Ilovepdf Merged (1) Removed

Prof. Jaime Alberto Escobar G.
Faculty of Engineering
•
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•
•
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1
n  V2  PT  P  qc
2

PT    1 2   1
 1  M 
P  2 

   
 1   1
PT  P  P 1  M2  1
 2  
 
IAS CAS

 
   1  Vc  
2  1

Pressure difference qc  P0  1     1
 2  a0  
obtained from pitot-   
static probe
CAS = TAS at SL P  P(T , h)

a  a(T )
EAS
Instrument and
position error
EAS TAS
CAS corrected for True speed of the

adiabatic compressible a/c relative to the
flow for a particular h air mass.
EAS is based on SL Use for

ISA density 0 aerodynamic calc.

0 .5
   1
 Ve 
 2

Ve  
  
P  q  
   c  1  1 
 V o
   1   0   P    0.5
 

 
PT    1   1
 P  qc  P 1  M   1
2
P  2  
 
0.5
   1

 2  q   
M  1  c   1 
   1  P 


•
•
TT  1 2
 1 M  1  0.2M 2
T 2

TT  T 1  0.2kM 2

Plocal  P Plocal  P
CP  CP 
qic PTlocal  Plocal
local
ic
Tlocal
PTlocal  PT
C PT 
qic
T
PTlocal  PT
C PT 
qic
D D D
Airspeed error must not exceed 3 knots per 100 knots
Airspeed error must not exceed 5 knots at speeds < 166 knots
The weight and balance system
Weighing of the Proper loading of the

aircraft aircraft
The maintaining of the weight

and balance records
The weight and balance system (Cont’d)
Improper loading effects:
• Cuts down the efficiency of an aircraft.

• Failure to complete the flight.
• Abnormal stresses in the structure.
• Change flying characteristics.
Aircraft
Engineers Designers Pilots
mechanics
The designers set the maximum weight, based on

the amount of lift the wings or rotors can provide.
The structural strength of the aircraft also limits the

maximum weight.
Set the maximum center of gravity (CG) deviation.

• The pilot knows the maximum allowable weight of the

aircraft and its CG limits.
• Ensure CG is within the allowable limits.
Weight control
Excessive weight reduces the efficiency of an aircraft

and the safety margin available if an emergency
condition should arise.
Weight control (Cont’d)
When operating from a high altitude airport, POH or

AFM must be consulted to determine the maximum
weight allowed.
Effects of Weight
All seats are occupied
All baggage allowed carried
All of the fuel tanks are full
OVERLOADED
Effects of Weight (Cont’d)
Some of the problems caused by overloading an aircraft

are:
• The aircraft will need a higher takeoff speed, which
results in a longer takeoff run.
• Both the rate and angle of climb will be reduced.

• The service ceiling will be lowered.

• The cruising speed will be reduced.
• The cruising range will be shortened.
• Maneuverability will be decreased.

• A longer landing roll will be required because the

landing speed will be higher.
• Excessive loads will be imposed on the structure,

especially the landing gear.
Basic Weight Definitions
+ Structure
MWE + Power Plant
Manufacturer’s
Empty Weight + Systems and interior provisions as defined in the Type
Specification
DWE + Fixed interior equipment (both standard and optional)

Delivery Weight
Empty
+ Customer options
+ Engine oil
+ Unusable Fuel
OWE + Crew
Operating
Weight Empty + Crew equipment
+ Passenger service items
+ Other items required for normal operation
Basic Weight Definitions (Cont’d)
MZFW Includes the aircraft and everything that will be carried on

Maximum Zero
Fuel Weight
the flight except the weight of the fuel.
MLW Maximum weight approved for the landing touchdown.

Maximum
Landing Weight
MTOW
Maximum
Maximum weight approved at start of takeoff run.
Takeoff Weight
MRW Maximum weight approved for ground maneuver.

Maximum Ramp
Weight
Includes weight of start, taxi and run-up fuel.
Balance
• Loading the aircraft so the gross weight is less than

the maximum allowable is not enough.
• Weight must be distributed to keep the CG within the
limits specified in the POH or AFM.
• Weight and balance of a helicopter is far more critical
than for an airplane.
• At the end of flight CG may have shifted enough for
the helicopter to be out of balance laterally or
longitudinally.
• Check the CG location for all the flight phases.
Balance (Cont’d)
Changes of fixed equipment may have a major effect

upon the weight of the aircraft.
This change will cause the CG to shift.
Stability and balance control
Longitudinal stability is maintained by ensuring the CG

is slightly ahead of the center of lift.
Stability and balance control (Cont’d)
If the CG is too far aft, it will be too near the center of lift
and the airplane will be unstable, and difficult to recover
from a stall.
If the CG is too far forward:
• The downward tail load will have to be increased to

maintain level flight. Same effect as carrying
additional weight so the aircraft will have to fly at a
higher angle of attack, and drag will increase.
At slow takeoff speeds, the elevator might not produce

enough nose-up force to rotate and on landing there
may not be enough elevator force to flare the airplane.
Both takeoff and landing runs will be lengthened.
Lateral imbalance causes wing heaviness, which may

be corrected by deflecting the aileron. The additional lift
causes additional drag and the airplane flies
inefficiently.
Fuel in the tanks of a

sweptwing airplane affects
both lateral and longitudinal
balance. As fuel is used
from an outboard tank, the
CG shifts forward.
Aircraft Arms, Weight and Moments
The term arm, usually measured in inches, refers to the

distance between the center of gravity of an item or
object and the datum. Arms ahead of, or to the left of
the datum are negative (-), and those behind, or to the
right of the datum are positive (+).
Weight is normally measured in pounds. When weight is

removed from an aircraft, it is negative (-), and when
added, it is positive (+).
Aircraft Arms, Weight and Moments (Cont’d)
A moment is a force that tries to cause rotation, and is

