Dhamma, Cakka Pavattana Sutta: 1 The Group of 5 Monks

S 5.12.2.
1 Saṁyutta 5, Mahā Vagga 12, Sacca Saṁyutta 2, Dhammacakkappavattana Vagga 1
1 Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta

or Dhamma,cakka-p,pavattana Sutta The Discourse on the Turning of the Wheel of Truth
S 56.11 = Mv 1.6.16-31
Short name: Dhamma,cakka Sutta, The Dharma-wheel Discourse
Theme: The Buddha‟s first discourse
Translated by Piya Tan ©2002, rev 2010
1 The group of 5 monks

1.1 After the 49 day-retreat in the vicinity of the Bodhi tree,1 the Buddha leaves to look for the group
of 5 monks. On the way, he meets Upaka, who has the honour of hearing the Buddha‟s first declaration of
awakening, but fails to fathom its significance. The Buddha continues his journey to the deer park at Ben-
ares (Bārāasī) in stages and finally reaches Isi,patana (modern Sarnath), about 7 km north of Benares.2
As is the custom, he rests in the outskirts of Vārāas and waits until morning to enter the city. Having
collected his almsfood, taken his wash and eaten his meal, he heads straight for the hermitage where the 5
monks are.
1.2 It is said that the Buddha gives his first discourse on the night of the full moon day of sāha
(June-July),3 a festival still celebrated today amongst south-east Asian Buddhists as sāha Pjā. The
first sangha that arises from this momentous discourse comprises Koaa, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahā,-
1
On these 7 weeks, see Dhamma & Abhidhamma, SD 26.1 (5).
2
The distance the Buddha travels here should be noted: it is some 200 km from Gayā to Benares, and by road the
distance is about 250-300 km, which will take some 10 days by foot (Nakamura, 2000:241). It would not be surpris-
ing if the Buddha has taught many others along the way, but what records we have of this must have been lost.
3
V 1:10 ff; S 5:420 ff.; Mvst 3:330 f; Lalv 540(416) f. The Pali names of the ancient Indian calendar follow
Vism 621 and its kā (based on āamoli‟s A Pali-English Glossary of Buddhist Technical Terms, 1994), with the
Skt names (within brackets) and number of days added:
Season Sub-season Month Days Equivalent
Hemanta Māga,sira (Skt Mārga,ra) 30 Nov-Dec
Hemanta (winter) Phussa (Puya)* 30 Dec-Jan
(cold) Sisira Māgha (Maghā) 30 Jan-Feb
(cool) Phagguna (Phālguna)* 30 Feb-Mar
Vasanta Citta (Caitra) 30 Mar-Apr
Gimhāna (spring) Vesākha (Vaiākha) 31 Apr-May
(heat) Gimha Jeha (Jyaiha) 31 May-Jun
(summer) sāha or Uttar‟āsāḷha (āha) 31 Jun-Jul
Vassanā Sāvana (rāvaa) 31 Jul-Aug
Vassāna (rains) Poha,pāda (Proha,pada)* 31 Aug-Sep
(rains) Sārada Assa,yuja (va,yuja) 30 Sep-Oct
(autumn) Kattika (Kārttika) 30 Oct-Nov
[*Puya also called Paua; Phālguna also called Phaggu; Proha,pada also called Bhādra,pada.]
Note: The Indian month begins on the first day of the waning moon and ends on the full moon.
http://dharmafarer.org 27
SD 1.1 S 56.11/5:420-424 = Mv 1.6.16-31 @ V 1:10-12 • Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta
nāma and Assaji. Since Āsāha Pjā commemorates the teaching of the first discourse, it is often known
as “Dharma day.”4
1.3 The Jātaka Commentary and Milinda,pañha mention “the 5 teachers” of the Bodhisattva, act-
ually totalling 12, since the first “teacher” is really the group of 8 brahmins (Rāma, Dhaja, Lakkhaa,
Mantī, Yañña or Koṇḍañña, Suyāma, Bhoja or Subhoja, Sudatta) who examines the Bodhisattva‟s bodily
marks during the nativity. The other three are Sabba,mitta (the deva who is said to inspire the Bodhisattva
to go forth), āra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāma,putta (J 1:56; Miln 237). Koṇḍañña is the youngest of the
8 brahmins who visit the Bodhisattva at his nativity.
While seven others hold up two fingers, prophesying that the child would become either a world ruler
(if he lives the household life) or a world teacher, a buddha (if he goes forth). Koṇḍañña alone holds up
only one finger, certain that the child would leave home to become a buddha. When the Bodhisattva re-
nounces the world, Koṇḍañña approaches the sons of the other 7 brahmins (who have died by then) and
invites them to renounce the world and follow the Bodhisattva.
Only four of them—Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahānāma and Assaji—join him and together they are known
as the “group of 5” (pañca,vaggiya) (J 1:56 f). As such, Koṇḍañña is the eldest of them, his familiarity
with the Buddha going back to even when the latter is newly born.5
1.4 According to the Mahîśāsaka Vinaya, the Sagha,bheda,vastu and its Tibetan counterpart in
the Dulva (Tibetan Vinaya), the 5 monks—Koaa,6 Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahānāma and Assaji—are
the Bodhisattva‟s former companions, who have been sent by the Buddha‟s father to look after him.7 Ac-
cording to the Ekottara Âgama, the 5 monks have been following him since his birth,8 which further asso-
ciates them with the Buddha‟s family and native country.
1.5 The Ariya Pariyesanā Sutta Commentary similarly associates the 5 monks with the Buddha‟s
home country, reporting that in his early youth, Koaa is one of the brahmins who predict the child
Siddhattha‟s future spiritual career at his birth, but the other four of this group of 5 monks are the sons of
the other sooth-saying brahmins at the Buddha‟s naming ceremony just after his birth (MA 2:87).
1.6 According to the Lalita,vistara, however, they are Uddaka Ramaputta‟s disciples who have wit-
nessed how the Bodhisattva quickly achieved what they have been seeking for a long time.9 The fact that
he, however, does not rest satisfied with this achievement motivates them to leave Uddaka and follow the
Bodhisattva. Analayo, in his comparative study of the Ariya Pariyesanā Sutta, adds that
The Lalitavistara‟s presentation seems more convincing, since if the five had been ordered to
attend on the Bodhisattva, one would not expect them to abandon their mission once the Bodhi-
sattva decided to stop his self-mortifications. If however they had followed him on their own
accord and in the hope to benefit from his realizations, the decision to leave him once he had
(from their perspective) given up striving becomes understandable. (2006:111)10
2 The first discourse: contents and purpose

2.1 THE SUTTA’S TEACHINGS. To prepare the 5 monks for the first discourse, if we are to follow the
Ariya Pariyesanā Sutta (M 26), the Buddha first lists the 5 cords of sense-pleasures (kāma,guṇa), that is,
the physical body, which needs to be transcended, as it were, before we can attain the 4 dhyanas and the 4
4
Visākha Pjā, also “Buddha day,” “Vesak day” (Singapore), “Wesak day” (Malaysia) (traditionally said to be
on the fullmoon day of May), commemorates the Buddha‟s nativity, awakening and parinirvana. Māgha Pja is of-
ten called “sangha day”: see Dīgha,nakha S (M 74), SD 16.1 (6).
5
It is on this account—his age—that he is declared by the Buddha as the “longest-standing” (rattaññū) of the
monks (A 1:23,17). Coincidentally, he is also the eldest of all the monks, after the Buddha. On the significance of
this, see SD 1.2 (1.3).
6
On Koṇḍañña, see Naḷaka,pāna S (M 68) @ SD 37.4 (1.2.2).
7
T1421 = T22.104a19, tr Bareau 1963:146; Gnoli 1977:99; and a tr of Tibetan Dulva in Rockhill 1907:28.
8
EÂ 24.5 = T2.618b14, tr Bareau 1988:79.
9
Lefmann 1902; Foucaux 1884:212.
10
See Ariya Pariyesanā S (M 26.26-30/1:171-173), SD 1.11(6).
28 http://dharmafarer.org
S 5.12.2.1 Saṁyutta 5, Mahā Vagga 12, Sacca Saṁyutta 2, Dhammacakkappavattana Vagga 1
formless attainments, and finally, the cessation of perception and feeling, here equated the attainment of
nirvana. This is, in fact, a neat summary of the Buddha‟s spiritual progress from the world to awakening
itself. Understandably, this passage serves as a sort of preamble to the first discourse (S 56.11), which is
given to the 5 monks when they are finally ready to hear a proper formulation of the essence of the
Buddha‟s awakening.11
The Buddha‟s first discourse serves 3 purposes: firstly, the Buddha clears up the unfortunate mis-
understanding that has arisen between himself and his former colleagues. The discourse refutes the con-
stant criticism by rival sects of the alleged laxity of the Buddhist monastic rules. It also warns novices in
advance of the dangers of extremes in practice, and to keep to the middle way. In short, it deals with:
(1) The exhortation on the avoidance of the extremes of sensual indulgence and of self-mortification
[§§2-3];
(2) The proclamation of the middle way, i.e. the noble eightfold path [§4];
(3) The statement of the 4 noble truths [§§5-12];
(4) The declaration of the Buddha‟s supreme awakening [§13-15]; and
(5) The exultation of the devas [§§17-19].
(6) Koṇḍañña‟s attainment of the divine eye [§16].
The 4 truths are succinctly stated in the extant early texts,12 but there are innumerable places in the early
Buddhist scriptures where they are explained again and again, with greater detail and in different ways.
The 4 noble truths are the briefest synthesis of the entire teaching of the Buddha, since all those mani-
fold doctrines of the Pali Canon are, without any exception, included therein. If we study the four noble
truths with the help of the various references and explanations in the early Buddhist Scriptures, we get a
fairly good and accurate account of the essential teachings of the Buddha according to the early texts.13
2.2 THE SUTTA’S PURPOSE. Scholar have noted that the first discourse, the Dhammacakka Pavat-
tana Sutta (S 56.11), is strangely “tucked away almost inconspicuously” in the Sacca Saṁyutta (eg S:B
1520), and which centres around the 4 noble truths and the noble eightfold path (which are teaching mod-
els of the second period).14 The first-period suttas are usually unstructured but point directly to the awake-
ning truths, such as the teachings of the Aṭṭhaka Vagga and the Pārāyana Vagga of the Sutta Nipāta.15
In the case of the first discourse, it is possible that the Buddha has given the 5 monks other teachings
in preparation for what has been formalized as the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta. Surely, the four noble
truths are not the only teaching the Buddha has given to his first monk disciples. The Vinaya, in fact,
records that before the Buddha delivers the first discourse, he has to persuade the 5 monks that he is now
awakened, unlike before.16
However, no details are given, except that the Buddha declares to them: “Bhikshus, do you agree that
I‟ve not spoken to you like this before?” We might safely assume here that other teachings are also given
prior to the first discourse itself. However, the first discourse is recorded by the council elders and reciters
in such a manner as to highlight its primacy and significance.17
3 The middle way

