MRS 417 Christianity in Africa 2-24-21

NationsUniversity®
MRS 417
Christianity in Africa
Major forms of Christianity on the African continent
An historical and analytical survey of the history of Christianity in Africa, including missionary endeavor
and the indigenous form of Christianity that arose in Africa following the Colonial Period. The course is
organized in three modules: (1) Christianity in North Africa, (2) Christianity in Sub-Sahara Africa, and (3)
The Contemporary Scene. 3 semester hours of graduate credit.
• Examine the spread of Christianity in Africa
• Identify significant personalities in African church history
• Recognize the character of African Christianity
Credit. Credit for the course requires a score of 70 percent or greater on three multiple-choice
examinations and two essays. Each graded element is valued at 20 percent of the final grade. A sample
exam problem is given below.
Sensing a desire to make Christianity more compatible with African culture, the churches formerly under
Colonial rule (A) met in conference in Nigeria to decide the best methodology, (B) organized themselves
into national churches, (C) were led into evangelism by two apostles, (D) reacted to Colonialism by
incorporating features from Traditional Religion.
Resources
E-books are available without cost to the student.
Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student will be able to
1. Relate the history of Christianity in Africa (exams).
2. Compare present and past forms of Christianity in Africa (essay).
3. Describe the state of African Christianity (essay).
MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 1

Expectations
Following is what you may expect in terms of academic engagement and preparation.
Academic Engagement
Engagement with over 60 Internet articles (15 hours)

Individualized interaction with student advisor and other academic personnel (2 hours)
Discussion Forum
Watching videos (5 hours)
Examinations (3 hours)
Using the course syllabus as a guide to reading and study (20 hours)
Sub-total—45 hours
Preparation
Reading the textbooks (38 hours)

Studying for module exams (6 hours)
Essay 1 (23 hours)
Essay 2 (23 hours)
Sub-total—90 hours
Grand total—135 hours
A Word of Introduction
Here we are at the beginning of a new course. If you live in Africa, you may be saying, “I know all about
Christianity in Africa.” If you reside outside Africa, you may have several feelings about the study. You
may say, “I do not know anything about Christianity in Africa. I do not know where to begin.” Either way,
we beg of you to take off your masks and approach the subject with excitement and the curiosity of a
child when given a new toy.
The story of Christianity in Africa is exciting. It is hardly duplicated elsewhere, although many familiar
elements may be present. The first several centuries in North Africa proved important to the development
of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. The colonial period of European conquests parallels to
some extent what happened in the Americas following the Catholic nations’ conquests. One might also
find parallels elsewhere to the emergence of new quasi-Christian groups following political independence.
However, the African story is unique.
Perhaps the important question has yet to be raised. That is, why bother with studying Christianity in
Africa? That is a question we hope to answer indirectly as we proceed with the course. It is not for the
information alone but for the insights the study will give us—sort of a second opinion on our own story. If
we can see ourselves in the African story, perhaps we can become more alert to trends, causes, and
effects in the ongoing history of Christianity. It is our own faith that is at stake—not just that of someone
else. Passing the course will not make you a brilliant expert; it does promise to help you make valid
assessments for whatever your role in African Christianity may be.
Procedure
1. The syllabus has three modules. Review each module to see the layout of the course.
2. Begin by watching the videos in the Video Library.

3. Prior to beginning each module, read the books in the Electronic Collection that pertain to that module.
4. Work through the syllabus beginning with Module 1. Study the syllabus and directed Internet readings
carefully.
5. You are urged to participate in the Discussion Forum by posting original thoughts and by responding
to those posted by other students.
6. As you come to the end of Module 1, you should review the material in preparation for a multiple-
choice examination.
7. When you are ready for the exam over Module 1, you may open it from the Course Menu.
8. Once you have completed the exam over Module 1, move on to the other modules and repeat the
process. Credit for the course will require you to work through all three modules and score a minimum 70
percent on each exam.
9. Develop in a Word document a 2,000-word assessment of the state of Christianity in Africa. See
instructions at the end of Module 3. Upload the document from the Course Menu, under Module 3.
10. Research and write a 2,000-word essay as directed under the heading Essay 2 at the end of Module
3.
11. Finally, please complete the Course Evaluation, which you may find under the Course Summary on
the Course Menu.
Electronic Collection
The entries in this section represent textbook-type reading in the sense that they provide basic
information about African Christianity. But they are more than textbooks in design. They are thought-
provoking in that they offer analysis. The key points at which the books are to be read are indicated
below. You will do well to take notes. As you consider the authors' assessments and projections, make
your own judgments based on convincing evidence. Read a minimum of 950 pages.
Prior to working through Module 1, read
Burns, J. Patout and Robin M. Jensen. Christianity in Roman Africa: The Development of Its
Practices and Beliefs. Eerdmans, 2014.
Decret, François. Early Christianity in North Africa. Trans. by Edward Smither. Casemate Publishers
and Book Distributors, 2011.
Rebillard, Éric. Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200-450 CE
Cornell University Press, 2012
Galgalo, Joseph H. African Christianity: The Stranger Within. Zapf Chancery Publishers
Africa Ltd., 2012.

Galgalo, Joseph H. and Grant LeMarquant. Theological Education in Contemporary Africa.

Zapf Chancery Publishers Africa, 2004
Oden, Thomas C. The Rebirth of African Orthodoxy: Return to Foundations. Abingdon Press, 2016.
Things to Know
1. The factors that led to missions in Africa--deliberate and planned efforts at different stages of African
history
2. How Christianity spread in Africa--where and when concerted efforts took place; the results of those
efforts
3. Significant personalities in African church history--early North African, European, and native African
4. Reasons for the development of indigenous forms of Christianity in Africa--colonial policies,

independency
5. The character of African Christianity--early and enduring Catholic and Orthodox, Protestant, African
Initiated, Pentecostal
6. Challenges faced by the church in Africa--inculturation, liberation, Islam, Traditional Religion
7. How well African Christianity in its various forms compares/contrasts with ideas set forth in the New
Testament--in terms of structure, theology, ritual, and spirituality
Video Library
The following videos are supplemental to those included within the body of the syllabus. They are
provide to give additional insight into Christianity in Africa.
"African Village Church Worship"

"Christianity in Africa" 24 minutes
"Eternal Sacred Order of Cheribim and Seraphim Enugu Province (2011)"
"Global Christianity: Africa" by Douglas Jacobsen. 29 minutes
"Two Thousand Years in African Christian History" by Andrew Walls. 38 minutes
Extended Resources
Prices are approximate and reflect December 2020 Amazon prime rate for paperback editions
where available.
Anderson, Allan. African Reformation: African Initiated Christianity in the 20th Century. Africa World
Press, 2002. 300 pages. $29.95pb ISBN: 978-0865438842
Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena. Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity: Interpretations from an African

Context. A vol. of Regnum Studies in Global Christianity. Wipf & Stock, 2013. 183 pages.
ISBN: 978-1620328989

Bediako, Kwame. Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion. Orbis Books, 1995.
276 pages. $24.49pb ISBN: 978-1570750489
________. Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience. Orbis Books, 2004. 124 pages.
$16.99pb ISBN: 978-1570755422
Clarke, Clifton R. African Christology: Jesus in Post-Missionary African Christianity. Wipf & Stock Pub.,
2011. 204 pages. ISBN: 978-1608994335
Decret, François. Early Christianity in North Africa. Trans. by Edward Smither. James Clark and Co., Ltd.,
2017. 240 pages. 27.98pb ISBN: 978-0227173565
Elphick, Richard and Rodney Davenport. Christianity in South Africa: A Biblical, Social, and Cultural
History. University of California Press, 1998. 512 pages. ISBN: 978-0520209400
Ezigbo, Victor I. Re-imaging African Christologies. Pickwick Publications, 2010. 183 pages.
ISBN: 978-1606088227
Galgalo, Joseph H. African Christianity: The Stranger Within. Zapf Chancery Publishers, 2012.
132 pages. $26 ISBN: 978-9966150691
Galgalo and LeMarguant, Theological Education in Contemporary Africa. Zapf Chancery Publishers,
2004. 264 pages. ISBN: 978-9966974266
Hastings, Adrian. African Catholicism: Essays in Discovery. Canterbury Press, 2012. 224 pages.
ISBN: 978-0334000198
________. The Church in Africa: 1450-1950. Oxford University Press, 1996. 720 pages. $194.33pb
ISBN: 978-0198263999
________. A History of African Christianity 1950-1975. Cambridge University Press, 1979. 352 pages.
$47.99pb ISBN: 978-0521293976
Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of Christianity in Africa: From Antiquity to the Present. William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1995. 432 pages. $26.96pb ISBN: 978-0802808431
Kaegi, Walter E. Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa. Cambridge University Press,
2015. $29.99pb ISBN: 978-0521196772
Kalu, Ogbu U., ed. African Christianity: An African Story. Africa World Press, Inc., 2007. 524 pages.
$39.95pb ISBN: 978-1592215812
________. African Pentecostalism: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2008. 376 pages. $24.98pb
Kimambo, Isaria N. East Africa Expressions of Christianity. A vol. of Eastern African Studies, ed. by
Thomas Spear. James Currey, 1999. 352 pages. $32.95pb
Magesa, Laurenti. Anatomy of Inculturation: Transforming the Church in Africa. Orbis Books, 2004.
286 pages. $9.82pb ISBN: 978-1570755293
Mana, Kä. Christians and Churches in Africa: Salvation in Christ and Building a New Africa Society. A vol.
of Theology in Africa. Orbis Books, 2004. 108 pages. ISBN: 978-1570755446

McCauley, John F. The Logic of Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Africa. Cambridge University Press,
2017. 248 pages. $34.99pb ISBN 978-1316626801
Oden, The Rebirth of African Orthodoxy: Return to Foundations. Abingdon Press, 2016. 176 pages.
$24.99pb ISBN: 978-150181994
Parratt, John. Reinventing Christianity: African Theology Today. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,
1995. 228 pages. $22.50pb ISBN: 978-0802841131
Rasmussen, Ane Marie Bak. Modern African Spirituality: The Independent Holy Spirit Churches in East
Africa. I. B. Tauris, 1996. 208 pages. $99.95hb ISBN: 978-1860640018
Rebillard, Éric. Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200-450 C.E. Cornell
University Press, 2012. 144 pages. $22.95pb ISBN: 978-0801465994
Roy, Kevin. The Story of the Church in South Africa. Langham Global Library, 2017. 250 pages. $23.99pb
ISBN: 978-1783682485
Sanneh, Lamin. West African Christianity: The Religious Impact. Orbis Books, 1983. 286 pages.
$26.45pb ISBN: 978-088344703
Shaw, Mark and Wanjiru M. Gitau. The Kingdom of God in Africa: A History of African Christianity.
Langham Global Library, 2020. 384 pages. $28.57pb ISBN: 978-1783688111
Sindima, Harvey J. Drums of Redemption: An Introduction to African Christianity. Praeger Publishers,

1999. 232 pages. $82.42pb ISBN: 978-0275965839
Stinton, Diane B. Jesus of Africa: Voices of Contemporary African Christology. A vol. of Faith and Culture
Series. Orbis Books, 2004. 303 pages. ISBN: 978-1570755378
Sundkler, Bengt and Christopher Steed. A History of the Church in Africa. Cambridge University Press,
2000. 1252 pages. ISBN: 978-0521583428
Wariboko, Nimi and Adeshina Afolayan (eds.). African Pentecostalism and World Christianity. A vol. of
African Christian Studies. Pickwick Publications, 2020. 322 pages. $33.06pb
ISBN: 978-1725266353
Wilhite, David E. Ancient African Christianity: An Introduction to a Unique Context and Tradition.
Routledge, 2017 436 pages. $47.75pb ISBN: 978-0415643771
Copyright Policy
NationsUniversity®, as a non-profit educational institution, is entitled by law to use materials protected by
the U.S. Copyright Act for online education. Any use of those materials outside this environment may
violate the law.
Identity Fraud Policy

Committing identity fraud is considered particularly serious and could have legal as well as institutional
implications. Any student who has another individual impersonate him/her or in any other way commit
identity fraud in any course, assignment, exam, or academic exercise will be permanently suspended
from NationsUniversity®.

Academic Integrity
Academic dishonesty, including plagiarism that might not be limited to the submission of someone’s
paper, buying papers from the internet, asking someone to write a paper for you, or submitting a paper
that you presented in another class is unlawful in the United States and unacceptable in a Christian
university.
Christianity in Africa
Historical circumstances played a significant role in defining Christian faith and practice in Africa. So
much so that, today, Christianity in Africa has more faces than on any other continent.
The early force of the Christian faith had close ties with both the 1st century church and developing
Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Sub-Sahara Africa was so isolated that Christians did not
make a known appearance there (except in the northeastern part of the continent) until European
exploration and colonization. Hence, the link with primitive forms of Christianity was known in the north
but not in the heart of Africa.
African Christianity is today an anomaly of sorts. In the northeast, the remnants of ancient Christianity
may be found in diminished quantities. In the Sub-Sahara, Western (European and American) and
Africanized manifestations of the Christian faith exist side by side. The gospel is preached by foreigners
and natives, but the most effective evangelism is now coming from Africans themselves.
A student of history will be interested in the significant events across two millennia, for it is from these
events that a factual base for analyzing Christianity in Africa is derived. The imprint of influential people,
early theological controversies, the consequence of the Arab-Muslim conquest, colonization by the
Europeans, and the emergence of African independence have all played a role in the story.
A student of missions will investigate and critique the message preached, as well as the means. Many
questions beg to be addressed. Among these are three basic ones. (1) To what extent should "1st
century" forms and practices be promulgated and encouraged? (2) Is the native indigenous movement
sufficiently orthodox to accept it uncritically as a faithful implementation of biblical Christianity? (3) What
expectations should the non-African have when engaging in missions in Africa?
The theologian has yet another task. In North Africa, the theological positions held by early believers
survived the centuries and persist to the present. The Coptic Church in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church retain their age-old traditions. But the forms of Christianity that exist presently in Northern Africa
reflect a very different image--whether Orthodox, Catholic, or Protestant--than in sub-Sahara Africa. The
theologian analyzes these positions against those that have appeared in the modern Africanized
churches. Topics like Traditional cosmology, Liberation Theology, Pentecostal/Charismatic theology, and
The Gospel of Prosperity become subjects of keen interest for both comprehending the African Christian
scene and for evaluating African church life. The student of Christianity in Africa will, therefore, draw from
the historian, the missiologist, and the theologian when evaluating the African Christian experience.
There are several ways to review the story of Christianity in Africa. Perhaps a convenient way to think
about it is by time periods and to break the story into three easy to remember parts: (1) to 1500, (2) 1500-
1900, (3) 1900-present. The dividing lines recognize three phases: the initial effort, European intrusions,
and independence. The first traces the story of the church from its initial presence in North Africa in the
1st century to the time of European explorations in the sub-Sahara. The second is marked by missionary
activity that accompanied conquest and colonization. The third phase is the beginning of church

independence around 1900, a movement that crystallized with the organization of nation states in the
mid-20th century. Since the emergence of national, independent states, African churches have been
technically free of outside control and have inscribed their own face on Christianity.
A second way to analyze Christianity in African is by geographical regions. The divisions may look
something like this: (1) North Africa, (2) Central Africa, and (3) South Africa. Within the first region lies the
Arabic language Christian population. To the second belong the majority of black African states. The third
consists of the nation of South Africa and neighboring states.
A third way to analyze Christianity in Africa is by church type. Perhaps a manageable way would be to
make the following groupings: (1) Roman Catholic and Orthodox, (2) Western Protestant (including
Evangelicals, Pentecostals, and sects), and (3) African Initiated (Independent/Indigenous).
As appealing as each of the three above-mentioned divisions may be, we have chosen a fourth scheme.
The three modules in this course reflect a combination of the three organizing principles: (1) Christianity
in North Africa, (2) Christianity in Sub-Sahara Africa, and (3) The Contemporary Scene. Module 1 is
devoted to ancient historical development, which was limited to the North. Module 2 focuses on the later
effort to introduce the gospel to Sub-Sahara Africa that accompanied European colonization. Module 3
explores the contemporary status, with an attempt at assessment.
Video Viewing
Videos in the Video Library (under Course Menu) may be viewed at any time. For greatest utility, space
viewing to match the topics covered in the syllabus.
MODULE 1Christianity in North Africa

Beginning in North Africa makes sense for several reasons. One, it is that part of the continent that heard
the gospel first. Only after many hundreds of years did the gospel reach central and southern Africa.
Second, the form of Christianity in North Africa differs from that found elsewhere in the Sub Sahara.
Being part of the Mediterranean world and the Roman Empire guaranteed the position of the church
would be more closely identified with Europe than with Black Africa.
Christianity entered Africa during the 1st century. The book of Acts records that citizens of Egypt and
Libya were present at Pentecost and may have been among the first believers (Acts 2:10). The Ethiopian
eunuch nobleman (Acts 8:27) appears to have been the first convert from Ethiopia (perhaps Meroitic
Ethiopia, which was governed from Meroë in the modern nation of Sudan).
Tradition holds that other persons noted in the New Testament made their way to Egypt in the interest of
evangelism. Although names and dates of the earliest adventurers may be lost, we do know that through
the next centuries, the African church grew in numbers and spread along the Mediterranean coast. North
Africa churchmen became a significant influence in Christian thought across the Roman world.
Muslim conquests of the northern part of the continent and a declining Roman Empire contributed toward
a diminished Christian presence. Christianity survived in Orthodox form in Egypt and Ethiopia, but the
Catholic form virtually disappeared by the 11th century. Late European occupation enabled a modest
reestablishment of Catholic forms, along with some Protestant representation, but Muslim domination
generally prohibited proselytizing. The churches are presently populated by families with long Christian
identification, residents with European roots, and expatriates.
The module consists of three units: (1) Beginnings to Chalcedon (451), (2) Chalcedon Forward, and (3)
Modern Configuration. Through this module, you should be able to (1) list the factors that led to missions

in Africa, (2) recognize how Christianity spread in Africa, and (3) identify significant personalities in African
church history.
In your reading, concentrate on the origin and development of Christianity in North Africa, the Gnostics,
the catechetical school at Alexandria, the Arian controversy, the Monophysite position, the rise of
mariology, the spread of the church into Nubia, Aksum (or Axum), the Donatist controversy, the
interaction with political events, the fall of Roman Africa, and the Arab invasion. Become familiar with
Anthony, Arius, Athanasius, Augustine, Basilides, Clement, Cyprian, Cyril, Origen, Pantaenus, Tertullian,
and Valentine.
Prior to working through Module 1, read from the following three books in the Electronic
Collection.
Burns, J. Patout and Robin M. Jensen. Christianity in Roman Africa.

Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa.
Rebillard, Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200-450 CE
Unit 1. Beginnings to Chalcedon (451)

During the first four centuries following the resurrection of Christ, Christianity made steady progress in
North Africa. The gospel reached Northeast Africa during the 1st century, blossomed during the next
several centuries, grew static, and then began to diminish under Muslim dominance. The period under
consideration represents a fairly well unified display of Christianity, even though eventually schism
occurred between Catholic and Orthodox segments of the church relative to the nature of Christ.
What to the ordinary mind is an unsolvable issue, controversy over the nature of Jesus in North Africa led
to the division of Christianity into Chalcedonian and Monophysite camps. From Libya westward (the
Maghrib) the church adopted the Chalcedon position; Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia accepted the
Monophysite position. The conflict set the stage for the future of Christianity in the two spheres of North
Africa.
The leading schools of thought in the Christological controversy were represented by Antioch and
Alexandria. The debate focused on Christ’s divinity and his humanity. The Council of Chalcedon settled
the matter for the Western Church by declaring that Christ is true God and true man united in one person.
The contrary view that came to dominate eastern North Africa held that in Jesus was one divine nature
(monophysitism).
The early church in the Maghreb had always been Latin and dominated by the Latin minority. Native
Berber Christians, their culture, and their language were generally ignored. After the Decian persecution,
controversy broke out over leaders who had lapsed. The Donatist protesters were marginalized, as they
generally renounced Greco-Roman culture and the church's alignment with Rome. Meanwhile, priests
became greedy, lived in luxury, and exploited the poor.
The first unit is divided into three sections: (1) North African Christianity, (2) The Egyptian (Coptic)
Church, and (3) The Ethiopian Church. The reason for dividing the material in this manner acknowledges
that the continuing story of Christianity in North Africa is tied to points of interest rather than to a strict
timeline. The survey demonstrates how the story of Christianity in North Africa is segmented. It also
prepares you for a totally distinct story of the Christian movement south of the Sahara.
The unit sketches the development of the Christian faith in North Africa, identifies major personalities who
influenced that faith, names factors that shaped the Christian movement, and identifies reasons for
schism. In your reading, you should focus particularly on personalities, issues, and outcomes.

Internet Source
Map of North Africa and Ethiopia--bearing modern country names
a. North Africa. Biblical references point to an early presence of believers in North Africa with reference
to Pentecost attendees (Acts 2:10) and the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:26-40). Tradition holds that John
Mark preached in Egypt and was martyred in Alexandria. Whether the earliest preaching left a permanent
mark is undocumented.
An episode mentioned in Acts suggests that activity of Jesus and John the Baptist may have been known
in Egypt by 50 C.E. Apollos, a native of Alexandria, had been instructed accurately about Jesus, although
he knew only John's baptism (Acts 19:1-7). Whether that baptism took place in Egypt, we are unsure. At
any rate, the full gospel was not preached in Apollos' hearing until he reached Ephesus. It is safe to
conclude that the gospel was carried first to the Jews by Jewish believers. There is no record of how or
when the first Egyptian Gentiles became Christians.
There is a hint on how the gospel reached Libya. Simon of Cyrene, the man who bore the cross of Jesus
could have been the initiator. We have no record of Simon's conversion, but his sons were believers.
Mark says Simon was the father of Alexander and Rufus (Mark 15:21). Presuming this is the same man,
Rufus is known to have resided with his mother in Rome at the time of Paul's writing to the Romans. But
Jews from Libya heard Peter and the apostles preach at Pentecost and could have easily returned home
as believers. A possible further attestation to the gospel's reach into Libya is found in the mention of
Lucius from Cyrene--a prophet-teacher at Antioch (Acts 13:1). However, we are not told where Lucius
heard the gospel.
Beyond the 1st century. Christians living in Libya in the 2nd century appears to have been small in
number, but twelve were martyred at Scill in 180 for refusal to sacrifice to Roman gods under orders of
Proconsul Vigellius Saturninus. The appearance of Christianity in Tunisia and Algeria may have been
fairly early. Our acquaintance with the church in Carthage begins in the late 2nd century when Agrippinus
was the bishop. Penetration into remote areas awaited the early 3rd century.
Alexandria, Egypt became the intellectual center for African Christianity, while the desert proved the
setting for a novel form of personal spiritual development. Carthage, Hippo, Nubia, and Ethiopia also
became prominent centers for the Christian faith. The 3rd century witnessed a shift of influence from
Alexandria to Carthage, as the Carthage church became the most influential in North Africa. Carthage
became possibly the largest and most Christian city in the Roman Empire.
Challenges. During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the churches were threatened by persecution,
heretical teaching, and internal controversy. Roman authorities resisted the church's growing influence by
imposing restrictions and persecution by emperors Decius (249-251) and Valerian (253-259). Other
persecutions occurred for various reasons under Marcus Aurelius (161-181), Septimus Severus (202-203,
and under Diocletian, Galerius, and Maximian (303-312).
The church emerged from persecution facing a crisis: what to do with those who had lapsed--especially
leaders. Persecution tested Christian resolve to remain loyal to Christ, but it also led to internal strife over
leaders who lapsed and then wanted to return to their former positions of leadership in the church.
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, was once forced into hiding, while many others renounced the faith. Cyprian
engineered a middle path and kept the church united; he was beheaded in 258. In Carthage, Novatus
headed a group who supported leniency toward the lapsed and founded a church in Carthage that took
this position against Cyprian.
Half a century later, the Diocletian persecution broke out in 303 and lasted nine years. This persecution
strengthened the African church's antagonism against Rome. Bishop Donatus, who favored rebaptism for
those baptized by heretics, was condemned by the council summoned by Emperor Constantine. The
Council's action had two major results. One, one branch of the African church was brought into closer
relationship with the Roman church and government. Two, the Donatist opposition spread. This not only

became a church squabble but a political encounter that eventually involved the Roman Senate. The
issue was not resolved until the end of the 4th century. As a consequence, the church suffered not only
from Roman persecution but by schism, animosity, and division between native and the Roman
populations. The problem of the lapsed was not just a theological issue but one focused on Roman
political domination that had economic consequences as well. Constantine's tolerance policy protected
Catholic interests (the church as represented by the Roman bishop), but it worked against native African
interests. Furthermore, the approaches to church governance by the native African population, notably
the Berbers, was decentralized and resistant to the growing centralized power of the Roman Church. The
African church was more inclined to extreme, sectarian positions. Unlike Egypt, where Coptic translation
of the Scriptures proved to be a unifying force, there was no such blessing for the Berber population.
Even general lack of unity among the Berber tribes hindered a united front.
In Carthage a major issue arose over the necessity for rebaptism for those who had been baptized by
heretics. Cyprian advocated rebaptism as did a council of African bishops called by Agrippinus in 220; the
position was reaffirmed by three synods of Carthage (255-256) under Cyprian's leadership.
Theologically, North Africans tended to be Chalcedonian (holding that Christ was truly God and truly man,
with the two natures united), except in Egypt and Ethiopia, which held to the Monophysite position
(holding that Christ was of one nature, the human nature being wholly consumed in the divine, making
one personality).
Personalities. In the Maghreb (an Arabic word meaning "west" and referring to that portion of North
Africa that includes Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco), three figures stand out in early North African
Christianity during the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th centuries--Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine.
Tertullian (ca. 155-ca. 220) was born in Carthage to a pagan centurion, He became a lawyer by training
and a Christian priest by vocation. Upon becoming a Christian, Tertullian became an ascetic and
advocated high moral standards. Thus, he was attracted to the Montanist movement about 207.
Montanists practiced separation from the world as they anticipated the coming of the Holy Spirit at Mount
Pepuza--the kingdom of God.
Tertullian came to advance Latin Christianity through its vocabulary. It was he who contributed the word
"trinity" to the relationship of God, Christ, and the Holy Spirit. He also coined the phrase, "The blood of the
martyrs is the seed of the church." Tertullian labored during a period of intense persecution and argued
against re-admission of the lapsed. He waged battles on many fronts: the corruption of Roman society,
traditional religion, and the imperfections of Christian leaders.
Tertullian argued for two natures in Christ--meaning Jesus was fully human and fully divine. He wrote on
apologetics, ethics, and theology. His apologetics addressed Jews, Gnostics, the Roman State, heretics,
and Roman persecution policy. He wrote against the Marcionites, who believed the God of the Old
Testament was inferior to the God of the New Testament. He addressed topics of baptism, penitence,
resurrection, the person of Christ, chastity, fasting, dress, marriage, and public shows. He rejected
baptism by a heretic.
Cyprian (200-258), influenced by Tertullian, wrote On the Dress of Virgins, On the Lord's Prayer, On the
Vanity of Idols, and On the Advantage of Patience. He contributed to the discussion on the nature of the
church, sacraments, and the bishop. He wrote On the Unity of the Church and On the Lapsed, arising out
of the crisis produced by persecution. He also wrote On Mortality and other subjects. He wrote on the
church-state relationship, maintaining that Christianity should not sacrifice to secular powers. He
advocated episcopal church government and spoke of the Roman bishop as primary among bishops. He
advanced the notion that the church is founded on the bishops; consequently, the church's acts are
directed by bishops. But the Roman bishop had no power over other local churches. His idea was a
fraternity of bishops. Only church councils had binding authority over local churches.
A even more significant influence on the universal church was Augustine of Hippo (354-430). Augustine
became a Manichean at age 19, a Persian religion that taught about an internal struggle of good and evil,

with a spark of light in each person. Ten years later, he was pulled toward Neo-Platonism before
converting to Christ at age 32. Augustine's pre-Christian life, training, and disposition led him to have a
lasting influence on the Roman Church. Converted in Italy, Augustine returned to Africa, where he
became a monk and eventually the bishop of Hippo.
Augustine sat in the center of two controversies: Donatism and Pelagianism. Donatists held that
sacraments administered by a defector were invalid. Augustine, however, agreed that the power of a
sacrament does not rest with the character of the one presiding. Pelagius held that every human had the
possibility of living a sinless life. Augustine set forth the idea that every person inherited from Adam an
evil nature. Only the power of God's grace can enable good things. His Confessions remain a classic in
spiritual literature. He also produced The City of God that contrasted earthly cities with that of God.
Other Africans worthy of mention include Pope Victor I (189-199), the first African to write in Latin. He
established the celebration of Easter on Sunday in opposition to the Asian practice and excommunicated
Theodotus, who refused to acknowledge Jesus as divine but who received the Holy Spirit only at his
baptism.
Pope Melchiades (311-314) became pope during the Donatist controversy and denounced the Donatists.
Pope Gelasius (452-496) pronounced that the civil and sacred powers were both divine but independent.
Yet, priestly power was superior to the civil. As Peter's successor, the pope's decisions had no appeal. He
opposed withholding the cup of the Lord's supper from the laity.
Internet Source
"Early African Church," New Advent, Catholic Encyclopedia
b. Egypt. Although Acts leaves open the possibility that the gospel may have reached Egypt soon after
Pentecost about 29 C.E. with Jews who became believers in Jesus, the Coptic Church credits Mark with
planting the church in Egypt. Presumably, evangelism concentrated on the cities, especially where
diaspora Jews congregated. We have evidence that people in the rural areas who held traditional beliefs
and were isolated from Roman and Jewish influence, began to convert to Christianity about the middle of
the 3rd century. These people held to traditional religions.
The issue related to the relationship of his divine and human natures. The two natures became one,
hence represented by the term monophysite, according to the Alexandrian interpretation. In Alexandria,
respect for the virgin Mary began to be advanced. Demetrius (d. 232) claims to have been bishop, with
jurisdiction over all Egypt by the year 189. By 260 Christianity was known in the Nile Valley. The Egyptian
Church became well entrenched and survived several periods of persecution under Roman emperors. By
320 there were nearly 100 bishops in Egypt. Perhaps as many as one million adherents were known by
300.
The center of Christian activity in Egypt in the earliest days was Alexandria, the leading city. Alexandria
already had a rich history. Having been established by Alexander the Great, it was, of course, Greek in
orientation. The city was distinguished by both Jewish and Greek scholars, where philosophical reflection
prevailed. Even the biblical message was subjected to Greek philosophical thought.
Diaspora Jews were well established in Alexandria. This was the home of the Septuagint, the Greek
translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, which was initiated during the 3rd century B.C.E. When the Romans
assumed authority, the city was fully Hellenized. As Christianity took root, Greek influence affected the
study of the biblical scripture and molded the general approach to it. Reason thus became the basis for
faith.
Alexandria also became controversial and was ultimately excluded from churches in fellowship with
Rome. As went Alexandria, so went the church in Egypt and Ethiopia. The Scriptures were translated into
Coptic in the 4th century with a design to unify the Egyptian (i.e., Coptic, after the primary language of the
area) church.

In Alexandria, the gospel spread in much the same way as it did in the Roman Empire north of the
Mediterranean. It went first to the large Jewish population before being preached to Gentiles. From this
beginning, Alexandria became a significant center for all of Christianity. It was famous for learning and for
its scholars like Clement of Alexandria (ca. 200), who headed a catechetical school.
Early controversies. Given fascination with Hellenism, it was only a matter of time until Greek thought
began to be used to define theological themes. Perhaps more dangerous was the adoption of Gnostic
ideas. The earliest known Gnostic--Basilides (early 2nd century)--resided in Alexandria, but the shining
star of Alexandrian Gnosticism was Valentine, whose view of spiritual beings called aeons contradicted
the Christian worldview. The catechetical school of Alexandria was probably founded as a reaction to
Gnosticism. Its first teacher was a converted Stoic named Pantaenus. Alexandrian theologians defended
Christianity as intellectually responsible in accord with the Greco-Roman cultural world. They framed their
arguments within a Greek philosophical context.
From about 320 to about 450, the churches were occupied with controversies pertaining to the Trinity.
Arius, a presbyter in the church at Alexandria, advanced the idea that the Word is subordinate to the
Father and had a beginning. Athanasius, who later became the patriarch of Alexandria, became a strong
opponent of the idea that the Word is subordinate to the Father.
Cyril, who became the patriarch of Alexandria from 412-444 battled the Nestorians. Nestorians rejected
the description of Mary as the Mother of God and advocated the distinctiveness of the divine and human
natures of Christ.
The Nestorian controversy focused on the question of whether or not the expression "bearer of God"
should be applied to Mary. Some Antiocheans had opposed the term for a century. A controversy broke
out between Alexandria and Antioch that was not concluded until Chalcedon (451). Nestorianism, which
argued against the Alexandrians was condemned at Chalcedon.
Personalities. Pantaenus, a Stoic and a Christian, originated a catechetical school in Alexandria in 180.
His student, Clement, believed philosophy prepared the way for Christianity as truth comes from God,
whether by way of philosophy or revelation. Clement also advanced a hermeneutic that a scripture text
has no literal historical meaning but that God is heard through allegories and symbols. Every text
presents two meanings: literal and spiritual, but each text has a larger context.
Origen (ca. 185-254), a student of Clement, succeeded him as head of the catechetical school at age 18.
Origen was born in Alexandria of Egyptian parents. Teachers at the school fled persecution and students
were martyred. Origen's mother hid his clothes to keep him from volunteering for martyrdom. He became
an ascetic and eventually suffered martyrdom. His Hexapla was the first attempt at establishing an
original biblical text. He wrote against the Gnostics, but he was declared a heretic after his death. Origen
believed God exalted souls of humans before the world began. He also addressed topics like revelation,
salvation, and the nature of God. He also extended Clement's work in hermeneutics.
A unique contribution of the Egyptian church was monasticism. The Egyptian climate lent itself to isolation
and simple living. Perhaps the most notable monastic was Anthony (251-356), born near Memphis, who
sold his possessions, distributed the proceeds to the poor, and retreated to the desert. He was inspired
by Jesus' words to find perfection through dispersing his wealth. Monastic life became communal with
Pachomitus (292-348). Pachomitus was an ex-Roman solider who converted to Christ, being attracted to
monastic life by Palemon. This in turn led to organized life, monks, and leadership. He also formed a
cloister for nuns.
Arius insisted that Jesus was neither true God nor perfect human. Jesus was not pre-existent; he was
created. He was adopted by God. God and the material universe are far removed, making a relationship
with God impossible. Arius was excommunicated but persisted in his teaching. Athanasius extended
Bishop Alexander's defense of orthodoxy, claiming the Father and Son had the same substance. The
Council of Nicea (325) dealt with the dispute on the nature of Jesus.