the product of the arm, in inches, and the weight, in
pounds.
Positive moments about the CG cause an airplane to

nose up, while negative moments cause it to nose
down.
Aircraft Arms, Weight and Moments (Cont’d)
The manufacturer establishes the maximum weight and

range allowed for the CG, as measured in inches from
the reference plane called the datum.
Some manufacturers specify this range as measured in

percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), the
leading edge of which is located a specified distance
from the datum.
The Law of Lever
Compute the CG position
Determining the CG
1. Measure the arm of each weight in inches from the
datum.
2. Multiply each arm by its weight in pounds to

determine the moment in pound-inches of each weight.
3. Determine the total of all weights and of all the

moments.
4. Divide the total moment by the total weight to

determine the CG in inches from the datum.
Determining the CG (Cont’d)
Example 1
Find the CG position
TotalMoment
CG 
TotalWeight
Exercise 1
Solve the example using a new Datum Line at CG
location.
Exercise 2
Complete the chart and find the airplane CG position
TotalMoment
CG 
TotalWeight
Basic Weight and Balance Equation
It could be solved for each variable
Shifting the Airplane CG (Cont’d)
Exercises 5 and 6
Consider this airplane:
Shifting the Airplane CG (Cont’d)
Exercises 5 and 6
The pilot has prepared a chart to estimate the CG
location
dV V¥2
m ¥ = T cos e - D - W sinq m = L cos f - W cosq + T sin e cos f
dt r
0 = T cose - D 0 = L - W + T sin e
e
T =D L =W
∞
W
CL =
0.5rV¥2 S
CD = CDo + KCL2
TR = D = 0.5 rV¥2 SC D
2W
CL =
rV 2 S
2(73000 * 0.4535 * 9.8)
CL =
0.457 * (150) 2 * 88.258
CL = 0.713
CD = 0.015 + 0.08 * (0.712) 2
CD = 0.0557
1
TR = * 0.457 * (150) 2 * 88.258 * 0.0556
2
TR = 25338.848N
CD0 = K * CL2 2W
V=
CD0 rCL S
CL =
K
2 * (73000 * 0.4535 * 9.8)
V=
0.015 0.457 * 0.433 * 88.258
CL =
0.08
CL = 0.433 V = 192.543m / s
CD = 0.015 + 0.08 * (0.433) 2
CD = 0.03
1
TR = * 0.457 * (192.543) 2 * 88.258 * 0.03
2
TR = 22477.44 N
TR = D
W
TR = D
W
W
TR = D
L
W
TR =
L
D
V ( T R ) min = V L 
D max
D = f (h,V ,W )
1
D = V2 S (CD0  KCL2 )
2
1   2W 
2

D = V2 S  CD0  K  
2  

2   V S  

2
1 1 4 W 
D = V SCD0  V SK 2 4  
2 2
2 2  V  S 
2
1 2SK  W  1
D =  V SCD0 
2
2   q =  V2
2 V  S  2
2
SK  W 
TR = D = q SCD0   
q  S 
 SK  W 
2

 0 = q SCD     T q
 0
q  S 
R

  
2
W  1
0 = SCD0 q  TR q  SK  
2
q = V2
S 2
1
  T  W   W   T  2  2
  R     R   4C Do K 
  W  S   S   W  
V =  
  C Do
 
 
T
W
W
S
CDo K
2
T R 

W 
  4C Do K  0 Impossible flight, the thrust is too
low
2
T R 

W 
  4C Do K  0 Two possible velocities for TR
= 0
2
T R  Velocity for the minimum TR
   4C Do K
W 
2
T R 
   4C Do K = 0
W 
 TR 
  = 4C Do K
 W  min
TR W   4CDo K = 0
2
1
 1  TR   W   2
=   
  W  min  S  
V ( T R ) min
    C Do  
1
 1   W 
2
V ( T R ) min =    4C D K  
    C   S  
o
Do 
1
 2  K  W 
2
V ( T R ) min = V L  =     
D max
     C D o  S  
W
TR =
L D
 TR  1
  =
 W  min L D max
1
4 C Do K =
L D max
1
L D max =
4C Do K
 TR 
  = 4C Do K
 W  min
 TR 
  = 4 * 0 . 015 * 0 . 08
 W  min
 TR 
  = 0 . 0693
 W  min
( T R ) min = 0 . 0693 * 73000
( T R ) min = 5058 lbs

 W  73000
 =
 S  950
W 
  = 76 . 84 lb 2
 S  ft
1
 2  K  W 
2
V ( T R ) min =     
     C D o  S  
1
 2  0 . 08  2
V ( T R ) min =  4 
76 . 84 
 8 . 9068 * 10  0 . 015 
V ( T R ) min = 631 . 2 ft
s
2
1 2SK  W 
D =  V SCD0 
2
2  
2 V  S 
2
D 1 S 2K S W 
=  V CD0 
2
 
W 2 W  V2 W S
D  V CD0
2
2K W
= 
L 2W S   V2 S
1
  2
L    CD0
V 2 K W 
= 
D  2W S   V2 S 

CL CL
=
CD CDo  KCL2
d CL CD  CDo  KCL2  CL (2 KCL )

=
d CL  C Do  KC 
2 2
L
0 = CDo  KCL2  2 KCL2 CDo = KCL2
CDo
CL =
K
CDo  CL  CDo
 CL    =
  = K C
 D  max 4C 2
Do K
 CD  max C  K CDo
Do
K
 CL  1
CDo   =
 CD  max 4CDo K
 CL 
  = K
 CD  max 2CDo
L 1
  =
 CL  CDo K  D  max 4CDo K
  = 2
C
 D  max 4C Do
 W  73000
 =
 S  950
W 
  = 76 . 84 lb 2
 S  ft
1
L   V CD0 2 K W 
2
 
