PRACTICAL

RESEARCH
FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL II
Q U A N T I T A T I V E

NELIA G. PRIETO, PhD

VICTORIA C. NAVAL, DEM
TERESITA G. CAREY, DALL

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 CHAPTER 1

Nature of Inquiry and Research

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the learners should be able to:

1. describe quantitative research in terms of:

1.1 characteristics
1.2 strengths; and
1.3 weaknesses
2. explain the kinds of quantitative research designs
3. illustrate the importance of quantitative research across fields; and
4. differentiate kinds of variables and their uses.

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 LESSON 1

Characteristics, Strengths, Weaknesses,

and Kinds of Quantitative Research

Introduction

Quantitative research designs use numbers in stating generalization about a

given problem or inquiry in contrast to qualitative research that hardly uses statistical
treatment in stating generalizations.

These numbers are the results of objective scales of measurements of the units of
analysis called variables.

Research findings are subjected to statistical treatment to determine significant

relationships or differences between variables, the result of which are the bases for
generalization about phenomena.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 Methods or procedures of data gathering include items like age, gender,

educational status, among others, that call for measurable characteristics of the
population.
 Standardized instruments guide data collection, thus, ensuring the accuracy,
reliability and validity of data.
 Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collected in order to show
trends, relationships or differences among variables. In sum, the charts and
tables allow you to see the evidence collected.
 A large population yields more reliable data, but principles of random sampling
must be strictly followed to prevent researcher’s bias.
 Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus,
reinforcing validity of findings.
 Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery. Just like
qualitative research, quantitative research has its own set of strengths, as well as
weaknesses.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

 Strengths

Quantitative research design is the most reliable and valid way of concluding
results, giving way to new hypothesis or to disproving it.

Because of a bigger number of the sample of a population, the results or

generalizations are more reliable and valid.

Quantitative experiments filter out factors, if properly designed, and so the

results gained can be seen, as real and unbiased. Quantitative experiments are useful for
testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments , leading to a final
answer, and narrowing down of possible directions to follow
(https://explorable.com/quantitative-research-design).

 Weaknesses
 Quantitative research can be costly, difficult and time-consuming-difficult
because most researchers are non-mathematicians.
 Quantitative studies require extensive statistical treatment, requiring stringent
standards, more so with confirmation of results. When ambiguities in some
findings surfaces, retesting and refinement of the design call for another
investment in time and resources to polish the results.
 Quantitative methods also tend to turn out only proved or unproven results,
leaving little room for uncertainly, or grey areas. For the social sciences,
education, anthropology and psychology, human nature is a lot more complex
than just a simple yes or no response (https://explorable.com/quantitative-
research-design.)

Kinds of Quantitative Research Design

Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to
integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby
ensuring you will effectively address the research problem. Furthermore, a research
design constitutes the blueprint for the selection, measurement and analysis of data.
The research problem determines the research design you should use.

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 Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical,
mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and
surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.

Quantitative research designs are generally classified experimental and non-

experimental as following matrix shows:

Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative Design Qualitative Design

Experimental Non-Experimental

True Quasi- Pre- Descriptive

Experimental Experimental Experimental

1. Pre-Test 1. Non 1. One Shot 1. Survey 1. Focus Group discussion

Design equivalent Case Study 2. Correlational 2. Grounded Theory
2. Post-Test Control Group 3. Ex-Post Facto Studies 3. Phenomenology
Design Design 2. One group 4. Comparative 4. Discourse Analysis
Pre-Test 5. Evaluative 5. Participant observation
Post-Test 6. Methodological
3. Post-Test 2. Times Series Design
Only/Control Design
Group Design

Polit and Hungler (1999)

Experimental research design allows the researcher to control the situation. In so

doing, it allows the researcher to answer the question, ‚What causes something to
occur?‛ This kind of research also allows the researcher to identify cause and effect
relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment
effects. Further, this research design supports the ability to limit alternative explanations
a and to infer direct causal relationships in the study; the approach provides the highest
level of evidence for single studies.

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 Pre-experimental types of research apply to experimental designs with the least
internal validity. One type of pre-experimental, the single group two times, before and
after the intervention.

Instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within one group, the posttest of
the treated groups is compared with that of an untreated group. Measuring the effect as
the difference between groups marks this as between-subjects design. Assuming both
groups experienced the same time-related influences, the comparison group feature
should protect this design from the rival explanations that threaten the within-subject
design.

Two classes of experimental designs can provide better internal validity than-pre-
experimental and true experimental (Dooly, 1999).

In a quasi-experimental design, the researcher can collect more data, either by

scheduling more observations or finding more existing measures.

A true experimental design controls for both time-related and group-related threats.
Two features mark true experiments- two or more differently treated groups and
random assignment to these groups. These features require that the researchers have
control over the experimental treatment and the power to place subjects in groups.

True experimental design employs both treated and control groups to deals with
time-related rival explanations.

A control groups reflects changes other those due to the treatment that occur during
the time of the study. Such changes include effects of outside events, maturation by the
subjects, changes in measures and impact of any pre-tests.

True experimental design offers the highest internal of all the design differs from true
experimental design by the absence of random assignment of subjects to different
conditions. What quasi-experiments have in common with true experiments is that some
subjects receive an intervention and provide data likely to reflects its impact.

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Types of Quasi-Experimental Design

1. Non-equivalent control group design-refers to the chance failure of random

assignments to equalize the conditions by a converting a true experiment into
this kind of design, for purposes of analysis.
2. Interrupted Time Series Design- employs multiple measure before and after the
experimental intervention. It differs from the single-group pre-experiment that
has only one present and one posttest. User of this design assume that the time
threats such as history or maturation appears as regular changes in the measures
prior to the intervention.

Non-experimental Research Design

In this kind of design, the researcher observes the phenomena as they occur naturally
and no external variables are introduced. In this research design, the variables are not
deliberately manipulated nor is the setting controlled. Researchers collect data without
making changes or introducing treatments.

The Descriptive research design’s main purpose is to observe, describe and document
aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serves as a starting point
for hypothesis generation or theory development (www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com).

Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. Survey – a research design used when the researcher intends to provide a

quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes or opinions of a
population by studying a sample that population (Creswell, 2003). For example,
universities regularly float surveys to determine customer satisfaction, that is, the
students attitudes toward or opinions and regarding student services like the
canteen, clinic, security, the guidance and counselling services, and the like.

2. Correlational- Correlation Research has three types:

 Bivariate correlational studies- obtain scores from two variables for each
subject, then use them calculate a correlation (variables are selected
because they are believed to be related).

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 Examples: Children of weather (variable #1), better educated (variable #2)
parents earn higher salaries as adults.

 Prediction studies-use correlation co-efficient to show how one variable

(the predictor variable) predicts another (the criterion variable).

Example: Which high school applicants should be admitted to college?

 Multiple Regression Prediction Studies- suppose the high school GPA is

not the sole predictor of college GPA, what might be other good
predictors? All of these variables can contribute to the over-all prediction
in an equation that adds together the predictive power of each identified
variable.

3. Ex-Post Facto Research Design – These are non-experimental designs that are
used to investigate causal relationships. They examine whether one or more pre-
existing conditions could possibly have caused subsequent differences in groups
of subjects. Researchers attempt to discover whether differences groups have
results in an observed difference in the independent variables.
(www.genesep.edu/esham/educ.604/research.pdf).

Examples: What is the effect of home schooling on the social skills of

adolescents?

4. Comparative design – involves comparing and contrasting two or more samples

of subjects one or more variables, often at a single point of time. Specially, this
design is used to compare two distinct groups on the basis of selected attributes
such as knowledge level, perceptions, and attitudes, physical or psychological
symptoms. For example, a comparative study on the health problems among
rural and urban older from district Mehsana,
Gujarat.(www.dryayeshpatidat.blogspot.com).

5. Evaluate Research- seeks to assess or judge in some way providing information

about something other than might to be gleaned in mere observation or
investigation of relationships.

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 For Example, where attest of children in school is used to assess the effectiveness
of teaching or the deployment of a curriculum.

(changingminds.org/explanations/research/design/evaluationresearch.htm).

Evaluation research is conducted to elicit useful feedback from variety of

respondents from various fields to aid in decision making or policy formulation.

There are various types of evaluation depending on the purpose of the study.
Formative and summative evaluation types are most commonly used in research.

Formulative evaluation is used to determine the quality of implementation of a

project, the efficiency and effectiveness of program, assessment of organizational
processes like procedures, polities, guidelines, human resource development and
the like.

6. Methodological – in this approach, the implementation of a variety of

methodologies forms a critical part of achieving the goal of developing a scale-
matched approach, where data from different disciplines can be integrated.

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 LESSON 2

Importance of Quantitative Research

Across Fields
Introduction

People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in order to

improve or enhance ways of doing things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis or
simply to find answers to questions or solutions to problems in daily life. Research
findings can affect people's lives, ways of doing things, laws, rules and regulations, as
well as policies, among others. Quantitative research, because of its emphasis on proof
rather than discovery, has been widely used in most disciplines.

In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic,

empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and
employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the
fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of
quantitative relationships.

Health Sciences (Medical Technology, Dentistry. Nursing, Medicine, etc.) use

quantitative research designs like the descriptive, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental,
true experiment, case study, among others.

Quantitative Research Across Disciplines

Quantitative Research and Anthropology

Bernard (1994) says that there are five steps to follow in conducting true
experiments with people:

1. You need at least two groups, called the treatment group (or the intervention group
or the stimulus group) and the control group. One group gets the intervention (a new
drug for example), and the other group (the control group) doesn't.

2. Individuals must be randomly assigned, either to the intervention group or to the

control group to ensure that the groups are equivalent. Some individuals in a

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population may be more religious, or more wealthy, or less sickly, or more prejudiced
than others, but random assignment ensures that those traits are randomly distributed
through the groups in an experiment. The degree to which randomization ensures
equivalence, however, depends on the size of the groups created. With random
assignment, two groups of 50 are more equivalent than four groups of 25

3. The groups are measured on one or more dependent variables (income, infant
mortality, attitude toward abortion knowledge of curing techniques, or other things you
hope to change by the intervention); this is called the pretest.

4. The intervention (the independent variable) is introduced

5. The dependent variables are measured again. This is the posttest.

True Experiments in the Lab

Bernard further says that true experiments with people are common in laboratory
experiments and in the testing of new medicines Laboratory experiments often produce
results that beg to be tested in the natural world by anthropologists Aaron and Mills
(1959, as cited in Bernard, 1994) demonstrated in a lab experiment that people who go
through severe initiation to a group tend to be more positive toward the group than are
people who go through a mild initiation. They reasoned that people who go through
tough initiation rites put a lot of personal investment into getting into the group. Later,
if people see evidence that the group is not what they thought it would be, they are
reluctant to admit the fact because of the investment.

True Experiments in the Field

When they are done outside the lab, experiments are called field experiments.
Janet Schofield and her colleagues did a 3-year ethnographic study of a middle school.
During the first year, they noticed that African-American and white children seemed to
react differently to "mildly aggressive acts-things like bumping in the hallway, poking
one another the classroom, asking for food, or using another student's pencil without
permission. There appeared to be no event of racial conflict in the school, but during
interviews white students were more likely to report being intimidated by their African-
American peers than vice versa (Sagar & Schofield, 1980, as cited in Bernard, 1994).

Quasi-Experiments

Quasi-experiments are most often used in evaluating social programs. Suppose a

researcher has invented a technique for improving reading comprehension among third

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graders. She/he selects two third-grade classes in a school district. One of them gets the
intervention and the other doesn't Students are measured before and after the
intervention to see whether their reading scores improve. This design contains many of
the elements of a true experiment, but the participants are not assigned randomly to the
treatment and control groups (Bernard, 1994).

The One-Shot Case Study, or One-Group Posttest Only Design

In the one-shot case study design, a single group of individuals is measured on

some dependent variable after an intervention has taken place. The researcher tries to
evaluate the experiment by interviewing people (O) and trying to assess the impact of
the intervention (X). The problem, of course, is that you can't be sure that what you
observe is the result of some particular intervention in the 1950s, physicians began
general use of the Pap Test, a simple procedure for determining the presence of cervical
cancer. Following the introduction of the Pap Test, measurements were made for several
years to see if there was any effect. Sure enough, cervical cancer rates dropped and
dropped. Later, it was noticed that cervical cancer rates had been dropping steadily
disease since the 1930’s. Of course, early detection of any cancer is important in fighting
the disease. But the data from the 1930s and 1940s show that, initially at least, the Pap
Test was not responsible for lower rates of cervical cancer (Williams, 1978, as cited in
Bernard, 1994).

The Two-Group Posttest Only Design

For this research design, Bernard (1994) cites this example: Consider two villages
in the same cultural region, one village has experienced a major intervention (tourism, a
factory an irrigation system) while the other villages have not. You measure a series of
variables (income, attitudes toward the national government, the amount of time
women spend in child-rearing activities) in both villages. These are O1 and O2.

If the differences between 01 and O2 are small, you can't tell if the intervention,
X, caused those differences. This design is quite convincing, though, when the
differences between 01 and O2 are large and where you have lots of participant
observation data to back up the claim that the intervention is responsible for those
differences (Bernard, 1994).

The One-Group Pretest-posttest Design

In the one-group pretest-posttest design, some variables are measured

(observed), then the intervention takes place, and then the variables are measured

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again. This takes care of some of the problems associated with the one-shot case study,
but doesn’t eliminate the threats of history, testing, maturation, selection, and mortality.
Most importantly, if there is a significant difference in the pretest and posttest
measurements we can't tell if the intervention made that difference happen. (Bernard,
1994).

Quantitative Research and Communication

Researchers are often interested in how an understanding of a particular

communication phenomenon might be generalized to a larger population. For example,
researchers can advance questions like "What effect do punitive behavioral control
statements have on a classroom? What communicative behaviors are associated with
different stages in a romantic relationship? What communicative behaviors are used to
respond to co-workers displaying emotional stress? (Allen, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009).

Quantitative Research and Sports Medicine

A quantitative research done by the University of Eastern Finland investigated the

relationship between the mushrooming of fast food chains and obesity of children, as
well as the intervention needed to prevent the children's obesity from reaching serious
proportions.

The research studied 410 children with ages ranging from six to eight years old
from Kuopio, Eastern Finland.

The researchers focused on the children's physical activity and physical inactivity
and the concomitant impact on the children's amount of adipose tissue (fat mass) and
endurance fitness. The study showed that children who did strenuous exercise for 10
minutes daily had 26-30% less adipose tissue than their peers who were physically
inactive. It had also been found out that even light physical activity for the equivalent
time of passive sitting reduced the children's adipose tissue by 13%. The study
concluded that physical activity affects effectively the children's weight control

Quantitative Research and Medical Education

Quantitative research in medical education tends to be predominantly

observational research based on surveys or correlational studies. (http
lioxfordmedicine.com/view/10.1093/med/9780199652679.001.0001/med_978019965267
9_chapter 53.)

Experimental research designs may enhance the quality of medical education.

Said designs test interventions like curriculum, teaching-learning process, or assessment
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with an experimental group. Either a comparison or controlled group of learners may
allow researchers to overcome validity concerns and infer potential cause-effect
generalizations.

When designing their own or evaluating other researchers' studies, researchers

must always keep in mind internal and external validity concerns.

The selection of a research design for any study should be within the parameters
the research questions as stated in the problem statement or hypothesis. In quantitative
research, the findings will reflect the reliability and validity (psychometric characteristics
of the measured outcomes or dependent variables such as changes in knowledge, skill
or attitudes used to assess the effectiveness of medical education intervention or the
independent variable of interest.

Quantitative Research and the Behavioral Sciences

Contemporary quantitative scholars are interested in two types of questions:

1. Questions of relationships and

2. Questions of differences

Relationship questions tend to explore how one behavior exhibited by people is

related to other types of behavior. Examples are verbally aggressive behaviors related to
physical aggression-that is, when a person has high level of verbally aggressive
behavior, does he or she tend to be physically aggressive? Are certain supervisor
communication skills related to the emotional experiences of employees?

Questions of difference explore how patterns of behavior or perceptions might

differ from one group or type of person to another: Do people with disabilities
experience emotional labor differently from those without disabilities? Do women
perceive talkativeness (or lack of it) differently from men? Do communication styles
differ from one culture to the next? (Allen, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009).

When quantitative researchers explore questions of differences or questions of

relationships, they do so in an attempt to uncover certain patterns of behavior. If the
researcher discovers that a certain relationship exists in a sample that she or he has
drawn from the population, she/he is then in a position to draw generalizations about
patterns expected of human behavior.

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Quantitative Research in Education and Psychology

Mertens (2005) says that the dominant paradigms that guided early educational
and psychological research were positivism and its successor, post positivism. Positivism
is based on the rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with Aristotle, Francis
Bacan, John Locke, August Comte, and Immanuel Kant. The underlying assumptions of
positivism include the belief that the social world can be studied in the same way as the
natural world that there is a method for studying the social world that is value-free, and
that explanations of a causal nature can be provided.

The following table was done by Doren, Bullis, and Benz, 1996, as cited in
Mertens 2005, to illustrate this view of positivism:

Research Problem: Very little is known about the victimization experiences of

adolescents with disabilities, yet previous research has suggested that people with
mental retardation are vulnerable to economic, psychological, and physical abuse.

Research Question: What are the predictors of victimization for a sample of

adolescents with disabilities in transition from high school to adult life?

Method: Students with disabilities and their parents in two western states were
interviewed during the students' last year in school and once again, when students were
1 year out of school.

Participants: Participants were students with disabilities who were identified by their
school as in their last year of high school or who had dropped out of high school
sometime during what would have been their last year (sample size=422).

Instruments and Procedures: A fixed- response interview was conducted by telephone

with students and their parents by trained interviewers. Predictor variables were selected
based on previous research these included gender, minority status, serious emotional
disturbance (SED), specific learning disability (SLD), dropout status, family
socioeconomic status, parent rating of academic skills, and a rating of personal-social
skills. The outcome variable of victimization was defined as experiencing more than one
of the following: being teased or bothered, having something stolen from them, or
being hit hard or beaten up.