Internet Sources
"Coptic Christianity," Christian Knowledge Base

"A History of Christianity in Egypt: The Saints"
"Clement of Alexandria: A Minority Apostolic Tradition from Egypt"
Video
"Christians in the Nile Valley," St. George and St. Joseph Coptic Orthodox Church
c. Ethiopia. Ethiopia here designates the territory south of Egypt without regard to changing national
borders, but the church in the area held close ties with Alexandria but has some distinguishing marks of
its own. In contrast to the Egyptian church, the Ethiopian church had strong Jewish roots, without the
mixture of Hellenism.
Ethiopians draw upon a tradition that the Queen of Sheba who visited King Solomon was the Queen of
Ethiopia. They also contend that the queen bore Solomon's son. Thus, the beginning of Hebrew influence
in Ethiopia began a millennium before the Ethiopian eunuch returned home as a believer in Christ. The
Jewish eunuch became a believer when he heard Philip's explanation of a text in Isaiah (Acts 8:26-39).
Whether he initiated a sustained mission effort among his fellows is unknown.
Because national boundaries have changed over time, it is difficult to describe Christianity's history
precisely in geographical terms. This is true with the biblical reference to Ethiopia in Acts 8. The "Ethiopia"
intended probably included the northern part of modern Ethiopia, but encompassed part of Sudan as well.
Some have identified it with Meroë, which became a Christian stronghold in the Upper Nile Valley.
Eventually, the Kingdom of Meroë gave way to the Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum).
The kingdom of Aksum stretched along the southern shores of the Red Sea. It served as a connecting
trade partner between the Roman Empire and India, with its capital in "Ethiopia." Eventually, the kingdom
of Aksum embraced part of modern Sudan, Djibouti, Eritrea, northern Ethiopia, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia.
The kingdom officially adopted the Christian faith about 325.
Two brothers from Tyre, Syria, Frumentius and Aedesius, are credited with gathering scattered Christians
in the kingdom and bringing a sense of organization and permanency to the church. Being foreigners,
they became captives but were enlisted to serve the king. Through their influence, the king and members
of the royal family became Christians. By now, Athanasius was patriarch of Alexandria. In recognition of
Frumentius' work, Athanasius ordained him a bishop about 350.
Frumentius spent two years in Alexandria, where he received Christian instruction. After he returned from
Alexandria, the link between church and state was strengthened, and Christianity became the official
religion of Ethiopia. Consequently, the church grew more rapidly. Frumentius was later made a saint; his
life is celebrated on October 15.
The Ethiopian Church was in line with Athanasius and the Alexandrian church, yet native Ethiopians were
barred from becoming the chief bishop. The close connection between the church in Egypt and the
church in Ethiopia caused the Ethiopian church to become alienated at the Council of Chalcedon.
Because of the stand of the Egyptians on the nature of Jesus, the Ethiopian church also became
alienated from "Catholic" Christianity, even though the Ethiopians did not formally adopt the monophysite
position until centuries later. Egyptian Christians opted for the monophysite position, meaning the divine
and human natures of Jesus were fused into one nature in Mary.
Internet Sources
"African Christianity in Ethiopia," The Metropolitan Museum of Art

"Timeline: Ethiopian Christianity," The Center for Early African Christianity
"Ethiopian Orthodox Church"

Unit 2. Chalcedon Forward
The fourth ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451 alienated the Egyptian church as it favored a
monophysite nature of Christ. The bishops of Egypt held that the divine and human natures of Jesus were
fused into one. The Chalcedon interpretation, which became standard for the Western church, advocated
that Jesus was one person, having two (divine and human) natures. The Ethiopian church eventually
became monophysite as well, following the Egyptian path.
So, from Chalcedon forward, we recognize a division in the North African church based on interpretation
of the nature of Christ, with the border between Egypt and Libya being the line of demarcation. Not only
did the line of ecclesiastical authority become clearer, but so did some beliefs and practices. From Libya
westward, the churches looked to Rome. Whereas the Egyptian (Coptic) Church may have favored
Constantinople, the Arab invasion solidified the isolated Egyptian leadership under its own pope.
The destruction of the Roman Empire. Political conditions were unfavorable for the expansion of the
church from this point forward. Barbarian invasions from northern Europe became a contributing factor in
weakening the Christian position in North Africa. The German Vandals invaded North Africa in the early
5th century. The Roman emperors and army were weak and failed in their attempt to drive the Vandals
out. Less than two decades later, Rome itself fell and the Roman Empire was no longer the protector of
peace throughout the Mediterranean world. The Byzantines attempted reconquest in 533, but they were
unsuccessful. From 640 to 670 the Arabs swept the area and claimed possession. Christian Berbers
remained Christian until they gradually converted to Islam. Only in the 19th century, when the British,
French, Italians, and Spanish conquered North Africa did Christianity receive a new opportunity to
reestablish itself.
With the defeat of the Vandals by Justinian in 533, Roman rule was re-established from Libya westward
to Gibraltar. This Byzantine reconquest of North Africa insured for the moment that Christianity would be
defined primarily by Roman standards.
The church which first existed in Africa--at Alexandria, Carthage, and Cyrenaica--was decidedly Roman
influenced. Catholicism in North Africa belonged more to the Latin-speaking people than to the Africans.
Its spread accompanied Romanization and was concentrated in the urban centers. Under Byzantine rule,
which followed Justinian's death, conversions began once more among the Berbers, who tended to
relapse into paganism. The Arian faith of the Vandals was banished and the Donatists removed. As
Christianity spread with Roman Empire expansion and stability, it likewise declined when the Empire
began to crumble. As the State began to interpose its will on the church, some of its actions were hailed
as against heretics; other action brought undesirable results.
The unit has three distinct sections. These are (a) Muslim advancement, (b) Monophysite Orthodoxy, and
(c) The Maghrib.
a. Muslim advancement. During the 7th century, a new force—Islam—arose in Arabia. Soon thereafter,
Arab Muslims began a military sweep over North Africa. Claiming to be one of the three Abrahamic
religions, the story of Islam begins with Abraham, the father of Ishmael by Hagar—Sarah’s maid. The line
is also joined by Esau, the grandson of Abraham. Muslims trace Muhammad’s genealogy from Abraham
through a line of figures leading to Muhammad's father, Abdullah. Muhammad was born around 570 C.E.
and orphaned as a young boy. His first wife, Khadija, was a wealthy widow through whom he had his first
daughter, Fatima. Fatima married Ali, the son of Abu Talib. Hence, Ali and Fatima were related. Ali was
the fourth Rightly Guided Caliph and is the recognized leader of the Shia branch of Islam.
In 610 Muhammad began reporting visionary revelations from the angel Gabriel, visions that continued
until his death. These visions became the foundation for Islam. Shortly after Muhammed's death in 632,
his followers, mainly Arabs, began conquering North Africa. The opportunity for success came with the
weakening of two once powerful empires--the Roman-Byzantine Empire and the Persian Sassarid
Empire. The two kingdoms had worn themselves out in long term warfare. The people under their rule
also grew tired of the religious conflicts and tended to see the Arab invaders as liberators. Other

contributing factors to Christian reverses included schism, Barbarian invasions from northern Europe, and
neglect of the indigenous population.
Within eight years of Muhammad's death, the Arabs overran Egypt. They swept along the Mediterranean
coast with relative ease, but they met stronger resistance in the interior. The Muslims conquered Aksum
(Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea) in the 8th century, but the core reasserted itself in the 9th century. The
area to the northwest (Sudan) became Muslim in the 13th century.
Under increasing difficulty, Christianity in Nubia (area joining Egypt on the South) resisted until it was
overwhelmed in 1276 when official rule by a Muslim king began. The Nubians persisted in pushing the
Arabs out, but the last effort ended with the of territory going to the Muslims. Sultan Baybar of Egypt
subjected Nubia as a vassal state.
Muslim efforts to wrest control of Ethiopia only strengthened the resolve of the Christians. Ethiopian
emperors successfully repelled Muslim invaders from 1270 to 1527. Church and State were unified, and
the 13th century was one of growth and facility construction.
The Christian kingdom of Makuria was conquered by the Mamelukes and a Muslim prince set on the
throne. The Kingdom of Sinnar, formed in 1523, converted to Islam early in the 17th century and
overcame the Christian kingdom occupying northern and central Sudan.
In their military pursuits, the Arabs carried with them their religion, their language, and their culture. In the
immediate wake of Muslim rule, Christians were free to practice their faith. As time progressed, however,
Muslims became more numerous and more powerful. It was only a matter of time until Christians began
to retreat to Europe, convert, or suffer persecution. The Muslim presence devastated Roman Christianity
and crippled the Coptic church. The process took hundreds of years, but Islamization was effective.
Video
"The Arab Conquests" In Our Time BBC Radio 4
b. Monophysite Orthodoxy. The "Orthodox" domain in Africa can be assigned to Egypt and the territory
southward. As a result of the decision of the Council of Chalcedon (451), the churches in this area
became alienated from the Roman Catholic family and from the Orthodox family as a whole.
Nevertheless, we are placing the Egyptian and Ethiopian churches in the general category of Orthodoxy
because they fall more in line with the Orthodox and are not aligned with Rome.
The Egyptian Church was already developing unique characteristics in language (Coptic) and national
identity. But from the 6th century on, Monophysitism prevailed as the standard Christological form,
although churches in the Nile Valley did not embrace the doctrine until later. By the 7th century, the
Coptic church achieved the status of being a national church and was found in most regions of Egypt.
Although Christianity was known in a few areas of Nubia previously, serious efforts to Christianize the
region date from the reign of the Byzantine Roman Emperor Justinian from 527 to 565. The forms were
both Monophysite and Chalcedonian, due to encouragement and support by Emperor Justinian
(Chalcedonian) and Empress Theodora, who supported the Monophysites. The Monophysite effort was
led by a priest named Julian, who was sent out by Theodosius, the Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria.
By 580 Christianity had spread into Nobatia, Mukurra, Aloa, Philae, and Abyssinia (presently the modern
state of Ethiopia). Only then did the church become highly organized. As an elder, Julian, preached the
gospel to Nubians under authorization of Empress Theodora of Constantinople. Julian's work was
augmented by that of Longius twenty years later.
In 640 Egypt fell to Arab Muslim invaders. This event brought to a close the expansion of Christianity in
North Africa, as Islam was fully entrenched by the close of the 7th century. For the next seven centuries,
Christianity was reduced mainly to a few Mediterranean seacoast cities. Churches became isolated.

Muslims left some Christian centers in place because they attracted trade from Europe. But they curtailed
Christian efforts to evangelize Muslims. Because they were trustworthy, Christians also became useful to
Muslim leaders.
The first two centuries under Muslim rule were most difficult for the Coptic Church. Under Muslim rule, the
Coptic Church was protected by law as a minority. But Christians were forced to pay taxes and wear
distinctive dress. The churches were restricted from building new facilities and monasteries.
The Ethiopian Church faced another kind of challenge when Catholic missionaries from France and Spain
entered their country. The missionaries were predominantly Jesuits who came to convert Ethiopians to
the Catholic faith. They were expelled in 1645.
Ethiopian leaders have been more concerned with contemplation and mediation than with conquering and
colonization. They tended to see themselves as divinely appointed shepherds of their people more than
autocratic civil rulers. The quest for wisdom was their journey. Kings were priests, unless they engaged in
killing.
During the Fourth Crusade, when Christian Europe attempted to free North Africa from Muslim control,
the Muslims retaliated by destroying churches and monasteries. In the 14th century, the patriarch of
Alexandria was imprisoned. In response, Ethiopia sent a large army against the Muslims in Egypt,
captured the sultan that ordered the persecution, and gained the patriarch's release.
As mission work spread southward into Nubia, close association with the Coptic (Egyptian) Church was
maintained. The Ethiopian church remained Orthodox in its teaching, while the Egyptian church was
briefly forced to accept Arian views.
In the 14th century revival led by Tekle Haimanot (d. 1312), Ethiopia became a strong center for
Christianity. Because of its unique location, in isolation from other forms of Christianity, the Ethiopian
church became both unique and distinctively African. Indigenous hymns, prayers, liturgy, and historical
documents appeared. These "histories" advanced the idea that Ethiopian kings descended from the
biblical Queen of Sheba who visited King Solomon. Traditions associated with these documents
influenced Ethiopian church liturgy. This period of renewal lasted until 1527.
In the 16th century, the Muslim Somali imam Al-Ghazi launched a holy war against Ethiopia. Assisted by
the Ottoman Turks, Albanians, and Arabs, his army devastated the country. After over a decade of war,
the Ethiopian emperor retreated in defeat. The new emperor, Dengel solicited Catholic Portuguese
assistance and ended Somali's efforts to take Ethiopia. With the exception of occasional skirmishes,
Ethiopia enjoyed two centuries of peace.
The church in Nubia resisted Islam for six centuries and survived even after conquest by Saladin in the
13th century in response to the Fourth Crusade. Later, when Dominican missionaries attempted to
evangelize the Copts, the Coptic Church resisted. When the Presbyterians sent missionaries in the 19th
century, the Copts opposed them. Gradually the Copts borrowed from the Protestants Sunday schools
and preaching.
Internet Sources
"Council of Chalcedon," Catholic Encyclopedia: New Advent

"Council of Chalcedon," New World Encyclopedia
Video
"How Is the Son of God both God and Man?"