= 
D  2W S   V2 S 

1
L  8.9068 *104 (400) 2 (0.015) 2(0.08)(76.84) 
=   
2 
D  276.84 4
8.9068 *10 (400) 
L
= 9.98
D
C D = 0.02  0.062C L2
3/ 2 1/ 2
CL C L CL
CD CD CD
 CL  1
  =
 CD  max 4CDo K
12
2 K W
V L D max = 
  CD S 
 o 
3/ 2 1/ 2
CL CL C L
CD CD CD
3 3
CL CL 2
2
=
CD CDo  KCL2
3CDo 1
CL = CDo = KCL2
3 K 3
CL 2
CD
3/ 2 1/ 2
CL C L C L
CD CD CD
 C 32   C 32 
 L  = L 
 CD   CD  KCL2 
  max  o  max
3
C 2 
3
1  3  4
 L  =  
 CD  4  KCD 13 
  max  o 
3/ 2 1/ 2
CL C L CL
CD CD CD
1
3CDo W = V2 SCL
CL = 2
K 1 3CDo
W = V 3 2  S
2  CL C  K
 D 
 
1
C 2 
3
2 K W 
2
1
1/4
 L 
 CD  V =  VC 3/2 =   V L D
  max
3
 CL 2

   3CD S   L

CD   3 max
 C D   o   max
  max
3/ 2 1/ 2
CL CL C L
CD CD CD
1 1
CL CL 2
2
=
CD CDo  KCL2
CDo
CDo = 3KCL2 CL =
1
3K
CL 2
CD
3/ 2 1/ 2
CL C L C L
CD CD CD
 C 12   C 12 
 L  = L 
 CD   CD  KCL2 
  max  o  max
1
C 2 
1
  4
 L  = 3 1 
 CD  4  3KCDo 3 
  max
3/ 2 1/ 2
CL C L CL
CD CD CD
1
CDo W = V2 SCL
CL = 2
3K 1 CDo
W = V 12  S
2  CL C  3K
 D 
 
1
 C 12   2 3K W  2
V = 31/4 V L D
 L  V =  1
CL 2 

max
 CD 
  max  CL
1
2 
   CD S   CD 
 C D   o   max
  max
CL  CL  1 2 K W
12
  = V L D max = 
CD  CD  max 4CDo K   CD S 
 o 
CL3 / 2
1/4
 C 32   
3
4 1
 L  = 1 3  VC 3/2  =   V L D
 CD  4  KCD 13   3
CD  CD 
L max
  max  o   max
CL1/ 2  C 12 
 L  = 3 1 
 
1
4
VC1/2  = 31/4 V L D
 CD   L
CD 
max
4  3KCDo 3 
CD   max  max
Aircraft Performance
Propulsion Performance

STEADY, LEVEL FLIGHT - Power Required
Graphical approach
Power is obtained by multiplying thrust by velocity.
PR  TRV
Example 1.
Calculate the power required at the minimum thrust required by the

Bede-5J airplane. Compute for sea level and 10000 ft. at ISA
conditions.
W = 4271.744 N.
S = 3.511 sq. meters.
CDo = 0.02
K = 0.062
Solution: ft * lb
1hp  550  746W
s
From previous lecture:
VTR min  59.139m / s @ SL
TR min  300.847 N
VTR min  68.806m / s @ 3048 m.
PR  300.847 * 59.139 PR  300.847 * 68.806
PR  17791.790W PR  20700.078W
PR  23.849hp PR  27.748hp
Analytical approach
Power is obtained by multiplying thrust by velocity.

W
PR  V
L
D
W 2W
PR 
L CL S
D
1 2W 3
PR min 
 CL3 2  S
 C 
 D  max
Analytical approach
CL3/2
Minimum Power Required occurs when CisD a maximum value.
V PR min  V 3 
 0.76V L D max
 CL 2 
 C D 
  max
Example 2.
Find the minimum Power Required and the velocity at which it

occurs for the Bede-5J airplane at sea level. Assume ISA
conditions.
Solution:
From previous calculations. 3

C 2 
3
1  3  4
 L    
VTR min  59.139m / s @ SL  CD  4  KCD 13 
  max  o 
V PR min  0.76V L D max 3
 C 32 
 L   1   4
3

V PR min  0.76 * 59.139
 CD  4  0.08 * 0.015 13 

  max
V PR min  44.945m / s  C 32 
 L   10.82
 CD 
  max
Solution (Cont’d):
1 2W 3
PR min 
 CL3 2  S
 C 
 D  max
1 2 * (4271.744)3
PR min 
10.82 1.225 * 3.511
PR min  17587.281W
PR min  23.57hp

THRUST AVAILABLE
Thrust Available has almost to do with the power plant

and nothing to do with the airframe.
Airframe-Engine aerodynamic interaction could be underestimated.

THRUST AVAILABLE
Typical Thrust/Power settings:
• Takeoff rating: maximum power
(100%), limited by time.
• Maximum Continuous Rating:
90% to 95% of maximum power.
• Maximum Climb Rating: 85% to
90% of maximum power.
• Maximum Cruise Rating: 80%
to 85% of the maximum power
matched to maximum cruise
speed; typically it is set to 70%
to 75%
(Snorri, G., 2014)
• Idle Rating: 40% to 50% of
maximum power and produces
practically no thrust.
POWER AVAILABLE
Propeller-Driven Aircraft – Specific Fuel Consumption

• It is one of the most important metrics used in aviation.
• Indicates how efficient a power plant converts chemical into
mechanical energy.
SI
UK
POWER AVAILABLE
Propeller-Driven Aircraft (Piston engines)
• Oldest power-plant type used in aviation.