3.1 THE 2 EXTREMES. Significantly, the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta opens by addressing the
prevalent views of the day: the physicalist and the eternalist. The physicalist view is a materialist and
annihilationist one, that is, they believe that the “soul” (mind, or consciousness, etc) is identical with the
body, so that when the body dies, it dies, too.18 In other words, the body is meant to be enjoyed, and we
11
(S 56.11/5:420-424), SD 1.1. See (M 26.31-42/1:173-175), SD 1.11 (7).
12
Eg Dukkha S (S 22.104/3:158 f), SD 42.20.
13
On the lateness of Dhamma,cakka Pavattana S (S 56.11), see Notion of diṭṭhi, SD 40a.1 (2.2).
14
On the 2 periods of the Buddha‟s ministry, see SD 401.1 (1.3).
15
See Notion of diṭṭhi, SD 40a.1 (1.3).
16
Mv 1.6.10-16 = V 1:8-10..
17
See Notion of diṭṭhi, SD 40a.1 (2.2).
18
See Sandaka S (M 76.7/1:515), SD 35.7.
should sow wild oats while we can, as it were. In fact, the sensual life of the young Bodhisattva broadly
hints at this kind of materialistic philosophy.19
The eternalist view is essentially the same today as it is in the Buddha‟s time. There is a belief in
some kind of eternal entity (Brahman, soul, divine essence) and its source or creator (usually some kind
of God-idea). Among the Indian eternalists of the Buddha‟s time, however, there is a popular belief that
the body is basically evil or unsatisfactory, or at best provisional (here, it concurs with much of the eter-
nalist views of our times), so that with its destruction (deliberate or natural), we would inherit some kind
of divine body or heavenly birth.
These 2 extreme views and practices are also criticized in the Cūḷa Dhamma Samādāna Sutta (M
45), where 4 kinds of “undertakings things” (dhamma samādāna), that is, religious life-style as follows:
(1) conduct that is pleasant now, but resulting in future pain;
(2) conduct that is painful now, but ripening in future pain;
(3) conduct that is painful now, but in ripening future pleasure (or happiness); and
(4) conduct that is pleasant now, and ripening in future pleasure (or happiness).
The first refers to a life of sense-indulgence, while the second is that of self-mortification. These two
kinds of practices should be given up and avoided. The third undertaking refers to when we have great
difficulties with greed, hate or delusion, but we still we do not abandon our mental cultivation. The fourth
undertaking, is the ideal one, as it is easy all the way, and the spiritual fruition is easily obtained, too.20
The Buddha rejects both the physicalist and the eternalist views as being extremes [3.2]. However,
note in the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta that while “the devotion to the enjoyment of sensual pleas-
ures,” or more briefly, “the devotion to sensual pleasures” (kāma,sukh’allikânuyoga) is described as being
“low, vulgar, worldly, ignoble, not connected with the goal [unprofitable]” (hīno gammo puthujjaniko
anariyo anattha,saṁhito) [§3], “the devotion to self-mortification” (atta,kilamathânuyoga) is said to be
only “painful, ignoble, not connected with the goal [unprofitable]” (dukkho anariyo anattha,saṁhito)
[§3]. This is because despite being “painful,” self-mortification, with some moral virtue, can bring about a
divine afterlife; but such a goal is nevertheless “ignoble, not connected with the goal [unprofitable],” be-
cause we are still caught up in samsara, and not liberated from suffering.21
3.2 THE MIDDLE WAY. In this sutta, the “middle way” (majjhimā paipadā) is declared to be the no-
ble eightfold path. According to Rupert Gethin,
what the Bārāasī discourse appears to do is present a kind of apologetic and polemic in one.
What is taught by the Buddha is truly a spiritual life (brahma-cariyā) in that it is free of vulgar
sensual indulgence, on the other hand it is distinct from what Bronkhorst22 characterizes as the
old severely ascetic main stream meditation tradition. From the point of view of the Bārāasī dis-
course, this is now superseded by the new middle way. What is important about the first discourse
is the “middleness” of what the Buddha teaches. From this point of view, the ariyo ahagiko
maggo is largely incidental to the discourse. (Gethin 2001:199 f; see 198-201)
Gethin goes on to point out that the application of the expression “the middle way” to the avoidance
of sensual indulgence and of self-torture occurs in only four other passages. Only two of these concern the
noble eightfold path exclusively, that is, the Araa,vibhaga Sutta (M 139.4/3:230 f) and the Rāsiya
Sutta (S 42.12.4/4:330), both of which describe the noble eightfold path as the “middle way” in exactly
the same terms as the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta. The other usages of “the middle way” mentioned
by Gethin (2001:200 ff) includes the following:
19
See eg Sukhumala S (A 3.38/1:145 f), SD 63.7.
20
M 45/1:305-309 @ SD 32.4.
21
See The body in Buddhism, SD 29.6a (4.1).
22
See Bronkhorst, The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Stuttgart, 1986.
(1) The Acelaka Paṭipadā Suttas 1 & 2 (A 3.151+152), where three “ways” (paipadā) are given:
that of indulgence (āgāhā), that of burning (nijjhāmā), and that of the middle way.23
(2) The Dhamma,dāyāda Sutta (M 3), “Here, brothers, greed (lobha) is evil, hate (dosa) is evil.
There is the middle way for the abandonment of greed and hate… It is this very noble eightfold
path.” (M 3.8/1:15)
(3) The Kaccāna,gotta Sutta (S 12.15), the Acela Kassapa Sutta (S 12.17), the Aññatara Brāh-
maa Sutta (S 12.46) and the (Sabba) Jāussoī Sutta (S 12.47), where the Buddha comments
on the extremes of “all exists” (sabbam atthi) and “nothing exists” (sabbaṁ n’atthi), and of eter-
nalism (sassata) and annihilationism (uccheda) [3.1], and “not following either of these extremes,
the Tathagata teaches the Dharma by the middle” (ete te ubho ante anupagamma majjhena tathā-
gato dhammaṁ deseti). The “middle” here refers to dependent arising (paicca samuppāda).24
(4) The Sampasādanīya Sutta mentions the 2 extremes, followed by the attaining of the 4 dhyanas,
wihout mentioning the eightfold path (D 28.19/3:113), SD 14.14.25
Gethin adds that “This „middle‟ would seem to be rather more significant for the subsequent develop-
ment of Buddhist thought than the specific notion of the ariyo ahagiko maggo as the middle way be-
ween sensual indulgence and self-torment” (Gethin 2001:200 f). Furthermore, A K Warder points out
that this is best exemplified in Nāgārjuna‟s Mūla,madhyamaka Kārikā, where dependent arising ap-
pears to represent the “middle way” par excellence.26 In fact, the most frequently quoted and important
canonical text for Nāgārjuna is apparently the Nidāna Saṁyutta (Saṁyutta Nikāya 12), especially the
Kaccā(ya)na,gotta Sutta (S 12.15).27
4 Terminology
4.0 The 4 noble truths are as follows:
(1) the noble truth [reality] that is suffering dukkha ariya,sacca [§5]
(2) the noble truth that is the arising of suffering dukkha,samudaya ariya,sacca [§6]
(3) the noble truth that is the ending of suffering dukkha,nirodha ariya,sacca [§7]
(4) the noble truth that is the path leading to the dukkha,nirodha,gāminī,paṭipadā
ending of suffering ariya,sacca [§8]
4.1 THE LIST OF SUFFERINGS. A key passage in the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta defines the first
truth—the noble truth that is suffering—as follows:
(1) birth is suffering,
(2) decay [old age] is suffering,
[ ] [disease is suffering,]28
(3) death is suffering,
(4) grief, lamentation, physical pain, mental pain and despair are suffering,29
(5) to be with the unpleasant is suffering,30
(6) to be without the pleasant is suffering,31
23
A 3.151+152/1:295-297.
24
Respectively, S 12.15/2:17 @ SD 6.13; S 12.17/2:20 @ SD 18.5; S 12.46/2:75 f @ SD 83.9; S 12.47/2:76 f @
SD 68.6.
25
This Sutta is not mentioned by Gethin.
26
A K Warder, “Is Nāgārjuna a Mahāyānist?” in The Problem of Two Truths in Buddhism and Vedānta, ed M
Sprung, Dordrecht, 1973:79, 81.
27
S 12.15/2:17 qu at S 22.90/3:134 f. See also Notion of diṭṭhi, SD 40.1 (10.1.1).
28
Only in the Vinaya & Saṁyutta versions; not mentioned in Comys.
29
Found in most MSS but not in Be and Ce.
30
“The unpleasant,” appiya, also tr “what one loves not.”
31
“The loved,” piya, also tr “what one loves.”
(7) not to get what one desires is suffering,

(8) —in short, the 5 aggregates of clinging32 are suffering. [§5]
In the Chinese Mahāyāna texts, this list (including “disease,” and excluding “grief, lamentation, etc”)
are called “the 8 sufferings” (aa,dukhatā). Buddhaghosa gives the 8 occasions invoking urgency
(aha saṁvega,vatthu), as follows: birth (jāti), decay (jarā), sickness (vyādhi), death (maraa), suffering
of loss (apāya,dukkha), suffering of the past rooted in the round of rebirth (atte vaa,mlaka dukkha),
suffering of the future rooted in the round of rebirth (anāgate vaa,mlaka dukkha), and suffering of the
present rooted in the search for food (paccuppanne āhāra,pariyehi,mlaka dukkha) (Vism 4.63/135).
SD 1.1(4.1) (Sāriputta) Dukkha Sutta

The (Sāriputta) Discourse on Suffering | S 38.14/4:259
Theme: The 3 kinds of suffering [unsatisfactoriness]
3 “„Suffering, suffering‟ (dukkha), avuso Sāriputta, so it is said. What, avuso Sāriputta, is suffering?”
3.2 “There are 3 kinds of suffering (dukkhatā), avuso, namely:
(1) bodily suffering [the suffering of pain], dukkha,dukkhatā
(2) the suffering that is the formations, saṅkhāra,dukkhatā
(3) suffering due to change. vipariṇāma,dukkhatā
These, avuso, are the 3 kinds of suffering.
4 But, avuso, there is a way for the full understanding of these 3 kinds of suffering.
5 What, avuso, is the way for the full understanding of these 3 kinds of suffering?
5.2 It is this very noble eightfold path, avuso, that is the way for the full understanding of these 3
kinds of suffering, that is to say:
(1) right view, sammā diṭṭhi
(2) right thought [right intention], sammā saṅkappa
(3) right speech, sammā vācā
(4) right action, sammā kammantā
(5) right livelihood, sammā ājīva
(6) right effort, sammā vāyāma
(7) right mindfulness, sammā sati
(8) right stillness [concentration]. sammā samādhi
This, avuso, is the noble eightfold path that is the way for the full understanding of these 3 kinds of
suffering.”
6 “Good is the path, avuso! Good is this way for the full understanding of suffering!33
And, avuso, it is indeed sufficient for the sake of diligence.”
— evaṁ —
The (Sāriputta) Dukkha Sutta (S 38.14) categorizes suffering into 3 kinds:

