Thousands of deaths, terrorism,

ISIS, Uyghurs kept in camps by the

Chinese Government. In the era of
mass media manipulation, presence
of this issue is now constant in the
news, not only concerning a clash in
the understanding of freedom and
security for people all over the
World, but even more…

THE
XINJIANG
CONFLICT
Politics, Identity and
Language

Íñigo A. de Román
-2-
INDEX

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... - 5 -

ACTORS IN THE CONFLICT ....................................................................................... - 6 -

HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT ..................................................................................... - 8 -

THEORIES AND ACTORS’ BEHAVIOUR.................................................................. - 11 -

CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND REFLECTION ....................................................... - 13 -

RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................... - 15 -

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. - 16 -

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... - 18 -

-3-
-4-
INTRODUCTION

The Xinjiang current conflict is located in the western region of China and involves
political instability, human right violations, the global fight against terrorism (and specifically
comparing China and NATO), religion conflicts, racism, and the fact that Xinjiang a key
territory for the development of the new silk route, which affects all the globe and can make a
colossal impact in the Chinese economic development in the next few years.
There are two completely different versions of the current situation. The Western media
and activists state that there are at least 2 million Uyghurs (a Muslim minority ethnic group) in
more than 350 hidden internment camps where they are controlled, forced to work and to adopt
Chinese customs. (Graham-Harrison, 2020)
China’s central government firstly denied their existence, but later officially admitted
having built “education centres” affirming that they are forming and helping guilty citizens to
re-enter Chinese society.
Back in 2001, more than 20 Uyghurs were jailed in the US for having links with Al-
Qaeda in the Twin Towers terrorist attack. They had been trained in Afghanistan by ISIS. The
western media hardly punished this minority then. Now the position of America and media has
changed dramatically defending Human Rights and questioning China’s practices.
Recently, a serious violent outburst took place in Xinjiang.
These terrorist attacks add up to more than a thousand of deaths. Some of them are the
1992 Ürümqi bombings, the 1997 Ürümqi bus bombings, the 2010 Aksu bombing, the 2011
Hotan attack, 2011 Kashgar attacks, the 2014 Ürümqi attack, and the 2014 Kunming attack.
(World Uyghur Congress. Retrieved 27 May 2020).

This is a conflict at a regional level, affecting mostly Xinjiang, at national level, with
terrorist attacks in China, but also at international level, linking Uyghurs with terrorist attacks
in other counties and involving a soft power confrontation between the East and the West,
which not only entails violations of human rights and terrorism, but also has an underlying
battle carried out by the media between this two parts, trying to convince the rest of the World
to believe their version, and demonize the other.

Globalization plays an important role because it transformed the spatial scale of human
organization liking distant communities and expanding the reach or power relations across
regions and continents, thus allowing this soft power battle to be carried out through the internet.
Media is using social networks and bots to modify and create a consensus in the popular opinion.
(Baylis et al. 2017)

The structure of this conflict follows a bipolar scheme, with China and its government on
one side and the Uyghurs and the West as a third party on the other.

Presenting the conflict in sense 1 and 2, a situation where the interests of China, the Uygur
group and the West clash.
In sense 1 the involvement of Human Rights violations and different political system,
showcasing the differences between communist totalitarian country and western democracy
systems and ideologies makes inconsistencies between the actors wants.
In sense 2, Uyghurs try to use terrorist attacks (coercion) to pursue their goals, China
represses them with police and reeducation camps (coercion and persuasion) and the West and
China use media to their favour (persuasion). (Ripoll, 2020)

-5-
ACTORS IN THE CONFLICT

Following this criterion of analysis (Mansbach, 1976) and overviewing the principal
actors in the conflict the following division is made:
Firstly, as the “State” category, and “intra-sate” subgroup and government power of the
region, there is the People’s Republic of China. It is one of the oldest cultures in the world,
having its first pre-imperial dynasty c 2070BCE, its first imperial dynast in the year 221 BCE.
The Republic of China was established in the 1st of January 1912 and the proclamation of the
People’s Republic on the 20th of September 1954, lastly, its current constitution was passed on
the 4th of December 1982. (Ben Westcott, 2019)

It uses resources like Xinjiang UAR Public Security Department, and SWAT/police tactical
units from other provinces, People's Armed Police Xinjiang UAR Corps, mobile corps, and
special police units, Xinjiang re-education camps (2014–present), Xinjiang civil
servants (Civil Servant-Family Pair Up), People's Armed Police, People's Liberation Army and
Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps. (Dwyer, 2005).
China is the most populated country in the World, with a population of 1.4 billion. It covers
more than 9.6 million square kilometres, being the third largest country by area.