• Reliable, reliable, affordable, common, and relatively
light.
• Two-stroke and four-stroke engines.
Typical SFC:
lbf/hr/BHP gr//hr/kW
Two-stroke 0.83-1.80 280-600
Four-stroke 0.42-0.60 140-205
POWER AVAILABLE
Propeller-Driven Aircraft (Piston engines) (Cont’d)
For this type of engines, power is more significant than

thrust.
 pr Propeller efficiency
Shaft power from

engine
POWER AVAILABLE
• Engine power depends on the density.
Simplified Model
Gagg and Ferrar

POWER AVAILABLE
(Snorri, G., 2014)

POWER AVAILABLE
Propeller-Driven Aircraft – Thrust estimation

Power is given by force time velocity
 pr Propeller efficiency.
P Shaft power from

the piston engine.
POWER AVAILABLE
Propeller-Driven Aircraft – Thrust estimation (Cont’d)
• Quadratic interpolation (fixed-pitch propeller):
• Cubic spline method (fixed-pitch propeller).

• Other iterative methods
• : Thrust at maximum speed
POWER AVAILABLE
Propeller-Driven Aircraft (Turboprop)
Thrust comes from the propeller. In turboprops also from jet exhaust
(5%).
Thrust is maximum at zero velocity.

POWER AVAILABLE
Power is constant with velocity

Taking into account altitude effects:
n is usually 0.7
A: engine dependent constant

n: engine dependent constant (0.5)
POWER AVAILABLE
Power is given by force time velocity
 pr Propeller efficiency.
Pes Equivalent shaft

power.
POWER AVAILABLE
Propeller-Driven Aircraft (Turboprop) (Cont’d)

Throttle Ratio:
Pressure and density decrease with
altitude, therefore engine thrust
Gas Turbine
Engine Atmospheric Properties
Performance
Total temperature has significant effect

POWER AVAILABLE

Throttle Ratio:
Total design
temperature
Maximum TET
Maximum compressor
pressure ratio (CPR)
POWER AVAILABLE

Throttle Ratio:
Power produced
by turbine
High M; low hp
decreases and so
CPR
TET must
Low M; high hp decrease to
maintain efficiency
• High CPR results in good thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC)
• High TET yields to high specific thrust.
Thrust ratio Theta-break

POWER AVAILABLE

Throttle Ratio:
• Ideally, the engine must operate at its theta-break.
• Operation at theta-break is not possible for all operational range.
• The engine is designed to have a theta-break for the most desired
combination or hp and M.
Total temperature
Mach number at desired condition
• The concept or Throttle Ratio (TR) was developed by Mattingly.

• It can be used to estimate the thrust of gas turbine engines.
POWER AVAILABLE

Effect of altitude and airspeed on thrust:
For all gas turbine engines
1. Determine baseline thrust to use at SL: (Thmax)static

2. Compute temperature ratio:
3. Compute pressure ratio:

POWER AVAILABLE

Effect of altitude and airspeed on thrust:
For turboprop engines
4. If , then:
If , and , then:
If , and , then:
THRUST AVAILABLE
Jet Propelled Aircraft
For this type of engines, thrust is

more significant than power.
THRUST AVAILABLE
Jet Propelled Aircraft – Specific Fuel Consumption
SI
UK
THRUST AVAILABLE
Turbojet engine
Thrust is mostly considered constant for subsonic speeds.
At supersonic speeds:
TA
 1  1.18( M   1)
TA 0
Altitude effects.
TA 

TA 0 0
THRUST AVAILABLE
Turbojet engine (Cont’d)

Thrust can also be estimated using Mattingly’s method:
For turbojet engines

4a. Maximum thrust (Afterburner on)
If , then:
If , then:
THRUST AVAILABLE
Turbojet engine (Cont’d)

For turbojet engines (Cont’d)

4b. Maximum thrust (Afterburner off)
If , then:
If , then:
THRUST AVAILABLE
Low Bypass Ratio Turbofan engine

For LBR turbofan engines

4a. Maximum thrust (Afterburner on)
If , then:
If , then:
THRUST AVAILABLE
Low Bypass Ratio Turbofan engine (Cont’d)

For LBR turbofan engines (Cont’d)d

4b. Maximum thrust (Afterburner off)
If , then:
If , then:
THRUST AVAILABLE

Graphical approach
Uninstalled takeoff
performance
(Kundu, 2010)
THRUST AVAILABLE

Graphical approach
Uninstalled maximum climb rating (Kundu, 2010)

THRUST AVAILABLE

Graphical approach
Uninstalled maximum cruise rating (Kundu, 2010)

THRUST AVAILABLE
High Bypass Ratio Turbofan engine
TA
Thrust decreases with velocity.  AM n
TA 0
A and n are specific for
an engine.
Altitude effects.
m
TA 
 
TA 0  0 
m is specific for an engine.
Is Usually near 1.
THRUST AVAILABLE
High Bypass Ratio Turbofan engine (Cont’d)

For HBR turbofan engines

4a. Maximum thrust
If , then:
If , then:
THRUST AVAILABLE

For HBR turbofan engines

4a. Maximum thrust
If , then:
If , then:
THRUST AVAILABLE

Graphical approach
Uninstalled takeoff
performance
(Kundu, 2010)
THRUST AVAILABLE

Graphical approach
Uninstalled maximum climb rating (Kundu, 2010)

THRUST AVAILABLE

Graphical approach
Uninstalled maximum cruise rating (Kundu, 2010)

STEADY, LEVEL FLIGHT - Maximum velocity
Propeller-Driven Aircraft
Power Available is constant with velocity for variable pitch

propellers. The intersection of Power Available and Power Required
defines the maximum velocity of the airplane.
It is determined by the high speed intersection of the Required

and Available curves for airplanes using Turbojet or Turbofan
Engines.
TR  TA max
1
  T  
 W   T A max
2 2
  A max   W     