(1) “physical suffering,” that is, affective suffering (due to physical and mental pain) (dukkha,-
dukkhatā, lit “the suffering of pain”),
(2) “suffering due to change” or temporal suffering (due to the uncertainty or ending of pleasant feel-
ing) (vipariāma,dukkhatā), and
32
Pac’upadāna-k,khandha, viz, form, feeling, perception, formations and consciousness (S 3:47; Vbh 1). What
is briefly mentioned here is elaborated in the second discourse, Anatta,lakkhaa S (S 22.59), SD 1.2.
33
Bhaddako avuso maggo bhaddikā paṭipadā etasaṁ dukkhataṁ pariññāya.
(3) “suffering due to formations” or existential suffering, that is, the inherent inadequacy of condi-
tioned existence, that is, of the three worlds (the sense-world, the form-world, and the formless
world), on account of rise and fall of phenomena (sakhāra,dukkhatā).34
The first is bodily pain and mental displeasure; the second is pleasant feeling, which brings suffering
when it ends, and the third is all conditioned phenomena of the three worlds35 because they are oppressed
by the rise and fall of events. In the above list [§5], the three main categories of suffering are as follows:
(1) birth, decay, disease, death, grief etc;
(2) not to be with the pleasant, to be without the pleasant; and
(3) the 5 aggregates.
The way to end suffering, “in short” (saṅkhittena)—that is, essentially—lies in a full understanding of the
5 aggregates.36 The 3 kinds of suffering are explained in the Visuddhi,magga.37
4.2 JĀTI AND ITS CONTEXT.
4.2.1 Jāti refers to rebirth itself. In the early after-centuries, Buddhists scholastics and comment-
ators tend to interpret jāti as gestation or as the process of being born it, that is, the pain which we bear in
our mother‟s womb up to the moment of being born. Scholars have noted that the Sarvāstivādins have a
propensity to interpret jāti,dukkha as the suffering in a mother‟s womb and at birth, despite the fact that
the original concept of jāti is found in Vasubandhu.38
It is clear from the early texts, however, that jāti (birth) generally refers to rebirth itself. This is clear-
ly evident from two key early suttas, the Mahā,satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (D 22) and the Sammā,diṭṭhi Sutta
(M 9), thus:
And what, bhikshus, is birth?
The birth, becoming, descending (into a womb), (arising,)39 generating, manifesting of
the aggregates, obtaining the sense-bases in various beings, in various groups of beings, here
and there—this, bhikshus, is called birth.40
(D 22,18/2:305), SD 13.2, = (M 9,26/1:50), SD 14.1
4.2.2 Jāti jarā vyādhi maraṇa
4.2.2.1 Toshifumi GOTŌ, in his 2005 study,41shows that early Buddhist conception of “the four suf-
ferings”—birth, decay [ageing], disease and death—that is, the first four in the list of nine sufferings,
closely parallels Yājñavalkya‟s characterization of the ātman [the abiding “self”]. Comparing the four
attributes of the ātman in Yājña,valkya doctrine, as found in the Bṛhad Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad,42 namely,
ajára (undecaying), amára (undying), abháya (fearless) and amṛta (immortal).
At a glance, these four words appear to be colourful qualifiers without any discernible difference in
meaning. In the Buddha‟s time (and before that), however, these words “express the essential qualities of
the Ātman which transcends this very fear (bhaya) [the fear of death]” (Gotō 2005:84). Indeed, such not-
ions as the Ātman or eternal soul is to overcome the fear of death, and of the after-death state, just as the
34
S 38.14/4:259; also S 45.165/5:56; D 3:216.
35
The 3 worlds are the sense world (kāma,loka), the form world (rūpa,loka), and the formless world (arūpa,loka).
See The body in Buddhism, SD 29.6a (5.2) & The person in Buddhism, SD 29.6b (7.2). For details, see Viññā-
ṇa-ṭ,ṭhiti, SD 23.14.
36
See eg Pañca-k,khandha, SD 17.
37
Vism 16.34 f/499,14-21.
38
See eg Y Muroji, “Tanjō (saisei) no teikeihyōgen wo meguru bukkyōto no shodenshō” [Various versions of the
Buddhist transmission of the formula on the birth [rebirth], Kōyasan University, 110 Years Jubilee Volume, 1966:
181-196; Gotō 2005:81-85.
39
Nibbatti, so Ke & M 3:249.
40
Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ sattānaṁ tamhi tamhi satta,nikāye jāti sañjāti Okkanta [nibbatti]* abhinibbati, khandhānaṁ
pātubhāvo āyatanānaṁ pailābho, ayaṁ vuccati jāti. *Ke & M 3:249.
41
“Yajñavalkya‟s characterization of the ātman and the four kinds of suffering in early Buddhism.”
42
BAU 4.4.30-31; also BAU (Mādhyandina ed) 3.8.8, amongst other negated qualifiers of etád…akṣáram, “this
imperishable one.” See Gotō 2005:72-74.
Almighty God-idea is used to overcome psychological insecurity with God serving as a protective “hea-
venly father.”43 Hence, the Ātman makes one “fearless” (or, unfearing, fearfree) (abháya).
4.2.2.2 According to the Bṛhad Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad, when a person attains Brahman, he becomes
amṛta. Although here amṛta means “immortal,” it does not mean that someone alive who does not die on
earth (for which the word amára, “undying” is used), but that there is no more death at all. This is
because punar-mṛtyú (repeated death in a heavenly world resulting in rebirth on earth, or “redeath”) is
transcended. In this case, according to Upaniṣads, Ātman is absorbed into Bráhman.44 The term amára
(“undying”), however, is not attested anywhere in Vedic literature, except in later literature.45
In philosophical terms, these two terms—amata (“immortal, death-free”) and amara (“undying”)—
probably reflect the way that Vedic thinkers and the early believers understood of the Buddha‟s realiza-
tion of nirvana. The Buddha evidently and consciously uses these terms as qualifiers of nirvana so that the
brahmins and believers of the Vedic system—his main intended audience—could understand his teach-
ings through conceptual familiarity. Other similar expressions include the teaching being referred to as
“the door of immortality” (amata,dvāra).46
4.2.2.3 Gotō concludes his 2005 essay by showing the correspondence between the Vedic and the
Buddhist terms, thus:
Upaniṣad qualifiers for Ātman Buddhist terms for suffering
ajára “undecaying” jāti “birth, rebirth”
amára “undying” jarā “ageing, decay”
abháya “fearless” vyādhi “disease”
amṛta “immortal” maraṇa “death”
Here, we see how the Upanisadic adjective ajára (undecaying) is related to the Pali noun jarā
(decay), by referring to opposite qualities. Similarly, the Upanisadic amára (undying) (used almost
exclusively as an epithet of Ātman) is related to the Pali maraṇa (death) in reflecting contrary qualities.
The Upanisadic amṛta (immortal) points to the opposite of the Pali jāti (birth, rebirth). The Upanisadic
abháya (fearless), however, is is replaced by the Pali vyādhi (disease), “a more concrete notion for our
usual life” (Gotō 2005:84). Gotō concludes:
The conception of life and world in early Buddhism have thus inherited the reflections on
birth and death in the old Upaniṣads, and further explicated them. The predominance of the pessi-
mistic view of life in early Buddhism47 can be explained from this historical background; it is
rooted in the negative discussions about re-dying (punar-mṛtyú) in the heavenly world since the
Brāhmaṇa period.
The teaching of Gotama Buddha, which aims to deliver the ordinary people from their con-
crete suffering, tends to observe phenomena of human life more realistically than his forerunners
and endeavors to elucidate the causality of existence in Saṁsāra without admitting the existence
of “the eternal subject of existence,” ie Ātman, thus resulting in the doctrine of Pratītyasamupāda.
(Gotō 2005:85)
43
On Buddhism and the God-idea, see Te,vijja S (D 13), SD 1.8 (4).
44
BAU (Mādhyandina ed) 4.4.8 f (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 14.7.2.8 f), BAU (Kāṇva ed) 4.4.6 f. Gotō 2005:75 f, 80.
45
Eg Manu,smṛti 2.148 = Viṣṇu,smṛti 30.46 (sā [scil jāti] ajar’āmarā); in the meaning of “god” (Baudhāyana-
Dharma,sūtra 4.8.7).
46
Mv 1.5.7/V 1:5 f = D 2:39 = M 1:168 f = S 1:137 f; It 80; Vv 1035/5.14.27. See Junko SAKAMOTO-GOTŌ, “The
prototype of the story „Brahmā‟s Request‟,” Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 41,1 1992:471 n2. See also
CPD: amata-dvāra & amata-nibbāna.
47
By “pessimistic” here, Gotō is evidently referring to the recurring early Buddhist statements on the universality
of suffering, etc, not that the Buddha teaches a negative life-view without happiness or salvation: see Gotō 2005 §8.
It is thus clearly evident that the Buddha makes use of religious vocabulary that is already familiar to his
audience (especially the brahmins and believers in the Vedic system). In doing so, he easily and effective-
ly reaches out to them with his teachings.48
4.3 SAMUDAYA AND NIRODHA. The terms samudaya [§§6, 10] and nirodha [§§7, 11] are commonly
tr respectively as “origin” and “ending, cessation.” However, from the teachings of this Sutta, which un-
derlies the Buddha‟s Teaching as a whole, they are better rendered as “arising” and “non-arising.” Payut-
to makes an important note:
Generally speaking, the word „cease” [or „end‟] means to do away with something which has
already arisen, or the stopping of something which has already begun. However, nirodha in the
teaching of Dependent Origination (as also in dukkhanirodha, the third of the noble truths) means
non-arising, or non-existence, of something because the cause of its arising is done away with.
For example, the phrase „when avijjā is nirodha, sakhārā are also nirodha,‟ which is usually
taken to mean, “with the cessation of ignorance, volitional impulse cease,” in fact means that
„when there is no ignorance, or no arising of ignorance, or when there is no longer any problem
with ignorance, there is no volitional impulses, volitional impulses do not arise, or there is no
longer any problem from volitional impulses.‟ It does not mean that ignorance already arisen
must be done away with before the volitional impulses which have already arisen will also be
done away.
Where nirodha should be rendered as cessation is when it is used in reference to the natural
way of things, or the nature of compounded things. In this sense it is a synonym for the words
bhaga (breaking up), anicca (transient), khaya (cessation) or vaya (decay). For example, in the
Pali it is given: imaṁ kho bhikkhave tisso vedanā anicccā sakhatā paiccasamuppannā khaya-
dhammā vayadhammā virāgadhammā nirodhadhammā—“Bhikshus, these three kinds of feelings
are naturally impermanent, compounded, dependently arisen, transient, subject to decay, dissolu-
tion, fading and cessation” [S 4:214]. (All factors occurring in the Dependent Origination cycle
have the same nature.) In this instance, the meaning is “all conditioned things (sakhāra), having
arisen, must inevitably decay and fade according to supporting factors.” There is no need [here]
to try to stop them, they cease of themselves.
As for nirodha in the third noble truth (or the Dependent Origination cycle in cessation
mode), although it also describes a natural process, its emphasis is on practical considerations. It
is translated in two ways in the Visuddhimagga [Vism 16.18/495]. One way traces the etymology
to ni (without) + rodha (prison, confine[s], obstacle, wall, impediment), thus rendering the mean-
ing as “without impediment,” “free from confinement.” This is explained as “free of impedi-
ments, that is, the confinement of saṁsāra.” Another definition traces the origin to anuppāda,
meaning “not arising,” [and goes on to say “nirodha here does not mean bhaga, breaking up
and dissolution.”]49
Therefore, translating nirodha as “cessation,” although not entirely wrong, is nevertheless not
entirely accurate. On the other hand, there is no other word which comes so close to the essential
meaning as “cessation.” However, we should understand what is meant by the term.
(Payutto 1994:106-108; slightly edited with emphases added)
4.4 TRANSLATION OF ARIYA,SACCA
4.4.1 In Brahmanism, the term ariya (Skt ārya) refers to the “noble” people who migrated into India,
while in Buddhism it is used in a spiritual sense. The Buddha wisely uses this well-known word, but gives
it a new meaning, reflecting his own vision, and to encourage others to turn away from a racially delimit-
ing for a spiritually liberating life.
4.4.2 In the first discourse, each of the four truths is called an ariya,sacca, a “noble-truth.” Although
the popular translation “noble truth” is a possible meaning, British philologist K R Norman thinks that it
48
See “Did the Buddha „borrow‟ ideas from the Upaniṣads?” SD 6.15 (5); Ambaṭṭha S (D 3), SD 21.3 (3).
49
I have been unable to trace this bracketed reading in the Visuddhi,magga.
is the least likely one.50 The commentators interpret it as: “truth of the noble one or noble ones” or “truth
for a noble one,” that is, “truth that will make one a noble,” or, sometimes, “noble truth.”51 Here, the
“noble ones” are those who are partially or fully awakened: streamwinners, once-returners, non-returners
and arhats, along with the Buddha.
Strictly speaking, it is problematic to speak of a truth as being “noble,” as such a quality properly re-
fers to living beings. It is more meaningful, for example, to speak of the “noble ones,” who are so called
precisely because they have gained insight into these truths. While Norman prefers the translation, “truth
of the noble one (the Buddha),” he accepts that the term may be deliberately polysemous. If we speak of
“truth for a noble,” by extension, we can also speak of “ennobling truth.”52
4.4.3 Rupert Gethin, another British scholar, comments, “The word satya (Pali sacca) can certainly
mean truth, but it might equally be rendered as „real‟ or „actual thing‟,” hence we have “four „true things,‟
or „realities‟” (Gethin 1998:60). This explanation is especially helpful because the first discourse speaks
of the truths as follows: the first is “to be understood”; the second is “to be abandoned”; the third is “to be
realized”; and the fourth is “to be cultivated.”
Note that the second truth is a truth or reality to abandon: it is not a truth to be abandoned. What is to
be abandoned here is craving, as a result of which we are ennobled; hence, an “ennobling truth.” On the
other hand, we must be careful not to describe craving itself as “ennobling.” However, they are certainly
truths that the noble saints have realized, or having realized (according to their functions), we become
noble saints. Hence, they are “the realities for the noble one(s).”
4.4.4 Peter Harvey notes, “It is also apparent that these Ennobling Realities are not something that
Buddhists should respond to with „belief.‟ To „believe‟ them is to mishandle them, rather than to treat
them appropriately by respectively understanding, abandoning, realizing and developing them.” (2007:
320). The four noble truths are, in short, an “action plan” for a practising Buddhist.
4.4.5 Personally, I think it is likely that the translation “noble truth” would remain current, at least
amongst the public, if only for its simplicity. Even technically, it is still acceptable, as it is a literal trans-
lation of ariya,sacca as “noble-truth.” In normal English, it is not necessary to use the hyphen (or it could
stay, if we are sticklers to technicality). We should nevertheless we fully aware of the helpful explana-
tions and definitions scholars have provided us with above. We simply need to define our terms and
choose the simplest, sharpest razor there is to cut through ignorance and suffering.53
5 The nature of the truths