Results: The following characteristics were associated with a greater likelihood of being
victimized during the first year out of school prior victimization when in school in the

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previous year, being female, having low post school personal social achievement, and
having both SED and an arrest record within 1year of leaving school.

Discussion: The greatest risk for victimization was for the group who had serious
emotional disturbance and low personal-social achievement. The authors recommend
increasing social skill training directed to this specific group in terms of appropriate
ways to behave in community settings where victimization could occur.

Quantitative Research and the Social Sciences

Quantitative approaches are typically associated with positivist perspectives in

social research. Hammersley (1993, as cited in Henn, Weinstein, Foard, 2006) provides a
useful definition of this approach:

The term 'quantitative method' refers to the adoption of the natural science
experiments as the model for scientific research, its key features being quantitative
measurement of the phenomena studied and systematic control of the theoretical
variables influencing those problems.

Thus, the logic of such research is to:

• collect data using standardized approaches on a range of variables,

• search for patterns of causal relationships between these variables, and

• test given theory by confirming or denying precise hypotheses

The methods employed in this type of quantitative social research are most
typically the sample survey and the experiment, a method that is particularly popular in
psychological research.

The sample survey is the most commonly used technique for gathering
information, whether by quantitative or qualitative means. Surveys are based on using
statistical sampling methods. By taking a representative sample from a given population
and applying a standardized research instrument in the form of a structured
questionnaire, surveys enable descriptive and explanatory generalizations to be made
about the population in question.

Experimental Research

Experiments are most commonly used in psychological research and in the broad
field of business studies in the form of action research. Experimental research is based
on the researcher manipulating certain conditions in order to identify the relationship

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between particular variables, in the hope that it will explain cause and effect
relationships In seeking to measure the impact that one factor has on another by
controlling all other factors that might have an effect, experimental research builds on
the principles of a positivist approach to science, more than any other research
technique.

Experiments can be carried out in a laboratory or a field setting. Laboratory

experimentation is the most closely regulated method of experiment, involving the
introduction of certain conditions into a controlled environment that stimulates key
characteristics of a natural environment. An example might be examining the extent to
which the responses of a group of voters to questions about political attitudes after
exposures to a series of party election broadcast might be different to another (yet
identical group's responses who are not confronted with such images. Such experiments
allow for very considerable time on behalf of the researcher who is able to effect change
and observe the research participants subsequent behavior.

Social research is all around us: Educators, government officials, business.

managers, human service providers and health care professionals regularly use social
research methods and findings. People use social research to raise children, reduce
crime, improve public health, sell products or just understand one's life (Neuman, 2007).

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 LESSON 3

Kinds of Variables and their Uses

Introduction

The root word of the word is ‚vary‛ or simply ‚can change‛.

Variables are among the fundamental concepts of research, alongside with

measurement validity, reliability, cause and effect and theory.

Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something that can take more than one value,
and values can be words or numbers.

The most common variables in social research are age, sex, gender, education,
income, marital status and occupation.

All social research is based on defining variables, looking for associations among
them, and trying to understand whether one variable causes another.

Still other experts define a variable as any entity that can take on different values.
Simply stated, anything that can vary can be considered a variable. An attribute, on the
other hand, is a specific value on a variable. For instance, the variable gender has two
attributes: male and female.

Or the variable agreement might be define as having 5 attributes:

 Strongly Disagree
 Disagree
 Neutral
 Agree
 Strongly Agree

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, variables are units of analysis, some of which
include gender, age, socio-economic status, attitudes or behaviors such as bullying,
racial discrimination, among others.

A variable specially refers to a characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an

organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or
organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).

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The Nature of Variables and Data

Quantitative researchers try to count human behaviors, that is, they attempt to count
multiple variables at the same time, Generally speaking, variables are classified as one of
four types: (Allen, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009).

1. Nominal variables represent categories that cannot be ordered in any

particular way. Examples are biological sex (e.g males vs. female), political
affiliation, basketball fan affiliation, etc.

2. Ordinal variables represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to

smallest. Examples of ordinal variables included education level (e.g
freshman, sophomore, Grade XI, Grade XII), income brackets, etc.

3. Interval variables have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers. Examples of interval data include temperature, a person’s net
worth (how much money you have when you subtract your debt from your
assets) etc.

4. Ratio variables have values that lie along evenly dispersed range of
numbers when there is an absolute zero, as opposed to the net worth,
which can have a negative dept-to-income ratio-level variable. That is, you
cannot have income or some positive amount of income. Most scores
stemming from response to survey items are ratio-level values because they
typically cannot go below zero.

Kinds of Variables

Several experts have lumped together the following as the major kinds of variables.

1. Independent variables – those that probably cause, influence, or affect

outcomes. They are invariably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or
predictor variables.

2. Dependent variables – those that depend on the independent variables; they

are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables.

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 3. Intervening or mediating variable – ‚stand between‛ the independent and
dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable
or the dependent variable.

4. Control variables – special types of independent variables that are measured

in a study because they potentially influence the dependent variable.
Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g analysis of covariance) to control
these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables that need to
be ‚controlled‛ so that the true influence of the independent variable on the
dependent can be determined.

5. Confounding variables – those that are not actually measured or observed in

a study. They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study.
Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables after the
study has been completed, because these variables may be operated to
explain the relationship between the independent variable and dependent
variable, but they were not or could be easily assessed.

Patrick Regoniel (2012) advances these examples of variables:

Phenomenon A: Climate Change

Examples of variables related to climate change:

1. sea level
2. temperature
3. the amount of carbon emission
4. the amount of rainfall

Phenomenon B: Crime and violence on streets

Example of variables related to crime and violence in streets

1. number of robberies
2. number of attempted murders
3. numbers of prisoners
4. number of crime victims
5. number of law enforcers
6. number of convictions

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 7. number of carnapping incidents

Phenomenon C: Poor performance of students college entrance exams

Examples of variables related to poor academic performance:

1. Entrance exam score

2. Number of hours devoted to studying
3. Student-teacher ratio
4. Number of students in the class
5. Educational attainment
6. Teaching style
7. The distance of school from home
8. Number of hours devoted by parents in providing tutorial support

All of the above examples of variables can be counted or measured using a scale. The
expected values derived from these variables will, therefore, be in terms of numbers,
amount, category or type. Since quantified variables allow statistical analysis variables
correlations or difference be determined.

Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variables stand alone and they are not changed by the other variables
you are trying to measure.

Examples of independent variables are age, gender, what people eat, how much time
they spend using gadgets, how much television they watch or how much time
youngsters spend on computer games.

Dependent variables are what researchers interested in. They depend on other
factors. For example, a test score could be a dependent variables, because it could
change depending on several factors as how much you studied, how much sleep you
got the night before you took the test, or even hoe hungry you were when you took it.
In sum, the changes in dependent variables are what the researchers is trying to
measure with varied scientific techniques.

In the phenomenon on climate change, temperature (independent variable)may

influence sea level (dependent variable). Increased temperature will cause expansion of
water in the sea. Thus, sea level rise on a global may occur.

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 In the second phenomenon, crime and violence on streets, the independent variable
may be the number of law enforcers and dependent variables is the number of
robberies. Now, figure out the independent and dependent variables in Phenomenon C.

Usually, when you are looking for some kind of relationship between variables, you
are trying to see if the independent variable causes some kind of change in the other
variables, or dependent variables.

Another example: If you are studying the impact of a new enrollment procedure on
the school personnel and the students, the new enrollment procedure is the
independent variable and the impact of the new enrollment procedure is the dependent
variable.

The following is one of the best ways to distinguish an independent variable from a
dependent variable.

(Independent variable) causes a change in (dependent variable) and it isn’t possible

that (dependent variable) could cause a change in (independent variable).
https://nces.ed.gov./nceskinds/help/user_guide/graph/variables?.asap

You can read the above thus: (Time Spent Studying) causes a change but it is not
possible that (Test score) could cause a change in ( Time Spent Studying).

Traits of Variables

 Exhaustive- this should include all possible answerable responses.

 Mutually exclusive- no respondent should be able to have two attributes
simultaneously. https://gov/education/products/sdse/variable/htm.

22
 LESSON 1

Designing a Research Useful in Daily Life

Introduction

You must have deduced from your readings, exercises done, further studies
completed in Research 1 (Qualitative Research) that research is as good as its seeking
answers to questions or even solutions to problems of daily living.

Better yet, research is as good as its finding answers or solves the real-world
phenomena.

The word research" typically calls to mind mathematical formulas that describe
the ever expanding natural phenomena, complex theorems liquids in test tubes endless
experiments to explain phenomena, human behavior, and the like. But these discoveries
and technical procedures have positive effects and consequences for many aspects of
our lives that are far more numerous and important than what we imagine.

Research affects Society and the lives of each one of us each day of our lives. The
way we perceive the world, the way we experience relationships with others, the way
society is organized and governed, and a lot more are influenced by the ever expanding
frontiers of knowledge. For us to make sense of our world and even of our own lives, we
need research. For different branches of knowledge or disciplines, as well as
corporations, government organizations, or NGO's in search for answers to phenomena,
people do research.
Possible Research Topics Related to Daily Life

Age-old problems on poverty alleviation, unemployment homelessness, gender

equality, population aging, child care, development of the youth all forms of violence,
online or cybercrimes, the traffic situation, preservation and protection of the
environment, livelihood projects entrepreneurial ventures, health care, social security,
and a lot more have been investigated from several angles, But seemingly authorities
have come up with mere "band aid" solutions, like the government's Pantawid Pamilya
program, for example To alleviate the growing menace Metro Manila's traffic has caused
on the people's sanity, the economy, the industry, and the like, experiments and more
experiments are done each day in search for the best solutions to these problems. The
VAW (Violence Against Women) desk is a product of extensive research. And so is the
final stamp of approval on the senior citizens increase in SSS pension.

23
 Approaching problems from the interdisciplinary point of view and sharing
knowledge gathered in different areas has remained a big challenge to researchers. The
most innovative research is the kind that operates on the areas between different
disciplines. This gives rise to a new interactive model whereby practical research raises
new theoretical questions which give rise to further research.

Suffice it to say that one of the keys to a better life, health, well-being. Individual
national and global prosperity and well-being is research. No organization, big or small,
will approve or implement any program or action without a well-done research backed
up by valid and reliable findings.

For example, where clinical trials are concerned, research is a legal requirement
for pharmaceutical companies to obtain marketing authorization (i.e. permission to sell
new drugs, until they have proved to the relevant authorities that the drug is safe and
effective). Moreover, carefully organized research enables researchers to consider
external factors which might influence research results. For example, before concluding
that green tea is good for x, y, or z, it is important to ensure that the tea drinkers studied
do not have something else (i.e. other than drinking tea) in common such as being more
physically active than non-lea drinkers or being vegetarians, which might equally affect
findings.

Dedicating our lives to research means making study and experiment our
profession; needless to say, these activities lead to the acquisition of knowledge.
Deciding on a Research Topic

Now, let us move on to the Senior High School track you are enrolled in.

Before you make a final decision on your topic, reflect on these questions, as you

did when you went through your qualitative study:

1. What area/s not covered in classroom lessons/discussions do I still want to

know/investigate in my specific track?

2. If I do this research project, how useful will it be to me as a senior high school

graduate and to the community where I belong, and even to the large community, the
Philippines, ASEAN, and the world?

It cannot be overemphasized that your research project will be worth all the planning,
execution of plans, resources in time, manpower and budget if it will reflect or
concretize your knowledge and skills, as well as attitudes, as a successful senior high
school graduate in your specific track, and if it will contribute to the well-being or
progress of the beneficiaries of your study:

24
o ABM-Accounting, Business, Mathematics

o STEM-Science, Technology, Engineering, Management

o HUMSS- Humanities and the Social Sciences

o Sports

o Technical / Vocational

o Information and Communication Technology

o Arts and Design

o Technology/Livelihood/Entrepreneurship

25
 LESSON 2

Writing a Research Title

Introduction

As pointed out in Book 1, the research topic or research title is not like manna
that will fall from heaven, and presto! You have a title!

A research title, or research project is a product of real world observations,

dilemmas, wide reading, subjective viewing (television programs, films, documentaries,
videos, etc.) meaningful interactions with significant others, and deep reflection.

The title of the research is the research problem or inquiry in capsule form great
care must be taken in the formulation of the research title. It must clearly reflect the
topic of investigation. And it must be original clear, concise or specific,

When you finally decide on a research topic make sure that your research topic
amd your research questions match. Too broad topics will lead you nowhere. In order to
narrow down broad topics to specific ones, the purpose or intent of the study must be
clear.
Broad Topics

Broad topics should always be narrowed down.

The following are examples of broad topics:

 Blended learning in English Classes

 Presidential Election Results

 Agri-business

 Social Networking

 Vegetarianism

Specific Topics

Specific topics are researchable.

26
 The following are examples of specific research topics:

 A Correlation Study on the Use of Blended Learning in Freshman English

Classes and Student Achievement

 The Impact of Agribusiness on the Philippine Economy

 Campaign Events and Materials and their Impact on Presidential Election

Results

 The Cause-Effect Relationships of Social Networking and Online Setting

 Effects of Vegetarianism on Physical Health

Techniques in Narrowing Down a Topic into a Research Question

As seen in Book 1 (Qualitative Research), Neuman (2007) suggestions the

following techniques in narrowing down broad topics:

1. Examine the Literature. Published articles are an excellent source of ideas for
research questions. They are usually at an appropriate level of specificity and
suggest research questions that focus on the following:

a. Replicate a previous research project exactly or with slight variations.

b. Explore unexpected findings discovered in previous research.

c. Follow suggestions an author gives for future research at the end of the
article.

d. Extend an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting.

e. Challenge findings or attempt to refute a relationship.

f. Specify the intervening process and consider linking relations.

2. Talk over ideas with others.

a. Ask people who are knowledgeable about the topic for questions about it
that they have thought of.

b. Seek out those who hold opinions that different from yours on the topic and
discuss possible research questions with them.

27
 3. Apply to specific content.

a. Focus the topic on a specific historical period of time period.

b. Narrow the topic to a specific society or geographic unit.

c. Consider which subgroups or categories of people/units are involved and

whether there are differences among them.

4. Define the aim or desire outcome of the study.

a. Will the research question be for an exploratory, explanatory, or descriptive

study?

b. Will the study involve applied or basically research?

Other Topics of Interest

There are other topics of interests that you can use for a meaningful and useful
quantitative research:

1. Body, Health and lifestyle issues.

2. Traffic and the economy.

3. Mobile Hospital's

4. Popular Culture and Popular Music

5. Credit unions

6. Corporate Social Responsibility

7. Flood Control

8. Endangered species

9. Success indicators of Entrepreneurial Ventures

10. Friendship and its impact on a Person's well-being

11. Neighbourliness as a prime factor in a Community's Peace and Order

Situations

28
Choosing a Topic for a Research Study

Layder (2013) stresses that in choosing a research topic. It is important to select a

topic that interest and motivate you. It should be "doable" with the resources at your
disposal and within the required time frame. Needless to say, the research topic should
be focused and well-defined.

Deciding on a topic also entails being clear about which ones to avoid, especially if
you have little experience as a researcher. Although topic close to your own personal
experiences may be appropriate for small-scale projects, you must not allow personal
views, ideas, opinions, and prejudice cloud your thinking. Research projects must be as
objective as possible, that is freed from your personality biases or preferences as a
researcher.

Lastly, you should avoid research topics that involve your making moral judgments
about certain kinds of behavior.

29
 LESSON 3

Describing Background of the Study

Introduction

The background of the study is basically an overview of the research study and
explains why you, as researcher, are doing the study. It provides information that is
important or essential to understand the main body of the research investigation, which
could be an offshoot of any one of the following:

1. Historical developments

2. Cultural development

3. Academic developments

4. Scientific developments

5. Debates or arguments and a host of others.

These development could give rise to your research questions. The background
of the study locates or situates your study in the context of your specific field
(Accounting, Business, Management, Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics,
Sports, Arts, and Design, Technical Vocational) and other related fields.

Your linking up of your research study to recent developments, as well as your

mentioning whether certain issues relevant to your field of investigation had been
addressee in any form, followed by the research questions you intend to seek answer
for, can make your reader deduce the originally of your study (www.editage.com)

Example of Background of the Study

Some excerpts:

Example 1.

With diminishing finances. It is rarely possible for a library or information certain

to have enough resources to fulfill the needs of its clients… Collaboration is widely
recognized as the best way for libraries to cope with the ever increasing challenges
volume of information resources, nature and quality of information, user needs and

30
expectations, information and communication technology competencies and
infrastructure inflated cost of information resources and staffing needs. However
although these challenges have continued to prevail, libraries working under
collaborative initiatives like the Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries Illinois
(CARLI) have registered tremendous success.

This research study reports the findings of a thorough study to establish the
faction that have led to the success of CARLI and how such success factors can be
applied in libraries of developing countries like Uganda, Emphasis is placed on to
establishment of CARLI leadership, the sharing of responsibility and decision making
process as well as sources of funding for the consortium... Also central to the research
study is exploration of the role and responsibility of participating member libraries and
their contributions and expectations from the consortium.

This present research study has incorporated interviews with CARLI staff and a
questionnaire survey to all the participating CARLI membership.

(https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstreamyhandle/2142/thesis-ch.1-3)

Example 2.

Cockroaches are common pests in the tropics. They have been known to cause
allergic reactions to most people and chew holes on clothes. According to Bato Balani
for Science and technology vol. 14 no 2, the real danger of cockroach-lies in their ability
to transmit sometimes lethal diseases and organism such as staphylococcus spp,
streptococcus spp, Hepititis viruses and coliform bacteria.

They have been knowing to contaminate food, at the same time infect. It with
bacteria they carry. The bacteria they spread in food can cause food poisoning.

People have used various instruments to control the cockroach problem. The most
popular is the insecticide spray but according to website www.bayer.co.th its active
ingredients like petroleum distillates can cause severe chest pains and coughs when
inhaled.

The second is the cockroach coil which can kill roaches but the active ingredients
like aliethri… can cause harm to humans when inhaled. It also has an ozone depleting
ingredient.

31
 The third most popular is the flypaper; when roaches are stuck into it, they die
and carcass can spread more bacteria.

The question on everyone's mind is: "What can be an effective and natural insecticide?"