c. The Maghrib. The Christian faith grew more slowly in the Maghrib than the Monophysite Orthodox in
Egypt and Ethiopia. Its leaders insisted on Latin rather than allow ample place for indigenous languages.
The church suffered under the Vandals but received some reprieve during the Byzantine era only to begin
decreasing after the Arabic conquest under the Umayyad Caliphate. By 700 conquest was complete.
Christianity remained in the religion from Tripolitania (western Libya) to Morocco for a considerable time,
but its influence gradually waned until its extinction. Pilgrimages to the tombs of saints at Carthage were
common in the 9th century. But during the Almohad and Almoravid rule, Christians became the object of
oppression. Christians in Tunis were pressured to convert to Islam. By the 14th century, the number of
bishoprics in North Africa had been reduced from 400 to four. Christian Berbers are known in Tunis as
late as the 15th century.
Over its history, North African churches stayed in contact with Europe and tended to reflect the same
theology and practices. At the same time, they had a strong identification with the Orthodox tradition. But
the days of expansion and influence grew weaker until the churches themselves ceased to exist.
Already weakened by the invasion of the Vandals, the churches found themselves without protection of
the Roman army. North African Christians were at the mercy of their Arab captors. There was little time or
opportunity to engage in theological discussion with their European counterparts. No outstanding
theologians arose to the occasion, no evangelistic effort is recorded in the annals of history, and little
remains to tell the story of how the Christians fared.
A major factor in the demise of Christianity in the Magrib was out-migration to escape Muslim taxes and
rule. Those who migrated to Europe were from European stock, having settled there during Roman rule.
They were not of native Berber stock, which tended to oppose Roman political or religious rule. In spite of
the out-migration, Christianity remained strong into the 10th century. Only in the 11th century did
Christians adopt Arabic as their language.
Assaults by the Muslims effectively destroyed the churches. The extinction of the church in Tunisia, the
last stronghold, followed an assault by Muslims. By the 11th century, only five bishops are known in all
the Magrib. These worked under Archbishop Thomas of Carthage. But the church disappears from sight
in the middle of the 12th century, although a few scattered Christians could be found. During this time, no
monasteries harbored scholars; no apologists offered resistance to the Muslim faith; no political leader
offered armed resistance.
When the Italians and Spanish attempted to conquer the Magrib in the 13th century, they were
unsuccessful in establishing more than a few chapels on the coastal fringes. Some of the missionaries
were martyred in Morocco; others converted to Islam. They did not penetrate the area, nor did they
reconnect with the few scattered pockets of Christians who were attached more to the Orthodox faith than
the Roman version. The remaining Berber Christians were not interested in connecting with Rome. When
they died out and the European efforts failed, Christianity disappeared--at least in open form and as far as
history tells us. When the French arrived in North Africa in the 19th century, they found no remains of the
Christian faith.
Between the 7th and 16th centuries, the church in North Africa dwindled. As the Muslims began
conquering North Africa early in the 8th century, a large portion of Algeria and Tunisia was Christian. But
the Christian influence which had been present prior to the Vandal invasion was now past history, as was
that of Roman culture. During this period, the church surrendered a larger portion of its land and
members than at any other time in history, as traditional and civilized centers of early Christianity were
overcome by Islam.
Unit 3. Modern Configuration
The modern period connects antiquity with the present in the Orthodox (here used in a general way

despite its monophysite orientation) community through an unbroken line. The Roman Catholic
community in Africa may be tied to the historical church, but not in a continuing line. Catholicism gradually
disappeared after the Muslim invasion and did not reappear until the 19th century. Protestantism
appeared alongside Catholicism after the European powers dominated the area. Therefore, modern
forms of Christianity in North Africa reflect both ancient past and recent manifestations.
For convenience sake, the manifestations may be categorized as Orthodox (Coptic and Ethiopic), Roman
Catholic, and Protestant. Orthodox and Catholic represent historical traditions that dominate eastern and
western North Africa. The Protestant category signifies those bodies that made a late appearance in all
sections and are neither Orthodox nor Catholic. Common to Christian bodies in each of the North African
countries, except Ethiopia and South Sudan, is close supervision by the Muslim governments.
The theological and ecclesiastical differences notwithstanding, church life during the present has been
altered considerably by Muslim domination. The Muslims allow Christians to continue to worship and tend
their business, but they impose taxes and restrict opportunities for jobs and housing. Gaining permits to
build facilities and to renovate places of worship are time-delayed. Opportunities for advancement are
often curtailed. They are subject to attack by either the government or radical groups, although national
governments are cautious in view of world opinion.
Obtaining accurate figures on religious representation is difficult. For example, it has been estimated that
less than 2 percent of the residents of Algeria are Christians. That breaks down to about 45,000 Roman
Catholics and 50,000 to 100,000 Protestants. Increased activity by Evangelicals reportedly has brought
pressure on the Catholic Church, although the Catholics are not known to proselytize. The dominant
character of current North African Christianity is Orthodox.
Islam is the official religion throughout North Africa, but other religious practices are tolerated. There are
strict laws against proselytism, with penalties for those churches who engage in the practice. Converts
from Islam may be watched, investigated, and face penalties as well.
The unit summarizes the modern history of the three categories of churches as they appear today in
North Africa. The emphasis will not be upon the doctrines that distinguish them but on presence and
status. Theological stances remain aligned with earlier history and are assumed to be congruent. This
makes for a major difference between churches in North Africa from those south of the Sahara. The three
sections are (a) Orthodox, (b) Roman Catholic, and (c) Protestant.
a. Orthodoxy. The millennium that separated the ancient world from the modern world was a time of
change for Christianity in Africa. While North Africa was succumbing to the spread of Islam, Christian
kingdoms in Nubia and Ethiopia reached their zenith. The Ethiopian church became unique in structure,
canon law, and problems.
The Muslim government of Egypt keeps a close eye on the Coptic Church. During the Mubarak
presidency, occasional confrontations sent a message to the Muslim Brotherhood that the Copts were
compliant. These confrontations also made a statement to Christians that big brother was watching.
The modern age for the Ethiopian Church began in 1937. Previously, the Coptic Church, to which the
Ethiopic Church was tethered, showed little interest in Ethiopian culture or language. Only in 1929 was
the first Ethiopian bishop appointed. In 1937, the year after the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, and relations
with Egypt were severed, Emperor Heile Selassie proclaimed the Church's independence from
Alexandria. Four years later, the Italians were defeated, but the emperor did not restore the tie with
Alexandria. Instead, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church became the state church of Ethiopia and was ruled
under canon law. The action brought brief excommunication by the Coptic Church.
The struggles of the Ethiopian Church became a symbol of black struggles around the globe, especially
where independent movements from European influence and control were in play. It also symbolizes the
African's culture and traditional values. For instance, modern adoption of the word "Abyssinian" in a
group's name points in this direction.

The Ethiopian Church has survived both Muslim intrusions and Catholic influence. The church has not
engaged in much evangelistic activity among Muslims or traditionalists. Neither has it sent missionaries
outside Ethiopia. It remains closely tied to the state, which traditionally has had little interest in expansion
of its territory. Today, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church remains a powerful influence in the country, but it is
challenged by Islam and other Christian bodies that have established themselves in Ethiopia.
Meanwhile, symbols that dominate the Coptic church include reverence for the monastic tradition, the
belief that the Coptic church was founded by Mark, and the visit by Joseph, Mary, and Jesus soon after
Jesus' birth. Egyptian Christians appear to have been open to interpreting some belief through ancient
religious forms and rituals, such as the idea that Mary was the bearer of God and the general respect for
Mary.
b. Roman Catholic. The Catholic Church can be found across the Maghreb in those counties that border
the Mediterranean: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. They may also be found in Egypt. The
presence of Catholicism throughout North Africa today is traceable to the period of European subjection
dating from the 19th century. French, Italian, and English colonial powers interrupted absolute Muslim
rule and paved the way for gospel proclamation. Missionaries followed in the wake of conquest and
proceeded to plant churches and convert Muslims. Following independence of the North African nations,
the emerging Muslim countries passed legislation forbidding proselytism.
Algeria. During French rule, there were more than one million Catholics in Algeria. Most European
Catholics left after independence in 1962. When it was no longer legal to convert Muslims, Bishop Pierre
Claverie or Oran promoted active dialogue and tolerance, but he was assassinated by terrorists in 1996.
During the civil conflict of the 1990s, seven monks and six nuns were also martyred. In recent times, the
Catholic Church has been charged with proselytism, which it strongly denies. The Catholic Church
appears to be rightfully innocent of the charge as the action is traceable to evangelical Christians.
The number of Catholics in Algeria at present has been estimated between 10,000 and 83,000, divided
between four dioceses: Algiers, Constantine, Laghouat, and Oran. These are generally allowed freedom
to worship.
Egypt. The modern Roman Catholic Church began during British control of Egypt. Following the 1962
Revolution many Catholics returned to Europe. There are presently seven distinct ritual Particular
Churches in Egypt. The largest is the Coptic Catholic Church under the Patriarch of Alexandria. Egypt
boasts less than 200,000 Catholics, mostly Italian and Maltese.
Libya. As a prelude to modern Catholic history, it is noted that Francis of Assisi found his way to Tripoli. A
church was established there in 1645, and a church was formed in Benghazi in 1858. When Libya
became an Italian colony prior to World War II, the Catholic population began to increase. The majority of
Catholics during this period were Italian, but these were expelled in 1969. During the 1980s and 1990s,
thousands of Christian Filipino nurses worked in Libya.
Both cathedrals have now been converted to either a mosque or other type facility. Today, the Catholic
churches of Libya serve over 80,000 internationals, with forty nuns working in health facilities. No
dioceses exist, only territorial jurisdictions. These numbers belong to the period prior to the massive
disruptions in recent years.
Morocco. The first Catholic mission to Morocco occurred in 1234 by a Franciscan named Angelo, who
became the first bishop. Since the martyrdom of Giovanni da Prado in Marrakesh in 1631, persecutions
persisted through 1859. Conversions came more easily during the colonial period when there was no law
against proselytism.
Today, there appear to be about 20,000 Catholics in Morocco. Most are European expatriates or
descendants of French and Spanish colonizers. But a significant group of Catholics have migrated from
Sub-Sahara Africa. The remainder are Arabs, Berbers, and Moors. Few converts from Islam are found

among their numbers. There are two archdioceses--Rabit and Tangier.
Tunisia. The Catholic Church undertook extensive mission work when Tunisia was a French protectorate.
After independence, ownership of many buildings and the cathedral was transferred to the State.
Presently, about 20,000 Catholics reside in the country, but only about 500 are practicing. The sole active
cathedral was built in 1897. The diocese consists of twelve churches, nine schools, two clinics, and a
monastery.
Videos
"Church Abandoned Amidst Terrorism Finally Reopens in Algeria" and other Algerian videos
"The Church in Marrakech, Morocco" and other Moroccan videos
"Saint Louis Cathedral in Carthage, Tunisia" and other Tunisian videos
c. Protestant. The presence of Protestant/Evangelical Christianity has always been marginal in most of
North Africa. There was neither a concerted effort by European Protestant nations other than Britain to
colonize North Africa nor to evangelize the area. Nevertheless, Protestants and Evangelicals are found
here and their origins date from the colonial period. Many of the newcomers are active in humanitarian
tasks and thus witness to Christ through their benevolent activity. There is also some evidence of
conversions of Muslims in recent years. But most Christians in this group are from non-Muslim stock.
As in the early church, persecution, perhaps more in the form of discriminatory policies, is a recurring
event that demonstrates Christians should expect to suffer for the name of Christ. Forces that oppose the
church inevitably bring consequences, although they elude simple explanation. Christianity will remain
under duress for the foreseeable future.
Egypt. The presence of Protestants in Egypt is traceable to the 1850s on the arrival of Presbyterian
missionaries. We hear of mission centers in Alexandria, Cairo, and Qus and the work of John Hogg. Soon
after arrival, the Presbyterians met resistance from the Coptic Orthodox Church. In 1867 Coptic Orthodox
Patriarch Demetrius II openly condemned the Protestants and attempted to banish all missionaries,
enlisting the government in his efforts. He even ordered the burning of Bibles and religious materials in
Assyut. Ultimately, the stance of former Coptic Fam Stefanos (d. 1890) and others prevailed, due to some
measure to British intervention. Thereafter, the evangelical mission took root. The Evangelical Church of
Egypt reportedly has today an estimated 250,000 adherents, but the number appears inclusive.
Other groups entering Egypt after the Presbyterians included those associated with American
Presbyterian bodies (50,000), Assemblies of God (75,000), Free Methodists (20,000), Christian Brethren
(15,000), Anglicans (12,500), Baptist, Church of God, Community, and others. Community churches
found in large urban centers are inviting to expatriates. Because of language barriers or fear, many
expatriates either meet in small groups with friends or not at all.
The Protestant bodies are represented to the Egyptian government through a president, who must
account for the activities of the churches to insure that Christians do not proselytize Muslims. The
government keeps tabs on the travels of Protestants, monitors the phones of missionaries, and expels
foreigners when they engage in evangelistic activity among Muslims. The churches are free to worship,
but they are cautious in relationships with Muslims. Those who come to Egypt for the express purpose of
evangelizing Muslims are thrown into conflict with Egyptian Christians who know the penalties they would
face if they joined the effort.
Morocco. The Anglican Church in Morocco is represented by two chaplaincies in Casablanca and
Tangiers, with small groups meeting elsewhere.
Tunisia. There may be as many as 5,000 non-Catholic Christians in Tunisia.

Video
"Protestant Churches in Egypt"
Examination
Now that you have come to the end of this module, you should review the material in preparation for a
multiple-choice examination. When you are ready for the exam, you may open it from the Course Menu.
MODULE 2 Christianity in Sub-Sahara Africa

If Christianity penetrated the sub-Sahara (the term used in this syllabus excludes Ethiopia and Sudan)
during its early centuries, it did not make a lasting impression. In central and southern Africa, the
connection with the ancient Christian past exists only through European Christianity. The gospel may
have eventually spread southward below the Sahara Desert more easily had it not been for the birth and
spread of Islam throughout northern Africa. Yet in six centuries, there appears to have been no concerted
effort to penetrate the interior of the continent. To this point and beyond, central and southern Africa
remained under the influence of Traditional Religion.
When the Europeans entered the region of the sub-Sahara, they brought with them beliefs, institutions,
and practices known on the European continent. The West Europeans became more prominent than East
Europeans. This meant that the "Catholic" presence would be Roman Catholic as opposed to Orthodox.
But a more significant presence was that of Protestants, particularly the English who favored Anglicanism.
Consequently, theologically and structurally, sub-Saharan Christianity reflects that of its roots in Western
European Protestantism and Roman Catholicism.
As Africans began moving toward the establishment of self-governing, self-supporting, and self-
propagating African churches, they refined their historic European character. The character of the
churches was destined to become distinctively African. In some cases, the European forms were simply
continued under native administration. In other cases, the Africans set out on a course of their own. They
kept basic teachings brought by the Europeans, infused their worship with rituals that were more culturally
attuned, and remained open to traditional thought.
African religion tends naturally to be influenced by a longstanding worldview that reflects the influence of
supernatural spirits. Westerners tend to view Christianity from a reasoned, Greek point of view.
Consequently, Africans and Westerners approach Christianity differently. A leading question in Christian
missions to Africans is this: Is the Western way of thinking about God tied too closely to the Greco-Roman
metaphysical concepts of divinity? While one would not question the influence of Greek thought on the
shaping of the views following the days of the 1st century C.E., one should not quickly assume that
Western representation fully mirrors New Testament images.
Robert Hood has suggested that "empowerment" and "deliverance" are basic tenants of the idea of
salvation in African culture. The concept implies rescue (salvation) from a powerless or helpless situation
to one of power, gained through purification rites and propitiation of the divinities and spirits. Generally,
there are three major situations or forces from which the African seeks salvation or deliverance: daily
hardships, evil spirits, and a lack of good relationships with ancestral spirits and divinities. In some tribes,
salvation may include the gift of children and the promise of justice. The concept of salvation among other
tribes may mean "wholeness and peace" that comes with good relations among neighbors, friends, and
God. The concept of salvation among still other tribes can mean finding solutions to difficult problems.
Furthermore, a moral understanding of salvation is more communal than individualistic.

The traditional worldview in African culture is spiritual, where spirits describe divinities. These spirits are
the tools used by the church in the West and East to dismiss Afro culture as superstitious, polytheistic,
and animistic. In modern thought, spirits have become suspect because experience and natural reason
are the means for verifying truth claims. Ancestors in Traditional Religion are a community of divine
intermediaries standing before God. Their function is to act as patrons, intercessors, benefactors,
guardians, protectors, and punishers. Since ancestors plays a pivotal role in African Traditional Religion,
it is unlikely that any proposed theological model taking cognizance of African culture would be appealing
to African Christians without giving serious attention to the ancestors.
Domination by a white minority, sometimes insensitive to the African's heritage and legacy, has led the
African to reinterpret Christianity against African social circumstances. The new religious leaders became
champions of African causes and cast themselves in roles that gave them power.
The freedom of Africans to fashion their beliefs and practices against a background of Traditional Religion
opened the possibility that it would fail to implement a pure form of Christianity. One may rightly ask, What
compatibility is there between the gospel and traditional religion? Underneath this question may be
another: To what extent has Western thought influenced Christianity? As history will attest, the task of
creating a biblically based system of beliefs and practices that is culturally relevant remains the most
difficult task in missions.
African Christianity south of the Sahara has recently come to be a formidable partner in theological
discussion. The fastest growing Christian bodies in modern Africa are the African independent or
indigenous churches. This is a significant factor given the reality that African Christianity is on the rise and
is now exporting itself when Western style Christianity is declining.
The aim of this module is to survey the history of Christianity in Sub-Sahara Africa and to identify qualities
of the indigenous movement. In doing so, you should ask, To what extent does Christianity in Africa
reflect biblical interests? And corollary to this question, you should ask, To what extent does Christianity
in Africa express an African experience? The module is divided into three units: (1) A New Era for
Christianity, (2) Background to African Church Independency, and (3) Charismatic and Prophetic
Churches.
The module pursues specific objectives. These are to (1) list the factors that led to missions in Sub-
Sahara Africa, (2) recognize how Christianity spread in Sub-Sahara Africa, (3) identify significant
personalities in Africa church history, (4) state the reasons for the development of indigenous forms of
Christianity in Africa that accompanied the rise of African independency, and (5) recognize the character
of African Christianity. These objectives will be measured by an exam.
Reading
Before proceeding, read the e-book by Galgalo, African Christianity: The Stranger Within. Access
from Electronic Collection on the Course Menu.
Unit 1. A New Era for Christianity
The social and political changes that accompanied the European arrivals in Sub-Sahara Africa signaled a
change in the story of Christianity on the continent. The visitors brought a European version of
Christianity and planted it in virgin areas. It did not seek to remake the Coptic Church or the Ethiopian
Church. Its eyes were on new territory and on the Muslim domain. Within and beyond the Muslim domain,
the target audience was steeped in animism and traditional religious practices.
The influences that shaped Christianity in Colonial Africa reflected the Western mind. In many ways,
these were extensions of the colonizing spirit. In other ways, they reflected newer issues and trends