From 2010 to present, China has become the second-largest economy in the world
(US$13.5 trillion) (Kollewe, 14 February 2011). The country is a recognized nuclear weapons
state and has the world's largest standing army, the People's Liberation Army, and the second-
largest defence budget (Perlo-Freeman, 2014)

Also, in this group, the USA and Europe participating in a soft-power fight with its
media like CNN and BBC News as third parties.

Then, there is the non-central subgroup, which is formed by the Xingjian Uyghur
Autonomous region and its cities, like Ürümqi, Hotan…
In addition, in the Non-State category and there is an intrastate actor which is the Turkistan
Islamic Party, and it is supported by the following interstate Muslim terrorist groups: Al-Qaeda,
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, Islamic Jihad Union and Hizb ut-
Tahrir.
Finally, the most relevant individuals are Xi Jinping, who is the General Secretary and
its party secretary, Chen Quanguo. On the other side, we have Abdul Haq and Abdullah
Mansour. (Chaudhuri, 2013)

The protagonists in this conflict are the Uyghurs minority, the Muslim extremists (along
with ISIS) and finally China and its central government.
To begin with, Uyghurs come from the Central Asian region. They speak Turkic and they
inhabit the western part of china known as the Xinjiang region. They are part of the 10
persecuted Muslim minorities of China. Uyghurs self-identify culturally close to the peoples
of central Asia (such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan). Uygurs currently are
counted in c. 13.5 million spreaded mainly in China Kazakhstan and Turkey.
They have links with Muslim extremists in Afghanistan, where more than 2000
Uyghurs went to fight along ISIS. (Sudworth, 2018)
The Han ethnic group is dominant in China, and its number has been growing in
Xinjiang since it was annexed.

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 China’s politics constated of forcing Chinese values and political stability over this
region, by increasing police presence and the creating of “education centres”. They even
implemented an obligatory-to-install app to monitor their internet data and files.
There is a hard control over the Chinese media by the government, thus the Chinese
popular opinion of the conflict is biased, but economic interest of the West also makes their
media biased towards their interests. (Sudworth, 2018)

Both China and the West (North America and Europe) are also using soft power, attracting
people, and making them identify with values, though education, institutions, speeches, media
and social networks.

In this conflict, Western countries are Good States, having control of their territory,
high GDP and HDI, good security, political and civil freedom, liberties, economic freedom,
good rule of law and infrastructures and an overall harmony in society (with some
exceptions).

Meanwhile, China would be in between a good state and a Weak state, because although
it controls its territory and its GDP and HDI are increasing, and its infrastructures are
experiencing a boom in construction, security for the people is not entirely provided, nor
political rights and civil rights because of its political system. (Rotberg, 2003)

Stressing the interest and positions of the actors, regarding the conflict in sense 1 (Ripoll,
2020), it takes place mostly in the Xinjiang region, and in main conflicting cities like
Ürümqi, but also the conflict carried out in newspapers, in TV and online is of vital
importance.

Also, studying the asymmetries of the main actors of the conflict, two divisions are
made. The first one refers to the nature of the relationship, it is clear they fit in a State vs.
Group relationship, where the Chinese Government tries to supress the acts and identity of
the (sometimes rebel) groups of Uyghurs. The second one regards size and resources, which
clearly classifies China into the big, rich and military powerful branch and the Uyghurs on
the small, poor and military powerless branch.

Moreover, as it is still an ongoing conflict, there has not been a final outcome yet, but
so far China has achieved a terrorism reduction and Uyghurs lost several amount of
freedom, so it would be siding towards a classic no win-win situations, where the power
structure remains unchanged (Uyghurs keep being poor and repressed and China keeps
being powerful). (Baser, 2019)

-7-
HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT

China’s far-western Xinjiang region, officially known as the Xingjian Uyghur Autonomous
region has more than 40 percent of its current population belonging to the Uighur ethnic group.
The Communist Party of China has governed all over Xingjian since the year 1949, when it
was annexed.