Tubang Bakod (Jatropha carcrass) is a common plant in the Philippines.

According to the website www.davesgarden.com, its seeds contain a certain toxic
substance known as toxalbumin carcen. Along with other ingredients like sap, onions
and weeping willow leaves, are Tubang Bakod eeds feasible to be uses as cockroach
killer? (Https://www.scrib.com/doc/60715657/Background-of-the-Study-Sample)

32
 LESSON 4
Stating Research Questions

Introduction

Whenever you do research-qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods-your goal

is to help people, groups or organizations understand better phenomena, human
behavior, human interactions and other events in daily life. With this in mind, the
researcher, formulation of research questions is of primary importance.

Throughout the research process, you, as researcher, make crucial decision

particularly in the choice of methods of data collection, and in data analysis procedure.
The research questions you formulate give focus to the research, as well as guide the
appropriacy of the decisions you make.

If the research questions are not clearly formulated, or have no direction, you will
find yourself with too much data, and yet, not knowing what to do with them.

Suffice it to say that the research questions express clearly the specific direction
or focus of your research problem or inquiry. Needless to say, the research question
comprise the core of the study.
Research Questions

Layder (2013) says that social research is literally a search for the best explanation
of the problem around which evidence or data is focused.

It is good to emphasize at this point that social research problems are not the
same thing as "topics" or "areas of interests". They are not the equivalent of so-called
social problems like poverty, unemployment, social inequality, and so on.

Research problems address issues about social organizations, social processes

and social behavior.
Types of Research Questions

There are two types of research questions

1. Problem Questions - are general and explanatory and have a crucial influence on the
form and content of topic questions.

2. Topic Questions - are specific and descriptive.

33
Six key problem questions

Layder illustrates six key problem questions:

1. How are a person's self-identity, feelings, ideas and attitudes related to his or
her social environment?

A research project tackling this question might focus on the Individual's

attitudes towards emotions and intimacy in friendship or romantic
partnerships, and how they are influenced by TV programmes, films and
magazines. Another project might concentrate on whether or not certain
individuals, such as those with low self-esteem, are more susceptible than
others to drug addiction.

2. How do people influence each other's behaviour in social interaction-either

face-to-face' or'mediated through texts, emails, mobiles, and so on?

Consider the following scenario. Two friends' meet up and one (or both)
reveals for the first time that they find the other attractive. A routine peck on
the cheek suddenly becomes a full-blown, passionate kiss, thus, changing
forever their relationship and their feelings towards one another. The way in
which face-to-face interaction can transform people's understandings may
thus be the focus of small-scale research. For example, a project could focus
on the question of whether mixing with other drug users makes
experimenting with different drugs more likely.

3. How do social settings (such as schools, universities, families, factories,

companies, hospitals, and so on) influence the behavior of those operating
within them?

This question might give rise to a proper examination of how and why people
express emotion and feeling in school, work, family and friendship.
Alternatively, a research project revolving around drug use might focus on the
question is the use of certain types of drugs associated with different work
setting?' A significant focus for small-scale research projects would be to help
map the differences between settings and their effects on social behavior by
concentrating on a particular example say a school, a university, a religious
group. friendship, family or romantic relationships.

4. How is social behavior influenced by: (a) social class, ethnicity, gender, age,
neighborhood, region, or politics: (b) cultural values, expectations and
institutions (including the media)?

34
 Such problem might give rise to research on possible links between drug use
and social class, gender or ethnicity. A research project on intimacy might
explore the extent to which media images of 'romantic love seep into people's
everyday attitudes and experiences.

5. How does power influence human behaviour and social activity?

Power is everywhere in social life (although it comes in different shapes and

sizes', so to speak) and is an especially fruitful theme for small-scale research.
Thus, a research on intimacy might canter on the way the balance of control in
close relationships determines whether or not they survive in the longer term.
A research on drug use could investigate the extent to which users are
disempowered by their addiction.

6. How does the passage of time influence social behaviour?

A research project might investigate changes in intimate relationships over

time. Why does the excitement of a new romance begin to fade? Can intimacy
deteriorate to the point the partners are simply 'coexisting with each other?
Research can also be conducted to investigate whether or not an employee's
length of stay on his/her job affects his/her efficiency and or effectiveness.

Research Questions and Research Design

Unlike problem-questions which are general in nature, topic questions involve

specific issues about the topic or the area of research interest. So, topic-questions about
the family, for instance, might include such things as how particular individuals define
their roles, or how family members relate to one another, and so on. Topic-questions
about romantic relationships might center on 'emotional disclosure’ and/or the
'commitment' and 'involvement of partner.

Viewing topic-questions through the perspective of problem-questions acts as

sort of filtering process that gives final shape and focus to topic-questions.

For example, you may be interested on the topic of friendship or romantic

relationships which may lead you to pose questions such as, 'how are friendship
formed? or why do couples become romantically attached?' in order to give these
questions more research relevance and refinement, you need to also ask what problem-
questions are pertinent to your concerns? Are you more interested in the way
individuals experience friendship or romantic attachment (problem-question 1)? Or in
the way friendships or romantic relationships develop through interaction (problem-
question2)? You may, in fact, want to know more about how families, neighborhoods or

35
schools affect the friendship and romantic choices that people make (problem-question
3).

You might prefer to focus on the way the media-magazines, books, films, internet
music and so on- influence the way people perceive persons and relationships.
Questions of power and control may be more compelling, such as 'how are romantic
relationships influenced by the power balance between partners'? You may wish to
explore how ideas about romantic relationships have changed in particular periods of
history. As you begin to decide on your focus, and the problem-questions most relevant
to your concerns, you can then refine your topic-questions. As they become more
refined and focused, certain tentative answers or explanations may suggest themselves.

Because the design of a research project hinges on the development and honing
of research questions (both problem and topic varieties) a good amount of time and
effort should give over to deciding what they are before doing any actual research. After
this essential first step in research design, you will be in a position to decide what kind
of data sample you need (how many and what kinds of people, events or documents).
The third step, choosing the methods and strategies of data collections, will follow from
this, as well as the fourth step, choosing the best way of analysing the data.

Developing a research design at the very start provides a framework or template

in advance of the research itself, so that it has some planned structure to it. This will
help minimize any uncertainties you might have about how to proceed or in dealing
with unforeseen or disruptive problems. Of course, deciding on key problem-and topic-
questions in advance does not mean that you can't change things or be flexible in your
thinking and ideas about the project. Thus, it is best to regard these things as
preparatory and preliminary in nature. Once underway, your plans and focus may shit
change or readjust, but having a preliminary focus and design in place will ensure the
any changes will be ordered and controlled, rather than being 'forced or ill-thought-out.

36
 LESSON 5
Indicating Scope and Delimitation

Introduction

As mentioned in Lesson 2, too broad topics will lead the research nowhere.

The scope and delimitation of the study as you were taught in Book 1 (Qualitative
Research) sets boundaries and parameters of the problem inquiry and narrows down the
scope of the inquiry. The scope is the domain of your research- what is in the domain
and what is not. You need to make as clear as possible what you will be studying and
what factors are within the accepted range of your study. For example, if you are
studying the impact of a particular program of the Department of Social Welfare and
Development (DSWD), you have to specify the program and specific local government
unit in which it is being implemented.

Examples of Scope and Delimitation From Actual Studies:

A. Title of the Study: Consumers' Response to PETA's advocacy advertisements on

vegetarianism (Del Mundo, 2009).

The study was conducted to find out the consumers' responses towards
vegetarianism in advocacy advertisements. The researcher chose vegetarianism
among many advocacy issue; the reason for this is that vegetarianism is a
growing consumer market. The aspects studied were the respondents' feedback
to selected most popular advertisements of PETA toward vegetarianism, how the
advertisements catch attention and interest, how they affect lifestyles, and how
they generate action.

B. Title of the Study: Milo Marathon: A Sports Event as a Corporate Social

Responsibility (Bernardo, 2013).

The research is focused mainly on the application of Corporate Social

Responsibility (CSR) on Milo® Marathon. The Milo® Marathon is the search
context of this study as it allows individuals to participate ina sports event, on
which portion of the event proceeds benefits a charitable advocacy. A sample
population from 42-km and 21-km distances of the marathon is used as
respondents to the survey questionnaires of this research.

37
 The psychological Continuum Model (PCM) is used as the theoretical
foundation for the thesis (Funk and James, 2001 & 2006). PCM has four levels
namely, awareness, attraction, attachment and allegiance. The current research
specifically focuses on the awareness, attraction, and attachment stages as these
are the most crucial stages of the model. Funk and James (2006) argued that
attachment process requires additional development and this study will respond
to this suggestion through examination of factors that may contribute to sports
event awareness, attraction, and attachment.
Formulating research questions delimits the research topic to a specific area.
Doing so reduces variety thus, structures the field under study. Important
aspects are brought to the fore; others are regarded as less important and left in
the background or excluded.

38
 LESSON 6

Citing Benefits and Beneficiaries

Introduction

As earlier discussed in Book 1 (Qualitative Research), essentially this part informs

the reader on on how the study will contribute to the well-being of a person or progress
of a group or society in general. For example, in addressing social problems like
epidemics, e.g. the Zika Virus, in a research study, the findings can benefit, first and
foremost, the victims themselves and their respective families, policy makers like the
Department of Health, Department of Social Welfare and Development, practitioners
(Health and Nutrition), leaders, both local and national government, as well as NGO's.

When you mull over who/what benefit from your study, focus on your problem
which will guide you in indentifying the specific contribution of your study. The
challenge of this section of the Problem Statement is to situate the study as addressing
a particular, important, or even pressing problem. Defining the problem shapes the
research study's significance (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). For example, a research
study can focus on Philhealth Plans for PWD's.

Framing said research as a policy study requires that the problem be situated in
national health policies. Your challenge as a researcher is to describe how the results of
your study will contribute to the well-being of both of the PWD's and the
establishments they are connected with, or are helping them.

Quantitative studies investigating impact of certain projects, activities or programs

can best showcase benefits and beneficiaries of the study.

Examples of Benefits and Beneficiaries Section From Actual Studies

Title of the Study: Task-Based Language Teaching and Its Effect on Second Language
Acquisition on College Freshman Students (Go, 2010).

Significance of the Study

Choosing an appropriate language teaching methodology for a group of learners is

a responsibility of language educators. With the teachers' explicit and implicit
knowledge of language acquisition and language learning processes, they can select
theoretically sound and more effective pedagogy appropriate for their learners.
39
However, implementing a chosen methodology necessitates understanding its principles
as well as its strengths and weaknesses.

This may be significant to the language teachers, the language learners, and the
concerned educators.

Teachers. Language teachers will become more aware of Task-based Language

Teaching (TBLT) and they would realize that tasks could be used as pedagogical tools, as
well as methodological procedure. Aware of the main goal of TBLT, they could provide
more opportunities for student interaction in the classroom to enhance their language
learning. They should be encouraged to provide the learners with tasks that could
develop their communicative skills, an important skill for Filipino learners of English as a
second language. Furthermore, Language teachers will have better understanding of
TBLT and how this is implemented; they will appreciate the strong concept of this
method and will be aware of its limitations.

Language Learners. Students, the language learners, would be made aware of the
usefulness of the English language as a tool for communication and a tool for
understanding course content, or for academic purposes. Aware of the usefulness of the
language, they will be highly motivated to aquire/learn the English language as their
second language. It is not for integrative purposes but for instrumental reasons.
Realizing this, they will be strongly motivated to develop their language proficiency in
English. Providing them with the opportunity to use the target language in meaningful
and highly motivating context will enhance academic learning.

Administration. The administration may be encouraged to include in the long-

term Development Plan, a Faculty Development Program where faculty could develop
their teaching competence and enhance the use of effective language teaching
methods. Further, they could implement policies to encourage faculty to develop
instructional materials for the offering of English courses based in the learners' language
needs, academically and professionally.

Textbook Writers. Aware of the TBLT as a language teaching methodology,

textbook writers would approach the preparation of learning materials based on this
pedagogical framework. Inclusion in their textbooks suggested communicative tasks to
be performed by the learners in the classroom would provide the students with the
opportunities to use the language for communication. These learning strategies relating
the grammatical structure to the communicative function in real situations and real time
could possibly enhance the learners' communicative proficiency.

Curriculum Writers. Knowing the communicative proficiency learners need,

curriculum writers have to design language courses which would enhance learners'

40
communicative skill preparing them for their career work. The course description should
include not only the subject content but also the communicative skills, both macro and
micro to be acquired/developed and how to teach these in the best possible manner.
Language teaching methodologies may be suggested to advance learners' proficiency
levels.

Part of the contribution of this study would be the developed instructional

materials, a portfolio of TBLT lessons prepared for the first tertiary level students. The
lesson outlines, patterned after Willis' (1986) model, are intended to be used for one
semester. Included in the teaching material are the printed texts from newspapers and
journals. Teachers may select from these reading materials the appropriate text they can
use in their class.

With the findings of this study, language teachers would be encouraged to assess
the effectiveness of other language teaching pedagogies which can be adopted to the
language needs of the learners.

41
 LESSON 7
Presenting written Statement of the
Problem
Introduction
In Book 1 "Qualitative Research in Daily Life", you learned that the problem
statement has that following parts: a title, the background of research or introduction,
the research questions, the scope and delimitation of the study and its beneficiaries and
benefits.

Just like in qualitative research and in most research designs, the statement of rhe
problem includes the following parts:

The introduction states briefly the background of the study and identifies the
rationale of the research problem. It begins with a general statement of the problem,
then focuses on a specific problem or issue, framing said problem within the existing
literature, pointing out deficiencies in the literature and targeting study for evidence or
proof.

The statement of the problem states clearly the purpose or interest of the study. It
poses specific questions about the research problem.

The scope and delimitation sets the boundaries and parameters of the study,
narrows the scope of the inquiry and clarifies or defines terms used.

The significance of the study shows the benefits of the study in addressing special
problems, in improving economic and health conditions, or even finding solutions to
problems of human behavior, in refining existing knowledge for specific audience, such
as researchers, leaders, practitioners, policy makers, among others.

The problem statement of quantitative research has basically the sam parts,
explanations, requirements and/or restrictions.

Actual Quantitative Studies Done that Showcase all the Parts of the Problem
Statement

In this chapter, the different parts of the problem statement are illustrated by actual
studies done:

42
 1. Cabbab, Julita. (2010). "The development and validation of a tri-modular
instructional program in speech and oral communication for the collegiate
level."
2. Salcedo, Reynaldo. (2013). "Conditional cash transfer. An assessment of
pantawid pamilyang Pilipino program's human capital investment toward
alleviating poverty."
3. Quintos, Reyna Carclyn. (2011). "An assessment on the impact of farm-to-market
road projects in Pola, Oriental Mindoro."
4. Goles, Alain Marc. (2016). "Perpetuity of family-owned business in the
Philippines: A causal model."

A. Illustration of the different parts of the problem statement in Cabbab's

Quantitative Research:

Title of the Study: "The development and validation of a tri-modular instructional

program in speech and oral communication for the collegiate level."

The Introduction:

The standard for professional competence has not changed despite the
advancement in information technology. While professional practice emphasizes
computer literacy, or an extensive background in technological knowledge,
communicative competence is not only an addendum for possible employment, but it is
now a must for global competitiveness. Never has the need for the fluent proficient
communicator been more in demand. Thus, educational institutions seek to arm their
graduates with necessary skills in communication to enable them to survive in the
industrial jungle. Because of the deteriorating state of language proficiency of college
students, schools should re-examined their curricular programs, particularly in
communication, as well as their admission requirements, for tertiary education
graduates to meet industry expectations and demands.

43
Statement of the Problem:
This paper sought to develop and validate a tri-modular instructional program for
Speech and Oral Communication on the collegiate level.
It attempted to answer the following questions:
 What is the profile of the subjects in terms of:
o age
o gender and
o year level?
 What are the results of the needs assessment based on diagnostic tests?
 Based on the results of the diagnostic tests, what innovative program may be
proposed?
 How was the tri-modular program validated using the experimental design?
o pre-test of the control and experimental group
o pre-test and post-test of the control group
o pre-test and post-test of the experimental group
o post-test of the control and experimental group
 How did the subject matter experts assess the revised tri-modular material in
terms of:
o adherence to course objectives
o comprehensiveness of content
o manner of presentation
o usefulness of the material and
o relevance of the material?

Assumptions of the study

The study was anchored on the basic assumption that the results of the diagnostic
tests were fair indices of the subjects' competency level and their communication needs.
The research likewise relied on the assumption that the subject matter experts
accomplished the questionnaire effectively.

44
 CHAPTER 3

Learning from Others and Reviewing the

Literature

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the learners should be able to:

1. select relevant materials for the literature review.

2. undertake meaningfully the literature review process.
3. cite correctly resources used.
4. use standards style as directed.
5. synthesize information by developing scientific organization and note taking
skills.
6. apply and integrate ethical standards in doing a literature review.
7. design an effective and appropriate literature review for research.
8. write and present a coherent review of literature.

45
 LESSON 1

Selecting Relevant Literature

Introduction

In the previous chapter, you went trough identifying, inquiry and stating
the problem. In this chapter more concrete and practical concerns related to research
will be discussed. The literature review is major part of any research.

The review is not undertaken for its own sake. The primary purpose of the
literature review is to establish the stat of current ‚Knowledge‛ or agreement about your
research topic. A literature review is not merely a chronicle of who wrote, what and
when but an in-depth examination of texts to identify and investigate more critical
elements were current understanding is unclear and which the new researcher can
address. After all, it is the lack of clarity or information that s justification for your
understanding the research. The objective of the review is to identify, criticize and
synthesize the most recent, relevant and authoritative texts related to the research being
undertaken.

Doing A Literature Review

The ability to review and to report on relevant literature is a key academic skill.
Doing a literature review situates your research focus within the context of the wider
academic community in your field. The literature review

- reports your critical review of the relevant literature and

- identifies a gap within the literature that your research will attempt to address.

Reviewing the accumulated knowledge about a question is an essential early

step in the research process. As in other areas of life, it is best to find out what is already
known about question before trying to answer it yourself. The cliché about reinventing
the wheel is a reminder to do your preparation before beginning an endeavor that
requires an investment of time and effort.

