch or are born in
miniature adult form
Typically those where females produce smaller
numbers of large yolky eggs containing
sufficient food reserves for elaborate
development.
Ex: mammals
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Eutherian mammals
Ø the developing embryo is retained within
the mother’s body in the uterus for the
major part of its development. The
placenta serves as a pathway for nutrient
exchange to supply the needs of a
developing mammalian embryo.
Ex. horses , cows, goats
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Monotremes are oviparous and
Marsupials are viviparous but in both
cases, their young emerge at the early
stage of development.
This short gestation period is followed by
long lactation period, which is the exact
opposite of the eutherian mammals.
MONOTREMES
Gestation - the process or period of
developing inside the womb between
conception and birth.

Lactation - describes the secretion of milk

from the mammary glands and the period
of time that a mother lactates to feed her
young.
 SEX ORGANS

Gonad
Ø the primary sex organs in animals which
produce the gametes.
Ø produce hormones that regulate the development
of gametes
testes (sing. testis) – male gonads
ovary – female gonad
Secondary Sex organs – act as pheromones and
produce sexual differences in appearance and
behavior.
 GAMETOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis – male gamete production
A second round of mitotic division occurs later in life and
continues for the remainder of the animal’s reproductive life.
Spermatogonia – male germ cells (enters meiosis as spermatocytes)
Oogenesis – female gamete production
All germ cells of the female are already present in her ovaries
before she is born
Oogonia – female germ cells (enters meiosis as oocytes)
The primary oocyte remains dormant at prophase I in the ovary until
after sexual maturation. Once it gets activated by hormone signals, a
mature egg is released from the ovary.
 FERTILIZATION

Ø fusion of ovum and sperm cell that leads to egg activation and
nuclear fusion.
Ø contact between sperm and jelly coat of the egg triggers the
acrosome (specialized secretory vesicle) to release hydrolytic
enzyme and other products
Ø hydrolytic enzymes soften the jelly coat and vitelline (thin tough
layer that protects the egg from environmental damage)
Ø the acrosome then breaks the membrane and fusion of the egg
and the sperm membrane takes place. This fusion triggers the egg
cell membrane to form a barrier to hinder other sperm cells from
entering the membrane
Ø this marks the beginning of embryonic development
 FERTILIZATION

The fusion of the ovum and the sperm is species

specific. Only complementary molecules of the
sperm and egg cell membrane will allow fusion
and egg activation.

The size of the egg is 1000 times larger than a

typical somatic cell.
In humans, it takes approximately 20 hours for
the pronuclear fusion to occur.
 FERTILIZATION

When the sperm is unable to penetrate the egg

cell membrane, infertility results which is resolved
by directly injecting the sperm into the egg
cytoplasm in a process called intracytoplasmic
sperm injection (ICSI).
In some species, paternal contribution has little
or no effect in fertilization. This is demonstrated
by artificially activating the egg of the sea urchin
and frog through pricking or changing the pH of
the surrounding.
INTRACYTO-
PLASMIC
SPERM
INJECTION
(ICSI)

Image of Intracytoplasmic
Sperm Injection (ICSI)
technique used during in
vitro fertilization (IVF)
 INTRACYTO-PLASMIC SPERM
INJECTION (ICSI)

Sometimes the sperm cannot penetrate the outer

layer, for a variety of reasons. The egg’s outer layer
may be thick or hard to penetrate or the sperm may
be unable to swim. In these cases, a procedure
called intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) can be
done along with in vitro fertilization (IVF) to help
fertilize the egg. During ICSI, a single sperm is
injected directly into the cytoplasm the egg.
 INTRACYTO-PLASMIC SPERM
INJECTION (ICSI)
How does ICSI work?
There are two ways that an egg may be fertilized by IVF:
traditional and ICSI. In traditional IVF, 50,000 or more
swimming sperm are placed next to the egg in a laboratory
dish. Fertilization occurs when one of the sperm enters into
the cytoplasm of the egg. In the ICSI process, a tiny needle,
called a micropipette, is used to inject a single sperm into the
center of the egg. With either traditional IVF or ICSI, once
fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg (now called an embryo)
grows in a laboratory for 1 to 5 days before it is transferred
to the woman’s uterus (womb).
 INTRACYTO-PLASMIC SPERM
INJECTION (ICSI)
Why is there a need for ICSI?
ICSI helps to overcome fertility problems, such as:
The male partner produces too few sperm to do
artificial insemination (intrauterine insemination
[IUI]) or IVF.
The sperm may not move in a normal fashion.
The sperm may have trouble attaching to the egg.
A blockage in the male reproductive tract may
keep sperm from getting out.
 INTRACYTO-PLASMIC SPERM
INJECTION (ICSI)
Will ICSI work?
ICSI fertilizes 50% to 80% of eggs. But the
following problems may occur during or after
the ICSI process:
Some or all of the eggs may be damaged.
The egg might not grow into an embryo even
after it is injected with sperm.
The embryo may stop growing.
 CLEAVAGE FORMATION AND
BLASTULATION

In spite of the differences in embryonic

development across animal species,
cleavage formation, gastrulation, and
organogenesis appear to be virtually
identical in all animal groups.
FORMATION OF BLASTOMERES
 CLEAVAGE

Rapid cell division resulting in blastomeres

Cells of the blastomeres decrease in size but

the size of the embryo remains the same

Embryo becomes a cluster of cells in which

tissues and organs will be derived
BLASTULATION TO GASTRULATION
Blastulation is the process following the morula
and precedes the gastrulation. It entails cleavage
resulting in a blastula consisting of about 128
cells.

Gastrulation is a phase early in the embryonic

development of most animals, during which the
single-layered blastula is reorganized into a
multilayered structure known as the gastrula.
ECTODERM
gives rise to the central
nervous system (the brain
and spinal cord); the
peripheral nervous system;
the sensory epithelia of the
eye, ear, and nose; the
epidermis and its
appendages (the nails and
hair); the mammary glands;
the hypophysis; the
subcutaneous glands; and
the enamel of the teeth
MESODERM
gives rise to connective
tissue, cartilage, and bone;
striated and smooth
muscles; the heart walls,
blood and lymph vessels
and cells; the kidneys; the
gonads (ovaries and testes)
and genital ducts; the
serous membranes lining
the body cavities; the
spleen; and the suprarenal
(adrenal) cortices
ENDODERM
gives rise to the epithelial
lining of the gastrointestinal
and respiratory tracts; the
parenchyma of the tonsils,
the liver, the thymus, the
thyroid, the parathyroids, and
the pancreas; the epithelial
lining of the urinary bladder
and urethra; and the
epithelial lining of the
tympanic cavity, tympanic
antrum, and auditory tube