Xinjiang is deemed to be under a tough control by China. In the beginning, it had a majority
of Uyghurs, but migration processes have led to a 40% Han and 45% Uyghur distribution.
(Dwyer, 2005)
Since then, it is said by observers that the government has been gradually eroding the
Uyghur’s religious, commercial, and cultural activities by introducing restrictive policies.
The migratory processes have made Han ethnic group more present in the region; as a
consequence, the Uyghur group is now the minority in some cities like Urumqi although they
still remain the principal ethnicity in region (Xinjiang).
The Central Chinese Government has made huge progress by heavily investing in
industry and energy projects there, but Uyghurs blame the government of giving those new
positions exclusively to the Hans.
The Uyghurs felt resented and frustrated with this situation and it broke out in violence
several times. In one of the most devastating attacks, almost 200 citizens were killed in the
summer of 2009 in Urumqi. Bursts of violence have taken the lives of many others in other
parts of Xinjiang. (Chaudhuri, 2013)
Unrest in the streets is pinned to separatists by the central government. Several other
incidents elsewhere in the country have also been claimed on them, who allegedly have ties al-
Qaeda and other extremist groups.
In August 2017, All Xinjiang residents received orders to download a mobile app that
is believed to search in people’s phones sensible data such as fingerprints and other files in
order to inform authorities.
Satellite observation has proven the existence camps which are thought to be work and
re-education camps all over the Uyghur region.
In early 2018 Chinese officials stated that the ratio of trained jihadist fighters attempting
to get inside the country rose 10 times a year. This is why Xinjiang has been put under virtual
lockdown by the Chinese government. (Sudworth, China's hidden camps, 2018)
It is said that more than 7300 police monitoring stations have been set up. The
government has forbidden new babies to have Muslim names and authorities have retrieved
the passports of the majority Uyghurs.
It is estimated that 1 to 2 million Uyghurs are being sent to those camps. There they are
supposedly subjected Chinese identity propaganda. (Sudworth, Inside China's 'thought
transformation' camps., 2019)
Meanwhile, China is denying having carried out any policy about arbitrary detentions.
The government states that people at those “vocational centres” have committed minor offenses
so a necessary process of teaching and constructing skills that is being carried out on them. The
official objective would be to reinsert them into society. It is hard to measure the intrusion of
China on Xinjiang because of the high restriction of information, although there are official
Chinese communicates affirming that “all measures taken are to fight extremists, ensure
stability, and protect the whole country”. (Sudworth, China's hidden camps, 2018)

The conflict would have a high interaction between actors, with moderate intensity. The
cooperation so far is not very relevant. Its genesis came from having incompatible interest and
hostile attitudes, highlighting the use of force (by police corps and terrorist attacks)

-8-
The conflict in Sense 1, clearly shows several inconsistencies in the claims of China, the
Uyghurs and the West. There is a political, human and ideological conflict, involving ideals
and religion practice disagreements.

Furthermore, the privation of freedom of the Uyghurs violates Human Rights, linking the
ideological dissension between the political systems of both parts of the World.
Uyghurs demand freedom of speech, language, thinking and movement, and more autonomy
on their region, and China wants to prevent terrorism and to control its people. The west is
interested in weakening its economic competitor and protecting the Human rights.

The sources of the conflict would clearly be at the State level, because of Social, identity,
political, racial, ideological and religious reasons.

On the other hand, in Sense 2, displays the process of resolving those inconsistencies in the
claims by the different entities. Both Coercion and Persuasion methods are used in this conflict.
The Uyghurs coercion method involves terrorist attacks and violent protests, and on the other
hand, China’s response includes privation of movement, speech and exhaustive control of
Uyghurs lives.
China is also using persuasion inside its territory, through newspaper and TV news reports,
persuading the rest of the population to back up and justify their acts. They are even using
education, for that matter. The Uyghurs themselves are forced to enroll in this reeducation
programmes in order to make them think like the Chinese government wants.
Media persuasion is used too, but this time by both China and the West, as described before.
(Ripoll, 2020)

The location of the conflict explains the importance of geography, and its geopolitics, being in
a spot in the world where China has absolute control and its difficult for the West to physically
intervene. Also is the border zone that divides the Muslim countries and the rest of Asia, which
explains why this conflict involves these aspects.