  4C Do K 
 W  S   S   W  
V max   
   C Do 
 
 
Example 3.
The Gulfstream IV is powered by two Rolls-Royce Tay 611-8

turbofans, each one rated at a maximum thrust at sea level of
13850 lb. Calculate Vmax at sea level and at 30000 ft. Assume
m=0.6.
W = 324499.981 N.
S = 88.257 sq. meters.
CDo = 0.015
K = 0.08
Solution:
W 324499.981

S 88.257
W
 3 676 . 761 N / m 2
S
T A max 2 * 61566.092N

W 324499.981 N
T A max
 0 . 379
W
1
  T  T  2  2
  A max   W    W   A max   4 C D K 
 W  S   S   W 
o

V max   
   C Do 
 
 
1
 0 . 379 3676 . 761   3676 . 761  0 . 379 
2
 4 ( 0 . 015 )( 0 . 08 ) 
2
V max   
 1 . 225 ( 0 . 015 ) 
This result does not take into account

drag-divergence phenomena near Mach 1,
V max  388 . 042 m / s which increases the drag force over the
airplane.
  0.457kg / m3 @ 9146 m.

m
T A max 68233 . 148
TA  TA 0   W

324499.981
 0 
0.6 T A max
 0.457   0 . 210
TA  123132.184 *  
W
 1.225 
TA  68233.148N
Solution (Cont’d)
1
 0 . 210 3676 . 761   3676 . 761  0 . 210 
2
 4 ( 0 . 015 )( 0 . 08 ) 
2
V max   
 0 . 457 ( 0 . 015 ) 
This result does not take into account

drag-divergence phenomena near Mach 1,
V max  467 . 759 m / s which increases the drag force over the
airplane.
Range and Endurance
http://businessaircraft.bombardier.com/en/aircraft/global/global8000.html#nb_aircraft_
1

STEADY, LEVEL FLIGHT
Range
• Range: Distance traveled by and aircraft measured with

respect to the ground.
• Range depends on aircraft and engine efficiency. The latter is
defined by specific fuel consumption.
• For turbojet or turbofan SFC is defined as:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚ሶ
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = =
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑇
In level cruising flight:
W
T=
L
D
Range (Cont’d)
The mass of fuel used per unit distance:
T W 𝑚ሶ 𝑇 1 𝑚𝑡 𝑚
SFC = SFC = 𝑚ሶ = =
V L V
D ( ) 𝑇𝑉 𝑥/𝑡 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥
As the aircraft travels a distance dRa its mass changes from m to

m+dm where:
SFC ´W
dm = - dRa
(L / D)V
The mass of fuel used per unit distance:

Range (Cont’d)
Putting W=mg, the total cruise range is:

(L / D)V
dRa = - dm
SFC ´W
m2
(L / D)V
Ra = - ò
Integral
dm
m1 SFC ´ mg
m1 : mass of the aircraft at the beginning of the cruise.

m2 : mass of the aircraft at the end of the cruise.
The integral can be solve numerically by dividing the mass of fuel
(m2 – m1) in equal parts and finding the range for each part.
Values are assumed constant through the segment and
calculated based on the conditions at the middle of the segment.
Range (Cont’d)
If L/D, V, and SFC are assumed constant, then:
V (L / D) m1
Ra = ln Breguet range equation
gSFC m2
CL
Aerodynamic efficiency Maximize
CD
Lowest fuel
SFC consumption per unit of Minimize
thrust
m1 Structural m1 m f + m2 m f
= = +1 Maximize
m2 efficiency m2 m2 m2
Range (Cont’d)
Breguet equation
Flying with Flying at Weight

constant Lift constant speed decreases
Density has to decrease to keep L = W
Altitude has to increase constantly during cruise

Range (Cont’d)
Cruise at constant altitude and velocity
m2
(L / D)V V 2
(L / D)
Ra = - ò dm Ra = - ò dm
m1 SFC ´ mg SFC 1 mg
Integrating:
2 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉 𝑚𝑓 Τ𝑚1 𝐿Τ𝐷 1

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑆𝐹𝐶 × 𝑔 2 𝐿Τ𝐷 1 − 𝐾𝐶𝐿1 𝐿Τ𝐷 𝑚𝑓 Τ𝑚1
𝑚𝑎𝑥 1
Convenient from the operational point of view

Range (Cont’d)
Cruise at constant altitude and lift coefficient
m2
(L / D)V L D 2
V
Ra = - ò dm Ra = - ò dm
m1 SFC ´ mg SFC 1 mg
Integrating:
2 𝐿/𝐷 𝑉1 𝑊2
𝑅𝑎 = 1−
𝑆𝐹𝐶 × 𝑔 𝑊1
Velocity decreases during cruise

Range (Cont’d)
Maximum cruise range - Turbofans

m2
(L / D)V
Ra = - ò dm
m1 SFC ´ mg
• Maximum range is obtained when (L/D) and V are kept at

their maximum values, and SFC and m are minimized:
CL 2W C1L 2 2W
(L D)V = =
CD r SCL CD rS
• The product (L/D) V is maximum when the aircraft flies at its
maximum CL1 2 CD
Range (Cont’d)
Maximum cruise range – Turbofans (Cont’d)

• Therefore:
m2
CL1 2 2W
Ra = - ò
1
dm
m1 SFC ´ mg CD rS
• Assuming SFC, r, S and CL1 2 CD are constant:
( mg)
m2 12
1 C 12
ò
2
Ra = - L
dm
SFC CD r S m1 mg
CL1 2
( 1 )
2 2
Ra = - m1/2 - m1/2
SFC ´ g1/2 CD rS
2
Range (Cont’d)
Maximum cruise range – Propeller