found in the West. The Christianity that entered Africa during this period may have had roots in the Bible,
but it resembled the historic forms found in Europe, from whence the missionaries came. The shape of
that Christianity depended upon the worldview—religious and otherwise—of the colonizing power. A
significant point for Roman Catholic missions in Africa was the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494. The treaty
awarded Africa to Portugal and the rest of the world (except Brazil) to Spain.
This new era is distinguished from the former in a number of vital ways. First, the Christian message
brought by the Europeans was not that of the Orthodox, which characterized the Coptic and Ethiopian
churches. Although the initial missionaries brought a Roman Catholic perspective, a major impulse for
missions came from a variety of Protestant bodies. Second, the Roman Church was now different from
that of pre-Islamic times. Third, leadership within the churches was foreign, not entrusted to locals.
Fourth, the center of activity was now central and south Africa, not in North Africa or Ethiopia. Fifth, the
converts were totally tribal or Black Africans.
Set within the environment of world colonization by European powers, that of Africa was somewhat
unique. It was certainly different from that of Asia and of North America. In Asia, the conquerors found
large populations that could not be replaced. And efforts at evangelism met with limited success. In
North America, the majority of the native Americans were killed, died of the white man’s diseases, or
pushed onto reservations. While native Americans were targeted for evangelism by Roman Catholics,
the vast majority of North American settlers were European Christians. Although in some sections of
Africa, Europeans established strongholds, the majority of the population remained native African.
Evangelism concentrated on the natives.
The unit has three sections: (a) European colonization and missions, (b) Central Africa, and (c) Southern
Africa. Be especially alert to how evangelization was associated with exploration and colonization and
with the sponsors of missionary activity.
a. European missions
Portuguese and Roman Catholic missions. Christianity in North Africa virtually disappeared by the
11th century. As the Muslims conquered North Africa, Christian communities shrank in size and influence
due to conversion, sanctions, policies, persecution, and out-migration of Christians. Only the Ethiopian
church managed to escape the more severe consequences of Muslim conquests.
A new chapter on Christianity in Africa began with the activities of Portugal's Henry the Navigator. Prince
Henry became interested in exploring Africa for purposes of trade and knowledge. He appears to have
had some ambition for repelling the Muslims and instituting a Catholic style Christendom on African soil.
Henry probably commissioned many more explorations than he physically led, but he enters history as a
visionary for Roman Christianity in Africa. Through his energies, Portugal became the primary European
power to enter sub-Sahara Africa during the 15th and 16th centuries and is credited with introducing
Christianity to the area.
The initial stage of evangelism in Sub-Sahara Africa began in the early 1400s on Cape Verde, an island
off the West African coast. It then spread to the mainland along the Atlantic coast to Ghana, Guinea, and
eventually to Angola and elsewhere. Until the arrival of the Dutch in the 17th century, mission work in this
part of the world was sponsored by the Roman Catholic Church, under the oversight of the Portuguese.
The efforts of the Catholics to firmly plant Christianity here did not succeed. It would take a new wave of
missionary activity and renewed Catholic interest to accomplish that.
The western frontier stretched from Cape Verde to Gabon and included Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon.
Click on "Map of West Africa" below.
The European quest for Africa and a new wave of missions. A second phase in missions below the
Sahara began when the European powers decided to challenge Portugal's dominant position in Africa.
With the advance of the Dutch, English, French, Swedes, and Prussians in the 17th century came a new
form of Christianity--Protestantism. Purposed missionary efforts accompanied the explorers and

represented the practices and beliefs found in their respective countries. A third marker takes note of the
new spirit of independency among the churches with the coming of the 20th century. The last period has
proved most productive for the church. When European missions failed, it was generally due to the
missionaries who symbolized the extension of European power and who threatened the position of
traditional religion. But when the Africans took charge, the Christian movement exploded.
Colonialization. The 18th and 19th centuries proved to be the beginning of a quiet religious revolution.
Followed the devastating blow which the Enlightenment had made on Christianity in Europe, a spirit of
renewal was felt in African church bodies. The cross, the new birth, and the coming kingdom became
main themes of interest.
The sentiment of missionaries to Africa during the heyday of imperialism (1880-1920) showed several
faces. No one became a missionary with the conscious intention of furthering imperialism. But
missionaries often supported the imperial ambitions of their compatriots. Sometimes missionaries
denounced various forms of oppression and injustice.
Internet Sources
Map of West Africa

"Africa," The New Evangelization
"The Colonialization of Africa" by Ehiedu E. G. Iweriebor, Africana Age
"European Exploration of Africa," New World Encyclopedia
"David Livingstone," Encyclopedia of World Biography
"Prince Henry the Navigator," New Advent, Catholic Encyclopedia
b. Central Africa. In 1800, except among the Copts and Ethiopians, Christianity was confined to small
enclaves on the coast, in the Congo basin, and on the Zambezi River. In the Sub-Sahara, Catholic
Europe sent representatives of the Catholic faith. From Protestant nations came missionaries bearing the
interpretations and imprints of their respective nations.
The faith planted may have had a core gospel, but the organization, administration, rituals, and
confessions of faith gave Africa the same look as that found on the European continent. Hence, initially,
African tribes had little opportunity for inculturation. They were converted to European Christianity and so
were controlled by the Europeans. After failure to convert Muslims, Western missionaries shifted their
efforts to convert resident Christians to their brand of Christianity. Following is a thumbnail sketch of the
origins of Christianity in each of the major sections of the continent and the general history of
development. Ironically, while Europeans were evangelizing Africans, they were also purchasing slaves
and transporting them to the Americas.
West Africa. During the 15th-17th centuries in West Africa, Africans resisted European influences, thus
making missions almost impossible. But gradually, the breakthrough came, and conversions resulted.
African diseases had foiled many efforts to penetrate the interior. Some missionary societies employed
black missionaries from the New World to go to West Africa, because they believed blacks had greater
resistance to tropical diseases. Interestingly, the first efforts at evangelizing Sierra Leone came from ex-
slaves from England and Nova Scotia.
Before 1900, Islam in West Africa had been influenced by traditional cultures and religions. In the most
hostile environment, whether Christian or Islamic, African religion exercised a profound influence on the
behavior and perception of religious communities. Perhaps the most effective tools in evangelism have
been the development of African languages and the introduction of Western culture.
East Africa. East Africa presented many challenges for the Christian missionary. These included
perspective, colonialism, education, the mission churches, gender, revival, African initiatives, the quest for
autonomy, the prophetic churches, esoteric knowledge, syncretism, traditional religion, and
secularization.

The establishment of Christian villages often reflected the belief that Africans could not practice a
Christian life in a traditional environment. Often, for pragmatic reasons, colonial governments discouraged
multiple missions that represented different denominations in a single community. During the Colonial
period, Christianity in East Africa caused disunity rather than harmony in the village community because
the young and liberated challenged the authority of the elders.
c. Southern Africa. Christianity was planted in Southern Africa in the 19th century; it expanded and
flourished in the 20th. The Christian population is approximately 88 percent black, with the majority of
whites being in the Union of South Africa.
The story is complex. The gospel took root slowly, partially because of attachment to traditional beliefs
and partly because of European attitudes. In southern Africa, white missionaries entered the interior first.
But they left no permanent churches.
The Congregationalists were among the first to make a permanent mark through their London Missionary
Society. These were followed by the Methodists and others. Reformed churches came in the mid-19th
century, but internal tensions developed over the introduction of liberalism. Later, however, revival
brought growth to the Christian movement in the area.
Colonial policies hampered efforts to reach the natives, for missionaries depended on their financial
support. Nonetheless, attempts were made to address colonial abuses while holding to the colonial
mentality. Characteristic of the times, the form of Christianity in southern Africa reflected political and
social attachments.
Religious traditions reflected their European roots. The English brought Anglicanism and Methodist forms
of Christianity. The Dutch introduced reformed theology and spread Moravian influence. Perhaps the
greatest hurdle was the tendency to solve human crises with faith rather than traditional means.
In some ways, Southern Africa is unique. Part of that uniqueness is due to the history of its European
inhabitants. Part is attributable to apartheid policies that prevailed in the nation of South Africa until 1994.
When evaluating missions into southern Africa, one faces the contradiction between Christianity and the
desire for economic advantage and social separation. South Africa is the only nation in Africa where
Liberation Theology has had a major impact.
In summary, Christianity in Sub-Sahara Africa is paradoxical, being vibrant and growing but also being
shallow and superficial. The influence of traditional beliefs and practices permeate the dominant African
worldview. These influences include ethnic identify, fear of magic, witchcraft, polygamy, concubinage,
wife inheritance, widow cleansing, sexual taboos, female initiation, and funerals. Foreign initiated
churches and colonial patriarch leadership hang over keep these churches from looking non-African. On
the other hand, the rise of nationalism has inspired liberation movements (Galgalo, African Christianity,
pp. 5, 7, 16). This is not to say that foreign initiated churches made no contribution; it is to say they
brought baggage with their effort to plant the gospel in a land strange to their own.
Internet Source
Map of Southern Africa
Unit 2. Background to African Church Independency
By the end of the 19th century, Colonial Christianity had been well established in Africa. But that did not
mean the Africans were content with the ways the churches were administered. Religious life was under
European supervision. Naturally, this was not the way the Europeans saw it. After all, the Europeans
were professionals who had a long history of church governance. Besides, they put up the money and
sent missionaries at great personal risk. They sensed they had a right to insure the orthodoxy and

development of churches in a non-Christian culture. But, as the Europeans were to learn, their investment
would succeed only if they could pass the work off to African leadership.
Sectarian Christianity is confusing, especially when the goal is to preserve, enforce, and prevent schism.
Usually, schism is over matters foreign to a new culture. In the spirit of colonial political rule, foreign
churches maintained control over their ventures. This did not seem right to Africans who were qualified to
direct their own affairs. Missionaries were not opposed to adapting churches to culture so long as that
culture was their own. But they resisted adapting to African culture and for good reason. They attempted
to guard the African churches from superstition and other traditional beliefs and practices.
Movement toward independence was well underway before colonization ended officially with the birth of
national states in the mid-20th century. National independence provided an environment for change in
religious organization, evangelism, and expression unknown previously. Church independence was
bound to come, but as most always the case, political change preceded it. Political authorities normally
permit change or restrict it. When change comes, it is often shaped by the new political order. With
respect to African control, change from a colonial system had to come first.
Among the reasons advanced for the rise of independent Christian movements were the Protestant
practice of separatism, missionary authoritarianism, and a desire to preserve something of the African
heritage and ritual. Fundamental to the missionary action was the difference in the way Europeans and
Africans viewed the problem of evil. Thus, theological issues would play a role as well.
The unit is divided into three sections: (a) Christian missions during the Colonial period, (b) Prelude to
African church independency, and (c) Independent Christian movements. The objectives are to identify
the efforts to evangelize during the Colonial period, recognize the factors that led to church
independence, and summarize the characteristics of independent churches.
a. Christian missions during the Colonial era. During the colonial period, African politics was
dominated by European overlords. Religious activity reflected the same pattern of governance, furnishing
the funds and missionaries under the direction and policies of European mission societies.
In British West Africa, three themes played an important role in the history of this period: European
control of the churches, the race against Islam, and evangelization through schools. These same themes
were also present in the French and Portuguese sectors. However, in the latter case, the schools played
a lesser role in evangelization. And the character of Christianity was Catholic rather than Protestant.
Christianity met two ideological challenges. One challenge came from Islam and the other from
Traditional Religion. Islam had reached sub-Sahara West Africa through trade and caravan routes.
Conquest had extended Muslim influence along the East African Coast. In Ghana in the early times of
European presence, Muslims were active in the slave trade. They captured and sold members of rival
tribes to the Europeans who could not penetrate the mainland due to disease. After slave trade ended,
European missionaries entered the interior at great personal risk in an attempt to evangelize.
The most successful work was among those who subscribed to Traditional Religion. These Africans
presented the missionaries with an animistic system filled with superstition and a barrage of spirits that
detracted from the concept of one sovereign God. Another challenge was polygamy. African Traditional
Religion had been in place for millennia. Traditional religion played an important role in molding both
Islam and Christianity into syncretistic faiths. In so doing, the rivalry between the proponents of
Christianity and Islam was diminished.
By the beginning of the 20th century, national churches had been planted “in Western and Southern
Africa, and independent itinerant prophetic figures were at work in Liberia, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya,
Uganda, the Belgium Congo and virtually all of Sub-Saharan Africa.” However, in the English colonies,
Christianity had become so closely identified with English culture that it became a measure of
“civilization.” “In countries like Ghana, Nigeria, Malawi, Botswana and Kenya, . . . catechist training was

an integral part of the teacher training curriculum.” As a consequence, public education “became the
main source of members for the churches. Children attending a particular mission school grew up with a
set denominational identity, as Catholic, Presbyterian, Lutheran or Anglican” (Ross, et al., Christianity in
Sub-Saharan Africa, introduction).
b. Prelude to African church independency. Africans were searching for a solution to their human
situation long before the Europeans arrived. They managed to deal with suffering, famine, disease, and
other crises through traditional means. The Europeans introduced the gospel as a more effective and
definitive way of dealing with assailant powers. But the Europeans also imposed restrictions that Africans
found limiting. Thus, the desire for independency was not created by the European overlords, but
colonialism fed the urge. Missionaries who failed to understand the need for Africans to struggle to build
their own faith contributed to dissatisfaction and disillusionment.
The most significant feature of Christianity in Africa during the years following European colonialism has
been the formation of independent churches. The Church Missionary Society (formed in 1799 by
evangelical churchmen belonging to the Church of England) refused to trust Africans in leadership roles.
Events that occurred in the Niger region during the 1860s are credited with beginning African religious
independency. Among the Baptists, the lack of funds and recall of American missionaries during the
American Civil War encouraged self-reliance.
An event usually noted by historians as the spark that ignited the movement toward religious
independency is the treatment of Anglican bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther, an African who was
maneuvered out of position by Europeans. Crowther represented a good faith effort to create an all
African mission staff independent of colonial rule only to be disassembled by the European power
brokers. This reverse action delayed indigenous leadership until the 1950s--seventy years later.
By the end of the 19th century, it was clear that the question concerning Christianity in the Sub-Sahara
was not whether the religion would survive, but in what form it would emerge. Movement toward
separatism came between 1890 and 1950. These movements can be classified as "prophet churches,"
(a) those belonging to the East African Revival, and (b) those associated with William Nagenda and the
Mukono Incident of 1941.
Nearly twenty years after a quest for individual holiness was introduced in Uganda, the exclusion of
twenty-six students from an Anglican college in Mukono threatened Anglican unity over the question of
revival. A revival movement, known as the East Africa Revival, was an awakening that had an impact on
East African Christianity. It was fully embraced by the Anglicans in the 1950s (Ward, “Obedient Rebels,”
Journal of Religion in Africa, XIX [1989]:3). The most influential leader in the Revival was Simeon
Nsibambi.
c. Independent Christian movements. The first wave of African church independence was a simple
brake away from European administrative control. In 1891, the United Native African Church was
established in response to discontent with the Niger Mission. Division came in the Methodist Church in
1917 over the issue of polygamist leaders. But it was not until the 1950s that the golden age of
independency arrived. Once it burst in full force, growth in the independent movements became
phenomenal. The era also witnessed the advent of women prophets. However, new aspirations for
national independence often clashed with religious visions.
Since the 1950s, Christianity as a whole has expanded enormously, and African Traditional Religion has
declined. Within Catholicism, the changes that followed Vatican II defused the hostility between Catholics
and Protestants in Africa and encouraged a contextualized theology. Folk Catholicism's healing shrines,
statues, candles, and holy water encouraged syncretism with Traditional Religion throughout the
continent. The tendency toward syncretism and the desire to adapt Christianity to African culture set up a
circumstance that will prove to be critical for years to come. The ongoing debate revolves around the
extent to which inculturation can take place without defiling the gospel. Discussion on inculturation is
reserved for Module 3.