5.1 PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF REALITY
5.1.1 The details of the Buddha‟s spiritual experience in terms of the four noble truths are recounted
in such suttas as the Bhaya,bherava Sutta (M 4)54 and the Mahā Saccaka Sutta (M 36).55 These truths
are first expounded to the world at Benares (Sacca Vibhaga Sutta, M 141)56 and taught throughout his
45-year ministry as “the teaching special to the Buddhas” (M 56).57 Both the Tathā Sutta 1 (S 56.20) and
50
Norman 1997:16; also 1982, 1990.
51
Eg DA 2:542; AA 2:145, 281; SnA 1:278, 300; UA 283; ItA 1:62, 85, 118; ThaA 1:205, 3:49; VvA 215; VbhA
84 f, 122.
52
Further see (Khandha) Dukkha S (S 22.104/3:158 f), SD 42.20 (2).
53
Occam's razor or Ockham's razor (Lat lex parsimoniae) is the law of parsimony, economy or succinctness. It
is a principle urging us to select from among competing hypotheses and ideas that which makes the fewest assump-
tions and thereby offers the simplest explanation of the effect. On how we define words or give them meaning, see
Saññā, SD 17.4 (2.3).
54
M 4.31/1:23.
55
M 36.42/1:249 @ SD 1.11.
56
M 141.2/3:248.
57
M 56.18/1:380.
the Tathā Sutta 2 (S 56.27) declare that “the four noble truths are true, not false, not otherwise,” 58 but
the latter adds: “therefore, they are called „noble truths‟.”59
5.1.2 The noble truths are concisely presented in such texts as the Sammā Dihi Sutta (M 9),60 and
in detail in the Sacca Vibhaga Sutta (M 141). Sāriputta‟s unique presentation is recorded in the Mahā
Hatthi,padpama Sutta (M 28),61 where it is stated that “just as the footprint of any living being that
walks can be placed within an elephant‟s footprint, and so the elephant‟s footprint is declared to be the
foremost of them, even so, all wholesome states can be included in the four noble truths” (M 28).
5.1.3 The Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta fully and clearly explains the functions of each of the 4
noble truths, thus:
(1) The first noble truth, that is, suffering is to be understood. [§9]
(2) The second noble truth, that is, the arising of suffering is to be abandoned. [§10]
(3) The third noble truth, that is, the ending of suffering (nirvana) is to be realized. [§11]
(4) The fourth noble truth, that is, the way to the ending of suffering is to be cultivated. [§12]
5.1.4 The Sutta is also unique in presenting the 3 phases (ti,parivaa) of each of the truths, namely:
(1) the knowledge (ie, understanding) of the truth (sacca,āa),
(2) the knowledge of the task to be done regarding each truth (kicca,āa), and
(3) the knowledge of the accomplishment of these tasks (kata,āa).
5.1.5 When these 3 phases are applied to each of the 4 truths, they total as the 12 aspects or modes
(dvādas’ākāra). The Commentarial version of these phases is called “the 3 good truths” (saddhamma),
namely,
(1) the true Dharma as theory pariyatti.saddhamma (textual aspect),
(2) the true Dharma as practice paipatti.saddhamma (moral virtue and meditation), and
(3) the true Dharma as realization paivedha.saddhamma (sainthood and liberation).62
5.2 TRUTH AND REALITY. In doctrinal terms, it is the 4 noble truths that the Buddha realizes on his
awakening. I have translated ariya,sacca as “the noble truth that is…” rather than the more familiar “the
noble truth of…” because they are not merely theoretical statements, such as “the theory of relativity”
(which refers to an impersonal observation). But the noble truths are healing truths. Above all, the fourth
noble truth is that of the way out of suffering, that is, the path that leads to spiritual liberation.
This approach is supported by the difficulties resulting from taking these 4 realities as “truths of,” as
made clear in this observation by Analayo:
A closer examination of the Pāli version of this first discourse brings to light a curiosity, as
the discourse presents the second noble truth of the origin of dukkha as something that needs to
be abandoned.63 Yet what needs to be abandoned is the origin of dukkha, not the noble truth itself.
Hence in this case it would seem possible that not only the qualification “noble,” but the whole
expression “noble truth” may not have been part of the earliest version of this statement.
(Analayo, A Comparative Study of the Majjhima Nikāya, draft, 2006, ad M 3:348)64
For the phrase, taṁ kho pan’idaṁ dukkha,samudayaṁ ariya,saccaṁ pahātabbaṁ,65 Bodhi renders it
as “this noble truth of the origin of suffering is to be abandoned” (S:B 1845). Woodward has earlier on
noted, “but we must omit ariya-saccaṁ, otherwise the text would mean „the Ariyan truth about the aris-
ing of Ill is to be put away‟” (S:W 5:358 n1). Norman adds that
58
Imāni kho bhikkhave cattāri ariya,saccāni tathāni avitathāni anaññathāni, S 56.20/5:430 f = S 56.27/5:435.
59
Tathā S 1: Tasmā ariya,saccānî ti vuccanti (S 56.27/5:435).
60
M 9.14-18/1:48 f.
61
M 28/1:184-191.
62
VA 225; AA 5.33; cf Nm 143 for the first two. For a variant, where the last 2 functions are inverted, see Mahā
Saḷ’āyatanika S (M 149.10.6/3:289) + SD 41.9 (2.4) & Abhiññā S A 4.251/2:246 f [A:B 5:254], SD 85.3.
63
Taṁ kho pan’idaṁ dukkha,samudayaṁ ariya,saccaṁ pahātabbaṁ (S 56.11/5:422,12).
64
See also his important fn there.
65
S 56.11/5:422,12.
what the Buddha said was that pain should be known, its origin given up, its cessation realized,
and the path to its cessation practised. Woodward therefore did not go far enough. He should have
suggested the removal of the word ariya-saccaṁ from all four items in the „gerundival‟ set.”
(Norman 1982:385)
Early Buddhism is a spiritual path to healing, awakening and liberation. In other words, it is a practi-
cal system where we seek to directly discover reality, to which the Buddha himself has awakened. As
reality can only be a personal experience, its expression speech or words is called a “truth.” The fourfold
statement of the Buddha‟s direct experience of reality is called the 4 noble truths, which is at best a theo-
retical statement pointing to the “realities” of suffering, its arising, its ending and the way to its ending.
The “truths” are simply signboards; it is the fourfold reality that we have to work with. No matter how
well defined the terminology may be, it is still not the experience. The name is not the thing named. For
one who has experienced true reality, there is no need of words for it.
5.3 THE TRUTHS AND MEDICAL HEALTH
5.3.1 We all easily notice that the noble truths have a familiat sequence, reflecting that of medical
formula or regime. In the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta (S 56.11), we have the familiar teaching
sequence of sufferingarisingendingpath. However, there is an ancient version of the formula
which follows a more practical sequence, found in the Mahā Saḷ-āyatanika Sutta (M 148) and other
suttas, laid out thus: suffering arisingpathending. [6.2.2.2]
In both formulas, especially the older “practical” sequence of the Saḷāyatanika Sutta, we see a clear
correlation with the sequence of medical treatment, thus:
The nohble truths Medicak treatment

(1) suffering (dukkha) pain disease
(2) arising (samudaya) craving diagnosis
(3) path (magga) the eightfold path prescription and treatment
(4) ending (nirodha) nirvana cure
5.3.2 There is no strong evidence that such a medical regime existed in ancient India, especially
before the Buddha‟s time. Surely such a formula would be well known and recorded in some ancient
tradition or text. As such, it is unlikely that the Buddha had borrowed this idea from outside. It is more
likely that he has come up with this formula on his own.
That the Buddha would have easily come up this practical sequence (or the theoretical one) because
he is himself familiar with medicine and medical health. The kshatriya or warrior clan, used to martial
arts and battling, surely knew of health and healing methods, to treat their bodily wounds and mishaps.
Moreover, both the Vinaya (eg the Bhesajja Khandha) and66 the suttas (eg the Sīvaka Sutta, S 36.21),67
we have accounts that evince a great familiarity with traditional medicine and medical health.
Important early Buddhist teachings, such as those of the 4 elements (earth, water, fire and wind) are
the basis for traditional Indian and Asian medicine.68 The early suttas also show a great familiarity with
medical knowledge,69 the human anatomy, especially the internal components of the human body.70 And
we also have accounts of the works of the greatest of the ancient Indian doctors, Jīvaka.71
66
Mv 6 = V 1:199-252.
67
S 36.21 + SD 5.6 (1).
68
Teachings on the 4 elements are very common, eg Maha Hatthi,padôpama S (M 28,6-27) + SD 6.16 (3) &
Dhātu Vibhaṅga S (M 140,13-18), SD 4.17. See also SD 3.11 (4).
69
See SD 36.9 (5).
70
See eg Giri-m-ānanda S (A 10.60,6), SD 19.16.
71
See eg (Majjhima) Jīvaka S (M 55) + SD 43.4 (2).
5.3.3 This is not surprising at all, since even extant Ayurvedic treatises stem from a later period, after
the Buddha.72 Indeed, despite brahminical and non-Buddhist attempts to credit otherwise, modern
scholars have shown that traditional Indian medicine is clearly rooted in Buddhist monastic medicine.73
6 Mastery of the 4 noble truths