The main elements of this conflict would be the incompatibility of goals between China,
the Uyghurs and the west. There is a contradiction.

Firstly, China wants to remain a secular state, but Uyghurs want to spread and impose their
religion and culture in the province. Then there is the armed conflict with terrorism that
threatens China’s security.

Secondly, the West wants the world to see China as a freedom-restrictive country and
weaken its position globally, and China wants the opposite, to be stronger and make a good
impression on the other countries.

The attitude of Chinese population evokes feelings, emotive and cognitive beliefs of unity
and conative will elements, feeling that the West is lying in the media and they feel threatened
by the attacks, meanwhile the Uyghurs feel trapped by the Chinese Government. The west, on
the other hand sees China as a freedom-stealer of its people and wants the world to think so

Finally, the behaviour towards those misconceptions are described just above in the
paragraph reoffering to the conflict in sense 2, using persuasion and coercion. (Li, 2005)

-9-
 It all came from a peaceful social coexistence in the 10th century when Uyghurs arrived the
region, but progressively developed into a conflict because of language, religion, identity and
culture reasons and then it grew into violent confrontations as shown since 20th century until
now. Instead of a Negotiation approach, China is trying to use force and education to solve the
problem, but so far, the conflict is untransformed and there is no real peaceful social
coexistence.

For a broader view of the genesis, and development events, see Chronological Line at
Appendix (1 to 7)

- 10 -
THEORIES AND ACTORS’ BEHAVIOUR

Analysing how actors behave its natural to take a Realist approach. China, Uyghurs and the
Western countries acted selfishly.

To begin with, China’s government orders imply the violation of Human Rights of part of
its population using force, police corps and political strategies to win power and manage the
region as they want, which is an attitude that showcases how China fight for its own wellbeing.
With doing so, it achieves 2 main objectives of theirs, more control and power over the region
and its people and increase the security of the zone.
China takes advantage of millions of innocent Uyghurs that got their passport confiscated and
suffered from a loss of freedom. Furthermore, it tries not to be taken advantage of by the
terrorists, so China is responding to the attacks seriously. It also tries to avoid having its world
public opinion deteriorated by fighting back in social media and news.

The Uyghurs also fight for their own wellbeing, celebrating religious festivals in public
spaces (which is forbidden in all the country), and the most relevant showcase of his is the use
of force killing thousands of Chinese people, taking advantage of the civilians to gain political
power.

Also, the Western countries are clearly taking their shots though News reports and Media.
They are using their influence and power on the news and social networks to make the world
see china as oppressive and weakening state which represses its own people against their basic
rights.

These parameters establish a conflictual relationship between them, which ultimately is

being carried out by terrorism and “education” camps. Having an anarchical international
system where armed groups from other countries like ISIS aids the Uyghurs, and no real action
is taken by the international community. There is not a consensus over the situation, thus no
“World Government” can judge what is happening accurately, partially because of media
manipulation.

A dual moral standard applies clearly on the acts of the West. They publicly positioned
against Uyghurs when the 9/11 terrorist attack happened. Now it actively supports Uyghurs
stating China is violating their rights. They act this way because economic and political
interests that override real moral and human values. One reason for this is that China now is
their principal competitor in economic and military terms, so both of them are using soft power
to weaken their counterpart.

Another thing to highlight would be that there are no real international obligations, the west
countries are physically doing nothing to aid the Uyghurs but to criticize China on social media
and News meanwhile they spy them with drones and satellites. (Sudworth, China's hidden
camps, 2018)

A possible agreement would have to be supervised, otherwise it would not be real because
both parts would violate its terms. The Chinese government can abuse their population as much
as they desire, and Uyghurs can make terrorist attacks.
And, more importantly, other states cannot be trusted to supervise this hypothetical agreement,
because if they had enough power to influence this actor, they would be subordinated to either

- 11 -
China or the West, and Uyghurs cannot count on rebel groups like ISIS either because of their
organization type.