Older colonial Protestant churches have declined since independence due to the reduction of external
financial aid, the exodus of foreign personnel, and the loss of African Christians to prophetic churches.
Many of the new foreign missions and new churches established since the 1980s have been in the
Evangelical and/or Pentecostal tradition. Many of the new churches bear the imprint of ideas originating in
America: Pentecostalism and the Born Again churches tend to divide African Christianity by questioning
the religious credentials of other believers.
Issues that plagued African Christians in the early history of the African Church Movement were dealing
with foreign elements, ecclesiastical order, and polygamy. But the issue that dominated the discussion
was that of forms of music and worship.
Two types of evangelists worked during the Western evangelization of Africa: mission-sponsored and
prophetic. Missionaries who entered Africa during and after the 17th century were so influenced by new
ideas of reality that they failed to understand African life. The emerging ideas were those of the
Enlightenment. Some of the "foreign" missionaries returned from the New World bearing the gospel to
their homelands. Marcus Garvey was one of these. A Jamaica-born African who lived in the United States
for several years, Garvey became known as Black Moses because he led a back-to-Africa movement in
the early 20th century.
Internet Sources
"African Indigenous Churches" by Deji Ayegboyin and S. Ademola Ishola, Institute for Religious Research
"African Instituted (Independent Churches," World Council of Churches
Video
"African Independent Service," Melville Koppies, 2008
Unit 3. Charismatic and Prophetic Churches

The first African churches to react to foreign domination following independency repudiated European
administrative control. These churches, planted by Europeans, continued the same beliefs and practices.
They assumed local leadership that had been denied them when under European control. Even with
independence, they saw no reason to change doctrine or ritual. In these instances, “reform” was more
like those that came to the Anglican Church when it broke from the Roman Catholic hierarchy.
A second wave of native reaction to foreign domination took a unique form. This wave not only repudiated
European administration, but it incorporated rituals drawn from the native culture and emerging
Pentecostal elements. Consequently, churches belonging to this new wave are commonly characterized
by charismatic practices: prophecy, healing, prayer, and holiness. These churches are defined by their
conscious effort to advance the Christian gospel through the adaptation of African forms and newer
practices related to personal spiritual renewal. Today, they represent a significant force in African
Christianity.
In making the point that the second wave reflected African traditions, it would be erroneous to think that
new elements were free from outside influence. The movement shows similarities to the rising
Pentecostal emphasis found in the United States in the early 20th century. Today, it is hard to distinguish
churches as they all partake of culture, tradition, and historic teaching. Yet there are some features that
set them apart. Charismatic practices generally separate these newer churches from the older European
look-alike churches. Many of the new foreign missions and new churches established since the 1980s
have been in the Evangelical and/or Pentecostal tradition. However, older churches tend to pick up some
elements from the second wave in an effort to appease their members. Both waves teach something
about change and point out why reform along the lines of scripture may be necessary.
The unit comprises three sections: (1) The nature and scope of the new African movements, (2) Regional

and national churches, and (3) Culture and theology. The objective is to identify the charismatic and
prophetic churches by name and uniqueness and show that they are a viable force in parts of Africa. As
always, the student is obligated to compare and contrast beliefs and practices with the European format
and with the biblical ideal. Otherwise, he/she may think that newer forms are only a slightly different
manifestation of Christianity based on the same set of assumptions and constructs. Differences are
significant.
a. The nature and scope of the new African movements. While not all "Independents" may be
classified as affiliates of "new African movements," the statistics on independent groups in Africa will
provide some sense of the strength of non-mainstream European or American groups in Africa. About
5,000 independent church movements have been identified in Africa since the mid-1800s. When
measuring by percentages, Independents are most represented in Southern Africa (36%), followed by
Middle Africa (15%), Western Africa (13%), and Eastern Africa (8%).
The independent African churches that adopted spiritual gifts of prophecy, healing, prayer, and holiness
are commonly called Charismatic churches. A good example of the charismatic churches and prophetic
movement is the Church of the Lord (Aladura). The Church of the Lord (Aladura) expanded beyond
Nigeria, as Prophet Oduwole and the Liberian mission also became a leading force in the general
movement. Still another example is that of Adejobi. There were still other groups related to the Aladura
revival movement.
Christ Apostolic Church may be considered among the elite of the charismatic churches. The church
expounds its role in military terms, stresses the importance of the Holy Spirit, emphasizes Christ's unique
life and work, and stresses the Bible as the written authority for its doctrines. The largest single group was
named after its prophet/messiah--Simon Kimbangu preached a gospel of high morals but spent 30 years
in prison in his native Congo for his preaching. The International Pentecostal Church is sabbatarian.
Most movements of African Independency combine custom and tradition with a bold, radical application of
Christian discipline and teaching. They make demands for religious loyalty and challenge inherited
attitudes with a fundamental assertion about the nature and purpose of the Creator. Uniqueness can be
found in cosmology. Beginning with one God and one world, they admit ancestors and rituals related to
ongoing life in the natural realm. Humans live cyclical lives in a universe where childbearing is an
important matter.
As a general rule, African Independent Churches are active in serving human needs, but they are not
following the path of the more liberal churches. They tend to be conservative but do not hesitate to
employ Traditional forms. The foundation of their theology is the Bible, especially the Old Testament.
Scripture is interpreted by four methods: literal, allegorical, moral, and anagogic (Obed Kealotswe, “The
Nature and character of the African Independent Churches (AICs) in the 21st Century,” Studia Historiae
Ecclesiasticae, vol. 40, no. 2 (2014).
b. Regional and national churches. Regional churches are not confined to an ethnic group and are not
connected with a political state. But they have much in common and may have a central organization. A
national church is identified with an ethnic group or state. This section offers a brief introduction to the
general character of such churches.
In some instances, a particular church body may tend to be identified with a specific nation. An example
is the Coptic Orthodox Church in Egypt. It has its own organization, in this case a pope, and defining
practices. By contrast, the Roman Catholic Church is under a pope, but the pope is the head of all
Roman churches regardless of the church’s physical location. Those churches that tend to be territorial
are not limited by national political boundaries or joined with the political structure of a given nature. Even
though some African churches are distinguished by being confined by nation or region, migration may
spawn new church plantings in concert with the “mother” church. These churches fit the pattern of the
national or ethnic model.

When analyzing African churches, one will often find a common thread binds several organized church
bodies together (e.g , the charismatic and prophetic bodies). At other times, a single church body may be
represented throughout the continent (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church) with local bishops that answer to
a keep the church in line with the historical body. It is only natural to look at such movements under a
larger umbrella than that of the familiar Western "denominational" nomenclature. They resemble more of
a denominational family, yet they may have never had an organic connection.
An Independent Africa Church may be distinguished because it seceded from a white mission church on
the grounds of race or ethnicity. Others may be identified by putting Africa first. Still others may trace
their roots to Zion, Illinois but are now syncretistic. For example, Zionist churches of South Africa are best
described as Prophetic, with the practice of holistic healing, being founded after a visionary experience.
Regardless of the church body, there will be influences that make each body and each congregation
unique. Even Catholic and Orthodox churches are influenced by modern social movements, although
they are supposedly guided by hundreds of years of tradition. Newly formed bodies may lack long
traditions, but that simply makes it easier for new doctrines, patterns of worship, emphases, and rituals to
be adopted. It is insufficient to say this body is like that body, except in one area. Look closely and you
will probably find many shades of difference because of the power of influence from generational leaders
and change agents.
Internet Sources
"Postcolonial Perspectives in African Biblical Interpretations," Society of Biblical Literature

"Aladura" Several Christian groups may be identified under the title "Aladura."
"Celestial Church of Christ"
c. Culture and theology. Culture is a human environment that is governed by an overarching and
collective worldview. Human skills, habits, and outlook on life offer a standard by which life is lived in a
particular region, even when individual views are in conflict. Culture always impacts religion. Sometimes it
becomes a more influential teacher than the Scriptures. Ultimately, an evaluation of the new movements
should take place against the background of scripture to test the extent to which culture has had both a
positive and negative influence.
Some Africans who rejected Christianity did so because of the missionaries' prejudice toward African life
and culture. Except for the Coptic Church in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, indigenous
Christianity appeared in Africa after the "second planting of Christianity." The greatest contribution
indigenous Christianity has made to the theological task in Africa is that it begins with the African way of
life. In contrast to traditional Western theology, indigenous churches say theology is an attempt to
understand divinity, beginning with basic symbols, personhood, and community.
The development of African theology came in stages and with initiatives from various groups and
organizations. In the early period of African theology, the focus was on adaptation, a study of themes in
African culture which transmit the Christian message. Desmond Tutu, a leading South African theologian,
has voiced disenchantment with indigenization. The complaint of South African theologians against
indigenization is that it does not address the socio-political and economic reality of contemporary Africa.
The changes that followed Vatican Council II effectively ended hostility between Catholics and non-
Catholics in Africa.
African history has been written from a male perspective, generally ignoring the role of women in shaping
Christianity in Sub-Sahara Africa. Indeed, the men have been prominent, and only in the last century
have women risen to comparable leadership positions. This has occurred primarily in the African
Instituted and Pentecostal churches. Indigenous movements have created more space for women. In an
expanded role, women are found in significant numbers as evangelists, healers, and even founders of
new churches. Women have been successful in challenging discrimination in cultural practices. Normally,
theology should come first, with culture suggesting ways theology should be applied. But in a humanistic

society, culture becomes the guiding principle by which theology is molded.
Internet Sources
"Ancestor Worship: The Religion of Africa" by Paul K. Williams, TruthMagazine

"Colonialism and African Culture Values" by Benson O. Igboin, African Journal of History and Culture,
vol. 3, no. 6 (July 2011): 96-103.
Examination
MODULE 3 The Contemporary Scene

In this third and final module, we shall investigate the current landscape of Christianity in Africa. The
module is broken into three units: (1) Christology, (2) The Pentecostal Movement, and (3) Threats and
Hopes. At the conclusion of the module, you should be able to summarize the general status of
Christianity in Africa today, identify the challenges faced by the church in Africa, and critique the state of
African Christianity in light of the Bible.
A unit is devoted to Christology, because Christology in the West tends to be defined in logical argument,
whereas in Africa, it tends to be defined in terms of experience. The major concern in both arenas is the
meaning and identify of Jesus.
One thing appears certain. African Christians will continue to build on the foundation laid by previous
generations. They will study their Bibles, draw from historic interpretations, be influenced by
developments in the West, continue to cope with encroachments from Islam and Traditional Religion,
grapple with health issues and poverty, and work out their own salvation with trepidation. In their quest for
authenticity, newer generations will inevitably place an innovative veneer on belief and ritual.
Two observations begin this module. One, Welborn and Ogot have noted that the African Independent
Church is “a place to feel at home.” It belongs to Africa and does not represent a foreign interpretation of
Christianity. Two, African people tend to draw revelation from their environment. Christians in Africa still
seek “witchdoctors” and the like. It is not that the missionary has not tried to provide spiritual guidance in
conjunction with the Bible. Africans are drawn to powerful displays of spiritual powers. They view
witchdoctors as custodians of supernatural knowledge and secrets. They tend not to distinguish between
real spiritual power and fake spiritual power.
Reading
Before proceeding, read these two e-books, which may be accessed from the Electronic Collection on the
Course Menu:
Michael Matthew, Christian Theology and African Tradition

Ross, Asamoah-Gyadu, and Johnson, Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa
Internet Sources

Maps--Religion in Africa
Good statistical data can be useful in gaining an overview of the presence of Christianity in Africa. It can
show gains and losses over a period of time.
"The Explosion of Christianity in Africa," Christianity.com
It is estimated that another 100 million Christians reside in North Africa.
Unit 1. Christology
Christianity introduced by European missionaries has become firmly planted in Sub-Sahara Africa. The
independence movement did not bring a complete break with the Western world, for essential elements of
the gospel are in place. However, Africans modified religious practices they inherited and reinterpreted
theological ideas in view of their own history.
Perhaps nowhere is reinterpretation more evident than in the African view of Jesus. Africans have molded
their own views as to Jesus' person and role to fit their circumstance. The emphasis on certain functions
is distinctively African and shows affinity to themes found in traditional culture and religion. In Africa, the
portrait of Jesus is not monolithic. Hence, theologians speak of christologies in the plural. In this unit, we
shall explore the concepts that appear to be unique.
You will need to decide if the popular African concepts are a shift of emphasis, or if they constitute new
christologies. In the final analysis, the task is hardly to demonstrate that European Christology was wholly
biblical. The more important question for you is to compare African Christology with that of the Bible. In so
doing, you may judge whether the Africans were justified in reinterpreting Jesus. Shifts in emphasis may
be acceptable; change in substance becomes at least questionable.
The sections in this unit are titled (a) Contemporary African christologies, (b) The nature of African
Christology, and (c) Inculturation. Here we proceed beyond the "historical" and begin to look at
implications of basic assumptions relative to how to interpret the gospel within the confines of a given
culture. Perhaps the central idea that emerges in the study is that Christology in Europe grew out of a
long historical tradition, was logical, and supported a ritualistic discipline. In Africa, however, Christology
represents a more direct encounter with the divine. Perhaps both Europeans and Africans were of the
mindset to bring over some of their pagan beliefs about magic associated with the name of Jesus.
Contemporary African theologians identify as a critical issue the question, “Who is Jesus Christ for you,
Africa?” The major short coming of the way this issue is formulated is that it does not begin with a biblical
view of Christ. Analysis of the oral christologies reveals broad agreement with the image of Jesus as
ancestor. From the ancestral angle, Christ is entitled to sacred communion, is a model for behavior, and
is a mediator but is less defined as a God-man. It is of single importance to the African that Christ
identifies with humanity’s suffering, weakness, and pain.
a. Contemporary African christologies. As a discipline, African theology emerged amidst the drive for
political independence and accompanying efforts to interpret religious themes against an African
environment. As a protest movement, African theology aimed at contextualizing and indigenizing
Christianity. Receiving expression in the African Independent Churches, African theology bears the
marks of these bodies. In addition, there has developed female theologians who bring to the table
different orientations. More lately, African Evangelicals have undertaken an effort to find contextual
application in ethics and systematic theology. One would have to say that African Christology is a live
issue, but its look varies greatly across the continent.

Many features of the varying views are unspoken. They are assumed and expressed privately and
through public ritual. The focus on what Jesus can do for the individual points toward a pragmatic
framework that is used to filter biblical concepts of Christ.
The diversity on the African continent is reflected in the varying views of Jesus. Understanding African
christologies demands that attention be given to both oral transmission and written texts. First, is Jesus
Christ significant to life in Africa today? Yes, he is perceived to be highly relevant to everyday life. The
relevance of Christ can be seen in the effect upon community and individual renewal. The witness to
Jesus and the gospel is much in public view in Sub-Sahara Africa. Business names, churches, slogans,
and sounds reveal their presence. At the same time, the presence of words and signs do not reveal the
African concept of the nature of Jesus.
The Bible portrays Jesus through a variety of images: king, high priest, savior, brother, sacrificial lamb,
servant, prophet, and son. In Africa, Jesus is celebrated as chief, liberator, ancestor, master of initiation,
and potentate. Perhaps the African does not intend to diminish the biblical images of Jesus, but he does
make some associations that are more in keeping with African thinking than with language of the New
Testament.
For authentic Christianity to survive, the African must view the person and work of Jesus as historically
verified and he/she must agree that belief in Christ can be appropriated into the realities of African life.
For now, the conception of Jesus as life-giver, mediator, loved one, and leader marks the essential
connection in a unified manner.
Internet Sources
"African Christology: Jesus As Our Ancestor in the African Tradition" by Patrick Mumbi by C. J. Zvobgo
b. The nature of African Christianity. As a term, African Christianity is employed to describe the
uniqueness of the beliefs and practices that constitute the Christian faith on the continent of Africa. If used
as an inclusive term, it offers little clarity and resists definitive elements. Africa, like other continents, is in
the present era home to about every manifestation of the "Christian faith" found on earth. These elements
include Orthodox churches, the Roman Catholic Church, extensions of mainline European and American
churches, indigenous African churches, and cults that have invaded the scene from the outside.
Normally, "African Christianity" is defined in a more exclusive manner. Exclusively, the term describes
more of what is distinctively "African" in the church bodies. It answers the question, What is it about
Christianity in Africa that one is not likely to see elsewhere?
To be sure, African Christianity, as defined in the exclusive sense, is pluralistic. It embraces core gospel
concepts, but it does so within a context of the surrounding social and religious culture. We speak of
"African Christianity" in a sense of character. What is its character, its nature? Understanding the nature
of Christianity in Africa begins with its unique history.
Across the centuries, multiple forms of Christianity have been introduced to the residents of Africa. When
analyzing the presence of Christianity in the life of the modern African, one should take into account both
the prevailing circumstances under which Christianity was introduced in Africa and contemporary
situations.
North Africa. In North Africa, primitive Christianity made its entry soon after the first Pentecost following
the resurrection of Christ. As time progressed, issues appeared that had not occupied the mind of the
early proclaimers. Accordingly, novel solutions to these issues were proposed and debates ensued.
Gradually, the church assumed new forms, rituals, and interpretations. As the church became more
Gentile, it also became more attuned to Greek thought.
The North African church tended to reflect the life and thought of the Western Roman Empire. It had
strong ties with Rome. Rome was not only the capital of the Empire until 330, it was the seat of