Selecting relevant literature will entail looking at the various purpose the review
can serve. There is a need to discuss what the literature is, where to find it and what it
contains. there will be a need to use techniques for systematically conducting review.
And finally, look at how to write it and its place in the research report.

46
 Researchers need studies to compare, replicate or criticize hem for weakness.
Researchers vary in perception and depth. Literature review can help to clarify thoughts
about studying. Further, it can establish a frame work within which to present and
analyze the findings.

Goals of a literature review:

Here are the purpose for which literature review is done.

1. To demonstrate a familiarly with a body of knowledge and establish credibility. A

good review increases a reader’s confidence in the researcher’s professions
competence, ability and background
2. To show the path of prior research and how current project linked to it. A good
review places a research project in a context and demonstrates its relevance by
making connections to body of knowledge.
3. To integrate what is known in an area. A good review points or areas where prior
studies agree, where they disagree and where major question remain. It also
indicates the directions for future research.
4. To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A good review identifies blend
always and suggests hypotheses for replication and gain new insights.

The most common reason for writing a literature review is the good creating links
to a developing body of knowledge. This is reformed to a background or context
review. It introduce the rest of a research report and established the significance
and relevance of research question .

How to Evaluate Articles

After you locate a published or article, you need to read and evaluate the material.
The guide lines that can help you to find out the units of the material and decide
whether to include it in your research or not are as follow:

1. Examine the title. A good title is specific, indicates the nature of the research
without describing the results and avoid asking yes or no question. It describe the
topics and may mention, one or two variable, and talks about the setting or
participants. An example of a good title is ‚Parental Involvement in Schooling and
Reduce Discipline Problems among Junior High School Students in NCR.‛
2. Read the abstract. A good abstract summarizes critical information about a study
it gives the purpose of the study, identifies methods used and highlights major
findings. It prepares you for examining the report in detail.

47
 3. Read the article. You may begin by skimming the material and quickly reading
the conclusion. This will give you a picture of what the article is about. Spend
time and effort in reading an article to get maximum results. Some condition that
can influence your reading are:

a) the article is a high-quality article with a well-defined purpose, showing clear

writing and is a smooth logical one.

b) you are sharply focused in particular issue or question.

c) you have a solid theoretical background.

To perform a good literature review, you must selective, comprehensive, critical

and current. By being selective, you do not list everything, but only the most relevant
studies. By being comprehensive, you include recent studies in your literature review.

Source for The Literature Review

The term ‚sources‛ refers to print, electronic or visual materials necessary for your
research. Sources are classified into primary, secondary and tertiary (URL:
http//class..guides.lib.ucomm.edu/lieratureReview)

 Examples of primary sources

Letters, correspondences, diaries, memories, autobiographies, official or research

topics, patents and designs empirical research articles.

 Examples of secondary sources

Academic journal articles (other than empirical research, articles or reports),

conference proceedings, books (mimeographs or chapters of books), documentaries

 Examples of tertiary sources

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, hand books

Literature reviews use a combination of primary and secondary sources since the
purpose is to document and analyze what has been published on any given topic
through time.

Secondary sources can be considered primary depending on context. In science

for example, an academic are reporting the findings of a major study can be considered
primary.

48
 The sources will help you read and give you the materials relevant to your topic.
To be systematic in recording the material and its source, you need to employ your note
taking skills. Here is an example of details about source which you can file and use
during the actual writing of your literature review. (Journal of Moral Education, 36(2),
239-250)

Note taking Technique

Notes Frame and Layout

Category / Classification / Heading / Sub-Heading

Source information (bibliographic references0 and location
Notes Own thoughts/comments

The Literature Review Process

The ability to review and to report on relevant literature is a key academic skill. A
literature review involves a four step process as seen in the given diagram.

1. Select a
topic

4. Write the
Review 2. Select and
choose
literature

3. Analyze
and interpret
literature

Source.www.slideshare.net/anaikaalexander/literature riview-14395725

49
 If you are not assigned a particular topic to investigate, the first step will allow
you to choose a research interest where you can choose a research topic you can write
about.

For example:

1. Mass Communication-Media
2. Film industry- The recent rise of superhero films
3. Psychology- The effect of Superhero films on the perception of masculinity
among Filipino adolescent males

Look for materials relevant to the chosen topic. Document sources you encounter.
Finally, develop your argument and critique materials gathered for your literature
review.

Write your review in the past tense except when discussing its significance: In this
case, you use the present tense.

Example: Martin (2007) found that was a possible direct relationship between how
children saw and felt about themselv the superheroes. This shows that it is probable that
superheroes may be able to influence an adolescent’s perception of masculinity.

50
 LESSON 2

Citing Related Literature Using

Standards Styles

Introduction

After selecting materials relevant to the study, you need to cite their sources.
There is a need to follow prescribed formats for waiting and the sources within the text
aid is the references list. This lesson provides you with a list of varied sources and the
standard style to be followed.

The Need for Citing Sources

When writing a research paper, literature citation is important for two reason: (1)
to avoid plagiarism (which is against the student code of conduct or ethical/moral
standards, for that matter.) and (2) to assign proper authority to a statement (this adds
weight to your proper). Giving credit to the source of any information of ideas needs to
be done in the text; this is known as citing literature.

There are several styles in citing your sources. The school may prescribe a
particular style for its students. What matters is that authorities are cited in the text and
full references are provided at the end of the report.

Researchers can find reports of research studies in several formats, books,

scholarly journal articles, dissertations, government documents and policy reports. This
section discusses each format for purposes of documentation.

Formats for citing literature vary in many ways. The most popular format is the
text, the internal citation format of using an author’s last name and date of publication
in parentheses. Citation gives details of a scholarly publication’s location, helping people
find it quick. A full citation appears in a separate bibliography or reference section.
When citing references, it is best to check with an instructor for the required form.

Learning to distinguish among types of publications is an essential skill to master

how different types of references are cited. When e-journals are used, full text can be
found in the internet. It is easier to identify quantitative studies because they usually

51
include a method or data section, as well as charts, statistical formulas and tables of
numbers.

Books communicate many types of information, provide thought and entertain.

Citations or reference to books include author’s name, complete title, date of
publication and publisher.

Dissertation and these which may be published as book or articles are valuable
sources of information. Specialize indexes are listed at accredited universities.

Government documents may include sponsored studies and published reports of

research from different government agencies. They are rarely found in the catalogue
system. These documents are also seen as policy reports and presented papers, and may
be located in the internet, research institutes and policy centers. Professional
associations in academic field also sponsor oral presentations of researches.

Referencing Sources

Referencing your sources means systematically showing what information or

ideas you are quoting or paraphrasing from another author’s work and where they
come from. As a dictum, you must research in order to do research. But simultaneously,
you must express what your original thoughts and ideas are, as well as those of others.
The citation style is dictated by the school as previously mentioned. You consult with
your teacher about the format or writing style to be used.

Referencing appropriately is important for some reasons as stated below.

 Adds authority to your work by supporting it with previous research

 Demonstrates reading and understanding of relevant literature
 Enables the reader to track down the original sources to check its quality
(and to check that you haven’t misinterpreted it)
 Ensures that you write in an ethical manner by giving credit to the original
authors (Dempster and Hanna, 2016)

52
Citing Web Sites

Source Example Citation

Kraizer, S. (2015). Safe child. Retrieved February 29, from
Web site with author http.//www.safechild org.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services

Web site with corporate Administration (SAMSHA). (2008, February 15) Stop
author underage drinking, Retrieved February 29, 2008, from
http.//www.stopalcoholabuse.gov.
Penn State Myths. (2006) Retrieved December 6. 2011,
Web site unknown author from http.//www.psoedu.ur/about/myths.

Page within Web site Global Warming solutions. (2007, May 21). In union of
(unknown author) concerned Scientists. Retrieved February 29, 2008,
http.//www.ucsusa org/global warmig/solutions

Citing Books

Source Example Citation

Book by single author
Book by two authors
Book by three or more authors
Book by a corporate author
Article or chapter within an edited book
Rollin, B.E (2006). Science and ethics. Now
York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Sherman, C, & Price, G. (2011). The invisible
web: Uncovering information sources
search engines can’t see. Medford, NJ:
Cyber Age Books,
Goodpaster, K.E., Nash, L.L., & Betignies, H.
(2006) Business ethics: Policies and person
(3rd ed).
American Medical Association. (2004)
American Medical Association family
medical guide (4th ed)
Winnie, P.H. (2001) self-regulated learning
viewed from models of information
processing. In B.J Zimmerman & D.H.
Schuck (Eds), Self-regulated learning and
academic achievement (2nd ed, pp 160-
192). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Eribaum
Associates

53
Citing Articles from print periodicals
Source
Article in monthly magazine (include
volume number if given)
Article in weekly magazine
(include volume number of given)
Article in a daily newspaper
Article in a scholarly journal
Book review
Citing Electronic Books
Source
Electronic Book
Citing an Entry in an Online Reference Work
Source
Entry from Gale Virtual Reference Library
Example Citation
Swedin, E.G. (2006, May/June). Designing
babies: A eugenics race with china?
The Futurist.
Will, G.G. (2004, July 5) Waging war on
Wal-Mart. Newsweek.
Dougherty, r. (2006, January 11). Jury
convicts man in drunk driving death.
Centre Daily Times, p1A.
Stock, C.D., & Fisher, P.A (2006) Language
delays among foster children: implications
for policy and practice. Child Welfare, 85
(3).
Rif kind, D. (2005, April 10). Breaking their
vows. Review.
Example Citation
Mc Keman, B. (2001). Digital cinema: the
revolution in cinematography, post
production distribution. New York, NY:
Mc-Graw Hill. Retrieved from
www.netlibrary.com Post, E. (1923)
Etiquette in society, in business, in politics
and at home. New York, NY: Funk &
Wagnalls. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com/books.
Example Citation
Rey, G. (2006) Behaviorism. In D.M.
Borchert (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(2nd ed). Retrieved from
http//gogalegroup.com
54
When your quote is longer than 40 words,

 start the quote on a new line.

 indent the entire quote by 5 spaces (1/2 of an inch if you use the ruler in
Microsoft Word).
 don’t use quotation marks.
 double space the quote (just like the rest of the paper).
 use brackets enclosing ellipses {} to represent omitted text.
 if your quote contains a quote, use double quotation marks ‚ ‚ around the
shorter quote.

Example of a long quote

Elder and Paul (2006) explain the difference between absolutists and relativists.
Some people, dogmatic absolutists, try to reduce all questions to matter of fact. They
think that every question has one and only one correct answer. Others, subjective
relativists, try to reduce all questions to matters of subjective opinion. They think that no
question has correct or incorrect answer but that all questions whatsoever are matters
of opinion. Neither absolutist nor relativist jeaves room for what is crucial to success in
human life matters of judgement.

Laying out your References Section

At the end of your report, before the appendix is where you put the reference
section. It is an alphabetical list of all the references you cited in the text of your report.
It allows readers to find out more information about the references used and to go to
them if the readers want to. References in the text must match perfectly those found in
the reference section. When writing in APA style, you always include a reference section,
not a bibliography (Dempster and Hanna, 2016).

You should always cite other people’s words, ideas and other intellectual
property that you use in your research or that have an influence on your ideas. This
includes what had been presented as different types of materials. The demand is that
you should cite whenever you

55
  Use a direct quote
 Paraphrase
 Summarize
 Use facts or statistics that are relatively less known or relate directly to your
argument.

(classguides.lib.uconn.edu/content)

56
 LESSON 3

Synthesizing Information from

Relevant Literature

Introduction

This lesson present how to write a synthesis based on the materials gathered from the
literature review. To synthesize is to draw conclusions about findings in related literature
reviewed so that you can identify how the literature addresses your research question. The
synthesis will be based on notes you took to describe, summarize, analyze and identify key
concepts. To facilitate synthesizing information from relevant literature, a synthesis matrix is
suggested.

This also discusses the importance of developing your ability to write a synthesis.
Knowing the purpose and types of syntheses will get you ready for writing them. It would mean
writing your paper logically, observing precision and coherence in writing your paragraphs.
Choosing what technique to use can be learned with practice. What is important is that after you
have come across a number of ideas presented by different authors from varied sources, you are
expected to put together those that you have critically evaluated.

To synthesize an article means that in your literature review, you examine a number of
studies on a shared topic and note aspects that are of interest for you own work. It also may
mean that you draw and state a conclusion about similarities and differences in the studies that
you review. The purpose is to provide your reader what better understanding of the literature
related to your topic.

What is a synthesis?

A synthesis is a discussion that draws on one or more sources. Your ability to in far
relationships among sources such as essay, articles, fiction and also non written source such as
lectures, interviews and observations will be helpful in synthesizing information taken from your
review of literature. Inferring relationships like comparing between the teaching styles of your
favorite and least favorite instructors is something that is familiar to you. When synthesizing
information you have gathered, it is vital that you select the ideas and so, information from each
source will make you achieve your purpose.

57
 It is your purpose that determines not only what parts of your sources you will use but
also how you will relate them to one another. Have a basis on which to combine what you have
gathered. Hence, find out what relationships exist among the materials and sources you have
reviewed

Synthesis refers to the bringing together of materials from different sources, and the
creation of an integrated whole. In the case of your research the ‚whole‛ is your structed review
of relevant works and your coherent argument for the study that you are doing.

Types of Syntheses

You may choose from these two types of syntheses.

1. Explanatory synthesis. it helps the readers to understand the topic. Its primary
aim is to present the facts in a reasonably objective manner. Explanations given
may entail descriptions, sequence of events or state of affairs.
2. Argument synthesis. Its purpose is for you to represent your own point of view
with support of relevant facts drawn from services and presented in a logical
manner. What is presented may be debatable.

Categories of Source

Fraenkel (2015) enumerates the categories of sources from where your culled data and
information in the literature review may have been taken.

1. Documents. These include written or printed materials that have been produced in
some form or another such as annual reports, books, artwork, cartoons, circulars,
records, diaries, notebooks, etc. they may be published or unpublished; intended
for private or public consumption: they may be original works or copies.
2. Numerical records. They may be considered as a separate type of source in and of
themselves or as a subcategory of documents. Several records include any type of
numerical data printed form: test scores, attendance figures, census, reports, school
budgets and the like.
3. Oral Statements. these may include stories, myths, tales, legends, chants, songs,
and other forms of oral expression. These materials leave a record for future
generations.

58
 4. Relics. These are formal types of historical sources. A relic is any object where
physical or visual characteristics can provide some information about the past.
Examples: furniture artwork, clothing, buildings or equipment.

The review of related literature and studies must contain substantial information to
help in understanding the subject or topic being written about and be guided to
determine the gaps to be filled in by the study undertaken. This section in the research
report also serves as a foundational knowledge or the springboard for the study.

Finally, all information about the subject or problem discussed in the review are
presented, organized and summarized further n the synthesis. This particular section is
referred to as the ‚synthesis of the art‛. It is through the review of literature that the
research is able to connect the past with the finding of the present and shows the
difference between the data and information collected in the present study.

As to the presentation, the procedures and findings taken from the reviewed literature
are presented in the past tense. The present these form of the verbs is used in the
discussions of the analyses, comments, correlations and integrations and the related
literature.

This section, therefore, analyzes and synthesizes the related literature in the lights of
the problem and the research framework of the study. It further points out the research
which are proven accepted as facts.

How to Write a Synthesis

The procedure that you can follow in writing the synthesis of your literature review
includes the following:

1. Consider your purpose in writing.

2. Select and read carefully your sources, according to your purpose.

3. Formulate a thesis. It is the main ideas that you want present in your synthesis.

4. Decide how you will use your source material and take down notes,

5. Develop an organizational plan according to your thesis.

6. Write the first draft of your synthesis, following your organizational plan.

7. Revise your synthesis.

59
Techniques for Writing a Synthesis

1. Summary- it is the simplest way of organizing a synthesis. Here, you write one
after the other the most relevant information and sources you gathered.

2. Example illuminating example or illustrate that you have included in your

review, you need to be supported by evidence from your data and source/s.

3. Two (or more) Reasons- This approach can be an effective method by simply
starting your thesis, then give reasons why it is true. Your reasons need to be
supported by evidence from your data and sources.

4. Comparison and contrast- These techniques will lead to examining two

subjects or data in terms of one another. Comparison considers similarities
while contrast, highlights differences.

Preparing a Synthesis Matrix

After gathering all the materials needed for the literature review, you have to
organize them according to each subtopic discussed about the larger topic, one will that
seems to particularly helpful in organizing the literature review is the synthesis matrix.
(http//writing _center.edu/resources/synthesis-matrix-2pdf)

The synthesis matrix is a chart that will allow you to sort and categorized the
different opinions and arguments given on an issue in relation to your study. Across the
top of the chart are the spaces to record sources and along the side of the chart re the
spaces to record the main points on the topic being undertaken.

Here is suggested format for creating your own synthesis matrix:

Topic:

Label: Author’s last name and /0r few key words from title of the work.

60
Label: Main ideas that your source discussed about your topic

Main idea A Source #1 Source #2 Source #3 Source #4

Main idea B

Then, fill up the chart with notes discussed in the work being examined.

Samples of Literature Review Synthesis

Here is an excerpt of a synthesis taken from literature review, ‚World War Two
and its Effect on Women‛ (http.//writingcenter.fiu,edu/resource/synthesismatrix-2pdf)

While the articles used in this research agree that woman made many advances
during the Word War 2 period, it is crucial to realize that not all these changes where
welcomed. In most cases woman faced discrimination from just about everyone around
them. Woman in the work place were often placed in position of inferiority or treated as
being less physically able to do same work the men did. Many woman were often not
trained because they were viewed as temporary employees who were only there for the
duration of the war (Bruley, 2003, pp.221-222). Woman were very rarely given equal as
men, even though some of them did the same work. Woman in the military faced not
only mental abuse but also physical harm from their male counterparts. According to
Cornelsen (2005), there were many instances where female aviators were injured or
killed due to being made to fly ill-maintained aircrafts that had been sabotaged.p114.

The sample shows not only the similarity between the two articles mentioned but
it also points out to how they are similar. The excerpt is nota summary of ideas but
draws comparisons between the two articles and synthesizing the two works.

Examine the following two passages taken from student researches. Student Ais
merely describing the literature while Student B takes a more analytical and evaluative
approach by using the technique of comparison and contrast.