6.1 THE 3 TYPES OF SUFFERING
6.1.1 The Dukkha Sutta (S 38.14) categorizes suffering into three kinds:
(1) affective suffering (due to physical and mental pain) (dukkha,dukkhatā, lit “the suffering of suf-
fering”),
(2) temporal suffering or “suffering in change” (ie due to the ending of pleasant feeling”) (vipariā-
ma,dukkhatā), and
(3) existential suffering or “suffering due to formations” or “suffering of conditionality,” in the inher-
ent inadequacy in conditioned existence (sakhāra,dukkhatā).
(S 38.14/4:259; also S 45.165/5:56; D 3:216)
Here, (1) “Affective suffering” is bodily painful feeling and mental painful feeling, or more simply,
“ordinary suffering.” In psychodynamic74 terms, this is “neurotic conflict between impulse and prohibi-
tion with a stable self-structure and whole-object relations,75 as well as to „ordinary human unhappiness,‟
which Freud once said was the exchange for resolution of neurotic suffering.”76
(2) “Temporal suffering” is bodily pleasant feeling and mental pleasant feeling, either of which brings
suffering when any of them end.77 Psychodynamically, this corresponds to “the borderline condition and
the functional psychoses, when disturbance in the sense of self-continuity, fluctuating drives and affects,
contradictory and dissociated ego states, lack of a stable self-structure, and lack of constant relations with
the object world are the core problem” (ib).
At this stage of personality development, prior to individuation78 and stability in object relation,
change is the deepest and most pervasive threat to the fragile self. Every experience of separation or loss
we experience threatens the reality and integrity of our notion of self, a notion that still depends on per-
ceiving some immediate presence and benefit of external objects.
(3) “The suffering of conditionality” is related to all conditioned phenomena of the three worlds79 be-
cause they are oppressed by the rise and fall of all phenomena. According to Buddhaghosa, this (saṅkhā-
ra,dukkha) refers to “the equanimous feeling and the remaining formations of the three planes.”80
To the western or westernized minds, this is an entirely new category of psychopathology. At this
level, “object-seeking as such is experienced as pathogenic, contradictory as that may sound in terms of
normal developmental theory.”81 The very attempt to connect a self and objects that shows some constan-
72
For a detailed discussion, see Wezler 1984; cf Oldenberg 1881:374 n2; Har Dayal 1932:159; Filliozat 1934:301.
73
See Zysk 1982, 1998, 2011.
74
Psychodynamic here is “a free label for (a) all those psychological systems and theories that emphasize process-
es of change and development and/or (b) those systems and theories that make motivation and drive central con-
cepts” (A S Reber‟s The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 1985; A S Reber, E Reber & R Allen, 4th ed, 2008).
Also: “Of or relating to the psychoanalytic approach in which unconscious motives are a focus” (D Matsumoto,
Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology, 2009)
75
In simple terms, object relation refers to how we relate to others.
76
Jack Engler 1984:44.
77
Cūḷa Vedalla S (M 44.24/1:393), SD 40a.9.
78
On a simple level, individuation refers to a healthy emotional evolution into a mature person, and on a higher
level, to the attainment of streamwinning: see Individuation, SD 8.7.
79
The 3 worlds are the sense world, the form world and the formless world: see The body in Buddhism, SD
29.6a (5.2).
80
Upekkha,vedanā c’eva avasesā ca te,bhūmakā saṅkhārā udaya-b,baya,paripīḷitattā saṅkhāra,dukkhaṁ (Vism
16.35/499).
81
Jack Engler 1984:44.
cy and continuity82 becomes a therapeutic problem. In other words, if we try to see or seek any succour or
stability in 5 aggregates,83 we would simply be disappointed, to say the least.84
6.1.2 The key goals of object relations development are identity and object constancy, that is, a heal-
thy sense of self and wholesome relationship with externals (people and things). Under “normal” circum-
stances, we are likely to be fixated to an idea (about ourselves or others) and personal development is
basically stagnant.
Normalcy, in other words, is a state of arrested development: the worldling is as if mad (ummattako
viya hi puthujjano, MA 1:25). “Moreover,” adds Engler, “it can be viewed as a pathological condition in-
sofar as it is based on faulty reality testing, inadequate neutralization of the drives, lack of impulse con-
trol, and incomplete integration of the self and the object world.”85
In simple terms, we are mentally undeveloped, even unhealthy, if we fail to relate wholesomely to the
external world, or we fail to understand and appreciate our strengths and limitations in relating to others
and to things, or we lack adequate self-control, or we fail to feel a sense of harmony between ourselves
and our environment.
6.1.3 The Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta (S 56.11) defines the first noble truth as follows:
Now this, bhikshus, is the noble truth that is suffering:
birth is suffering,
decay is suffering,
[disease is suffering],
death is suffering;
grief, lamentation, physical pain, mental pain and despair are suffering;
to be with the unpleasant is suffering;
to be without the pleasant86 is suffering;
not to get what one desires is suffering,
—in short, the 5 aggregates of clinging are suffering. [§5]
In this list, the categories of suffering are as follows:
(1) affective suffering: birth, decay, disease, death, grief etc;
(2) temporal suffering: not to be with the pleasant, to be without the pleasant;
(3) existential suffering: the 5 aggregates.
These 3 kinds of suffering are elaborated in the Visuddhi,magga (Vism 16.34 f/499).87
6.2 THE 3 PHASES AND 12 ASPECTS
6.2.1 The 3 good truths. The Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta makes a unique declaration: that the
Buddha‟s mastery of the four noble truths comprises 3 phases (ti,parivaa) and 12 aspects (dvādas’-
ākāra) [§§9-12]. The three phases (ti,parivaa) are:
(1) the knowledge of each truth (sacca,āa),
(2) the knowledge of the task to be done regarding each truth (kicca,āa), and
(3) the knowledge of the accomplishment of these tasks (kata,āa).
These 3 phases of each of the 4 truths total up as their 12 aspects (dvādas’ākāra). The Commentarial
version of these 3 phases are called the 3 “good truths” (saddhamma), namely,
82
Joseph D Lichtenberg, “The development of the sense of self,” Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association
23,3 1975:453-484.
83
See SD 17.
84
For an ACT (acceptance and commitment therapy) view of this, see Buddhism as a method of self-healing,
SD 43.1 (4.2).
85
Jack Engler 1984:44; also Muzika 1990. For an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) perspective, see
Buddhism as a method of self-healing, SD 43.1 (3).
86
87
Further see n at §5 below. On the relationship between suffering and feeling (vedanā), see SD 17.3.
sacca,ñāa: the true teaching as theory (textual learning), pariyatti saddhamma

kicca,āa: the true teaching as practice
(moral virtue and mental training/meditation), and paipatti saddhamma
kata,āa: the true teaching as realization (wisdom). paivedha saddhamma
(VA 225; AA 5.33; cf Nm 143 where the first two are listed)
6.2.2 A comparative study
6.2.2.1 Both the Dhamma.cakka Pavattana Sutta (S 56.11) and its Chinese parallel in the Saṁyukta
Āgama (SĀ 379) list the 3 phases and 12 aspects of the 4 noble truths. While agreeing in content, they
however differ in sequence. This comparative table shows their relationship:88
S 56.11 (Pali) [§§9-12] SĀ 379 (Saṁyukta Agama)
The first noble truth: suffering dukkha The first noble truth: suffering 苦諦
Suffering should be known pariññeyya The second noble truth: craving 集諦
Suffering has been known pariññāta The third noble truth: nirvana 滅諦
The fourth noble truth: the path 道諦
The second noble truth: craving taṇhā
Craving should be abandoned pahātabba Suffering should be known 當知
Craving has been abandoned pahīna Craving should be abandoned 當斷
Nirvana should be realized 當作證
The third noble truth: nirvana nibbāna The path should be cultivated 當修
Nirvana should be realized sacchikātabba
Nirvana has been realized sacchikata Suffering has been known 已知
The fourth noble truth: the path patipadā Craving has been abandoned 已斷
The path should be cultivated bhāvetabba Nirvana has been realized 已作證
The path has been cultivated bhāvita The path has been cultivated 已修
6.2.2.2 The Pali (S 56.11) sequence follows that of the 4 truths, beginning with the first truth, that is,
each truth is approached as theory, practice and realization. This is likely to be the kind of “truth-process”
that would arise in an average person who practices the Dharma or is mindful enough to see the spiritual
significance of his experiences. Since the last set concerns cultivation, this is clearly a “gradual” truth-
process, so to speak.
We have at least two sequences of the truths. This better known “Dhamma,cakka” sequence or
theoretical sequence is familiarly listed as “1-2-4-3,” that is,
sufferingarisingendingpath. (S 56.11,5-8), SD 1.1
The “Saḷ-āyatanika” sequence or practical sequence, on the other hand, is given as “1-2-4-3,” thus:
suffering arisingpathending, (M 149,11) + SD 41.9 (2,4)
which is more natural in terms of the practical progress of insight. The sequence itself is also found in the
Āgantuka Sutta (S 45.159), the Pariññeyya Sutta (S 56.29), and other suttas,89 although not as numer-
ous as those with the theoretical sequence.
The “Saḷ-āyatanika” (M 149) sequence or natural sequence of the 4 truths (arranged as 1-2-3-4),
along with their explanations, recurs on their own in the Abhiññā Sutta (A 4.251).90 Although the
88
Cf Choong 2010:62.
89
S 45.159/5:52, SD 74.10; S 56.29/5:436.
90
A 4.251/2:246 f [A:B 4.254], SD 85.3. See also esp Mahā Niddesa: Nm 1:21, 40, 94, 149, 2:271, 349, 456,
460, 494; Cūḷa Niddesa: Nc:Be 31, 35, 64, 85, 90, 232. Paṭisambhidā,magga has both sequences: Dhamma,cakka
Dhamma,cakka sequence of functions is better known, it is likely that the Saḷ-āyatanika sequence is much
older. In other words, it is probably the original sequence, which later, for the sake of easier teaching,
follows the theoretical (or teaching) sequence. Understandably, the later Dhamma,cakka sequence is
better known throughout Buddhist literature, as it is a more convenient teaching model.91
6.2.2.3 The Āgama version (SĀ 379) presents the sequence in sets according the 3 phases. Accord-
ing to this scheme, the 4 noble truths (as a set) should first be “examined” (諦 dì). However, 諦 also
means “truth,” which applies better here. In the second set of 4 truths, the operative word is the verb 當
dāng (simplified as 当), meaning, “to be, ought to, should,” referring to the “practice” aspects of the
truths, that is, they are accepted and acknowledged in our lives, but we have not fully internalized them
yet. Only in the third set or stage, do we truly “know” or “realize” (知 zhī) the four truths.
The Āgama (SĀ 379) version, as such, lists the 4 noble truths according to commentarial notion of the
threefold “good truths” (saddhamma) as already mentioned above, namely,
 knowing the “truths” (sacca,ñāṇa), or, understanding them in theory (pariyatti);
 knowing the “duty” (kicca,ñāṇa), or, putting this theory into practice (paṭipatti);
 knowing their “accomplishment” (kata,ñāṇa), or realization (paṭivedha) regarding the truths.
The Āgama sequence of the 3 phases and 12 aspects of the noble truths, as shown above, apparently re-
flects a “sudden” process.
6.2.2.4 In fact, there is a short but unique text, the Gavam,pati Sutta (S 56.30), in the Saṁyutta
Nikāya, which appears to support such an approach. It is said that in reply to a question, the monk Gav-
am,pati gives this reply:
Avuso, I have heard and learned this before [from] the Blessed One himself:
“Bhikshus, one who sees suffering, also sees the arising of suffering, also sees the ending of
suffering, also sees the path leading to the ending of suffering.
One who sees the arising of suffering, also sees suffering, also sees the ending of suffering,
also sees the path leading to the ending of suffering.
One who sees the ending of suffering, also sees suffering, also sees the arising of suffering,
also sees the path leading to the ending of suffering.
One who sees the way leading to the ending of suffering, also sees suffering, also sees the
arising of suffering, also sees the ending of suffering.” (S 56.30/5:436 f), SD 53.1
This passage, a hapax legomenon (not found anywhere in the Nikāyas)92 is quoted by Buddhaghosa
(along with Pm 1:119) in his Visuddhi,magga (Vism 22.93) to prove that path-knowledge (magga,ñāṇa)
performs 4 functions in a single moment.93 On the strength of a single passage, it is difficult to accept
such a view as being as canonical, especially where we do not have the full context of Gavampati‟s quot-
ing the Buddha (to whom does this statement refer?)94
6.2.2.5 What is relevant here, however, is what scholars have observed in the comparative study of
early Buddhist texts (the Pali Nikāyas and the Chinese Āgamas). Scholars like Norihisa Baba (2004) and
seq, Pm 1:46, 48; Saḷ-āyatanika seq, 1:4, 1842, 187, 2943. Vibhaṅga: Vbh 42612, 42714, 428; Kvu 86, 88,
107, 108, 170, 2162; Peṭk 143; Nett 311/59, 651/1112, 656/111, 661/112, 897/175; Miln 69.
91
There is another sequence, a unique one, arranged as 1-4-2-3, found in Sela S (Sn 559 = Tha 828 = M 92,19,
SD 45.7). This unique sequence is clearly the result of poetic licence. See also SD 41.9 (2.4).
92
The only other place in the Canon for this is in the Abhidhamma: Kvu 2.9.19/220.
93
Vism 22.93/690, where he also qu Pm 1:119,1-3 (a late canonical Abhidhamma-style work); see also Vism
22.92/689 f. In Dakhiṇa Vibhaṅga S (M 142), eg, separate alms-giving is mentioned to each of the 8 kinds of saints
(eg the arhat-to-be and the arhat), showing that the transition from the former to the latter is not “a mind-moment,”
ie, not immediate.
94
Technically, we can safely say that this refers to the attainment of the fruition of arhathood, but not of the other
stages of sainthood.
Analayo (2010) have noted the tendency of Āgama discourses to incorporate passages in the Pali that are
found only in its commentarial literature (Baba 2004:946).95
7 Versions of the Sutta