Another clear aspect of Realism is that China is trying to protect national interest by
whatever means, violating human rights and using soft power internationally. China is pushing
its own agenda, and political interests to accumulate more power.

China used two techniques to change the behaviour of Uyghurs. Firstly, they used coercion,
establishing laws and educations camps, and using police to force Uyghurs to fit into the
Chinese scheme, otherwise all their freedoms would be removed.

Secondly, they utilized attraction, legitimizing their acts in the news and though the re-
education camps to the Uyghurs, establishing themselves as moral authority. They did not use
Incentives whatsoever.

Moreover, China used hard power and violence in of several types. Firstly, they kill by shot
those terrorists that are attacking Chinese people, but sometimes they even killed suspicious
Uyghurs.

Also, they used structural violence, because they focused on this ethnic group, which is way
poorer than the average Chinese person, and belongs to a different ethnic group, practices
Islam…

Finally, cultural violence, with justification motives is used too. The government makes
Chinese population have a certain set of values and practices which defines the meaning of
society. They control literature, art, education, entertainment… If values are universal between
the rest of the population are likely to produce soft power. They are worsening the public
Chinese opinion about Uyghurs. Transmitted by commerce, contacts, studding, visits,
exchanges though China… (Morgenthau, 1985)

- 12 -
CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND REFLECTION

The position of the actors in the conflict in sense 1 tends to a behaviour trying to solve it in
sense 2, chich makes it complex. So far is not solved yet, but it is on its way to become a
classical non-win-win resolution.

First of all, the attitude of China, is criticisable. It has more than enough power and
resources to fight against this situation without restricting people’s rights and freedom and
forcing them to enter those camps. Its totality attitude is questionable and signifies a lack of
morality over human life. The state over everything else. It is not responding to international
opinion whatsoever and using SWAT/police corps to supress the possible incidents.

The intensity and frequency of terrorist attacks has only increased with the passing of
years and new measures are required.

But the terrorist attacks and deaths by the Uyghurs have no justification either, the lives of
innocent people should never be compromised. There are other ways to change the situation,
creative ideas to resolve conflicts by creating value, not though bombs and assassinations.

About the Third parties involvement, Western countries’ acts are those of a hypocrite, using
a dual moral standard. The USA and other Western countries have acted selfishly, not truly
defending Human Rights but their own interests. Positioning against Uyghurs until China
became a real relevant counterpart for their economic, political and military power. Now they
actively support Uyghurs. They act this way because economic and political interests that
override real moral and human values. They are trying to change the communication dynamics
and favour the power-structure of the last 50 years where the USA was a big hegemonic
superpower with tools as NATO. A questionable aspect of their behavior is that they only
gathered information about China and talked negatively about it in News and medial but did
virtually nothing to improve the violation of Uyghurs’ Human Rights situation they are
supposedly complaining about.
That is consequent with the fact that they do not really care about those lives, but about
china Being weaker, thus helping them retaining power.

Their attitude is both distant, over the other part of the world, and with constant attention
and flow of news about the conflict and how bad China is handling it.

Making a position an interest/needs analysis its certain that:

China claims that they are only protecting their country, fighting terrorism and establishing
educational programmes to conflictive Uyghur individuals and their interest behind that is that
they want to seriously control the population and establish its ideology and political view over
the region.

The Uyghurs claim more freedom, and especially religious, because they want to practice
it publicly and spread it though the region. Also, they don’t want to be marginated and they
want their language and culture to be respected. They want so because of their legacy, where
they came and their religion and ideological beliefs, linked to Turkic culture and Islam as
opposed to east Asian culture.

- 13 -
 Finally, the Western countries claim that China stops violating human rights and they want
so because their interest is to demonize China to the public opinion. To weaken its position and
international power and to push for their political agenda, meanwhile reaffirming themselves
as democratic peacekeepers and preserving their image. They are not really contributing to a
solution of the problem they are complaining about if they do not intervene actively.

- 14 -
RECOMMENDATIONS

Finally, this section is going to be based on the critics using transformers of conflict to
promote future cooperation between actors and try to create a win-win creative solution.