61
Student A:

Smith (2000) concludes that personal privacy in their living quarte is the most important
factor in nursing home residents’ perception of their autonomy. He suggests that the
physical environment in the more public spaces of the building, nor the activities
available seem to make much differences. Johnstone make the claim that the need to
control one’s environment is a fundamental need of life (2001), and suggest that the
approach of most institutions, which is to provide total care, may be as bad as no care at
all. If people have no choices or think that they have none, they become depressed.

Student B:

After studying residents and staff from two intermediate care facilities in Calgary,
Alberta, Smith (2000) came to conclusion that except for the amount of personal privacy
available residents, the physical environment of these institutions had minimal, if any,
effect on their perception of control (autonomy). However, French (1998) and Haroon
(2000) found that availability of private areas is not only aspect of the physical
environment that determines residents’ autonomy. Haroon interviewed 115 residents
from 32 different nursing homes known to have different levels of autonomy (2000). It
was found that physical structures, such as standardized furniture, heating that could
not be individually regulated, and no possession of a house key for residents limited
their feelings of independence. Moreover, Hope (2002), who interviewed 225 residents
from various nursing homes, substantiates the claim that characteristics of the
institutional environment such as the extent of resources in the facility, as well as its
location, are features which residents have indicated as being of great importance to
their independence.

62
 LESSON 4

Writing Coherent Review of Literature

Introduction

As mentioned in the previous lesson, synthesizing helps your reader understand

more clearly the review literature. This lesson now leads you to write the whole review in
a coherent manner. Coherence directs to a well-organized and unified piece of writing.
The discussion of the three main sections of the literature review which are the
introduction, body and conclusion can guide you in writing your own coherent review of
literature.

Putting together the Literature Review

Reviewing the literature requires the ability to do multiple tasks from finding and
evaluating relevant material to synthesizing information from various sources; from
critical thinking to paraphrasing; evaluating and citation skills.

Reviewing the literature is challenging. A good review does not just summarize the
literature but discusses it critically, identifies the methodological problems and prints
out research gaps. It is indeed challenging to achieve a successful review and make it
coherent, given the purposes and goals.

Like a well-baked cake, a good review has a number of significant features. It is

worth the reader's time if the materials to be reviewed are timely, systematic, well-
written, focused, and critical. It also needs a good structure. A good review starts with a
general introduction of the context and toward the end, a recapitulation of the main
points covered.

How can you organize the flow of the main body of the review so that the reader
will be drawn into and guided through it? Use techniques such as diagrams and other
graphic organizers to help you draw a conceptual scheme of the review. These will help
you towards a logical way to order and link the various sections of the review. A careful
selection of diagrams and figures relevant to the reviewed topic can be very helpful to
structure the next.

63
Working for Coherence

Coherence refers to how wall a manuscript holds together as a unified document. It

is important to ask yourself how well the elements of your review connect with one
another. This requires that you carefully evaluate the effectiveness of the rhetorical
elements of your documents that tell the reader about it's structure and about the
relationships among the elements. The use of subheadings is a great help. Transitional
expressions and other kinds of rethorical markers also help to identify the connection
among the different sections as in "the next example" or "in a related study", the most
recent (or relevant) finding in a study. Use "First, Second and Third" at the beginning of
your paragraphs to mark the development of the related points.

The literature review is an informative, critical and useful synthesis of a particular

topic that helps identify what is known (and unknown) in the subject area; identify areas
of controversy, knowledge gaps or debate and formulate questions that need further
research.

Sections of a Literature Review

Some grant applications provide specific instructions or subject heading

requirements for the literature review. In such cases, FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS, in
the absence of specific section heading requirements, use the three main components
consistent across most literature reviews; an introduction, body (middle), and
conclusion.

The introduction to the literature review is often a single paragraph that:

 Introduces the general topic and provides an appropriate scholarly or societal

(e.g. policy, practice) context for the review; and
 Identifies the overall state-of-knowledge about the topic (e.g, the conflicts in
theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; need, or opportunity).

In the body of the literature review you need to:

 Address previous research on the topic, group according to them, theoretical

perspective, methodological approach, or chronological development;
 Draw together the significance of previous, individual studies by highlighting the
main themes, issues, and knowledge gaps;
 Use strong "umbrella" sentences at the beginning and end of each aprahraph;

64
  Include brief 'so what' sentences at intermediate points in the review to connect
the literature to the proposed research objectibes; and
 Describe previous work you have accomplished related to the proposed research.

The conclusion to the literature review is often a single paragraph that:

 Provides a summary statement of the overall state of knowledge about the topic,
including gaps in knowledge and understanding, reconnecting to your
introduction; and
 Reinforces the research purposes or objectives, and establishes the potential
significance or importance of your proposed research, relative to the current state
of knowledge.

Sample of Coherent Review of Related Literature

Review of Related Literature

The scholarly works provided in this section were adopted from the renowned
authors conducting similar studies or career choice of students. The intellectual
contribution of these people in the world of academics was explored to substantiate the
present research study or career choice of students: basis for curricular offering of senior
high schools in Region XI.

For clarity, the term "career choice" is defined to include broad opportunities that
exist for lifelong vocations. These vocations are set out in a framework of strategies
moving forward personal goals (Kerkw, 2007). On the other hand; fields of career in
vocational, academic, and sociological endeavours are explored in the study of Oyamo
(2008) for the purpose of satisfying personal, economic, and intellectual goals.

As mentioned by Khami (2008), exploration of career choices should be a positive

endeavour for high school students. A thoughtfully constructed career choice process
will provide a meaningful, productive, satisfying quality of career choices. In the same
way, Mcquid (2006) suggested that a career choice process or outline might provide
better answers than making life decisions based on 18 years of experience.

Stebleton (2007) noted that career choice is a complex desicion for students since it
determines the kind of profession that they intend to pursue in life. As students try to
make career choices while in secondary school, they face problems of matching their

65
career choices with their abilities and school performance. Such skepticism of students is
backed up by Pummel (2008) who signified that their decisions will be influenced by the
environment, parents educational background personality, opportunity and economic
standing.

In the context of career selection, Diamani (2007) accentuated that of the many
important choices students will make in determining future plans is to select a career. In
the same manner, Hall (2010) elucidated that the essence of who the student is will
revolve around what the students wants to do as his/her life-long work. In the same
vein, Arudo (2008) believed that every student carries the unique history of his/her apst
and this determines how he/she views the world. That history created, in part by the
student's environment, personality, and opportunity, will determine how the student
makes a career choice. Anent to this, Duffy (2009) explicated that how a student
perceives his/her environment, personality, and opportunity will determine his/her
career choice.

Throughout a career, Natalie (206) explained that the individual seeks to

accommodate the environment with one's goals, while at the same time being
incorporated into the environment. On the other hand, Abdullah (2009) indicated that
career development is the balancing of recognizing and meeting needs of the individual
while at the same time, responding to the outer forces and realities of life. In like
manner, Myburgh (2005) enumerated career decision factors, the self and the world of
work.

The individual in a career has constantly balanced his/her aspirations and how
he/she has fitted into the reality of the workplace (Cavanagh, 2008). According to
Perrone (2007), man's occupation determines the kind of person he becomes since,
through his walking hours, his cognitions about himself, his wants and goals, and his
interpersonal response traits are molded. Rodrigo (2006) once said that informal and
formal knowledge provided through society and environment has focused on the
acquisition, retention, utilization and information pertaining to the world.

On one hand, Taylor (2006) implied that personal values and desires have seldom
been realized without the active and conscious efforts on the part of the student. The
students must be motivated to orchestrate the outcome. If the student wants to work, in
the career choice process, the student must know and understand realities of that
process. Perrone (2009) averred that a student develops a practical plan of action to get
what he/she wants from decisions of his/her career choice.

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 In modern times, one has not only made due career planning but also exhaustive
career research making a career choice do as to adjust with the involving socio
economic conditions (Watties, 2009). He mentioned thst career choice is influenced by
multiple factors, including personality, interests, self-concept, cultural identity,
globalization, socialization, role model, social support and available resources such a
information and financial. According to Hewitt (2010), factors influencing career choice
can either be intrinsic or extrinsic or both. He further stated that most people are
influenced by careers that their parents favour; others follow their passion, regardless of
how much or little it will make them, while others choose the careers that give high
income.

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 LESSON 5

Following Ethical Standards in Writing

Related Literature

Introduction

Ethics permeates in many aspects of life. Writing is one activity which needs to
subscribe to ethical standards. This is especially important to prevent writers, in
particular, researchers, from plagiarism, an act against the inrltellectual Property Rights
Law. The lesson presents the principles of research, Ethics as a guide in conducting
research.

Understanding Ethics

Research ethics are standardized rules that guide the design and conduct of
research (Demspter and Hanna, 2016). The term ethics refers to questions of right and
wrong. When researchers think about ethics, they must also ask themselves if it is "right"
to conduct a particular study or carry out certain procedures. (Frankel and Waller, 2008).

Webster's New World Dictionary defines ethical behavior as conforming to the

standards of conduct of a given profession or group, Ethical behavior refers to as being
in accordance with rules or standards for right conduct or practice. Unethical behaviour
constitutes a violation of such conduct or practice.

Literature reviews are ubiquitous in academic, journals, scholarly reports and in

education. They are dine within the context of writing a research/paper and expose the
students to the breadth of information available on a topic or demonstrating skills in
critical thinking and writing ability.

Searching for literature has become easy these days (Black, in

www.socialworker.com). Today, much information is available electronically and
literature can be obtained just about anytime and anywhere. Although information is
available through the world about criteria to evaluate the legitimacy of information.

Plagiarism is committed when authors present the words, data or ideas of others
with the implication that they are their own, without attribution. This act is against the
intellectual Property Right Law. It is a form of research misconduct.

68
 If there is a word-for-word copying beyond a short phrase or six or seven words of
someone else's text, that section should be enclosed in quotation marks or indented
and referenced at the location in the manuscript of the copied material, to the original
source.

The work of others should be cited whether published or unpublished, and whether
it had been written for an oral presentation or material on the website.

Researchers should acquaint themselves with the relevant quantitative methods

available for processing data, including graphical and tabular methods of presentation,
error analysis and tests for reliability. Research integrity requires not only that reported
conclusions are based on accurately recorded data or observations but that all relevant
observation are reported. The confidentially of information relating to each subject must
be respected and maintained.

Ethics in Literature Review

Why is literature review needed for any quality research endeavour?

Research as defined is an endeavor that scholars intentionally set out to enhance

the understanding of a phenomenon and expect to communicate what they discover to
the large scientific community.

Two consideration stem from the definition;

a.) Research must enhance the scientific community's current understanding of a

phenomenon and

b.) Research must communicate what were discovered in the next study to the
scientific community

Conducting an effective literature review that will yield a solid theoretical

foundation should also provide a fun foundation to the selection of the methodology
for the study. It should also provide justifications for why a given approach is optional
for their study.

The use of literature should provide the grounds for legitimization of the research
questions proposed in the study, as well as validate the approach proposed by the
study.

69
 The issue of testing for applicability of research literature to the proposed study has
two critical facets. The first deals with the inclusions or exclusions of articles from the
literature review and the second deals with the ethical and unethical use of references.

One reason why ethics is an important consideration in systematic literature reviews

is that it may be possible for the reviewer to identify the procedures, for example
around consent that were used to ensure ethical practice for the study being reviewed.

When you are doing a literature review, consider the following key ethics questions;

1. How will you ensure you treat the work of existing researchers accurately and
fairly?
2. Does the research you are reviewing raise ethical questions that you need to
address?

Certain guides most be observed to ensure the observance of ethics. Here are five
Principles for Research Ethics (www.aa.org/monitor/jan03/principle.asp)

1. Discuss intellectual property frankly,

- It is unethical to take ideas from sources without giving credit to the

originator.

2. Be conscious of multiple roles.

- One of the most common multiple roles for researchers is being both a
mentor and laboratory supervisor for students they teach or advise.

3. Follow informed consent rules.

- In doing a literature review, you have to abide by the rule on informed

consent. The participants should signify their willingness to be part of the
research and have the right to know about the results of the study.

4. Respect confidentiality and privacy.

- Letters sent to would be respondents and participants in a study usually

include a statement on the observance of confidentiality in terms of the data
provided by them. Usually, responses are coded for this.

5. Tap into ethics resources

- Ethics includes certain rules that researchers have to abide by. Limitations do
not really hamper procedures like data collection and data analysis but
ethical standards will have to be addressed.
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 Another term related to ethics is research misconduct which is defined as
fabrication, falsification or plagiarism, including misrepresentation of credentials in
proposing, performing or reviewing research or in reporting research results.

A methodological review of literature is a crucial stage for any academic research.

There is a need for the input which consists of materials received and which will undergo
processing as indicated in the diagram

Processing

Input 1. Know the literature Output

2. Comprehend the literature
3. Apply
4. Analyse
5. Synthesize
6. Evaluate

In all these stages, ethics needs to be in place to prevent research misconduct

71
 Lesson 6

Illustrating and Explaining

Conceptual Framework

The lesson introduces conceptual framework which serves as the outline that you
can follow in doing your research. It may also be useful to you in analyzing a particular
research or study. Part of lesson is the step by step guide on how to write a conceptual
framework. Likewise, terms related to the writing of a conceptual framework are defined.
Examples are herein included:

Writing a Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is like a recipe or blueprint. It provides an outline of the plan

on how to conduct the research. It is presented in a flow chart, map or diagram.

In each component of your research, you should show the variables that influences
it. For example, if you are studying childhood developmental outcomes, you might study
home life, school and community which would each be influenced by different variables
For school, your variables might be peers, teachers and learning disabilities. The more
detailed you are with your digram, the more thorough your conceptual framework will
be.

Not all conceptual frameworks have to include a diagram or graphic. You can
present the same information by writing a narrative. Your narrative should be summarize
the variables and explore how they may change your hypothesis.

Even if you use diagram in your conceptual framework, the narrative still explains
the details. Write your draft, then, revise if necessary. It should be considered as a
adaptable guide.

Writing a conceptual framework cannot only help to guide your paper/research to

ensure that your research stay on track, but it also helps to guide fellow researchers or
advisers who are analyzing your research.

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 In this phase, conducting a literature review can help you refine your central
argument or hypothesis. Your framework introduces the relevant researches and studies
show how your study will help to contribute to the field of research.

It maps out the actions required in the course of the study. Given the previous
knowledge of other researchers point of view and the researchers observations on the
subject of the study.

Nature and Purposes

Conceptual Framework

 Consists of concepts that are placed within a logical and sequential design.
 Represents less formal structure and used for studies in which existing theory
is insufficient.
 Based on specific concepts and propositions and taken from practical
observation and intuition.

Purpose of a Conceptual Framework

 To clarify concepts and propose relationships among the concepts in a

study.
 To provide a context for interpreting the study findings
 To explain observations
 To encourage theory development that is useful and practical.

A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action

or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought.

Step by Step Guide on How to Write Conceptual Framework

There are five preparations you have to do before you make your conceptual
framework.

1. Choose your topic. Decide on what will be your research topic. It should be
within the field of your specialization.
2. Do a literature review. Go over relevant and updated studies related to your
own. Use reliable source of information and use appropriate documentation.

73
 3. Isolate the important variables. Identify the specific variables mentioned in
the literature and show their interrelationships.
4. Generate the conceptual framework. Build your conceptual framework using
the variables studied in the scientific articles you have read. Your problem
statement serves as a reference in constructing the conceptual framework. In
effect, your study will attempt to answer a question that other researchers
have not explained yet.

Related Terms

Framework is described as the abstract, logical structure of meaning that guides the
development of the study. All frameworks are based on the identification of key
concepts and relationships among these concepts can be delivered from related
concepts or existing theories. They are sometimes used interchangeably.

A concept abstractly describes and names an object or phenomenon; that is, an

intellectual presentation of some aspect of reality that is derived from observations
taken from phenomena.

Example: anxiety or stress or pain

Another term is variable. It signifies more concrete level and is narrow in definitions.
A variable is more specific and is measurable.

Conceptual Paradigm

- A diagram that visually represents and interprets the underlying theory, principles
and concept of a research

- a visual presentation of variables that interrelate with one another as perceives by

the reseacher before an actual investigation is done to prove the its relationships.

74
 An Example of A Conceptual Framework

Demographic Self-Esteem
Profile Parenting
Age
Styles
Civil Status High
Educational
Authoritative
attainment
Democratic
Order in the Moderate
family Permissive
Economic
Status Low

Framework

Adolescent Reproductive Health

Welfare Program

An Example of Conceptual Framework (Write-up and Diagram)

Conceptual Framework

This study's conceptual framework was based on the ideas posited by Haynes
(2001), Miskel (2008), and Gorton (2007).

According to Haynes (2001), school climate is the sum of , and the dynamic
interactions among the psychological, academic, and physical dimensions of the
school's environment.

Litwin and Stringer (1968 in Hoy & Miskel, 2008) defined school climate as "a set of
measurable properties of the work environment, based on the collective perceptions of
the people who live and work in the environment and demonstrated to influence their

behaviour." Meanwhile Gorton (2007) posited that perceptions provide an important

gauge for measuring school climate.

Others claim that climate can provide a competitive edge by coordinating and
motivating people throughout an organization, either by promoting innovations,

75
encouraging high quality and service or providing for efficiency and cost advantages.
Particularly, the following are required to describe and assess the climate of a school: 1.)
the development of a clear concept of the key factors that determine climate; 2.) the
creation of some method of collecting data that would describe these factors; and 3.) a
procedure by which the data may be analyzed or displayed.

School School
Climate Climate
Innovativeness Innovativeness

Dimensions Dimensions

• Resources • Leadership and Management

• Personal Motivation Style
• Exploration • Job Satisfaction

• Organizational Commitment

• LET Performance

(Source; Prieto, N.G. April 2010 School climate innovativeness and organization
effectiveness among catholic teacher education institutions).

In this study, three dimensions were considered to assess school climate

innovativeness and, namely; Resources, Personal Motivation and Exploration. On the
other hand, the indicators used in determining the effectiveness of the respondent
school were Leadership and Management Style, Job Satisfaction, Organizational
Commitment, and the LET Performance of Graduates.