In 1938, N Aiyaswami Sastri examined 11 texts considered to be versions of the Buddha‟s first dis-
course.96 N J Smith of Australia, in his Internet paper entitled “The 17 versions of the Buddha‟s first dis-
course” (2001),97 made a list of the 17 versions, giving each of them a code, their references and the ap-
proximate date of each (if known):98
The Pāli versions (P), which were written down about 500 years after the Buddha, that is,
around the first century BCE, are:
Pali1, Pali2 Sutta: S 5:420-435.
Pali3 Vinaya: V 1:10-12.
The Chinese versions (Chin) with translation dates are:
Sutta:
Chin1 T109 (T2.503b-c, 2nd cent CE),
Chin2 T99.379 (T2.103c-104a, 5th cent CE) = SA 379,
Chin3 T110 (T2.504a-b, 8th cent CE) and
Chin6 T125.19.2 (T2.593b-c, 4th cent CE) = EĀ 19.2.
Vinaya:
Chin4 T428 (T22.788-9, 5th cent CE) and
Chin5 T1421 (T22.104-5, 5th cent CE).
The Sanskrit versions (Skt):
Skt1 Mahāvastu 3:330-335, S2 (late 2nd cent BCE according to Peter Harvey,
1992:89),99
Skt2 Lalita,vistara 540 (416-8), (between 200 BCE and 200 CE ibid p15), and
Skt3 Raniero Gnoli100 who dates the characters to the 6th-7th century (1977: xiii, 134-
139). N Dutt101 dates the Gupta script of this text as from the 6th century CE
(1984: i).
The Tibetan versions (Tib). The dates of the translation of the Tibetan texts from the San-
skrit are generally accepted as 8th century CE, that is, not long after the great debate whether to
follow Chinese or Indian Buddhism. According to Aiyaswami Sastri (1938:476) from the Nar-
thang edition of the Kanjur (bKah hGyur):
tra:
Tib1 mDo xxvi 88-91,
Tib2 mDo xxvi 431-4, and
Tib3 mDo xxx 427-32 (believed to be translated from the Pali).
95
Cf Alex Wayman 1980.
96
“The first sermon of the Buddha.” New Indian Antiquary 1,8 Nov 1938:473-492.
97
Last revised 11 Dec 2002. http://www.bigfoot.com/~josmith.1/buddhism/budaword/from chinese/index.html.
98
Here slightly edited.
99
P Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, Teachings, History and Practices, UK: Cambridge University Press,
1992.
100
R Gnoli, The Gilgit Manuscript of the Sanghabhedavastu Part 1. 2 vols 1977-78. Rome: IsMEO, 1977:134-9.
101
Dutt N, Gilgit Manuscripts vol 3 pt 2, 2nd ed, 1984, Sri Satguru Publications, India.
Vinaya:
Tib4 Dulva iv ff 64-7, and
Tib5 Dulva xi 69-72.
Beijing ed (Ōtani repr, Tokyo, 1956)102 P747 P21.259
P1003 P39.1
Aiyaswami Sastri (1938:475) points out that some of the Tibetan tra and Vinaya texts are nearly
identical and correspond as follows: Tib1 = Tib4 and Tib2 = Tib5. This is also the case with the Pali
versions: Pali1 = Pali3. It is probable that the tra texts in these cases were just replications of the Vina-
ya texts.103 In this case, there would be only two versions in Pali and three in Tibetan and the total would
actually come to 14 distinct versions.
The details of the main sections of the sutta are given here according to Pali1:
Section 1 The two extremes and the middle path:

The two extremes to be avoided are self-indulgence and self-mortification.
The middle way, which avoids the two extremes, is the noble eightfold path.
Section 2 The second delivery of the discourse
Section 3 Definition of the four noble truths
Section 4 The twelve aspects:
The four noble truths are considered in three phases, a statement of what they are in
theory, their practice, and their attainment or realization.
Section 5 The Buddha‟s declaration of his awakening:
It is only after having realized the twelve aspects as they really are that Siddhattha
claimed full awakening (become Buddha).
Section 6 Koaa‟s realization of the Dharma-eye.
Section 7 Prefixing of Koaa‟s name to Aā Koaa (Koaa who knows).
Section 8 The gods‟ exultation at hearing the discourse.
Section 9 Naming the discourse.
Section 10 Realization of the Dharma-eye.
Smith collates the 17 versions into these 8 classes:

1. Pali2
2. Skt3
3. Tib2 (=Tib5) and Chin3
4. Chin2
5. Pali1 (=Pali3), Tib3, Skt1, Skt2, Chin1, Chin5
6. Chin4
7. Tib1 (=Tib4)
8. Chin6.
As can be seen, Class 5 is the class with texts from each language source. Pali2 is the other Pali text
and Chin6 is the other Chinese text that Smith regards as variants and they each form a class of their own.
These are the only two texts in our corpus that have only one section.
102
Citations which follow given as “P” Sūtra no, followed by “P” Vol.Page.
103
“Being an oral tradition originally, it is probable that the story of the Buddha was told chronologically, as a
story. This can be seen in the Vinaya texts and the later Mahāparinibbāna Sutta. Only later would the discourses
(suttas) have been extracted and grouped according to various categories, probably first topically (as in the Saṁyutta
Nikāya) and then later by number of items [or topics] (as in the Aguttara Nikāya).” (N J Smith)
8 The age of the Sutta

8.1 THE FIRST 3 SUTTAS. The first three discourses traditionally believed to be have been given by
the Buddha are the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta (S 56.11), the Anatta Lakkhaṇa Sutta (S 22.59)
and the ditta,pariyāya Sutta (S 38.28). They are not only historically related, but flow coherently into
one another in that sequence.
The first discourse is a systematic statement of the Buddha‟s discovery of “suffering and its end-
ing,”104 and what is merely mentioned, “in short, the 5 aggregates of clinging105 are suffering” [§5], is
elaborated in the second discourse, the Anatta Lakkhaṇa Sutta (S 22.59),106 that is, the aggregates are
explained in full. In the third discourse, the ditta,pariyāya Sutta (S 35.28),107 the focus shifts to the
“all” (sabba), that is, the six sense-bases, a teaching specifically given in the Sabba Sutta (S 35.23).108
8.2 THE SUTTA’S POPULARITY. The importance of the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta is attested by
the numerous versions of it in various Buddhist canons. A list of 17 versions of it is found above [6]. The
Sutta is clearly well known enough by Asoka‟s time—alluded to in his Bhabru-Bairat edict109—to have it
recommended as a vinaya,sāmukkaṁsā (“an extract of the training” or “the exalted teaching”), which
rightly scholars have identified as the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana,110 which after all is a “summary” of
the unique teaching (sāmukkaṁsikā dhamma,desanā) of the Buddha on the 4 noble truths.111
8.3 The Sutta is analyzed in the Sacca Vibhaga Sutta (M 141) and the Vibhaga (Vbh 99-105). It
is also commented on in the Visuddhi,magga (Vism 16.32-83) and the Sammoha,vinodan (VbhA 93-
122). Rewata,dhamma, a Burmese monk who lived in Britain, has written a detailed study of this text
based on its commentaries, entitled The First Discourse of the Buddha.
8.4 THE SUTTA’S TITLE. The very first discourse of the Buddha as recorded in the account of his
public ministry in the Vinaya (V 1:10-12), however, appears to be a later account. The Saṁyutta ac-
count,112 the 11th sutta of the Sacca Saṁyutta (Connected Discourses on the Truths), is the older one. In
both cases, however, the title is not as we know it today. The Sanskrit version is found in the Lalita,-
vistara (Lalv 540.426 f) and the Mahavastu (Mvst 3:330 f).
8.5 “Spoken by the Tathagata.” The title “Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta” appears only in the
Commentaries (eg J 1:92, DA 1:2, etc). In other versions, such as the PTS edition, the title is given as
Tathāgatena vuttā (spoken by the Tathāgata). Sujato, in his “general integrated sutta theory” (GIST),113
notes:
104
Anurādha S (S 22.86/119), SD 21.13.
105
Pac’upadāna-k,khandha, namely, form, feeling, perception, formations and consciousness (S 3:47 Vbh 1):
see SD 17. What is briefly mentioned here is elaborated in the second discourse, Anatta Lakkhaa S (S 22.59), SD
1.2 (2003). See above here.
106
SD 1.2. On its possible origin, see Assaji S (S 22.88) @ SD 42.8 (2.3).
107
SD 1.3.
108
SD 7.1.
109
M Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature v2 1933 (rev):606 f (App III on p16).
110
Sujato 2013. For earlier refs, see eg H Oldenberg‟s Vinaya ed, V:O 1879:xiv, xl n; T W Rhys Davids, Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Soc (JRAS) 30,3 Jul 1898:629; Oldenberg, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesell-
schaft (ZDMG) 52 1898: 634; J Bloch, ZDMG 63 1909:325; A J Edmunds, Buddhist Bibliography, 1904 & JRAS
1913:385-387; D Kosambi, Indian Antiquary 41 1912:40; E Hultzsch, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum v1: Inscrip-
tions of Asoka (new ed), Oxford, 1925:xxv, xliii f, 172 ff; H G A van Zeist 1966 in Ency Bsm 2:182; N A Jayawic-
krama, Pali Buddhist Review 1,3 1976:138; see also A Cunningham, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum v1 1877:22 f.
(See Winternitz 1933:580 for more refs.)
111
Here we have the better known use of sāmukkaṁsā, but in a quite different sense: the sāmukkaṁsikā teaching
of the Buddhas: suffering, arising, ending, the path (yā buddhānaṁ sāmukkaṁsikā dhammadesanā, taṁ pakāsesi
dukkhaṁ samudayaṁ nirodhaṁ maggaṁ). This is froma stock passage referring to the Buddha gradually bringing a
listener to ever higher or deeper teachings, so that they are ready to listen to the 4 noble truths. In this context, too,
as noted by Sujato (2013), the meaning of sāmukkaṁsā as either “extract” or “exalted” fits well.
112
S 56.11/5:420-424.
113
See The GIST, 2004:37 f.
This is, on the face of it, a bit odd, for most of the discourses are, of course, attributed to the
Buddha. However, the terms “Spoken by the Buddha” and “Spoken by the Disciples” occur in the
Chinese recensions. Perhaps the label tathāgatena vuttā referred originally, not to the Dhamma-
cakkappavattana Sutta specifically, but to a section within a collection of discourses that consist-
ed purely of teachings given directly by the Buddha himself. (Sujato, 2004:38)
In his footnote, Sujato says that “this line of reasoning suggested itself independently to both Rod
Bucknell and myself” (2004:77 n11).
8.6 THE RĀSIYA SUTTA (S 42.12.4-5) is a short discourse recording the Buddha‟s teaching to Rāsiya
the headman is practically identical to the opening section of the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta [§§3-
4], that is, the avoiding of the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification for the middle way,
and the noble eightfold path. At the end of the long anthology of teachings given to Rāsiya, he takes re-
fuge in the three jewels without any mention of his attainment (S 42.12.4-5/4:330 f).
8.7 THE (KHANDHA) DUKKHA SUTTA (S 22.104) is perhaps the most succinct discourse on the 4
truths, and might be even amongst the oldest, if not the oldest, text we have of the teaching. It does not
use the qualifier ariya (“noble”), as found in “four truths” formula given in the Dhamma,cakka Pavattana
Sutta, which was probably modelled on it or built up from it.114
— — —
The Discourse on
the Turning of the Wheel of Truth
Or, The First Discourse • S 56.11 = Mv 1.6.16-31
[420] 1 Spoken by the Tathāgata.115

[Thus have I heard.]116
At one time, the Blessed One was staying in the deer park117 at Isipatana near Benares. [421]
The 2 extremes
2 There the Blessed One addressed the company of 5 monks thus:
“Bhikshus, there are these two extremes to be avoided by one who has gone forth. What are the two?
3 (1) The devotion to the enjoyment of sensual pleasures—it is low, vulgar, worldly, ignoble, not
connected with the goal [unprofitable],118 and
(2) the devotion to self-mortification—it is painful, ignoble, not connected with the goal [unpro-
fitable].119
114
S 22.104/3:158 f @ SD 42.20.
115
Tathāgatena vuttā. PTS ed has this title. See Intro (1) above.
116
Most MSS omit. The PTS ed has tathāgatena vuttā, “spoken by the One Thus Come” as title. See prev n.
117
“Deer park,” miga,dāya, the best down of which is this one outside Benares (S 5:421), where the first discourse
is given, as recorded in Dhamma,cakka Pavattana S (S 56.11,1/4:420), SD 1.1; another in Bhesakalā forest, near
where Nakula,pitā and Nakula,mātā live: see Anumāna S (M 15,1/1:95) SD 59.3; Māra Tajjanīya S (M 50,1/-
1:332), SD 36.4; Nakula,pitā S (S 22.1/3:1), SD 5.4; Sama,jīvi S (A 4.55,1/2:61), SD 5.1; Nakula S (A 6.16/3:-
295), SD 5.2; Nakula,mātā S (A 8.48,1), SD 5.3; and another outside Nādikā [Ñātikā]: see Cūla Gosiṅga S (M
31,1), SD 44.11, Mahā Gosiṅga S (M 32,1),SD 44.12. For other refs, search CSCD using “migadāy*”.
118
“Low, vulgar, worldly, ignoble, not connected with the goal [unprofitable],” hīno gammo puthujjaniko anariyo
anattha,saṁhito. On gamma = gāma,dhamma, see Gavesī S (A 5.180,17) n, SD 47.16. See foll n.
3.2 Bhikshus, without turning to either of these extremes, there is the middle way awakened to by the
Tathagata [thus come], that gives rise to vision, to knowledge, to peace, to direct knowledge, to self-
awakening, to nirvana.120
The middle way