• Cruise speed for propeller driven airplanes is limited by Mach
number (M=0.6 for conventional props and M=0.8 for most
advanced props)
• Fuel consumption for a propeller driven airplane is given by:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚ሶ
𝑆𝐹𝐶𝑝 = =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
• For turboprops:
T jV
Pe = Ps + Power produced by
h pr the exhaust gases
• hpr and SFC are assumed to be independent of speed for any

altitude.
Range (Cont’d)
Maximum cruise range – Propeller (Cont’d)
h pr P
PA = h pr P TAV = h pr P TA =
V
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 𝑉 SFC prV
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑓 SFC =
𝑇 𝑃𝜂𝑝𝑟 h pr
• Breguet equation can be expressed as:
V (L / D) m1 h pr (L D) m1
Ra = ln Ra = ln
gSFC m2 gSFC pr m2
Range (Cont’d)
Maximum cruise range – Propeller (Cont’d)
h pr (L D) m1
Ra = ln
gSFC pr m2
To maximize the range of a propeller driven airplane:

• It must fly at maximum (L/D).
• It must have a high-efficiency propeller.
• Low specific fuel consumption.
• Highest maximum-to-empty weight.
Endurance
Endurance: Amount of time that an airplane can stay in the air
with one load of fuel.
dm
• For at turbo jet/turbofan propelled airplane: = -SFC ´ T
dt
𝑚ሶ 𝑓 𝑑𝑚 dm
𝑆𝐹𝐶 = − = 𝑆𝐹𝐶 × 𝑇 dt = -
𝑇 𝑑𝑡 SFC ´ T
• For steady and level flight (T=D, L=W ):
dm L 1 1 L 1
t =-ò
m2
dt = - dm
SFC D W m1
SFC D W
• If SFC and L/D are assumed to be constant:
1 L m1
E= ln
SFC ´ g D m2
Endurance (Cont’d)
1 L m1
E= ln
SFC ´ g D m2
Maximum endurance for a turbojet-propelled airplane is obtained

when:
• It flies at maximum L/D.
• It has low SFC
• For propeller-driven airplane:

h pr L 1
t =-ò
m2
dm
m1
SFC prV D W
2 æW ö 1
• Substituting V by ç ÷
r è S ø CL
h pr CL S r CL 1
t =-ò
m2
dm
m1
SFC pr 2W CD mg
h pr S r CL3/2 1
t = - òm
m2
dm
1 SFC pr 2g CD m g 3/2
• Assuming hpr , SFCpr, r, and CL3/2 CD to be constant:
h pr 2Sr CL3/2 -1/2

E=
SFC pr g CD
3 ( m2 - m1
-1/2
)
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane is obtained

when:
It flies at maximum CL CD
3/2
•
• The propeller has the highest possible efficiency
• It has low specific fuel consumption.
• It cruises at sea level.
Range and Endurance
Example 2:
An F-86 aircraft has the following characteristics:
Calculate:
a. The range at constant velocity starting at 25,000ft
b. The final altitude at the end of the range.
Drag Divergence
• The drag divergence can be approximated by a straight line.
• If the particular drag curve for the airplane and the divergence
Mach number are not known, it is possible to use the
information available for a similar airplane. In this case:
1. Approximate the divergence

region by a straight line.
1
2. Take the slope of the line and
normalize it dividing the slope
by the drag corresponding to
the divergence drag.
d(DD ) 1 D2 - D1 1 2
. =
dM D1R M 2 - M1 D1R
Drag Divergence (Cont’d)
3. Compute the slope of the line for the divergence region for
the airplane that is being solved by multiplying the value
computed in 2 by the divergence drag.
d(DD ) 1
. D1
dM D1R
4. Find the equation of the line.
dD
D = DD + ( M - M Div )
dM
Turning Flight

http://homepage.ntlworld.com/rez.manzoori/fakes/shoot.jpg Faculty of Engineering
TURNING FLIGHT
For level turn:
Assume:
• No tangential accelerations.
• Coordinated flight (zero sideslip
angle)
• Thrust angle equals zero.
From the figure above:
W = L cos f
j
TURNING FLIGHT
L
• Load factor is defined as: n=
W
• The load factor is important for performance and structural
design of the aircraft.
L L 1
n= = n=
W L cos f cos f
• From the figure:
W 2
L sin f = w R
g
W æV ö
2
L sin f = ç ÷ R
g èRø
W V2
L sin f =
g R
TURNING FLIGHT
Important performance parameters for turning flight:

R: Turn radius.
dj
w: Turn rate w=
dt
W W V2
L sin f = w 2 R or L sin f =
g g R
To decrease the turn radius:
• Fr must increase
• Fr increase by increasing Lsinf
• To increase Lsinf, L must increase; however f must
increase to keep the vertical component of L equal to W.
TURNING FLIGHT
• Solving for R:
W V2 W V2 V2 1
L sin f = R= =
g R L gsin f gnsin f
• From the geometry identity sin 2 f + cos2 f =1
æ1ö
2
sin f + ç ÷ = 1
2
ènø
æ1ö æ1ö
2 2
sin f = 1- ç ÷ = ç ÷ éë( n) -1ùû =

1 2 2
n -1
2
ènø ènø n
• Substituting 2 in 1:
V2 For minimum R, V must be minimum