mainstream Christianity. Nevertheless, the African Church was independent in thinking. The church in
Alexandria, Egypt had to lead the battle against Gnosticism and Arianism. The Donatist controversy was
essentially an African problem. And monastic life began here. Its personalities were colorful, who
contributed to church theology--men like Arius, Athenasius, Augustine, Clement, Cyprian, Origen, and
Tertullian .
In time, the radical view of Arius, the voice of Tertullian, and the uniqueness of Origen would dissipate.
But permanent division came as a result of controversy over the nature of Christ. That division has been
enduring. It continues to be represented by the Roman Catholic Church, which takes the Chalcedon
position and by the Coptic and Ethiopic churches, which take the Monophysite position.
As Islam swept over North Africa, the church began to decline. Christians often converted to Islam due to
economic hardships placed on them by the Muslims. Today, Catholic and Orthodox communions are
represented by a small percent of the population. They are often under duress and experience occasional
harassment. More recent Protestant groups maintain a small presence in most of the nations in the Arab
north, but evangelism of Muslims is strictly forbidden by the ruling governments. For the most part, the
churches in these areas are careful with efforts to evangelize Muslims. Their official policy is not to
evangelize at all. Converts are more likely to come through the work of newer evangelicals, who, more
than likely, meet in cell groups. Expatriate workers are allowed to worship in designated areas.
Sub-Sahara Africa. Although Christianity came to modern Africa by the mouth of the Western world
(Europe), it found a new home in a non-Western environment (Africa). The West dominated Africa during
a period of colonization and left the continent with modern nation states and democratic forms of
governance. The Europeans also left their imprint on Africa in areas of language, economics,
jurisprudence, and culture. It is not surprising that Western religion (Christianity in varying forms) should
survive as well. Neither should it surprise us that Africans, when given the liberty to do so, would mold all
these elements to reflect the African heritage.
While some of the early efforts by the Catholics to evangelize may have died out, Roman Catholics
maintain a significant presence throughout the continent. And those European Protestant forms that came
after the initial Catholic efforts have survived as well. Since the mid-1950s, a wide variety of outside
Christian groups have set up churches. No doubt the largest American influence on Christianity in Africa
has been Pentecostalism. Pentecostalism has spread among mainline churches and the Catholic Church,
but the influence of healings and prophecy has had an even greater impact on the emerging independent
churches. While relative peace exists between the churches of various forms, they are, nonetheless,
somewhat competitive. In those areas where the population is dominated by Islam, the tension often
gives way to violence. Outwardly, Christianity is very evident, both in conversation and in signage.
Traditional Religion may be losing ground as far as numbers go, but its influence is felt among the
members of the older churches. It is especially strong among the Independent Churches as its tenets are
accepted with open arms.
Issues arising in a post-missionary setting. Evaluating Christian mission efforts is an inexact science.
Why the work of one mission effort brings limited results and that of another produces phenomenal
response may be predicated upon a variety of elements and conditions. Questions arising from the
discussion will tend to focus on five elements: the message, the person of the presenter, methodology,
circumstances, and audience. Ultimately, message content becomes most significant.
The extent the message mirrors that of the gospel represented in the New Testament is of primary
importance. But the extent to which that message is made applicable to the modern hearer becomes
essential, if the gospel is to take root and produce fruit. For the student, this may be the point at which the
debate over authentic Christianity begins. What does it mean to make the gospel relevant? Who
determines what is relevant? Where are the boundaries? In your reading, see if you can catch a glimpse
of what obstacles lie ahead for churches that have moved from former times into an uncharted future. Are
modern trends sustainable? Are they responsible?

Into the 21st century--Africa as a Christian continent. There is no question but that African Traditional
Religion continues to influence Christian faith in Sub-Sahara Africa. This is most apparent to the Western
missionary. If the influence is not seen in the churches per se, it lies embedded in the hearts and activities
of some of the church members who continue to engage in primal religious activity. The African finds it
more difficult to extinguish old beliefs, for he still maintains much of the old worldview. He is more likely to
Christianize these views than dispense with them altogether. It is not likely that in the foreseeable future
that African Christianity will turn away from interest in things ancient; it will continue to engage in the
study of theology on African terms.
In summary, the “Two-Thirds World” (defined as nations of the South that are poor and underdeveloped)
holds two-thirds of the world’s Christians. In some respect, these Christians have charted new directions
in Christian thought and action as they respond to issues and needs within their contexts. The discovery
of the gospel as good news to the materially poor and the socially oppressed and underprivileged has
become a fundamental challenge for missions and theology.
Internet Sources
"Ancestor Veneration in Africa" by Charles Nyamiti

"Theologies from the Two-Thirds World," Global Anabaptist Mennonites Encyclopedia Online
c. Inculturation. The term "inculturation," when used in a theological context, refers to a phenomenon
where the faith of those who belong to a particular culture emerges in people of another culture. When
the faith emerges in the new culture, it finds expression in ways that accommodate the new recipients.
For example, Christians who live in the Western world may be accustomed to attending worship services
at mid-morning on Sundays. But in those parts of the world where Sunday is a workday, they may meet
on Sunday evenings or even on Fridays.
A certain amount of inculturation was anticipated by the apostles. The New Testament indicates that
Jewish believers had the right to continue to follow some of their culture, while they did not have the right
to bind this culture on Gentile believers. While Christianity was never intended as a theoretical system,
there are some matters that cannot be adapted to new cultural forms. Confession of the risen Christ
cannot be discounted by a modern society that rejects the miracles and the resurrection of Jesus.
Some adaptation is a matter of conscience. For instance, early Christians may have been free to eat
meat offered to idols, knowing that an idol was nothing. However, because some associated eating such
meat with participating in the idol worship, the right to do so was not to be pressed when it was likely to
lead others to sin. It was predictable that the gospel would influence one's life and would be influenced by
the cultures in which it was preached.
Christianity is not new to Africa, but its present shape throughout the continent is. For an outsider to get a
penetrating view of how the African sees the world order and how the gospel of Jesus Christ fits into that
worldview, a considerable amount of research is needed. A beginning place is to determine what
problems may be encountered by researchers, who endeavor to dig beneath the surface of what is
observed.
Myths and ancient history contribute to the African's conception of life and the function of religion.
Hundreds of years of Traditional Religion underlie the general concepts of natural and divine forces. How
the African views the larger world of nations impacts the way he sees himself and the future. He faces
obstacles that people on other continents may not face. Although our attention is drawn to the sub-
Sahara region, the same goes for Christians who live in Muslim dominated countries to the north. How
the African sees the Christ of the gospel in relation to his/her circumstance is an important factor in
projecting the future face of Christianity in Africa.
Anatomy of inculturation: the current experience. The modern African experience with Christianity
reflects both its colonial roots and its historic African character. We hear that the typical African Christian
may respect the church leadership and is fairly willing for leaders to interpret scripture for him/her. He

may also look to the leaders to adapt that message to African contexts. However, as most anywhere else,
members often differ in the ways they implement formal teaching. In reality, inculturation may result more
from individual encounters with the gospel and culture than from deliberate efforts to contextualize the
gospel. It may be more a case of leaders adapting to the members' views than purposed action by
leaders.
In many respects, Kenya is a good example of the inculturation process. Perhaps two other countries in
the East to observe inculturation are Tanzania and Uganda. Movements can be traced by the research
data to indicate change, trends, and direction.
Early experience and the future. Predicting the future is always a risky task, but patterns can be
identified, and tendencies can be shown. The historical development of Christianity cannot be isolated
totally from the African scene. After all, Christianity was planted in sub-Sahara Africa by Europeans
whose experience with it went back 1500 years. Doctrine and practices found in Africa today identify with
this historical record. These ties reflect both Catholic and Protestant understandings of biblical teaching.
But Africans are not afraid to use their imaginations when constructing their own views of how the gospel
should be applied to longstanding cultural patterns. The past informs the future and the future is likely to
make new modifications to the age-old patterns. There are many streams flowing into African theology,
but the two main ones are inculturation and human improvement.
In modern Africa, ancestors play no significant role. But in Traditional belief, the living depend on
ancestors for help and protection. In Traditional societies, the ruler fulfils an important function as
intermediary between the living and the ancestors. When “inculturation” is imposed, biblical doctrines are
integrated with modern cultural values. Catholics accept inculturation and generally define African
theology as one that aims at contextualizing Christian scripture into the African’s way of life, concentrating
on the language, culture, traditions, and customs of the locality.
Internet Sources
"Contextualization as Incarnation" by Robert M. Price, Journal of Unification Studies"

"Sources of Theology in Africa" by Leopold A. Follah
"Personhood in African Thought," Encyclopedia.com
Unit 2. The Pentecostal Movement

One can hardly do justice to the modern world of Christianity in Africa without notice of the Pentecostal
movement. During the 20th century, a movement having roots in a Los Angeles revival, swept the globe.
It found fertile ground in Africa in a time when, under European domination, Africans began to assert their
right to give shape to their Christian experience. It has spread of its own volition but not without being
fanned by outside voices. Some of these voices preach a message that seems remote to the African's
circumstances. But the African gravitates to a message promising prosperity in the hope of receiving
God's physical blessings. It remains to be seen if the new wave of enthusiasm generates biblical faith or
stalls for failure to deliver what it promises.
Pentecostalism offered freshness to stale rational religion. It promised to invigorate believers and project
a church that was filled with the Spirit of God. But Pentecostalism means more than the recognition of the
Holy Spirit in a person's life. It projects a new paradigm for understanding worship, prayer, sickness,
eschatology, and ministry. Africans found it to be more relevant to the forces that affected human life on
the continent than other manifestations of Christianity. Pentecostal practices and emphases have now
penetrated other church bodies, making them more conscious of the Holy Spirit. Those who have
uncritically picked up song lyrics and vocabulary without embracing the ideology find themselves
expressing thoughts that have little or no meaning in mainstream church ritual.
It may well be that Pentecostalism brought life where there had been nominal rituals, but it took root in
Africa due to similarities with African spiritual paradigms already in place. Add to this the openness of

developing leaders to grow their movements. An important lesson learned from the early success of
Pentecostal churches is prevailing cultural and religious paradigms influence reception of a religious
message. Yet, it is obvious that dedication of the old European style of worship continues. What may be
said of one group cannot be said of another. So, it is important to note that even though some forms of
Pentecostalism may be adopted by non-Pentecostal churches while they remain true to their roots.
In this unit, we shall explore (a) Renewal, worship, and prayer, (b) Ecclesiology, giving, and the cross,
and (c) Anointing, communion, and preaching. These topics identify major shifts in Pentecostal thought.
The Pentecostal approach has no precedent in African Christianity. It results from importation from the
Western world, but with adaptation to the unique African traditional environment.
a. Renewal, worship, and prayer. What one needs to recognize is that terms like “renewal,” “worship,”
and “prayer” may carry different meanings in different contexts. For example, definitions imposed by a
Pentecostal orientation in an African environment should be closely analyzed from both a biblical and
contemporary perspective.
Renewal. The visible and audible display surrounding the preaching of the apostles on Pentecost
inspired the Pentecostal movement in the early 20th century. In that instance, the purpose of the display
was to authenticate the apostles and their message. The message was the Messiah had come but had
been rejected. Now in the resurrection of Jesus, salvation is preached to the Jews. When a large number
in the gathered crowd were convicted, they asked what they should do in view of their sin. They were told
to repent and be baptized on the authority of the Christ they had crucified. The call was not to renewal but
to a new beginning. Nonetheless, the Pentecostal movement is commonly understood as a "revival" and
"renewal" movement. The connecting link is the presence of the Holy Spirit, for the Holy Spirit is seen as
a revitalizing force. The aim is a "restoration" of biblical Christianity, complete with the reactivation of
spiritual gifts.
Worship. From a Pentecostal perspective, worship is itself the result of an encounter with the Holy Spirit.
Corporate worship is the primary venue for Spirit-inspired activity, for this is where a visible manifestation
is most naturally found. The context is salvation. Engagement is experiential as the worshiper expresses
gratitude for God's grace. Pentecostalism replaces reliance on creeds, ritual, and historic theological
systems with ecstatic speech, body movement, and testimonies. A central theme fundamental to African
Independent Churches is worship as a means of transportation to the spiritual realm.
Prayer. Sub-Saharan Christianity is marked by a heightened sense of the need of fervent prayer. In
Pentecostalism, prayer becomes an instrument for calling for divine action. Prayer plays a significant role
in corporate worship and evangelism. It is offered in the name of Christ and in the power of the Spirit.
Baptism of the Holy Spirit, understood to be available to modern Christians, compels prayer and assists in
spiritual warfare. It is less about confession of sin and more about releasing the promises of God. Hence,
Pentecostalism's return to Pentecost recasts the function of the baptism of the Holy Spirit and transforms
it into a general help for believers.
b. Ecclesiology, giving, and the cross. The Pentecostal concept of the church brings together the
grace of God in the crucifixion and the right of human solicitation for particular benefits. Consequently, a
believer’s service to God may be thought of as sacrificial—not so much as freewill worship but with the
goal of arousing God to action. God is presumed to be obliged to respond in keeping with requests. The
cross may still be central to belief, but it is used for gaining gifts of ministry and physical blessing. Given
the orientation of African Traditional Religion, the Pentecostal practice does not appear to represent a
radical change in the worshiper’s motivations and expectations.
Ecclesiology. Pentecostals expect extraordinary "graces" from the Holy Spirit. Ministry is defined by
spiritual gifts rather than by a hierarchical system or priesthood belonging to their leaders. Rather,
believers are all priests filled with the Spirit. The concept may be more theoretical than realized, for
leaders are often powerful figures. Pentecostals see themselves as God's instrument in the last times to
fight against Satan's forces. Understanding the Spirit's role in defeating the unseen powers has appeal to
the African who is surrounded with ancestor worship and fear of the spiritual world. Christ is yet to visit

earth again at the end of the age.
Giving. Financial giving is shrouded with language like "sowing and reaping." Giving is thus linked with
prosperity. Significantly, the act of giving is a sacrifice, expected to bring a response from God. The
amount of one's financial gift is the Old Testament injunction to tithe rather than Paul's urging to give as
one purposes in his heart. Considering giving as one's sacrifice sets up the proposition that it is man's
duty to ask; it is God's role to give. This self-centered approach moves the rationale for giving from
assisting another person in need to gaining personal return.
The cross. Pentecostalism lays stress on glory and victory, conveniently overlooking sickness and
misfortune as genuine elements that figure into the development of faith. Healing, deliverance, and
prosperity are considered signs of spiritual devotion. Ironically, the believer is pulled to the cross and
expects to suffer for bearing the name of Christ. But in Pentecostalism, the cross signals a faith that
matures in physical prosperity. Then again, the cross is interpreted in view of millennial expectations. It
represents a mid-way position in God’s redemptive process and prepared people for the age and ministry
of the Holy Spirit.
c. Anointing, communion, and preaching. These three topics are all biblical, but Pentecostalism tends
to interpret them in a new way. The driving force in interpretation is a belief that the Holy Spirit works
directly in Christian lives to produce charismatic gifts and divine power to heal, prophesy, and fight
against spiritual powers. The orientation contributes toward the formation of a hermeneutic through which
select biblical passages are understood.
A potential dilemma facing the Pentecostal movement is the place of study in equipping one for ministry.
What is the most reliable source of understanding: personal directives from the Holy Spirit or human
teaching? Or, to put it another way, should one rely on the Spirit for a total understanding of the gospel?
Or, should one engage in diligent study of the Bible for that understanding? Of course, there is a third
course. That is the belief that one may study scripture with the belief that the Spirit will surely lead one to
complete truth. For the most part, Pentecostals seem to merge the options by not neglecting scripture
study while leaving room for the Spirit’s direction.
Anointing. Pentecostalism recognizes "anointing" as an enabler in the use of spiritual gifts or spiritual
progress. Asamoah-Gyadu describes it as "a metaphor for the presence of power." Anointing is
understood to be the results of prayer for healing or exorcism. It "is seen as the power of the Holy Spirit in
action." Anointing may be imparted with "the application of olive oil to people and places" (Contemporary
Pentecostal Christianity, pp. 121, 123).
Communion. Pentecostals in Africa tend to minimize ritual and emphasize the Holy Spirit's role in
mediating the presence of Christ. The Spirit comes in the communion so the power of Christ can act in
daily affairs. Contemporary forms extend the historic view by seeing the communion as an instrument of
empowerment for healing and prosperity. Experience overtakes reflection. Toxins in the human body are
neutralized. Testimonies are given. New insights may be received supernaturally.
Preaching. The Bible is preached, with an emphasis on select passages. These passages are used to
emphasize the major tenets of the Pentecostal movement. Advocates have great respect for the sacred
text as an authoritative basis for faith. Through employing biblical terminology, they distinguish
themselves from those who liberalize biblical content and lifestyle while placing innovative interpretations
to the biblical text.
Videos
"Experience a Life African Communion Service" by Jeffrey Mayr, 2008