76
Example of a Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The study is anchored on the theory of Holland (1997) which states that in order to
make an informed career decision, many factors have to be taken into account, such as
the individual's unique characteristics, values, interests, skills, and personality. Career
satisfaction contributes significantly to the general happiness, stability and well-being of
adults. In order to experience career satisfaction, an individual has to first make a fitting

or appropriate career choice. Individuals will select, and be more content in a work
environment that corresponds to their type, attributes, decision-making style, and career
maturity.

Watson and Stead (1999) supported the theory of Holland who pronounced that a
clear understanding of the characteristics of the individual who is making the career
choice involving the investigation of the characteristics of the chosen work environment
that requires careful consideration of the characteristics in order to ensure the best
possible ' goodness of fit ' or match. In short, the better, the more likely the individual is
to adjust to, and thrive in, the chosen field of work.

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study. The students have to
choose what career they want to pursue after taking their Junior High School with
respect to academic track, technical/ vocational, sports track, arts and design tracks.
However parental intervention in students' career choices is considered as a factor that
may affect the future career of children.

Students Career Choice

- Academic Track
-Technical/Vocational
- Sports Track
- Arts and Design Track

Parents

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 LESSON 7

Defining Terms in the Study

Introduction

To be able to complete your research, it is necessary to define the terms you used in
the study. Definition of key term will help clarify the purpose and direction of the study
being conducted. This lesson guides you in the operational definitions of terms.

Organizing Definitions

One key to setting up and conducting an effective argument is the establishment of

clear, precise and effective definitions for the key terms in the study. So that your
readers will agree with you, the researcher, from the start should show what is exactly
under discussion. Also, the analysis of the topic requires you to give the closest
attention to any definitions, simply because an inadequate or misleading definition can
produce something plausible but which is in fact, problematic, because the initial
definition is ambiguous or not precise.

An important part in writing a research is an academic discipline is to give

definitions of key terms. Sometimes you need to adopt the definitions or else come up
with your own. A few principles to keep in mind are:

1. Make sure that in the definition, you focus on what something is, not just what
its effects are or what is used for.
2. Extend the definition so that it exactly covers what you want the reader to
understand. This may mean that you will expand the dictionary definition. Such
definitions are full and complete. Do not assume that if the term appears to be
quite common, everyone knows what it means. The reader has to understand in
what specific sense you are using the term in your study. However, do not
overload your definition. Providing too much detail or using too technical
language may hinder your reader’s understanding of term.
3. It is helpful to supplement a definition, where appropriate, to clarify further the
meaning of the term.
4. You are advised not to invent a definition for any terms which has already a clear
and accepted definition in place. However, the term should be defined as used in
the study or research or within the content being discussed. For instance, if you

78
 are writing about the law, then you will have to use the legal definition of the
term, rather than using the legal one of your own
5. Finally, once you establish a definition, do not change its meaning in the middle
of the article or the paper. So make sure, when you establish the definition
initially that it states exactly what you mean for the purpose of the entire article
and then stick to that meaning of the term.

Understanding Operational Definitions

An operational definition refers to a specific definition of a concept in a research

study. It defines a concept solely in terms of the operations (or methods) used to
produce and measure it. Once you decide on a particular operational definition for your
study, no one can agree about the definition of the concepts. Hence, the need to
operationally define your concepts.

Two types of Operational Definitions

a. Experimental operational definition which describes how a term’s reference

is manipulated.

Example: Chocolate cake will be described based on the recipe to make it.

b. Measured operational definition which describes hoe referents of a term are

measured

Example: chocolate cake will consist of the description of the flavour, texture,

appearance and other properties of the cake.

One or the other is used in report

Another way of classifying operational definitions will include the following:

1. Manipulating operational definition

‚Short case‛- one lasting less than 50 minutes
‚Long case‛- one lasting more than 50 minutes
2. Measurement operational definition
‚Short case‛- one ending before squirming begins
‚Long case‛- one still in session when ½ class is squirming or looking out of the
window
79
In addition, operational definitions have some advantages, namely:

1. Make research methodology used clear to the reader

2. Combine statements to things, either directly or indirectly, observable example
is empirical
3. Help assure good communication by specifying how terms are used.

Use one paragraph for each term that you define

Example

The dictionary definition of the term illegal immigration is ‚the migration of

people across national borders in a way that violates the immigration laws of the
destined country‛ (Merriam-Webster’s, 1993). In this paper, the term illegal immigration
is used to mean ‚non-residents who enter a country without an acceptable passport or
visa.‛

In addition, here are other suggestions for formulating your definitions.

Step 1- Adjective + noun combinations

Select the terms of your thesis statements:

Adjective + noun combination such as

-illegal immigration
-school uniforms
-campus romance

Step 2- Verbs

Select the terms of your thesis statement:

Verbs such as

-influence
-affect
-determine

Step 3- Verbs + adjective combinations

Select the terms of terms of your thesis statement:

Verb + adjective combination

80
 -is more affective
-are bigger
-can be detrimental

Step 4- Adverb + verb combination

Select the term of your thesis statement:

Adverb + verb combination such as

-negatively influence
-positively affect

Step 5- Your own definitions

Use the following format:

In this essay, the term is used to mean * your own meaning inside the
quotes marks.*

In this essay, the term illegal immigration is used to mean ‚people…visa‛

In this essay, the term influence is used to mean * to affect something,

some way.‛

Step 6- The List Format

You can write in list format. The term being defined is in italics.

Term A- Definition
Term B- Definition

Step 7- Use your research notes

A reference list of an online dictionary or thesaurus or thesaurus should

include

Headword

Title of the source

Date of publication of source (dictionary)

Full URL of the site (file name)

81
 Date you accessed the dictionary (in parentheses)

Example of Definition of Terms

Commitment is the involvement of faculty and administrator to achieve the Vision and
Mission of the organization. In this study, it is exhibited by an employee who takes pride
in his/her organization/institution and shows a desire to remain in the organization. It is
measured by Organization Effectiveness Rating Scale, Sec C, nos 10-12

Leadership refers to the process of transforming followers, creating, visions of the goals
they may obtain and articulating the ways to attain these goals; or interpersonal relation
in which others comply because they want, not because they have to. In this study,
leadership was measured in terms of the administrators’ supervisory skills, personal
qualities and conflict management. In this study, this was measured by the
Organizational Effectiveness Rating Scale (OERS), Section A, nos 1-12

Organizational Effectiveness refers to the degree to which the organization institution

is accomplishing all its major tasks or achieving all its objectives. The farm also refers to
the ability of the organization to mobilize its centers of power for action, production and
adaptation. In this study, it is measured by four indications namely, Leadership and
Management Style, Satisfaction and Organization Commitment and LET Performance.

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 LESSON 8

Listing Research Hypotheses

Introduction

A hypothesis indicates that the researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area
being studied. It is important to be undertaken in formulating a research hypothesis.
Knowing the classification of hypotheses distinguishes the kind that you want to employ
in your research.

Defining a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a specific proposition which is presented for testing through

research. It can be derived from another theory or from a researcher’s ‚hunch‛, which is
an informed guess based on theoretical insights or observation. It is essentially a
statement of what we believe to be factual. Hypothesis is a prediction about the
relationship between two or more variables. It thus translates a quantitative research
question into a precise prediction of expected outcomes; the hypothesis is an important
element of the scientific method of research studies. Hypotheses are declarative
sentences stating expected relationships between the phenomena to which our
concepts refer. They are usually stated in the following general form.

Hypotheses should be statements expressing the relation between two or more

measurable variables. They should carry clear implications for testing the stated
relations. They need to be situated before the data-gathering and interpretation phase
of the research.

A well-grounded hypothesis indicates that the researcher has sufficient

knowledge in the area to undertake the investigation. The hypothesis gives directions to
the collection and interpretation of data.

In addition, a hypothesis is a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts

and can be tested by further investigation.

83
Example:

The higher (lower, greater, longer slower, etc.) this ________, the higher (lower,
greater, longer, slower, etc.) has ________.

A hypothesis is simply a testable statement that reflects the aims of your study.

Hypotheses are arrived at by either inductive or deductive reasoning which one

to use depends on the stage the researcher reached in the research process. Hypotheses
arrived at inductively help to construct theories but they do not help to explain
phenomena. They can be phrased as a statement or question.

Here is a diagram of the Generation of Research Hypotheses

(www.public.asu.edu/kroel/www500/HYPOTHESIS/20Fri.pdf)

Initial Initial ideas Literature

Observations (undeveloped) Review

Problem
Statement

Operational
Definition of
Constructs

Research
Hypothesis
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 Generation of Research Hypothesis

Deduction is the process that enables us to use theories to explain real-wrote

events. The role of deduction is to deduction is to provide this link between the theory
and our observations.

Theories gain an acceptance as useful intellectual tools as we find evidence

consistent with predictions derived from them. We must keep in mind that no single
piece of research provides sufficient evidence for accepting or rejecting any theory or
part of a theory that pertains to phenomena beyond those included in the study that
future researchers will produce evidence against the theory’s validity is possible. Hence
we must be open and willing to return to introduction and build new evidence.

Purpose and Importance of Hypotheses in Research

Hypothesis has a role to play in research as discussed at the previous paragraphs.
This is substantiated by pointing out its purpose and importance.

 It provides a tentative explanation of phenomena and facilitates the extension of

knowledge in the area.
 It provides the investigator with a relational statement that is directly testable in a
research study.
 It provides a direction to the research. It provides a framework for reporting
conclusions of the study.
 It could be considered as the working instrument of theory. It can be deduced
from theory and from other hypotheses.
 It could be tested and shown to be probably supported, apart from one’s own
values and opinions. (www.public assu.edu>

Characteristic of a Hypothesis

1. Testable
2. Logical
3. Directly related to the research problem
4. Represents a simple unit or subject of the problem
5. Factually or theoretically based
6. States relationships between variables
7. Sets the limits of the study
8. Stated in such a form that it can be accepted or rejected

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 A hypothesis is composed of an individual variable (cause) and a dependent
variable (effect). It can be derived through induction or deduction.

Classification of hypotheses

The following shoe the different types which distinguish the kind of hypothesis that
can be used in research:

A. Simple hypothesis expresses an expected relationship between one independent

variable and one dependent variable while a complex hypothesis, also referred to
as multivariate hypothesis, is a prediction of a relationship between two or more
independent variables and two or more dependent variables.

B. Directional hypothesis is one that specifies not only the existence but the
expected direction of the relationship between variables; non-directional, by
contrast, does not stipulate the direction of the relationship.

C. Research hypothesis is also referred to as substantive, declarative or scientific

number of statements of expected relationship variables.

On the other hand, a null hypothesis is a statement that there is no actual

relationship between variables.

Example: there is no significant in the anxiety level of children of high IQ and those
of low IQ.

Alternative hypothesis is a statement that suggests a potential outcome that the

researcher may expect. It is established only when a null hypothesis is rejected. It can be
directional or non-directional

Children with high IQ There is a difference in

will exhibit more the anxiety level of the
anxiety than children children of high IQ
with low IQ. and those of low IQ

86
Formulation of Hypothesis in Quantitative Research

The hypothesis

1. May be used to compare the variables

2. May be used to relate the variables
3. May be used to describe the variables

The hypothesis may be considered as too general when stated like –‚Creativity is
the function of the self-actualization of the individual.‛ It cannot be tested

Or the hypothesis may be too specific as expressed in this example: ‚The speed
of reading depends on the size or type of print.‛ Too thin for study.

For hypothesis testing, it is formally tested through statistical procedures.

Researchers seek to determine through statistical treatment whether their hypothesis
has a high probability of being correct. Hypotheses are either accepted or supported.

An example of a hypothesis for correlational research

‘The length of time needed to complete an examination will be negatively

correlated with the score of the examination for college students.’

Any (1984) stated that hypotheses cannot be proved or disproved but they can
be supported or not supported. Negative findings are as important as positive ones,
since they contribute to knowledge and information. The hypothesis acts as a guiding
factor for future research in the field being investigated.

87
 Chapter 4

Understanding Data and Ways to

Systematically Collect Data

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the learners should be able to:

1. choose appropriate quantitative research designs;

2. describe sampling procedures and derivation of the samples size;
3. construct instruments for gathering data;
4. establish validity and reliability of instruments for gathering data;
5. plan data collection procedures;
6. choose appropriate statistical measures for data analysis; and
7. analyze the use of hypothesis testing.

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 LESSON 1

Choosing Appropriate Quantitative

Research Design
Introduction

To start writing a research paper, you have to plan the research design of your
study. The research design in your overall concept or strategy to put together the
components of your study in a logical manner. Additionally, the design ensures that the
research problem is appropriately addressed. The research problem and questions shall
determine the type of research design you should you use.

The choice of a correct research design is important prior to obtaining

information relevant to your research study. You can review and synthesize literature of
studies that have used the same research design and which are relevant to your research
study.

Types of Quantitative Research Designs

Research problems vary. Although ever research problem is unique there are
certain similarities relating to situational variables like personal characteristics, areas of
significance, among others.

Basic quantitative research designs can be used to address or match given

problems and objectives.

The three (3) traditional categories of research designs are exploratory,

descriptive and causal.

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Exploratory Research Design

An exploratory research design is often used to establish an initial understanding

and background information about a research study of interest, oftenly with very few or
no earlier related studies found relevant to the research study.

This research design is described as an informal or unstructured way of

investigating available sources. You may conduct library search, secondary data analysis,
experience surveys, opinionnaire, case analysis, focus groups projective techniques and
internet searches. Secondary data include information which you may gather from
books, journals, proceedings, newsletters , magazines, annual reports and many others.
Experiences surveys refer to gathering data from key informants about a research topic.
In case analysis, you may review past experiences or situations that may have some
similarities with the present research problem. You can also gather small groups of
people and conduct focus group discussions. Through an unstructured discussion, you
can gain information relevant to the research study that you plan to undertake.

If the sample size in exploratory studies is small, the results of the study cannot
be generalized for a population.

Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used to gather information on current situations

and conditions. It helps provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where
and the how of a particular research study. Descriptive research studies provide accurate
data after subjecting them to a rigorous procedure and using large amounts of data
from large number of samples. This design leads to logical conclusions and pertinent
recommendations. However, the descriptive research design is dependent to a high
degree on data collection instrumentation for the measurement of data and analysis.

According to Polit and Hungles (1999), the following research designs are
classified as descriptive design:

 Survey
The survey research design is usually used in securing opinions and trends
through the use of questionnaires and interviews. A survey is used in gathering
data from institutions, government and businesses to help in decision-making
regarding change strategies, improving practices, analyzing views on choice of

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 products or market research. Surveys can be conducted face-to-face or online.
Online surveys are widely used because gathering data from the target
respondents or completing of questionnaires is fact using the internet.

 Correlation Research
Correlation research design is used for research studies aimed to determine
the existence of a relationship between two or more variables and to determine
the degree of the relationship. Examples of correlational research involving two
(2) quantitative variables that can be correlated are: mental ability and grade in
math; gender and math performance; advertising costs and sales; and income
and expenses.

 Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is conducted to elicit useful feedback from a variety of
respondents from various fields to aid in decision making or policy formulation.
Commonly used types of evaluation based on the purpose of the study are
Formative and Summative evaluation.
Formative evaluation is used to determine the quality of implementation
of a project the efficiency and effectiveness of a program, assessment of
organizational processes such as procedures, policies, guidelines, human resource
development and the like.

 On the other hand, Summative evaluation is done after the implementation of

the program. It examines the outcomes, products or effects of the program.

Here are some examples of formulative evaluation:

 Needs Assessment
Evaluates the need for the program or project. For example, how great is the
need for a remedial program in mathematics? Who needs the program? When
can the program start? Where or in what college will the program be
implemented and what needed to implement the program?

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  Process Evaluation
Evaluates the process of implementation of a program. For example, you may
want to conduct on the implementation of the Student Information System (SIS)
in your school. Some questions would be: how will students and teachers assess
the efficiency of the current process of the SIS? Is it working well? What
suggestions may be implemented to improve the program? When will the
recommendations form teachers and students be implemented to improve the
program considering the cost and other technicalities?

 Implementation Evaluation
Evaluates the efficiency or effectiveness of a project or program. For example,
how effective is the scholarship program in your school? Are the criteria
followed? How many students availed themselves of said scholarships and how
many students graduated successfully?

 Program Monitoring
Valuates the performance and implementation of an unfinished program. The
evaluation is done prior to the completion of the program. It helps improve
implementation and achieve best results. The initial implementation of the K-12
program is a very good topic for evaluation under this type of research design.
Whatever evaluation is to be done will be a part of a monitoring program for the
K-1 implementation.

Here are some examples of summative evaluation:

o Secondary Data Analysis

You may examine existing data analysis. For example, you may want to find
out the influence of gender and mental ability in the results of the National
Achievement Test (NAT) in your school or in your region.

 Impact Evaluation
This is used to evaluate the overall effect of the program in its entirety. For
example, you may want to determine the effect of remedial classes on the
performance of students in mathematics in your school.

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  Outcome Evaluation
This is done to determine if the program has caused useful effects based on
target outcomes. For example, you may want to determine if a leadership training
program for officer of student organizations of a certain public secondary school
have enhanced the leadership skills of the participants.

 Cost-effectiveness Evaluation
Also called cost-benefit analysis, it compares the relative costs to the
outcomes or results of some courses of action. For example, you may conduct a
study on the value for money returns of a company brought about by an
intensive training investment for employees in the Sales department.

Causal Research Design

Causal research design is used to measure the impact that an independent

variable (causing effect) has on another variable (being effected) or why certain results
are obtained. A valid conclusion may be derived when an association between the
independent variable and the dependent variable is obtained. It can also be used to
identify the extent and nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can
help businesses determine how decisions may affect operations. A restaurant owner
may want to find out why he/she has fewer customers than their neighboring
restaurants that resulted in decline in sales. So management may conduct his/her study
on the quality of the food, the price of the food, cleanliness or the quality of services
accorded to the customers. Thus, the purpose of the research study is to find out the
factors that cause the decline in the number of customers in the said restaurant.