R=
g n 2 -1 and n must be maximum
TURNING FLIGHT
• Solving for w:
V V
w= w=
R V2
g n 2 -1
w=
g n2 −1 For maximize w, n must be
V maximum and V must be minimum
TURNING FLIGHT
Constraints on n:
L
n=
W
• To increase n, L must increase.
• If L increases, the drag due to lift increases as well,
and therefore the required thrust:
T = D = 0.5rV 2 S (CDo + kCL2 ) 3
2nW
L = nW = 0.5rV 2 SnCL CL = 4
rV 2 S
• Substituting 4 in 3:
If TR is higher than TA, then the
é æ 2nW ö
2ù
level turn cannot be sustained
T = 0.5rV 2 S êCDo + k ç 2 ÷ ú
êë è rV S ø úû at given velocity and bank
angle.
TURNING FLIGHT
Constraints on n (Cont’d):
• Solve for n:
2 TW
- CDo
rV S W
2
2 rV 2 S W
n2 = CDo = CDo
æW ö æ 2 ö
2
rV 2 S W
2 2
kç ÷ ç 2 ÷
è S ø è rV ø
é 0.5rV 2 æ T öù
1/2
2 CDo
n =ê ç - 0.5rV ÷ú
êë K (W S ) è W W S øúû
• Maximum value of n occurs when (T/W) is maximum:
é 0.5rV 2 ææ T ö öù
1/2
2 CDo
nmax = ê çç ÷ - 0.5rV ÷ú
êë K (W S ) è W max
è ø W S øúû
TURNING FLIGHT
Maximum load factor versus velocity
2.5
( nmax )max
2
1.5
nmax
0.5
0
50 150 250 350 450
Velocity [m/s]
Vstall
TURNING FLIGHT
From the definition of load factor:
L æ L öæ T ö æ L öæ T ö æLö æT ö
n = = ç ÷ç ÷ nmax = ç ÷ç ÷
è D øè W ømax
( nmax )max = çè ÷ø çè ÷ø
W è D øè W ø D max W max
• When nmax is constrained by CLmax, its value can be found by:
L 1 S
n= = 0.5rV 2 SCL = 0.5rV 2 CL
W W W
0.5rV 2CL max 1
( nmax )C = cos fmax =
nmax
L max
W S
Maximum load factor and bank angle for maximum CL

at a given velocity
TURNING FLIGHT
Constraints on V :
Recall:
g n −1
2 V2
w= R=
V g n 2 -1
V must be as small as possible to minimize R and maximize w:
L = nW = 0.5rV 2 SnCL
2nW
V=
r SCL
For a bank situation,

2 W  n VStall is larger than for a
Vstall =  
 S  C L max level flight.
TURNING FLIGHT
Minimum Turn Radius
The condition for minimum (and maximum) turn radius is:
dR
=0
dV
R depends on nmax and V, but nmax is a function of V, therefore:
V2 q 2q
R= = =
g n 2 -1 0.5r g n 2 -1 r g n 2 -1
Taking the derivative:
( é
) ù
2 r gh n -1 - 2qr g ê0.5 ( n -1) ( 2n)ú dn
2 2 1/2
dR ë û dq
= =0
dq r g ( n -1)
2 2 2
TURNING FLIGHT
Minimum Turn Radius (Cont’d)
Simplifying:
dn
n 2 -1- qn =0 5
dq
Recall:
é 0.5rV 2 æ T öù
1/2
2 CDo
n =ê ç - 0.5rV ÷ú 6
To find an expression for dn/dq, take the derivative of n with
respect to q: 1/2
dn d é q æT CDo öù
= ê ç -q ÷ú
dq dq êë K (W S ) è W W S øúû
dn 1 æ T 2qCDo ö
n = ç - ÷ 7
dq 2K (W S ) è W W S ø
TURNING FLIGHT
Substituting 6 and 7 in 5:
dn q æT CDo ö q æ T 2qCDo ö
n -1- qn =
2
ç -q ÷ -1- ç - ÷=0
dq K (W S ) è W W Sø 2K (W S ) è W W S ø
6 7
Solving for q:
2K æ W ö 4K W
q= ç ÷ or VR min =
T èSø r (T W ) S
W
Velocity for minimum turn radius at constant

altitude and coordinated turn
TURNING FLIGHT
The load factor corresponding to this velocity is:
é 0.5rV 2 æ T ù
1/2
2 CDo
ö
n =ê ç - 0.5rV ÷ú
é ù
1/2
4K W
ê 0.5 r æT ú
ê r (T W ) S 4K W CDo öú
n =
2
çç - 0.5r ÷÷
ê K (W S ) èW r (T W ) S W S øú
êë úû
VR2min VR2min
Load factor for minimum turn æ 2KC ö

radius at constant altitude and nR min = 2 çç1- Do ÷
2÷
coordinated turn. è ( T W ) ø
TURNING FLIGHT
Therefore, the minimum turn radius is:
4K W VR2min
VR2min r (T W ) S
Rmin = Rmin =
g n 2
R min -1 æ 2KC ö
g 2 çç1- Do ÷
2÷
-1
è (T W ) ø
nR2 min
Minimum turn radius at 4K (W S )

Rmin =
constant altitude and 4KCDo
r g (T W ) 1-
coordinated turn. ( T W )
2
TURNING FLIGHT
Maximum Turn Rate:
The condition for maximum turn rate is:
dw
=0
dV
Therefore:
dw d æç g n 2 -1 ö÷
= ç ÷ =0
dV dV è V ø
−1 Τ 2 2𝑛𝑑𝑛ൗ 1Τ2
𝑑𝜔 0.5𝑔 𝑛2 −1 𝑑𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑔 𝑛 2−1
= =0
𝑑𝑉 𝑉2
dn n 2 -1
n - =0 8
dV V
TURNING FLIGHT
Maximum Turn Rate (Cont’d):
Recall:
0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝑇 2
𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑛= − 0.5𝜌𝑉 6
𝐾 𝑊 Τ𝑆 𝑊 𝑊 Τ𝑆
To find an expression for dn/dV in 8, take the derivative of n with

respect to V:
dn 2 dn 0.5rV 2 æ T 2 CDo
ö 0.5rV 2 æ CDo ö
= 2n = ç - 0.5rV ÷- ç rV ÷
dV dV K (W S ) è W W S ø K (W S ) è W S ø
dn rV æ T 2 CDo
ö
n = ç - rV ÷ 9
dV 2K (W S ) è W W Sø
TURNING FLIGHT
Substituting 6 and 9 in 8:
rV æT 2 CDo
ö 1 é 0.5rV 2 æ T 2 CDo
öù 1
0= ç - rV ÷- 2 ê ç - 0.5rV ÷ú + 2
2K (W S ) è W W S ø V êë K (W S ) è W W S øúû V
9 6
Solving for V:
éæ öæ öæ 1/2 ù
1/2
W 2 K ö
Vw max = êç ÷ç ÷ç ÷ ú
êëè S øè r øè CDo ø úû
Velocity for maximum turn rate at constant altitude