"South African Prophet at Pentecostal"

Unit 3. Threats and Hope
The gospel is subject to assault, for it becomes a threat to alternative beliefs and behavior. This is
especially the case when those alternatives are advocated by the passionate and intolerant. Since
opposing forces may be accelerated through the mobilization of political power, a key to understanding
opposition is found in the relationship that opposition has with the State. Also, deep-seated fear,
superstition, and tradition can have an equal negative effect.
Jesus himself received hostile treatment during his earthly ministry, a ministry that ended in crucifixion.
He prepared his disciples for the same kind of treatment. Followers of Jesus should therefore expect
opposition. In Africa, believers have not been disappointed. Two perennial antagonists on the continent
have been Traditional Religion and Islam. Both are a threat to Christianity, but Islam is the greater
potential threat to the Christian way of life, for it advocates total submission and often uses political
domination to achieve its goals.
Opposition can generate renewed dedication to a cause, or it can extinguish it altogether. No one knows
what specific challenges lie ahead for the Cause of Christ in North Africa. But it is clear that it will continue
to meet opposition. As in the 3rd century, faith will be tested. Again and again, believers will face
pressures to conform to the worldly order. Revolutions like recent upheavals in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia
may destabilized conditions, bring more hardships on Christians, and motivate migration. The Christian
message offers hope that is assured. But it is not the same as the world promises. Hope in Christ is tied
to spiritual deliverance. The Christian proclaims a message by which the believer is delivered from the
world. The same message will judge the world for its unbelief.
In addition to physical persecution, there is a threat to doctrine. Each new generation seems to project a
new hermeneutic or twist on doctrine that threatens the integrity of the gospel. The need for vigilance is
ever present. Underlying assumptions should be identified in both traditional and new interpretations of
scripture to prevent fanciful ideas and speculation from becoming substituted for truth.
The unit consists of three sections: (a) Christianity and Traditional Religion, (b) Christianity and Islam, and
(c) Assessment and Reflection. The first two seek to understand the tension caused by opposing
ideologies. The third offers an overall judgment on the present and future of Christianity in Africa.
a. Christianity and Traditional Religion. Forms of indigenous religious beliefs and practices have been
present in Africa from early times. In Egypt, it revolved around the pharaohs and ancient gods like Re, the
sun god. The Phoenicians brought their Baal worship to Carthage. The Greeks introduced their variety of
deities throughout the Hellenized world. Elsewhere, animistic religion governed the lives of the Sub-
Sahara African. Nowhere has it been so pervasive and long-lasting as in Central and Southern Africa.
Upon its introduction to Africa, Christianity challenged various manifestations of “traditional” religion. It
represented a totally different worldview with respect to the person of God, the spirit world, and man's
purpose. Its concepts of a single God differed from that of the Africans, who were concerned more with
spirits and ancestors. The African belief in spirits and the living dead—ancestors—continues to challenge
the theology and practice of monotheism because it is so deeply ingrained in the general population. The
abundance of religious language testifies to how deeply religion is embedded. At the same time, though
the language is Christian, people can indicate dependency upon religious language for blessing. Some
African Christians revert to traditional practices when they feel God is not providing deliverance in a timely
fashion. And they may be careful not to offend the living dead, lest something bad happens to them.
Although Christian vocabulary may appear to equate with that of Traditional Religion, it does not always
mean the same. For example, terms like "salvation" are more likely to attend intellectual and moral
dilemmas in Christianity and deliverance from spirits or ancestor influence in traditional forms. The task of
the Christian messenger is to help the traditionalist understand Jesus in the light of both ideas without
reducing faith to a replacement of superstition. Even though the public display of Traditional Religion is in
decline, that does not guarantee that it has ceased to be influential in the way a person shapes his/her
faith. This is not a non-significant matter, for Traditional Religion compromises the Christian faith. When

this happens, Christianity merely becomes a veneer over a bad worldview. Its adoption sets Jesus up as
another means for dealing with the quest for the African view of salvation.
Internet Sources
"Christianity and the African Traditional Religion(s): The Postcolonial Round of Engagement," Verbum et
Ecclesia, Vol. 32, No. 1 (2011).
"Traditional Religion and Christianity in Southern Africa" by Ngonidzashe Munemo, 1994
b. Christianity and Islam. Since Islam entered Egypt in the 7th century, it has advanced progressively.
First, it spread from Arabia westward across North Africa as Arabs seized control. Then it began
penetrating the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. Today, Islam dominates the top half of the continent
and below the equator along the Indian Ocean coast.
As Islam has increased in Africa, Christianity has decreased. In some previously predominantly Christian
sections in the north, Christianity has been extinguished. Political domination and the implementation of
Sharia law ensures a dominant position for Islam, along with restrictions on Christian activity. Christians
experience difficulty in building church houses, finding employment, and payment of special taxes.
If 1400 years of history is any indication of the future, we should expect to see Islamic advancement
southward. Some signs for reversing the trend are appearing, however, as Muslims convert to Christ.
Whether this will be enough to reverse the trend remains to be shown. In recent years, Islam has made
advances in Nigeria through the implementation of Sharia law in several states. Extreme Islamic
advocates are active in Northern Nigeria and neighboring countries with kidnapping, armed force, and
destructive acts. The division of Sudan points to the difficulty of people with cultural and religious
differences to live together.
Christianity and Islam are incompatible. They may start with the idea of one God, but they postulate
different concepts regarding his person and activity. Christianity projects a kingdom of God apart from the
secular kingdoms of the world and speaks of spiritual warfare; Islam divides the world into the house of
peace and the house of war and superimposes itself over secular kingdoms. Islam understands the duty
of man is to keep the commands of Allah; Christianity projects a God of love who sent his Son to redeem
man. Islam calls men back to Allah and his initial commandments; his hope is that keeping those
commands will be sufficient for Allah to award him with paradise. Since man cannot keep the commands
of God sufficiently to escape the need of redemption, Christianity holds that by a divine act of God in
Jesus Christ, man can find redemption and assurance. The ultimate goal of Islam is domination; the goal
of Christianity is to share the good news and bring the peace of Christ to each believer.
Internet Sources
"Africa, Islam, the West"

"Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa," Pew Research
c. Assessment and refection. A study of history renders limited results unless it includes assessment
and reflection. Significant investigation summons a measure of evaluation. Were the sources valid? Were
the sources interpreted properly? Is more research required to draw justifiable conclusions?
Reflection suggests there is something worth further attention. What bearing do former actions have on
the present and the future? Can a trend be mapped from past experiences? What corrections should be
made in the present course of history to avoid pitfalls of the past?
With respect to the future of Christianity in Africa, it will be no stronger or weaker than the future
generations who embrace it. Its face will be shaped by what future generations choose to make it--either
purposefully or by indifference.

What are the main threats? Turaki identifies polygamy as the most difficult theological issue within Africa.
But from the perspective of the African worldview, the human community has to deal with spirits one way
or the other, as the spirits are part of the cosmos. In its extreme form, belief in spirits leads to animism.
Africa’s struggle for identity and authenticity is mainly a cultural question, for the strength of tribal and clan
identity creates splintered and conflicting congregations. In a very general way, the primary threat to the
viability of the church in Africa is failure to encourage and practice authentic faith in everyday life.
As for you, the student, the role you play in the ongoing life of the African church will depend on your
circumstance. If the course is more academic for you, hopefully, you will have a greater appreciation and
insight into the African story. If you are an African Christian with leadership opportunity, you will
undoubtedly want to engage as a participant in the life of the church. Hopefully, for you the course will
enlighten your path, whet your curiosity, and motivate you to do further study.
Regardless of your career goals, set aside some time to think through the compatibility of the gospel as
presented in the New Testament and the elements of both Independent Christian movements and
Traditional Religion. How does the African view of salvation square with that of the gospel from a New
Testament point of view? What about the concept of God? What about an enculturated Christology?
Reflect on how you believe the gospel should be interpreted in view of the African's view of ancestors,
spirits, and saints. How does one minister in a world dominated by spirits and ancestral forces? How does
one approach health issues when the reality of germs is denied or are tied to demons?
Models of the church. As we begin the reflection and assessment aspect, two questions lie before us.
(1) To what extent does the typical church in Africa reflect the ideals found in the New Testament? (2)
How can the modern church be faithful to its calling and sensitive to the African environment? Particular
elements that come into play relate to the relationship between community and personal faith, defining
aspects of spirituality, ritual celebration, sacred space and time, gestures, and symbols. These are
aspects that cannot be ignored. How they are handled will help answer the critical questions above.
Rites. No doubt, the continuance of national independence will bring more innovation in the ways
Africans conduct worship and engage their faith. The procedures may not be peculiar to Africa, for the
global community wields considerable influence on how the Christian life is played out. But change should
not come as a surprise. In a practical way, changes often come as a result of a populist movement. But
from a theological vantage, it may come from serious consideration of the biblical meaning of rituals and
rites. This is particularly true of baptism and the Lord's supper as African's shed the mantle of European
and American denominational interpretations and practices and engage in their own critical evaluation of
the New Testament.
Magesa has developed a grid for analyzing new forms of Christianity in Africa. He distinguishes between
the following three groups: (1) neo-traditional or revivalist, (2) neo-Judaic or Hebraist, and (3) neo-
Christian. The neo-traditionalists borrow from the Christian worldview only those elements that enhance
traditional views and values. In reality, these groups are more traditional than they are Christian; it is
questionable as to whether they should even be called Christian. An example of the group would be the
Dini ya Msambwa of Kenya.
The neo-Judaic category includes groups that strongly identify with the Old Testament. The Bayudaya of
Uganda are representative.
The neo-Christian group are those that separated from mainline Protestant churches. These are usually
referenced as the African Initiated Church. An example is the Legio Mari Church (Laurenti Magesa,
Anatomy of Inculturation, pp. 234-235).
The pastoral dimension. The process of training and appointing church leaders is challenging in any
context. Balancing between those who aggressively seek leadership positions, those who are lazy
theologically, those who are genuinely concerned about people, and those who are nominally qualified
places a great deal of subjectivity on the process of selection and appointment. New Testament writers

speak of appointing leaders but gives little insight into how to determine how one should be appointed.
Elders must possess certain qualities, but who decides on the degree to which they must possess
spiritual virtues? The New Testament recognizes a plurality of local leaders, but modern churches tend to
follow a long-standing historical model of a single leader within each congregation. In this instance, a
group of elders may appoint the leader, or he may be appointed by a hierarchy that oversees multiple
congregations.
Pastoral concerns are extremely important to the health of the congregation. Leadership grooming and
appointment will continue to be critical if the church is to reflect the glory of God among its members. This
is especially true when it comes to guiding the church as it faces issues such as justice, peace, poverty,
ignorance, disease, and sexual ethics. It is no less important as the leadership helps the church
understand the Christ of the Gospels against the African background.
Internet Sources
"The Existing Concept of Leadership in the African Church" by Leopold A. Foullah, Ezine Articles. You are
not asked to agree with the article, but it is offered as a way of thinking through leadership principles.
Activities
The following activities are designed to give you a start toward your essays, which are the fourth and final
graded element. These activities are not to be sent to NU but are aimed at helping you identify the
elements you wish to include in the essays, which are to be submitted (see below).
1. Assess how well the African church reflects the ideals found in the New Testament.
2. How much of African culture can be absorbed before it begins to adulterate the gospel?
3. Draft an informal essay on each of the following topics: "God, in the Eyes of an African" and "Christ, in
the Eyes of an African."
4. What do you believe to be the most critical issue facing Christianity in Africa today?
5. In your view, what are the most promising signs for the future of Christianity in Africa?
Conclusion
The course set out to achieve several objectives. They all pertained to the story of Christianity in Africa.
Hopefully, these have been reasonably achieved.
The course also provides a foundation for building on your understanding of the African experience.
Whether you live in Africa or elsewhere, Africa does represent a large part of the globe. It contains a
growing portion of the world’s Christian population. Christianity in Africa, therefore, is becoming
increasingly significant. The forms and theological concepts emerging on the continent will undoubtedly
present to the future world a portrait of Christianity that is as distinctive as the Protestant Reformation
presented to Europe.
We project that Western influence will continue, but it will be because the Africans desire it and not
because it is fostered by foreigners. Africans are tuned in to global ideas and pick them up rather quickly.
Western missionary efforts are likely to diminish in the future, due to the lessening of political and
Christian interests in the continent. The motivation for African missions is just not present. Western
powers have secular interests and do not encourage interference in religion, as this tends to destabilize
foreign relations. This is especially true in the Muslim nations.

Although Muslims are being converted in some areas of Islamic Africa, the numbers are insufficient to
make much difference. Islam will continue its assault on Christians and move to exclude them from the
political process. Reversing a fourteen-century trend toward Islamization is not on the horizon.
May you continue to be fascinated with the African version of Christianity. Continue to compare what you
find there with the conception found in the New Testament. As you work through the issues, you may
have opportunity to contribute to the ongoing debate on the essential shape of the gospel.
Pursue works in the Extended Resources and keep abreast of newer books and articles that may appear
in the future, for your level of comprehension of Christianity in Africa is at best elementary. Keep
expanding your base so you will have sufficient insight to accomplish your goals.
Examination
Essay 1: The State of Christianity in Africa

Develop in a Word document a 2,000-word essay on the state of Christianity in Africa. Locate and cite ten
(10) sources that relate to your topic from the EBSCO e-book and e-journal collections or other data
banks.
The essay should demonstrate your ability to describe present religious belief and practices on the
continent. Include challenges that lie ahead for Christianity in Africa. Upload your essay from the Course
Menu under Module 3.
Essay 2: Comparing Forms of Christianity in Africa

In a 2,000-word formal essay, compare past and present forms of Christianity in Africa. You may
consider doctrine, ritual, ministerial practices, church organization, worship, or other area of interest. You
may focus on a geographical area (North Africa, Sub-Sahara, etc.), if you would like. Whereas Essay 1
relied heavily on finding source material, this essay should be a personal analysis. Upload your essay
from the Course Menu under Module 3.
Course Evaluation
With the assessment completed, please fill out the Course Evaluation. You can access it from the Course
Menu, below the Course Summary.

Acknowledgements
Syllabus Developer
Mac Lynn
STD, San Francisco Theological Seminary
D.Admin. (honorary), The International University
Syllabus Revisions by
Paul Chimhungwe
Ph.D., McMaster Divinity College
David Srygley
D.Ed.Min., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
NationsUniversity ®
West Monroe, Louisiana, U.S.A.
©February 2021

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa 2-24-21

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa 2-24-21

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NationsUniversity®

• Examine the spread of Christianity in Africa

• Identify significant personalities in African church history

• Recognize the character of African Christianity

E-books are available without cost to the student.

Course Learning Outcomes

1. Relate the history of Christianity in Africa (exams).

2. Compare present and past forms of Christianity in Africa (essay).

3. Describe the state of African Christianity (essay).

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 1

Engagement with over 60 Internet articles (15 hours)

Reading the textbooks (38 hours)

2. Begin by watching the videos in the Video Library.

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 2

Prior to working through Module 1, read

Prior to working through Module 2, read

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 3

Galgalo, Joseph H. and Grant LeMarquant. Theological Education in Contemporary Africa.

4. Reasons for the development of indigenous forms of Christianity in Africa--colonial policies,

6. Challenges faced by the church in Africa--inculturation, liberation, Islam, Traditional Religion

"African Village Church Worship"

Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena. Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity: Interpretations from an African

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 4

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 5

Sindima, Harvey J. Drums of Redemption: An Introduction to African Christianity. Praeger Publishers,

Identity Fraud Policy

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 6

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 7

MODULE 1Christianity in North Africa

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 8

Burns, J. Patout and Robin M. Jensen. Christianity in Roman Africa.

Unit 1. Beginnings to Chalcedon (451)

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 9

Map of North Africa and Ethiopia--bearing modern country names

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 10

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 11

"Early African Church," New Advent, Catholic Encyclopedia

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 12

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 13

"Coptic Christianity," Christian Knowledge Base

"African Christianity in Ethiopia," The Metropolitan Museum of Art

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 14

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 15

"The Arab Conquests" In Our Time BBC Radio 4

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 16

"Council of Chalcedon," Catholic Encyclopedia: New Advent

"How Is the Son of God both God and Man?"

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 17

Unit 3. Modern Configuration

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 18

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 19

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 20

Tunisia. There may be as many as 5,000 non-Catholic Christians in Tunisia.

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 21

"Protestant Churches in Egypt"

MODULE 2 Christianity in Sub-Sahara Africa

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 22

Unit 1. A New Era for Christianity

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 23

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 24

Map of West Africa

MRS 417 Christianity in Africa Page 25

Map of Southern Africa

Unit 2. Background to African Church Independency