In addition to the discussion on the characteristics of the three main categories of

quantitative research designs, Table 1 outlines other points of comparison of their
characteristics:

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 Points of Exploratory Descriptive
Causal Research
Comparison Research Research

Unstructured and Formal and

Research Approach Highly Structured
flexible Structures

Variables and
Degree of Problem Variables are
Not well-defined relationships are
Identification defined
defined

Often a follow-up to Late stage of

When to use? Initial research
exploratory research decision-making

Explains the cause

Goals and Provides insights on and effect
Describe situations
objectives a problem relationship
between variables
Small non-
Large representative Large representative
Sample Size representative
sample sample
sample
Research questions Hypothesis is Hypothesis is
Type of hypothesis
only nondirectional directional
Data may not
Data management Data are statistically Data are statistically
statistically
and measurement measurable measurable
measurable

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 LESSON 2

Describing Sample Size and Sampling

Procedure

Introduction

Determining the correct sample size and how the samples are selected are crucial
in ensuring the accuracy and precision of an estimate leading to valid research findings.
Sampling is securing some of the elements of a population. An element is a number of
population who can provide information for the population. A population consist of the
total elements about which you can make inferences based on the data gathered from a
determined sample size.

Sample Size Determination

A sample (n) is selection of respondents for a research study to present the total
population (N). Making a decision about sample size for a survey is important. Too large
a sample may mean a waste of resources, both human and financial. On the other hand,
too small a sample decreases the utilization of the results.

The following are some reasons for the use of samples:

1. A sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which requires more
time.

2. A samples saves money because it is less costly than conducting to complete

census

3. A sample allows more particular attention to be given to a number of elements

than when doing a census.

4. There is greater error in reporting results of a census caused by inexperienced

interviews. There is less sampling error in a survey.

5. Some research studies in the industry may only be performed on a sample of

items. For example, testing the length of time a battery with last.

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SLOVIN’S Formula in Determining the Sample Size

The following information is needed to be able to determine the sample size

using Slovin’s formula.

 Population (N) consist of members of a group that a researcher is interested in

studying the members of a group that usually have common or similar characters

 Margin of error is the allowable error margin in research. A confidence interval of

95% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99% confidence interval gives a 1% margin
of error.

The sample size can be obtained by the formula:

n= N
1 + Ne²
Where:

n = sample size

N = total population

e = margin of error

Example 1:

A researcher wants to conduct a survey. If the population of a big university is

35,000 find the sample size if the margin of error is 5%.

Using the formula,

n= N
1 + Ne²

Substituting the given data,

n= 35,000
1 + (35,000) (.05)²

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 = 35,000
1 + (35,000) (.0025)

= 35,000
1 + 87.5

= 35,000
88.5

n =395

Example 2:

Suppose you plan to conduct a study among 1,500 Grade 11 students enrolled in
the STEM Tracks. How many respondents are needed using a margin of error 2%?

Given:

N = 1,500

e = 2%

Solution:

n= N
1 + Ne²

n= 1,500
1 + (1,500)(.02)²

n= 1,500
1 + (1,500)(.0004)

n= 1,500
1 + .6

n= 1,500
1.6

n=938

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Sampling Procedure

Sampling is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup called a sample

from a population to participate in research study. The subgroup shall be the
representative of the large group from where they were selected. To create a sample,
you may follow any of the following categories of sampling techniques: probability
sampling and nonprobability sampling schemes.

Probability sampling procedures

The most important characteristics of probability sampling procedure is the random

selection of samples. Specifically, each sample (n) or element from the population (N)
has an equal chance of selection under a given sampling technique. Four (4) probability
sampling procedures are described below:

 Simple random sampling

This is the most frequently used type of probability sampling technique. this is
characterized by the idea that that the chance of selection is the same for every
member of the population.

For example, assume that you want to conduct a survey of 100 senior high school
students in a certain private school. To get the desired sample size of 100, you
can do the selection process, either manually or electronically, ensuring that each
student in the population has an equal chance of being drawn from the total
population of senior high students in the school.

 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling follows specific steps and procedures in doing the
random selection of the samples. It requires a list of the elements and every
element in the list is drawn for inclusion in the sample. If for instance, you have a
list of 5,000 persons and you need a sample of 500, here are the steps of follow:

 Divide the number of elements in the population by the desired sample size. In
this case, you divide 5,000 by 500 which given a value of 10.

 Choose a random number between the value you obtained from step 1. In this
example, you choose a number between 1 and 10, let's say you choose 5.

 Starting with the number you picked which is 5, you take every tenth (10) (from
Step 1) and you use 5 as your starting point. Thus, you have to select the samples

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 whose numbers are 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 and so on until you reach the desired sample
size of 500.

 Stratified Random Sampling

In this type of probability sampling procedure. The population is first divided into
two or more mutually exclusive categories based on your variables of interest in
the research study. The population is organized into homogeneous subsets
before drawing the samples. With stratified random sampling, the population is
divided into subpopulation called strata. If your variable of interest is economic
status bases on the family combined income level, can divided the population
into strata of different income levels (low, average, high income with specific
numerical value of annual family income per level). She these have been
determined, you may draw a sample from each stratum with a separate draw
from each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata can now be
determined.

The primary advantage of this technique is that cases from each stratum of the
population are given importance, as in the other groupings.

To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability sampling technique

suppose you're interested in how frequent internet use varies by level among junior
high school students. To explore this inquiry, rather than taking simple random samples
from the school’s population of junior high school students, you need to ensure that an
appropriate number of students are drawn from all levels of the junior high school track.

In this case, you have to stratify by level (first year, second year, third year and
fourth year). When these have been determined, you may draw a sample from each
stratum with a separate draw from each of the different strata. The sample sizes within
the strata should be pre-determined.

The primary advantage of this technique is to ensure that cases from each
stratum of the population are given importance as in the other groupings.

To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability sampling, suppose

you are interested in how frequent internet use varies by level among junior high school
students. To explore this enquiry, rather than taking a simple random sample from the

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school population you need to ensure that appropriate number of students are drawn
from each level in proportion to the percentage of the population as a whole.

In this example, if there are 1,200 junior high school student, here are the steps to
follow:

 Get the population of junior high school students per level. In this case, the
following data were recorded:

First year 350

Second year 300

Third year 280

Fourth year 270

TOTAL 1,200

 Divide each number of students per level by the total population of 1200 and
then multiply by the desired sample size of 300.

In this case,

First Year 350/ 1200 300 87.5 88

Second Year 300/1200 ×300 = 75

Third Year 280/1200 ×300 =70

Fourth Year 270/1200 300 67.5 67

TOTAL 300

You can now randomly draw out 88 from the first year level, 75 samples
from the second year,70 from third year and 67 from the fourth year level of
junior High school students. This gives a sample that represents the whole
proportionately per level.

Stratified random sampling is preferred by researchers who want to study

subpopulations where categorization of homogenous characteristic of each
stratum is being considered.

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  Cluster Sampling

Most large scale survey use cluster sampling method. Cluster sampling is used
when the target respondents in a research study is spread across a geographical
location. In this method, the population is divided into groups called clusters
which are heterogeneous in nature and are mutually exclusive. A random
sampling technique is used on relevant cluster to be included in the study.

Cluster sampling may be classified as either single- stage, two- stage cluster
sampling or there also exists multi-stage cluster sampling. In single-stage cluster
sampling, all the members from each of the selected cluster are used in the
sampling process. In two-stage cluster sampling, a subset of elements within
each selected cluster is randomly selected for inclusive in the sample. In multi-
stage sampling, more than two steps are taken in selecting clusters from clusters.
Examples are those which consider geopolitical clustering as provinces, town or
cities. Thus, multi-stage takes a large population into account.

Non-Probability Sampling Procedures

There are situations when the researcher cannot employ random selection. In
cases where probability sampling is not applicable, you may consider some non-
probability sampling alternatives.

 Convenience Sampling

This is a method of selecting samples that are available and are capable of
participating in a research study on a current issue. This method is sometimes
called haphazard or availability sampling. An example would be conducting a
survey or interview on a captive audience inside a mall or park or school to
obtain a quick response of public opinion on an issue about election of public
officials.

 Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is a technique where the researcher identifies a key informant

about a research of interest and then ask that respondent to refer or identity
another respondent who can participate in the study. The identification of the
samples follows a multiplier effect, that is, one person is asked to refer the
researcher to another respondent and so on. This technique is applicable when

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 researchers find difficulty in locating special numbers of a population. The chain
referral procedure allows the researcher to reach the desired samples. Example,
an ethnographic research of the indigenous groups to locate respondents. Based
on this unpublished research study, the total population of the eight (8) ethnic
groups called Mangyans may be around 100,000 according to official records. But
according to the researcher, they are difficult to locate because of distance
(remote areas) and some have little contact with the lowlanders or the outside
world.

 Purposive Sampling

Purposive sampling sometimes called judgmental or subjective sampling employs

a procedure in which samples are chosen for a special purpose. It may involve
members of a limited group of population. For example, you may want to
conduct a study on why Grade 11 students chose the Voc-Tech track over the
academic track. You, therefore, find your first question would be " Are you
planning to go to the university?" Those who will say "No" would not be included
in the study.

 Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is gathering a representative sample from a group based on

certain characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher. Usually the
population is divided into specific groups. If the specific condition, for example is
for both genders, males and females are to be represented equally in the sample
group, then if 60 representatives are needed, then you get 30 males and 30
females from each group.

The main difference between stratified random sampling and quota Sampling can
be explained in a way that in quota Sampling, you use non-random selection.

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 LESSON 3

Designing the Questionnaire and

Establishing Validity and Reliability

Introduction

In everyday life, you measure several features of objects and variables of interest
in research using measurement tools. It may be easy to determine personality attributes,
such as age, gender, weight, height, grade level, but in actual practice the procedure
and requirements are more formal and rigorous. Using appropriate tools, research
measurement is more intricate and complicated.

Designing the Questionnaire

A questionnaire is an instrument for collecting data. It consists of a series of

questions that respondents provide answers to a research study. A step-by-step
approach is discussed in this section with the hope that you, the researcher will produce
a valid and reliable instrument for gathering data.

Step 1- Background

You do a basic research on the background of the chosen variable or

construct. Choose a construct that you can use to craft the purpose and objective
of the questionnaire. In research the term construct refers to a trait or
characteristic that you like to evaluate or measure. Some examples of constructs
are weight, height, intelligence levels of satisfaction, aggression, skills, academic
achievement, or work performance. After identifying the construct, you can easily
state the purpose and objective of the questionnaire and the research questions
as well; only then can you frame the hypothesis of the study.

There are five (5) main types of variables.

 Dependent variables

These are variables that you are trying to explain. An example is student
academic achievement in mathematics.

 Independent or explanatory variables

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 These are variables that cause influence or explain a change in the dependent
variable. There may be one or more independent variables in a research study.
For example, some variables which may influence a student’s academic
achievement in mathematics are: mental ability, age, gender, seating
arrangement or educational qualification of parents.

 Control variables

These are variables that are used to test for a possible erroneous relationship
between the identified independent and dependent variables. It is possible that
the observe relationship between the dependent and independent variable.

 Continuous Variables

These are variables defined on a continuous scale. Example are time, weight,
length, or money.

 Discrete Variables

These are variables which can also be counted but must be a whole number.
Some variables are continuous but reported as discrete when they are rounded
of.

Step 2- Questionnaire Conceptualization

 Choose the response scale to use. This is how you want your respondents to
answer the questions in your study. You can choose from the following response
scales.

 Yes/No

 Yes/No/Don't Know

This type of respondent to select only one answer the "don’t know" answer is the
neutral response.

 Likert Scale

Likert scale is a very popular rating scale used by researchers to measure

behaviours and attitudes quantitatively. It consists choose a degree of their
opinions. It is the best tools for measuring the level of opinions.

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Here are some Likert-Scale sample ratings:

Frequency of Occurrence Frequency of Use

 Very frequently  Always

 Frequently  Often

 Occasionally  Sometimes

 Rarely  Rarely

 Very Rarely  Never

Degree of Importance Quality

 Very important  Strongly agree

 Important  Agree

 Moderately important  Undecided

 Of little importance  Disagree

 Not important  Strongly Disagree

Level of Satisfaction Agreement

 Very satisfied  Strongly agree

 Satisfied  Agree

 Undecided  Undecided

 Unsatisfied  Disagree

 Very Unsatisfied  Strongly Disagree

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  Generate the items or questions of the questionnaire base on the purpose and
objectives of the research study.

Once you have a decide on the construct and the response scale you will use, you
may develop the questionnaire using the following guidelines in mind:

o The question should be clear, concise and simple using minimum number
of words. Avoid lengthy and confusing lay-out.

o Classify your questions under each statement based on your problem

statement.

o Questions should be consistent within the needs of the study.

o Avoid sensitive or highly debatable question.

 Choose the types of questions in developing the statements. The types of

questions may be one of the following:

 Dichotomous Question

This is a "Yes/No" or "like/Dislike" question where only two (2) choices are
provided. Male/Female and Good/Bad are also examples or dichotomous
choices.

 Open-ended question

This type of question usually answers the question "why". It allows the
respondents to give their idea and insights on a particular issue. This type
of question gives additional challenge to the researcher who must review
each response before assigning codes and analyzing the data.

Example 1:

What are your favorite movies? (Please specify their titles)

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Example 2:

What do you like most about your school?

 Closed questions.

These are also called multiple-choice questions. These questions may

consist of three or more mutually exclusive questions with different
categories.

Example 1: How often do you watch TV at home?

Never .......................................................................................................... 1
1 or 2 times a ..........................................................................................................
2
week
3 or 4 times a ..........................................................................................................
3
week
Nearly everyday .......................................................................................................... 4

Example 2: What is the highest level of education that your mother has completed?
(Please puta check mark (√) on one box only)

Elementary School
High School
College
Don’t Know

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  Rank-order scale questions

Respondents are asked to rank their choices on each statements or item.

Ranking requires that a set of items be ranked in order to compare each item to
all others.

Example Please rank the following activities in order of importance in your work as a
3 senior high school student. (Please use ‛S" as the most important activity ‚I‛
: is the least important activity)

Important Ranking

a. Doing homeroom activities

b. Going to the library

c. Using the computer

d. Joining academic organizations

e. Doing homework/assignments

 Rating scale question.

You construct a scale the like those examples given for Likert scales
ratings.

Step – 3 Establish the Validity of the Questionnaire

Validity is traditionally defined as ‚degree to which a test measures what it claims,

or purports, to be measuring‛ (Brown, 1996).

A questionnaire undergoes a validation procedure to make sure that is accurately

measures what it aims to do. A valid questionnaire helps to collect reliable and accurate
data.
Here are ways to assess the validity of a set of measurements:
 Face validity

This is a superficial or subject assessment. The questionnaire appears to measure

the construct or variable that the research study is supposed to measure.

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  Content validity

Content validity is most often measured by experts or people who are familiar
with the construct being measured. The experts are asked to provide feedback on
how well each questions measures the variable or construct under study. The
experts make judgements about the degree to with the test items or statements
match the test objectives or specifications.

 Criterion – related validity

This type of validity measures the relationship between a measure and an

outcome.

Criterion – related validity van be further divided into concurrent and predictive
validity.

 Concurrent Validity

This type of validity measures how well the results of an evaluation or assessment
correlate with other assessments measuring the same variables or constructs.

 Predictive validity

This measures how will the results of an assessment can predict a relationship
between the construct being measured and future behaviour. For example, the
academic performance of a student in Grade 11 Math may be predicted by
his/her math performance in junior high school.

 Construct validity

This is concerned with the extent to which a measure is related to other measures
as specified in a theory or previous research. It is an experimental demonstration
that a test is measuring the construct it claims to be measuring.

Step 4 – Establish the Reliability of the questionnaire

Reliability indicates the accuracy or precious of the measuring instrument

(Norland, 1990). It refers to a condition where measurements process yields consistent
responses over repeated measurements. To apply this concept in research, you need a
questionnaire that is reliable. You need questions that yield consistent scores when
asked repeatedly.

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Here are some ways to assess the reliability of a questionnaire:

 Test-retest reliability

This is the simplest method of assessing reliability. The same test or questionnaire
is administered twice and correlation between the two sets of scores is
computed.

 Split-half method

This method is also called equivalent or parallel forms. In this method two
different tests covering the same topics are used and the correlation between the
two sets of scores is calculated.

 Internal consistency

This method is used in assessing reliability of questions measured on an interval

or ratio scale. The reliability estimate is based on a single form of test
administered on a single occasion. One popular formula to measure internal
consistency is called Cronbach’s alpha. This can be computed using manual and
electronic computations such as the Statistical Package for the social Sciences,
Cronbach alpha can’t range from 0 (poor reliability) to 1 (perfect reliability).
Anything above, 70 is considered sufficiently reliable.

Step 5 – Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire

Pre-testing or pilot testing a questionnaire is important before you use it to

collect data. Through this process, you can identify questions or statements which are
not clear to the participants or there might be some problems with the relevance of the
questionnaire to the current study.

After designing the questionnaire, you may find 10-15 people from your target
group to pre-test the questionnaire. You design or provide spaces where the testers can
freely indicate their remarks. Such remarks may be any of the following.

 ‚Delete this statement. I don’t understand the question/statement.‛

 ‚Revise the question/statement. Indicate the specific variables to be measured.‛

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  ‚Retain the question/statement. This is good.‛

 ‚There are missing options in the list of choices.‛

 ‚The question is so long. It’s getting boring.‛

Step 6 – Revise the Questionnaire

After identifying the problem areas in your questionnaire, revise the instrument
as needed based on the feedback provided during the pre-testing or pilot testing. The
best questionnaire is the one that is edited and refined towards producing clear
questions arranged logically and in sequential order. The questionnaire should match
with the research objectives.

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 LESSON 4

Planning Data Collection Procedures

Introduction

Data collection refers to the process of gathering information. The data that you
will collect should be able to answer the questions you posed in your Statement of the
Problem.

There are various methods that you can use in collecting data for a research
study. Each has its advantages and disadvantages and as a researcher you should be
able to identify when it is appropriate to employ each of the data collection procedures.
All these techniques are expected to generate numerical calculation. The data are
collected, recorded, organized and translated to measurement scales and entered into a
computer database for statistical computation, using appropriate software packages like
EXCEL, SPSS, SAS, etc.