and coordinated turn.
TURNING FLIGHT
The load factor corresponding to this velocity is:
é 0.5rV 2 æ T ù
1/2
2 CDo
ö
n =ê ç - 0.5rV ÷ú
é ù
1/2
æ W ö æ 2 öæ K ö
1/2
ê 0.5r ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷ æ öú
æ W öæ 2 öæ K ö CDo ÷ú
1/2
ê è S øè r øè CDo ø ç T
n =ê - 0.5r ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷
K (W S ) ç W è S ø è r ø è C ø W S ÷ú
ê è Do øú
êë úû
Vwmax
2
Vwmax
2
Load factor for maximum turn éæ öæ ù

1/2
ö
1/2
T 1
rate at constant altitude and nw max = êç ÷ç ÷ -1ú
coordinated turn. êëè W øè KCDo ø úû
TURNING FLIGHT
Therefore, maximum turn rate is: Vw2max
éæ öæ ù
1/2
ö
1/2
êç ÷çT 1
÷ -1-1ú
g ( nwmax -1) êëè W øè KCDo ø úû
2 1/2
w max = w max =
Vwmax éæ öæ öæ ö
1/2 ù1/2
W
êç ÷ç ÷ç 2 K
÷ ú
Vw2max
Maximum turn rate at é r ææ T ö 1 æ C ö1/2 öù

1/2
constant altitude and w max = g ê ççç ÷ - ç Do ÷ ÷÷ú

coordinated turn. êë W S èè W ø 2K è K ø øúû
TURNING FLIGHT
Minimum Turn Radius
Summary
4K W Velocity for minimum turn radius at

VR min = constant altitude and coordinated
r (T W ) S
turn
æ 2KC ö Load factor for minimum turn

nR min = 2 çç1- Do ÷
2÷ radius at constant altitude and
è ( T W ) ø coordinated turn.
4K (W S ) Minimum turn radius at

Rmin =
4KCDo constant altitude and
r g (T W ) 1-
( ) coordinated turn.
2
T W
TURNING FLIGHT
Maximum Turn Rate
Summary
éæ öæ öæ ö ù
1/2
W 2 K
1/2
Velocity for maximum turn
Vw max = êç ÷ç ÷ç ÷ ú rate at constant altitude
and coordinated turn.
éæ öæ ù Load factor for maximum turn

1/2
ö
1/2
T 1
nw max = êç ÷ç ÷ -1ú rate at constant altitude and
êëè W øè KCDo ø úû coordinated turn.
é r ææ T ö 1 æ C ö1/2 öù Maximum turn rate at

1/2
w max = g ê ççç ÷ - ç Do ÷ ÷÷ú constant altitude and

êë W S èè W ø 2K è K ø øúû coordinated turn.

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Prof. Jaime Alberto Escobar G.

CAS = TAS at SL P  P(T , h)

CAS corrected for True speed of the

EAS is based on SL Use for

Weighing of the Proper loading of the

The maintaining of the weight

• Cuts down the efficiency of an aircraft.

The designers set the maximum weight, based on

The structural strength of the aircraft also limits the

Set the maximum center of gravity (CG) deviation.

• The pilot knows the maximum allowable weight of the

Excessive weight reduces the efficiency of an aircraft

When operating from a high altitude airport, POH or

All seats are occupied

All baggage allowed carried

All of the fuel tanks are full

Some of the problems caused by overloading an aircraft

• Both the rate and angle of climb will be reduced.

• The service ceiling will be lowered.

• Maneuverability will be decreased.

• A longer landing roll will be required because the

• Excessive loads will be imposed on the structure,

DWE + Fixed interior equipment (both standard and optional)

MZFW Includes the aircraft and everything that will be carried on

MLW Maximum weight approved for the landing touchdown.

MRW Maximum weight approved for ground maneuver.

• Loading the aircraft so the gross weight is less than

Changes of fixed equipment may have a major effect

Longitudinal stability is maintained by ensuring the CG

If the CG is too far forward:

• The downward tail load will have to be increased to

At slow takeoff speeds, the elevator might not produce

Lateral imbalance causes wing heaviness, which may

Fuel in the tanks of a

The term arm, usually measured in inches, refers to the

Weight is normally measured in pounds. When weight is

A moment is a force that tries to cause rotation, and is

Positive moments about the CG cause an airplane to

The manufacturer establishes the maximum weight and

Some manufacturers specify this range as measured in

2. Multiply each arm by its weight in pounds to

3. Determine the total of all weights and of all the

4. Divide the total moment by the total weight to

CD = 0.015 + 0.08 * (0.712) 2

( T R ) min = 0 . 0693 * 73000

( T R ) min = 5058 lbs

d CL CD  CDo  KCL2  CL (2 KCL )

0 = CDo  KCL2  2 KCL2 CDo = KCL2

Prof. Jaime Alberto Escobar G.

Power is obtained by multiplying thrust by velocity.

Calculate the power required at the minimum thrust required by the

PR  300.847 * 59.139 PR  300.847 * 68.806

Power is obtained by multiplying thrust by velocity.

Find the minimum Power Required and the velocity at which it

From previous calculations. 3

PR min  17587.281W

PR min  23.57hp

Thrust Available has almost to do with the power plant

Airframe-Engine aerodynamic interaction could be underestimated.

Propeller-Driven Aircraft – Specific Fuel Consumption

Propeller-Driven Aircraft (Piston engines)

• Oldest power-plant type used in aviation.

Propeller-Driven Aircraft (Piston engines) (Cont’d)