The first possible transforming element of conflict would be a context transformation,

which will imply at a regional level a change in policies that allowed Uyghurs to have more
freedom, modifying the Chinese law system. Xinjiang would enjoy more autonomous
independence, thus pacifying protests and terrorist attacks.

Then, there is a possibility for a structural transformation where a change in power structure
is made, questioning goals and relationships of the actors, and not their position but their
interests behind them. Uyghurs insistence with attacks would be severely reduced if they
stopped spreading their religion and practicing in public spaces. If they changed their behaviour
and reserved religion for the private scene, the situation will be smoother.

There is also an actor of transformation, abandoning cherished goals like exhaustive control
of population by China or the spread of the religion by Uyghurs would be key to create the path
for solving the issue.

An interesting resource is issue transformation, at a conflict party level where they focus
on interest and not position, reframing the issues. This should be applied to western countries,
if they complain about the violation of Human Rights, they should introduce a system for aiding
Uyghurs, or if what they really want is to weaken China, they should be consequent with that
they say and stablish political and economic policies to actively do so.

These measures, by themselves and combined are going to contribute to promote future
cooperation and they are oriented into the future to create a better society, while softening the
appearance of terrorist attacks and boosting the quality of life of people in Xinjiang.

- 15 -
REFERENCES

1. Dwyer, A: (2005) The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and
Political Discourse. Washington, D.C: Policy Studie, East-West Center Washington
2. Chaudhuri, D (2013) China and its Peripheries: Beijing, Xinjiang & Han-Uyghur
Schism. New Delhi: IPCS
3. Evans, A (2012) China cracks down on Ramadan in Xinjiang, Foreign Policy.
4. BBC (2014) Why is there tension between China and the Uighurs?
5. De Pedro, N (2008) El conflicto de Xinjiang: la minoría Uigur y la política de Pekín.
Madrid: UNISCI Discussion Papers
6. Maizland, L (2020) China’s Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang. CFR.
7. Castets, R (2019) What’s Really Happening to Uighurs in Xinjiang? France: The Nation
8. Sudworth, J (2018) China's hidden camps. United Kingdom, BBC News
9. Graham-Harrison (2020) China has built 380 internment camps in Xinjiang, study finds.
United Kingdom: The Guardian.
10. Sudworth, J (2019) Inside China's 'thought transformation' camps. United Kingdom:
BBC News
11. Baylis, J., Smith, S. and Owens, P. (2017). Globalization and global politics. In The
globalization of world politics: an introduction to international relations.

12. Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power and American foreign policy. Political science
quarterly, 119(2), 255-270.

13. Kollewe, Justin McCurry Julia (14 February 2011). "China overtakes Japan as world's
second-largest economy". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 July 2019.

14. Perlo-Freeman, Sam (March 2014). "Mar. 2014: Deciphering China's latest defence
budget figures". SIPRI.

15. Rotberg, R. I. (2003). Failed states, collapsed states, weak states: Causes and indicators.
In State failure and state weakness in a time of terror. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
World Peace Foundation, pp 1-25.

16. Ben Westcott; Lily Lee (30 September 2019). "They were born at the start of
Communist China. 70 years later, their country is unrecognizable". CNN.

17. National Bureau of Statistics of China. Retrieved 14 July 2020.

18. Xu S, Huang W, Qian J, Jin L (April 2008). "Analysis of genomic admixture in Uyghur
and its implication in mapping strategy". American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (4):
883–94.

19. Ripoll, Guillem (2020): Lecture Session 9, Conflict Anatomy and Geopolitics, Spain,
1st Economics Leadership and Governance, University of Navarre.

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20. Baser, B., & Ozerdem, A. (2019). Conflict Transformation and Asymmetric Conflicts:
A Critique of the Failed Turkish-Kurdish Peace Process. Terrorism and Political
Violence, 1-22.

21. Xinjiang to intensify crackdown on separatists". China Daily News. 25 October

2001. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2016.

22. Li, Q. (2005). Does democracy promote or reduce transnational terrorist

incidents? Journal of Conflict resolution, 49(2), 278-297.