4 And what, bhikshus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathāgata, that gives rise to vision, to
knowledge, to peace, to direct knowledge, to self-awakening, to nirvana?
It is this noble eightfold path,121 that is to say,
(1) right view,
(2) right thought [right intention],
(3) right speech,
(4) right action,
(5) right livelihood,
(6) right effort,
(7) right mindfulness,
(8) right concentration.
4.2 This, bhikshus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathāgata, that gives rise to vision, to
knowledge, to peace, to direct knowledge, to self-awakening, to nirvana.
The 4 noble truths122

5 (i) Now this, bhikshus, is the noble truth [reality] that is suffering:123
(1) birth is suffering;124
125
(2) decay is suffering;
(3) disease is suffering;126
(4) death is suffering;
[ grief, lamentation, physical pain,
119
On these 2 extremes, see Intro (3.1). Note that while “the devotion to the enjoyment of sensual pleasures”
(kāma,sukh’allikânuyoga) is described as being “low, vulgar, worldly, ignoble, not connected with the goal [unpro-
fitable]” (hīno gammo puthujjaniko anariyo anattha,saṁhito), “the devotion to self-mortification” (atta,kilamathâ-
nuyoga) is said to be only “painful, ignoble, not connected with the goal [unprofitable]” (dukkho anariyo anattha,-
saṁhito). This is because despite being “painful,” self-mortification, with some moral virtue, can bring about a div-
ine afterlife; but such a goal is still “ignoble, not connected with the goal [unprofitable],” because we are still caught
up in samsara, and not liberated from suffering. See The body in Buddhism, SD 29.6a (4.1). On sukh’allikânuyoga,
see Pāsādika S (D 29.23/3:130), SD 40a.6.
120
See Araa,vibhaga S (M 139.3/2:230 @ SD 7.8), where the statement is made in an exhortative tone.
121
For a def and details of the 8 limbs that is the eightfold path, see Sacca Vibhaṅga S (M 141.23-31/3:250-252),
SD 11.11; Mahā Satipahāna S (D 22.21/2:311-313), SD 13.2; also Mahā Cattārsaka S (M 117/3:71-78), SD
6.10. See also Gethin 2001:190-226 (ch 6) for an insightful study.
122
On a hypothesis that the 4 noble truths might originally not have been part of this Sutta, see Bronkhorst, The
Two Traditions in Meditation in Ancient India, 1993:106-111.
123
See Intro (4.1).
124
In the early after-centuries, commentators tend to interpret jāti as gestation or as the process of being born it,
but it is clear from the early texts that it generally refers to rebirth itself. See Intro (4.2).
125
Jarā, incl old age, aging.
126
Vyādhi pi dukkhā: Only in the Vinaya & Saṁyutta versions; not mentioned in Comys. Vism Comy: “Disease is
omitted here [eg D 22.18/2:305; S 56.11.5/5:421, etc] because no individual is meant, and there are persons in whom
disease does not arise at all, such as the venerable Bakkula [M 124]. Otherwise, it may be taken as included in suf-
fering itself. For, in the ultimate sense, disease is bodily pain conditioned by the imbalance of the elements” (Vism-
AṬ 527). This is a common characteristic in later literature: see M Hara, “Shōku,” Butsu no Kenkyū Dr Kōshirō Ta-
maki Felicitation Volume, Tokyo, 1977:667-683; “A note on the Buddha‟s birth story,” Indianisme et Bouddhisme,
Mélanges offerts á Mgr Étienne Lamotte, 1980:143-157.
mental pain and despair are suffering];127

128
(5) to be with the unpleasant is suffering;
(6) to be without the pleasant129 is suffering;
(7) not to get what one desires is suffering,
130
(8) —in short, the 5 aggregates of clinging are suffering.
6 (ii) Now this, bhikshus, is the noble truth [reality] that is the arising of suffering:131 it is this
craving that leads to renewed existence [rebirth], accompanied by pleasure and lust, seeking pleasure here
and there; that is to say,132
(1) craving for sensual pleasures,
(2) craving for existence,
(3) craving for non-existence [for extinction].
7 (iii) Now this, bhikshus, is the noble truth [reality] that is the ending of suffering:133 it is the
utter fading away and ending of that very craving, giving it up, letting it go, being free from it, being de-
tached from it.134
8 (iv) Now this, bhikshus, is the noble truth [reality] that is the path leading to the ending of
suffering: [422] it is this very noble eightfold path, that is to say, right view, right thought, right speech,
right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.
The 3 phases and 12 aspects135

9 (1) THAT WHICH SHOULD BE UNDERSTOOD
(a) „This is the noble truth that is suffering‟—thus, bhikshus, with regard to things unheard of be-
fore,136 in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose knowledge, there arose wisdom, there arose insight,
there arose light.137
127
Soka,parideva,dukkha,domanass’upāyāsā pi dukkhā, Found in Ee Se (esp in daily chant) and other MSS but
not in Be and Ce. This addition is prob late, as it is not found in the Chinese versions. The Chinese often speak of
the “eight sufferings” (bākǔ), which refers to the 8 as numbered above.
128
“The unpleasant,” appiya, also tr “what one loves not.”
129
130
Pac’upadāna-k,khandha, viz, form, feeling, perception, formations and consciousness (S 3:47; Vbh 1). What
is briefly mentioned here is elaborated in the second discourse, Anatta,lakkhaa S (S 22.59), SD 1.2.
131
On the tr of this term, see Intro (4.3).
132
Comy to Bhāra S (S 22.22 @ SD 17.14): “Seeking delight here and there” (tatra,tatrâbhinandinī) means hav-
ing the habit of seeking delight in the place of rebirth or among the various objects, such as forms. “Craving for
sense-pleasures” (kāma,tahā) means lust for the 5 cords of sense-pleasures. Lust for form-sphere existence or
formless-sphere existence, attachment to dhyana, and lust accompanied by the eternalist view: this is called “crav-
ing for existence” (bhava,tahā). Lust accompanied by the annihilationist view is “craving for annihilation [ex-
termination]” (vibhava,tahā). (SA 2:264). Bodhi: “This explanation of the last two kinds of craving seems to me
too narrow. More likely, craving for existence should be understood as the principal desire to continue in existence
(whether supported by a view or not), craving for extermination as the desire for a complete end to existence, based
on an underlying assumption (not necessarily formulated as a view) that such extermination brings an end to a real
„I‟.” (S:B 1052 n38)
133
On the tr of this term, see Intro (4.3).
134
Yo tassā,y’eva [or tassa-y-eva] taṇhāya asesa,virāga,nirodho cāgo paṭinissaggo mutti anālayo.
135
The 3 phases (ti,parivaa): see Intro (6.2) above.
136
“Things unheard of before,” ananussutesu dhammesu. Ghaikāra S (M 81) says that our Bodhisattva (as Joti-
pāla) had been Kassapa Buddha‟s disciple, who mastered all his teachings (M 81,6/2:46, 81.3/2:54). Our Buddha,
using his power of recollecting past lives, would be able to know his past birth as Jotipāla—which would make it
problematic for the Buddha to declare that his awakening is an insight into “things unheard of before” (Dhamma,-
cakka Pavattana S, S 56.11,9-12/5:422- f; V 1:10-12 @ SD 1.1). Apparently, this statement on “things unheard of
before” refers to the fact that the liberating Dharmas have been forgotten in India up to the Buddha‟s time. Kathā,-
vatthu (Kvu 4.8/286) discusses the question of how far the Buddha does not have a teacher (Ariya,pariyesanā S, M
26.25/1:170 @ SD 1.11) when, as a Bodhisattva (named Jotipāla) he had been Kassapa Buddha‟s disciple, and how
(b) „This noble truth that is suffering138 is to be fully understood‟—thus, bhikshus, with regard to
things unheard of before, in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose knowledge, there arose wisdom,
there arose insight, there arose light.
(c) „This noble truth that is suffering has been fully understood‟—thus, bhikshus, with regard to
10 (2) THAT WHICH SHOULD BE ABANDONED
(a) „This is the noble truth that is the arising of suffering‟—thus, bhikshus, with regard to things
unheard of before, in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose knowledge, there arose wisdom, there
arose insight, there arose light.
(b) „This noble truth that is the arising of suffering139 should be abandoned‟—thus, bhikshus, with
regard to things unheard of before, in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose knowledge, there arose
wisdom, there arose insight, there arose light.
(c) „This noble truth that is the arising of suffering has been abandoned‟—thus, bhikshus, with regard
to things unheard of before, in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose knowledge, there arose wis-
dom, there arose insight, there arose light.
11 (3) THAT WHICH SHOULD BE REALIZED
(a) „This is the noble truth that is the ending of suffering‟—thus, bhikshus, with regard to things
unheard of before, in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose knowledge, there arose wisdom, there
arose insight, there arose light.
(b) „This noble truth that is the ending of suffering should be realized‟140—thus, bhikshus, with
(c) „This noble truth that is the ending of suffering has been realized‟—thus, bhikshus, with regard to
12 (4) THAT WHICH SHOULD BE CULTIVATED
(a) „This is the noble truth that is the path141 leading to the ending of suffering‟—thus, bhikshus, with
(b) „This noble truth that is the path leading to the ending of suffering should be cultivated‟—thus,
bhikshus, with regard to things unheard of before, in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose know-
ledge, there arose wisdom, there arose insight, there arose light.
(c) „This noble truth that is the path leading to the ending of suffering has been cultivated—thus, bhik
shus, with regard to things unheard of before, in me there arose vision [the eye], there arose knowledge,
there arose wisdom, there arose insight, there arose light.
The supreme awakening