23. Morgenthau, H. J. (1985). Politics among nations: the struggle for power and peace,
6th Edition. New York, NY: Knopf, pp. 3-17

- 17 -
APPENDICES

Before 1900 10th century: 1687-1757: 1862-1877: 1884:

(genesis)
EVENTS Uygurs arrive Westward Muslim Region was
from Central expansion rebellions due to recaptured and
Asia makes Chinese taxes in that established as
rule over the zone official
territory of province
current Xinjiang
(Quing dynasty)

(1) genesis

1900-
1950
EVENTS 1928: 1930: Jin 1934: 1937: 1944: III 1949:
assassination Shuren Conquered rebellions rebellion and China
of Yang (Chinese by warlord and the independence recaptured
Zengxin warlord) Sheng first time as the second it helped by
(governor of took Shicai, the term East Tuestan Soviet
Kumul control aided by Uyghur Republic Union and
Khanate – east over the Soviet was used. Peoples
Xinjiang) region Union Liberation
Army

(2) Genesis

- 18 -
1950-1990 1950- 1950-1970: 1970-1980: 1980-1989: 1990:
1960:

EVENTS 200.000 mass state- Soviet Union ethnic riots Baren

Uyghurs orchestrated helps and protests Township Riot
fled to the migration into Revolutionary was a turning
USSR Xinjiang of Han Front of East point
because the Chinese. Turkestan to fight
Great Leap Chinese.
Forward

(3) Genesis

1990- 1996: 1992: 1997: 1997: 1998-2006:

2007
Events Chinas Strike Ürümqi 30 suspected Beijing Xidan Quieted situation,
Hard Bombing, by separatists were district bus but ethnic tensions
campaign Islamic executed, bombing, Uyghur remained
against crime, Reformist characterized as separatist claimed
thousands of Party rioters by Chinese responsibility
Uyghur media and
arrests peaceful by
Western media.
(China daily
News, 2001
report)

(4) Since the urning point of 1990, Development

- 19 -
2007-2011 2007: 2009: 2009: 2010: 2011 2011:
Events police Terrorist Ürümqi Aksu Hotan failed
raided a attack in riots +20 terrorist terrorist attempt to
terrorist Shaoguan deaths bombing attack, +18 hijack an
training +370 deaths deaths aircraft, and
camp a series of
knife and
bomb
attacks in
Pishan
(5) Development
2011- 2012: 2013: 2014: 2014: 2014: April, 2014, 2014: July:
2014 March: May:
Events Terrorist Tianmen 11 knife terrorists’ 2 suicide 40 deaths by
attack in Square killings attacks in shootout with car gang armed
Yecheng, vehicle in Kunming Vietnamese bombings, with knives in
18 deaths terrorist January Railway border wars, 50 deaths Sache, and 50
attack station, and 16 and 90 attackers shot
+30 deaths stabbed injured in dead by
and 150 citizens Ürümqi police, 2 days
injuries. later China’s
300 arrests largest
mosque imam
was
assassinated
(6) Development

- 20 -
2014- 2014: 2014: 2014: 2015: 2016: 2017: 2018
2020 September, October November
EVENTS Bomb blasts in 4 Uyghurs kill Sache Terrorist Kirgizstan 3 knife Terrorist
Xinhua killing 24 in County knife Chinese attackers fighters form
50 supermarket in attack, 15 attack in embassy killed 5 Jihad trying
Xinjian dead coal mine struck by people and to enter china
killing 50 suicide were shot rose 10 times
workers bombing by dead by in a year.
Uyghurs police

(7) Development (no final yet)

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 (8) Peace of Westphalia (1648):

WESTPHALIAN PRINCIPLES POST-WESTPHALIAN ORDER

Complex webs of multilateral and transnational

Humans organize in political territorial decision-making: global governance complex
communities with fixed borders like states
Non-state actors have thus gained relative
Within its order the state has political and influence: NGOs, transnational networks,
legal authority advocacy networks and citizen networks are
increasingly able to exercise power across
Self-determination and self-governance. national boundaries.

Borders separate the domestic sphere from Embryonic transnational civil society.
the world
Lack of formal accountability, resource
inequalities and diversity are possible risk
elements in such a diverse system

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