13 So long, bhikshus, as my knowledge and vision of these four noble truths as they really are in
their three phases and twelve aspects are not thoroughly purified in this way, [423] I did not claim to have
far the Buddha‟s awakening is an insight into “things unheard of before.” See also Comy ad loc (KvuA 78). See
Analayo‟s work on M 81 (2005:8).
137
Idaṁ dukkhaṁ ariya,saccan ti me bhikkhave pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhuṁ udapādi ñāaṁ udapādi
paññā udapādi vijjā udapādi āloko udapādi.
138
It is the suffering rather than the “truth” that is to be understood (pariññeyya). See Norman 1982:377-391.
139
It is the arising rather than the “truth” that is to be abandoned (pahātabba). See Norman id.
140
It is the ending rather than the “truth” that is to be realized (sacchikātabba). See Norman id. See Intro (6.2.2).
141
It is the path that is to be cultivated (“walked”) rather than the “truth.” See Norman ib.
awakened to the incomparable full awakening in this world with its gods, its Māras [evil ones], and its
Brahmās [High Gods], this generation with its recluses and brahmins, its rulers142 and people.
14 But when my knowledge and vision of these 4 noble truths as they really are in their 3 phases and
12 aspects are thoroughly purified in this way, then I claim to have awakened to the incomparable full
awakening in this world.
The knowledge and vision arose in me:
„Unshakable is my liberation (of the mind). This is my last birth. Now there is no more rebirth (for
me)!‟”
15 The Blessed One said this. The monks joyfully approved of the Blessed One‟s word.
Koaa
16 And while this discourse was being spoken, there arose in the venerable Koaa the dust-free,
144
stainless Dharma eye143 that “Whatever is of the nature to arise is also of the nature to cease.”
The heavens exult145
17 And when the wheel of truth [dharmacakra] had been set in motion by the Blessed One, the earth-
bound devas exulted:
“In the Deer Park at Isipatana near Benares, the Blessed One has set in motion the unsurpassed wheel
of truth that cannot be stopped by any recluse or brahmin or deva or Māra or Brahmā or by anyone in the
world.”
18 Having heard the cry of the earth-bound devas, the devas of the Four Great Kings exulted:
world.”
18.2 Having heard the cry of the Four Great Kings, the devas of realm of the Thirty-three exulted:
world.”
18.3 Having heard the cry of the devas of realm of the Thirty-three, the Yāma devas exulted:
world.”
18.4 Having heard the cry of the Yāma devas, the Tusita [Contented] devas exulted:
world.”
142
Deva, here in the sense of “devas by convention” (sammati,deva), ie kings. The other 2 types of deva are
“gods by rebirth” (upapatti,deva) and “gods by purification” (visuddhi,deva), ie, the Buddhas, pratyeka-buddhas and
arhats. (Nc 307; KhA 123)
143
“Dharma-eye,” dhamma,cakkhu. The opening of the Dharma-eye refers to the perception of the law of change,
denoting the attainment of streamwinning, thus being set irrevocably on the path. It is as such spiritually superior to
the divine eye (dibba,cakkhu) (D 2,95/1:82), which is an advanced form of clairvoyance, but it is inferior the wis-
dom eye (paā,cakkhu) which is the wisdom of the arhat. Ca Niddesa mentions 5 kinds of eyes: (1) the physical
eye (maṁsa,cakkhu); (2) the divine eye (dibba,cakkhu); (3) the wisdom eye (paā,cakkhu) of the arhats; (4) the
Buddha eye (Buddha-cakkhu); and (5) the universal eye (samanta,cakkhu), the omniscience of the Buddhas (Nc 235;
It 2.2/52): see Kaṇṇaka-t,thala S (M 90/2:125-133), SD 10.8 (2) & Sandaka S (M 76), SD 35.7.
144
Yaṁ kiñci samudaya.dhammaṁ sabban taṁ nirodha,dhamman ti. This § connects directly into §20, and makes
good sense even without §§17-18, which were probably interpolated later.
145
This whole section on the devas‟ exultation [§§17-19] is prob a later addition, as the Sutta still stands without
it, ending at §15 (with the traditional ending marker). On the first discourse as a probable reconstruction, see Notion
of diṭṭhi, SD 40a.1 (2.2).
18.5 Having heard the cry of the Tusita devas, the Nimmāa,rati devas [who delight in creating]
exulted:
world.”
18.6 Having heard the cry of the Nimmāa,rati devas, the Para,nimmita,vasavatti devas [who delight
in the creation of others] exulted:
world.”
18.7 Having heard the cry of the Paranimmita,vasavatti devas, the devas of Brahmā‟s host exulted:146
of truth [424] that cannot be stopped by any recluse or brahmin or deva or Māra or Brahmā or by anyone
in the world.”
19 Thus, at that very moment, that very second,147 in that very instant, the cry spread as far as the
Brahmā world, and this ten thousandfold world system shook, quaked and trembled, and a boundless
glorious radiance appeared in the world surpassing the divine majesty of the devas.148
Aā Koaa
20 Then the Blessed One uttered this Udāna [inspired utterance]: “Aññasi vata bho Koṇḍañña!
Master Koaa has indeed understood!”
In this way, the venerable Koaa received the name “Aā149 Koaa” [Koaa who has
understood].150
— evaṁ —
146
It is interesting and important to note that the list of exulting devas stops here with the Brahmās of the 1st dhya-
na. The reason for this is that, as there is still some level of mentation here—by way of initial and sustained applica-
tions (vitakka,vicāra)—these Brahmās are still in contact with the sense-world. In the realms beyond the 1st dhyana,
thought-process as we know it ceases completely so that these beings enjoy the glory of their meditative state as
pure light or profound peace for as long as their karma fuels it. See Bhava Ss 1-2 (A 3.76-77), SD 23.13 (3).
147
Tena khaṇena tena layena tena muhuttena. Ce Se Ke omit tena layena. See SD 17.2b (1.1.1.1).
148
Itiha tena khaṇena tena layena tena muhuttena yāva brahma,lokā saddo abbhuggacchi. Ayañ ca dasa.sahassi,-
loka.dhātu saṅkampi sampakampi sampavedhi, appamāṇo ca uḷāro obhāso loke pāturahosi atikkamma devānaṁ
devânubhāvan ti.
149
In the earliest sense, aññā simply means “knowledge,” evidently here it refers to “final knowledge” (Jayatille-
ke 1963:432) since it has brought Koañña his final liberation. On this account, Aññā (or Aññāta) Koṇḍañña is de-
clared by the Buddha to be the “longest-standing” (rattaññū) of the monks (A 1:23). On the origin of his sobriquet &
surname: Aññā (or Aññāta) Koṇḍañña, see V 1:12,18 = S 5:424,10; S 1:193,31 f. On Aññāsi Koṇḍañña, cf V 1:12,-
17) = A 1:23,17 (cf AA 1:136-148); J 1:82,11; U 77,1 (Aññāta Koṇḍañña; UA); MA 2:37,19; DhA I 97,1; ThīA
3,8 (~-pamukhā aṭṭhārasa brahma,koṭiyo); DhA 1:87,1 (do); DhsA 35,21 (do). Author of Tha 673-688; Ap 48,24-
50,5. Cf also M 2:43, 3:29; S 1:24.
150
Here Koañña becomes a streamwinner. Later, he, along with the other 4 monks, attains arhathood: see An-
atta Lakkhaṇa S (S 22.59,24/3:68), SD 1.2. Having become a streamwinner, he then requests for the going-forth
(pabbajjā) and the ordination (upasampadā). The Buddha admits him with the words: “Come, O bhikshu! Well-pro-
claimed is the Dharma of the Blessed One; live the Holy Life for making a complete end of suffering (ehi bhikkhu,
svākkhāto bhagavato dhammo, cara brahma,cariya sammā dukkhassa anta,kiriyāya)” (V 1:12). This is Koañ-
ña‟s ordination and the earliest form of ordination conferred by the Buddha. After further instruction, Vappa and
Bhaddiya attain the first-stage sainthood (streamwinning) and are admitted as monks; and, in due course (on the
same day, according to the Vinaya), Mahānāma and Assajī, too, become streamwinners and are ordained. (V 1: 11 f;
J 1:82; DA 1:2; AA 1:100; Lalv 540 (416) f; Mvst 3: 330 f). See Intro (1).
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1. The Truths and the Path

Saccā & magga
Levels of knowing
1. Truth sacca,āa: 4. The path leading to
1. Suffering 2. The arising of 3. The ending of
heard, thought dukkha suffering suffering the ending of suffering
2. Practice kicca,āa: samudaya nirodha magga
cultivated
3.Realization kata,āa 1.1 Theory (truth) 2.1 Theory (truth) 3.1 Theory (truth) 3.1 Theory (truth)
self-realized 1.2 To be understood 2.2 To be abandoned 3.2 To be realized 3.2 To be cultivated
1.3 Has been understood 2.3 Has been abandoned 3.3 Has been realized 3.3 Has been cultivated
The 8 The noble eightfold

sufferings path ariya,ah‟agika magga
also called aha
saṁvega vatthu*
Craving Training in wisdom (paā sikkhā)
1. for sense-pleasure: Nirvana 1. right view sammā,dihi
kāma,tahā [understanding the noble truths]
Physical suffering (dukkha,dukkha) hedonism 1. with remains 2. right thought sammā,sakappa
1. birth 2. for existence: sopādisesa nibbāna [thoughts of renunciation, of goodwill,
[no defilements, of non-violence ]
2. decay bhava,tahā
no clinging aggregates]
[ ][disease] only in V & S eternalism the 1st Awakening Training in moral virtue (sla sikkhā)
sassata,-dihi 3. right speech sammā,vācā
3. death
4. grief, lamentation, physical 3. for non-existence: 2. without remains [truthful, unifying, pleasant, beneficial]
pain, mental pain, and annihilationism nirupādisesa nibbāna 4. right action sammā kammantā
uccheda,dihi [no aggregates at all] [no killing, no stealing, no sexual mis-
despair (materialism) the Great Nirvana conduct]
Suffering = change (vipariāma dukkha.) 5. right livelihood sammā ājvā
5. to be with the unpleasant [not harming oneself, others, or envi-
6. to be without the pleasant ronment]
7. not to get what one desires Training in concentration (samādhi sikkhā)
Suffering = formations (sakhāra dukkha)
6. right effort sammā vāyāma
8. the 5 clinging aggregates [prevent, give up evil; cultivate,
The Anatta,lakkhaa Sutta (S 22.59) elaborates maintain good]
on these aggregates; the ditta,pariyāya Sutta (S 7. mindfulness sammā sati
35.28) then presents the 6 senses using the imagery [the 4 focusses of m indfulness]
*See 5(i) n. of fire. 8. right concentration
sammā samādhi [the 4 dhyanas]
Saṁyutta 5, Mahā Vagga 12, Sacca Saṁyutta 2, Dhammacakkappavattana Vagga 1 S 5.12.2.1
2. The 6 Senses and the 5 Aggregates

sa’āyatana & paca-k,khandha
PERCEPTION
saā
MIND
FEELING nāma FORMATIONS
vedanā sakhāra
CONSCIOUSNESS
viṅṅāṇa
eye tongue
cakkhu wind
jivhā
fire
water
earth
kāyā
BODY
ear rpa nose
sota ghāna
3. The 18 Elements
ahārasa āyatana
Mind-consciousness Mind-object
mano,viāa C dhamma
MIND
nāma
Form Body-consciousness
rpa kāya,viāa
C EYE BODY C
cakkhu
kāya
Eye-consciousness
cakkhu,viāa BODY Touch
phohabba
rpa
Sound Taste
sadda EAR TONGUE rasa
sota jivhā
C C
Ear-consciousness Tongue-consciousness
sota,viāa
NOSE jivhā,viāa
ghāna
C
Nose-consciousness Smell
ghāna,viāa gandha
C = respective sense-contact or stimulus (phassa)
Saṁyutta 5, Mahā Vagga 12, Sacca Saṁyutta 2, Dhammacakkappavattana Vagga 1 S 5.12.2.1
4. How suffering arises

dukkha,samudaya
Sense-
consciousness
viāa
Sense- Sense-
Sense-
contact object
faculty phassa
ajjhattika bahira
āyatana āyatana
Vedanā Latent tendencies

anusaya
Pleasant
Painful
Neutral Lust
rāga
Aversion
paigha
Craving
tahā
Ignorance
avijjā
Suffering
dukkha
Piya Tan ©2004. 2007
For a diagram of the 6 sense-faculties, see Indriya,bhāvanā Sutta (M 152), SD 13(3).

Dhamma, Cakka Pavattana Sutta: 1 The Group of 5 Monks

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Dhamma, Cakka Pavattana Sutta: 1 The Group of 5 Monks

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S 5.12.2.

1 Saṁyutta 5, Mahā Vagga 12, Sacca Saṁyutta 2, Dhammacakkappavattana Vagga 1

1 Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta

1 The group of 5 monks

2 The first discourse: contents and purpose

3 The middle way

(7) not to get what one desires is suffering,

SD 1.1(4.1) (Sāriputta) Dukkha Sutta

The (Sāriputta) Dukkha Sutta (S 38.14) categorizes suffering into 3 kinds:

5 The nature of the truths

The nohble truths Medicak treatment

6 Mastery of the 4 noble truths

sacca,ñāa: the true teaching as theory (textual learning), pariyatti saddhamma

S 56.11 (Pali) [§§9-12] SĀ 379 (Saṁyukta Agama)

7 Versions of the Sutta

Section 1 The two extremes and the middle path:

Smith collates the 17 versions into these 8 classes:

8 The age of the Sutta

[420] 1 Spoken by the Tathāgata.115

The middle way

The 4 noble truths122

mental pain and despair are suffering];127

The 3 phases and 12 aspects135

The supreme awakening

Sujata, Bhikkhu [Ajahn Sujato]

130123 130801 131005 141203 150303

1. The Truths and the Path

The 8 The noble eightfold

2. The 6 Senses and the 5 Aggregates

C = respective sense-contact or stimulus (phassa)

4. How suffering arises

Vedanā Latent tendencies

Piya Tan ©2004. 2007

For a diagram of the 6 sense-faculties, see Indriya,bhāvanā Sutta (M 152), SD 13(3).

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