Types of Quantitative Data Collection Procedures

A. Observation

This method of gathering data is usually used in situation where the

respondents cannot answer the researcher’s question to obtain information for a
research study. The observation is structured to elicit information that could be
coded to give numerical data. As a researcher, you have to prepare a checklist
using an appropriate rating scales that may categorize the behaviour, attitude or
attribute that you are observing to answer the questions posed in your study. As
you observe, you will record your observation by using checkmarks or cross
marks on your checklist.

B. Survey

Quantitative data can be collected using four (4) main types of survey:

 Sampling survey

The researcher collects data from a sample of a population to estimate the

attributes or characteristics of the population. Example of sample survey
pertains to customer satisfaction, health care, politics, market research,

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 academic or education survey. At the current time surveys concerning
feedbacks from parents and teachers on the K-12 implementation are very
timely.

 Administrative data

This is a survey on the organization’s day-to-day operations. This kind of

data is now supported with various ICT tools and softwares making it easy
for organizations especially government, schools, industry, NGO to update
their records efficiently and effectively and put up their own Management
Information System (MIS).

 Census

The researcher collect data from the selected population. It is an official

count on survey of a population with details on demographics, economic
and social data such as age, sex, education, marital status, household size,
occupation, religion, employment data, educational qualification, and
housing. The collected data are usually used by government or private
firms of planning purposes and development strategies.

In the Philippines, census of this kind is conducted by the national

Statistics Office (NSO) for civil registration system, Bureau of Labor and
Employment Statistics (BLES), Philippine Statistical Association (PSA),
COMELEC and other national agencies.

 Tracer studies
This is a regular survey with a sample of those surveyed within a specific
time or period.
In school settings, tracer studies are used by educational institutions to
follow up their graduates. The survey is usually sent to a random sample
after one or two years after graduation from their courses, tracer studies
gather data on work or employment data, current occupation and
competencies needed in the workplace to determine gaps in curriculum
and other related activities between academe and industry

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C. Quantitative Interview

The interview may be used for both quantitative and qualitative research
studies. Both research methods involve the participation of the researcher and
the respondent.

In conducting a quantitative interview, the researcher prepares an

interview guide or schedule. It contains the list of questions and answer options
that the researcher will read to the respondents. The interview guide may contain
closed-ended questions and a open-ended questions as well, that are delivered
in the same format and same order to every respondent.

This method of collecting data involves gathering information from a large

representative sample, which is quite laborious. Using a record during an
interview will lessen not only the time required to record the answers but will also
lessen the interview effects on the respondents. Likewise, it gives the researcher
an opportunity to explain or clarify some questions which may be confusing to
the respondent. However, it is time consuming and expensive than administering
questionnaires.

Data from quantitative interviews can be analyzed by assigning numerical

values to the responses of the participants. The numeric responses may be
entered into a data analysis computer program where you can run various
statistical measures.

D. Questionnaire
A questionnaire may be standardized or researcher-made.

A standardized questionnaire has gone through the process of psychometric

validation, has been piloted or revised.

Sauro (2012) provided the advantages of standardized usability questionnaire:

 Validity
It has undergone the process of validation procedures. That is, it
determines how well the questionnaire measures what it is intended to
measure.
 Reliability
The repeatability of the questionnaire has been tested. It refers to how
consistent responses are to the questions.
 Sensitivity

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 It is often measured using resampling procedures using how well the
questionnaire can differentiate at a fraction of the sample size.
 Objectivity
To attain this measure, practitioners or experts are requested to verify
statements of other practitioners in the same field.
 Quantification
The standardized questionnaire has undergone statistical analysis.
 Norms
The standardized questionnaire have normalized references and databases
which allow one to convert raw scores to percentile ranks.
For a researcher-made questionnaire that has been developed by the
researcher specifically for a research study, the following should be
discussed:
1. the corrections and suggestions made on the draft to improve the
instrument
2. the different persons involved in the correction and refinement of the
research instrument
3. the pre-testing efforts and subsequent instrument revisions
4. the type of item used in the instrument
5. the reliability of the data and evidence of validity
6. the steps involved in scoring, guidelines for interpretation

The following discussion will guide you in formulating good question in a

questionnaire;

 Avoid leading questions.

 Be specific with what you like to measure.
For example, if you want to evaluate a program, be specific with what
aspects or measurement you like to evaluate in the program, quality?
Effectiveness?
 Avoid unfamiliar words that the respondents might not be familiar with
 Multiple choice categories should be mutually exclusive to elicit clear
choices
 Avoid personal questions, which may intrude into the privacy of the
respondents like those questions pertaining to income, family life, beliefs,
like religions or political affiliations
 Make your questions short and easy to answer

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 LESSON 5

Planning Data Analyses Using Statistics

Introduction

When the necessary data have already been collected, the next step is to
organize the raw data analysis. It is important that the research is assured of the quality
of the data for accuracy, consistent and systematic arrangement to facilitate coding and
tabulation.

Every research methodology requires a data analysis plan. The plan includes
specifying the statistical measures to use and to address the research questions. The
appropriate methods of data analysis are determined by the type of data, the variables
to be used the number of cases and the distribution of the variables.

Purpose of Data Analysis Plan

The purpose of data analysis plan is to gather useful information to find solutions
to research questions of interest. It may be used to:

● describe data sets;

● determine the degree of relationship of variables;

● determine differences between variables;

● predict outcomes; and

● compare variables.

All of the above could be manipulated by using any or a combination of the

following data analysis strategies:

● Exploratory Data Analysis

This type of data analysis is used when it is not clear what to expect from the
data. This strategy uses numerical and visual presentation such as graphs. Since the
research of the interest is new, it is possible to find some inconsistence, such as missing
values, distribution of the data or unusually small ore too large values or invalid data.

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 ● Descriptive Data Analysis

This type of data analysis is used to describe, show or summarize data in a

meaningful way, leading to a simple interpretation of data. Descriptive data analyses do
not allow you to formulate conclusions beyond the data that you have described. The
commonly used descriptive statistics are those that analyze the distribution of data such
as frequency, percentage, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.

● Inferential Data Analysis

Inferential statistics tests hypotheses about a set of data to reach conclusions or

make generalizations beyond merely describing the data. Inferential statistics include
tests of significance of difference such as the t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); and
tests of relationship such us Product Moment Coefficient or Correlation or Pearson r,
Spearman rho, linear regression and Chi-square test.

Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation

Determining the level of measurement of the quantitative data is important

before proceeding with analysis of data. The choice of statistical measure/s to use is
dependent on the level of measurement of the data. The following are the levels of
measurements scales:

► Nominal Scale

► Ordinal Scale

► Interval Scale

► Ratio Scale

 Nominal Scale

A nominal scale of measurements is used for labeling the variables. It is

sometimes called categorical data. Basketball players wear sports shirts with
numbers, but that is just the way to identify the players. Likewise, if you want to
categorize respondents based on gender, you could use 1 for male, and 2 for female.
No order or distance is observed. The Yes or No scale is an example of nominal data.
The numbers assigned to the variables have no quantitative value. Some examples of
variables measured in a nominal scale are gender, religious affiliation, race or ethnic
group.

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  Ordinal Scale

An ordinal scale of measurement assigns order on items on the characteristics

being measured. It involves the ranking of individuals, attitudes and characteristics. The
order in the honor roll (first honor, second honor, third honor); order of agreement
(strongly agree, agree, strongly disagree) or economic status (low, average, high) are
some examples.

Numerical scores such as first, second, third and so on are assigned but the
numerical value or quantity has no value except its ability to establish ranking among a
set of data. You can talk about ordering but differences in order between the ranks are
not specified.

 Interval Scale

The interval scale has equal units of measurements thereby, making it possible to
interpret the order of the scale scores and the distance between them. However, interval
scales do not have a ‚two zero‛

With interval data, addition and subtraction are possible but you cannot multiply
or divide.

 Ratio Scale

Ratio scale is considered the highest level of measurements. It has the

characteristics of an interval scale but is has a zero point. Because of this property, all
statistical operation can be performed on ratio scale. All descriptive and inferential
statistics may be applied. All variables can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.

A. Descriptive Analysis

1. Measures of Central Tendency

Suppose, senior high school students were asked how many hours they spent on
the computer, and in what subject they often used the computer for. Results of the
survey could indicated that on the average, the senior high school student spent two (2)
or more hours with a range of one (1) to four (4) hours. A typical senior high school
student spent more than two hours studying his /her research subject using the
computer.

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 In the above example, the findings are presented as averages. The use of the
phrase ‚on the average‛ and the word ‚typical‛ denote that one is interested to
determine the center or middle of a set of data.

The common measure of central tendency, sometimes called measures of

location or center, include the mean, median and mode.

1.1 Mean

Often called the arithmetic average of a set of data, the mean is the sum
of the observed values in the distribution divided by the number of observations.
It is frequently used for interval or ratio data. The symbol (x bar) is used to
denote the arithmetic mean.

The mean is calculated by summing up the observation (items, height. Scores or

responses) and dividing by the number of observations.

The following examples show the calculation of the mean for ungroup data, that
is a list of data that is not recognized in any way.

A. For Ungroup Data

Example 1:

Find the mean of the measurement

18, 26, 27, 19, 30

Solution:

Substitute the measurement using the formula.

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 Note that the value of the falls near the middle of the data set.

Answer: is 26

Suppose the 3rd measurement was 17 (rather than 27). The mean would be =24.
Thus, the mean is change if one of the values in the set of observation is change.

Example: 2

Find the mean of the following:

Scores in the National Achievement Test (NAT)

90 95 96 87 110
102 95 98 87 117
115 96 91 95 95
93 105 86 103 106

∑x 1960
Mean (X) = = =98
n 20

You can use the mean when the numbers you have can be added or when
characteristics are measured in a numerical scale like those used to describe height,
weight, or scores on a test.

B. For Grouped Data

When the observations are grouped into classes, the formula for group data is as
follows:
Frequency of each class
Mean (X) = Total number of observation
x class midpoint

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 1.2 The Weighted Mean

The weighted average or weighted mean is necessary in some situations.

Supposed that you are given the means of two or more measurements and you
wish to find the mean of all the measures combined into one group. The formula
for weighted mean is given by,

∑ fx
Xw =
n
Where:

f = frequency

x = numerical values or item in a set of data

n = number of observations in the data set

Example 1:

Find the mean of the highest of 50 senior high school students summarized as
follows:

Heights (in inches) Frequency Height x Frequency

56 6 336
57 15 855
58 15 696
59 8 472
60 5 300
61 2 122
62 2 124
∑ f = 50 ∑ fx = 2905
Solution:

Using the above data, the weighted mean is equal to the sum of the column, fx
divided by the total number of observation.

∑ fx 2905
Weighted mean (XW) = = =58.1 inches
N 50

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 When the data group into classes, the class midpoint represents the ‘X’ in the
formula.

Example 2:

Solve for the mean of the data below.

Class Frequency () Class Midpoint () fx

76-80 3 78 234
71-75 5 73 365
66-70 6 68 408
61-65 8 63 504
56-60 10 58 580
51-55 7 53 371

Class Frequency () Class Midpoint() fx

46-50 7 48 336
41-50 3 43 129
36-40 1 38 38
TOTAL 50 2965
Solution:
∑ fx 2965
Mean (X) = = 59.3
n 50

Answer: 59.3

1.3 Median

The median is the midpoint of the distribution. It represents the point in the data
where 50% of the values fall below that point and 50% fall above it. When the
distribution has an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two
middle scores. The median is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for
ordinal data.

A. For Ungrouped Data

The median may be calculated from ungrouped data doing the following steps.

1. Arrange the items (scores, responses, observations) from lowest to highest.

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2. Count to the middle value, for an odd number of values arranged from the lowest to
highest, the median correspondents to value. If the array contains an even number of
observations, the median is the average of two middle values.

Example 1:

Consider these odd numbers of numerical values:

7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 12, 23

Answer: The Median is 9.

Example 2:

Consider these even numbers of numerical values:

12, 15, 18, 22, 30, 32

The two middle values are 18 and 22. If the average of the two middle numbers is
taken, that is, 18 + 22 = 40 and divided by 2, the median is 20.

Answer: The Median is 20

Example 3:

Find the median for the set of measurements.

15, 20, 12, 26, 3, 30, 40

Solution:

Answer: The median is 15

Suppose the last number is 32 (rather than 30), the median is still 15. Unlike the
mean, the median is not affected by extreme values in the distribution.

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A. For Grouped Data

If the data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the classes as
the value. The process involves several steps and has for its general formula the
following.

Where:

L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median (median class)
i = interval size
n = total number of items or observations
F = cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
f = frequency of the median class

In the following examples, the use of the step procedure will be illustrated:

Example 4:

The following data show the distribution of the ages of people interviewed for a
survey on a topic about climate change.

Class Interval () Frequency () Cumulative ()

11-20 20 20
21-31 14 34
31-40 22 56
41-50 18 74
51-60 14 88
61-70 12 100
f = 100

Solution:

Determine in which class the 50th value falls. The first two classes have a
cumulative frequency of 34 classes.

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 We need another 16 values to reach 50. Thus, the 50th value falls in the next class
which contains 22 values. The median class then is 31-40

Thus,

This means that 50% or 50 of the 100 ages will fall below 37.77 and 50% or 50
will fall about it.

1.4 Mode

The mode is the most frequently occurring value in the set of observations. In
cases where there is more than one observation which is the highest but with equal
frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest observations) or multimodal with
more than two highest observations. In cases where every item has an equal number of
observations, there no mode. The mode is appropriate for nominal data.

Example 1:

The ages of fifteen (15) persons assembled in a room are so follows:

16, 18, 18, 18, 25, 25, 25, 30, 34, 36, and 38

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Solution:

An age of 25 is the mode because it has been recorded three times in the
sample, more than any other age.

Answer: Mode = 25

Example 2:

The number of hours spent by 10 students in an internet café was as follows:

2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5

Solution:

Both 2 and 4 have a frequency of 3. The data is therefore bimodal.

Answer: Mode = 2 and 4

Example 3:

2. Measurements of Dispersion

Suppose you ask a group of senior high school students to rate the quality of
food at the school canteen you find out that average rating is 3.5 using the following
scale: 5 (excellent); 4 (very satisfaction); 3 (satisfactory), 2 ( fair); 1 ( poor).

How close are the ratings given students? Do their rating cluster around the
middle point of 3, or are their ratings spread or dispersed, with some students giving
rating of 1 and the rest giving rating of 5?

The extent of the spread or the dispersion of the data is describe by a group of
measures called measures of dispersion, also called measures of variability. The
measures to be considered are the range, average or mean deviation, standard
deviation and the variance.

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2.1 The Range

The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest values in a set of
data.

Consider the following scores obtained by ten (10) students participating in a

mathematics contest:

6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28

Thus, the range is 22. The scores range from 6 to 28.

2.2 Average (Mean) Deviation

This measure of spread is defined as the absolute difference or deviation

between the values in a set of data and the mean, divided by the total number of values
in the set of data.

In mathematics, the term ‚absolute‛ represented by the sign ‚I I‛ simply means

taking the value of a number without regard to positive of negative sign.

A. For Ungroup Data

The formula based on the definition is:

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Thus, on the average, each value is 8.4 units from the mean.

Example 2:

A set of observations consists of 22, 60, 75, 85, 98. Find the average deviation .

Solution:

The average deviation is computed as follows:

Thus, the average distance for the set of data is 21.6 units from the mean.

2.3 Standard Deviation

The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the spread or variation of data about
from the mean.

SD computed by calculating the average distance that the average value is from
the mean.

A. For Ungrouped Data

The formula for calculating the standard deviation for ungrouped data is given by

Example 1 will outline the steps in computing the standard deviation for a set of data.

Example 1:

Let us consider the same data used in the illustration for using the range. The
values are 6, 10, 12 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28

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Solution:

1. Compute the mean

Score (x) (x-x) (x-x)2

6 (6-17.5) = -11.5 132.25
10 (10-17.5) = -7.5 56.25
12 (12-17.5) = -5.5 30.25
15 (15-17.5) = -3.5 12.25
18 (18-17.5) = .5 6.25
18 (18-17.5) = .5 .25
20 (20-17.5) = 2.5 6.25
23 (23-17.5) = 5.5 30.25
25 (25-17.5) = 7.5 56.25
28 (28-17.5) = 10.5 110.25
∑ (x-x)2
= 434.5

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Interpretation of the Standard Deviation

The standard deviation allows you to reach conclusions about scores in the
distribution the following conclusion can be reached if that distribution of scores is
normal:

1. Approximately 68% of the scores in the sample falls within one standard
deviation of the mean

2. Approximately 95% of the scores in the sample falls within two standard
deviation of the mean

3. Approximately, 99% of the scores on the sample falls within three standard
deviations of the mean

4. In our example, with a x of 17.5 and a standard deviation of 6.95, we can say
that,

68% of the scores will fall in the range

= (17.5-6.95) to (17.5+6.95)
= 10.5 to 24.45
5. Likewise, 95% of the scores will fall in the range

= 17.5- (2)(6.95) to 17.5+ (2)(6.95)

= (17.5-13.9) to (17.5+13.9)
= 3.6 to 31.4
B. Inferential Data Analysis

Inferential statistics refers to statistical measures and techniques that allow us to

use samples to make generalizations about the population from which the samples were
drawn.

Below is a list of common statistical measures to measure significant differences and

relationships between variables.

1. Test of Significance of Difference (T-test)

● Between Means

► for independent samples (i.e when the respondents consist of two

different groups as boy and girls, working mothers and non-working
mothers, healthy and malnourished children and the like)

Case 1: δ1 δ2 unknown or n1 30 and n2 30

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► for correlated/dependent samples (I.e when the same sets of respondents or
paired sets of respondents are involved)

●Between Proportions or Percentages

► for independent samples

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► for correlated/dependent samples

● Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

ANOVA is used when significance of difference of means of two or more groups

are to be determined at one time

► One-Way Analysis of Variance

A typical ANOVA Table

Source Degree Sum Mean F-ratio

p
of variation f Freedom f Squares Squares
Between
groups
Within
groups

Total

ANOVA relies on the F-ration to test the hypothesis that the two variances are
equal; that is, the subgroups from the same population. ‚Between groups‛ refers to the
variation between each group mean and the grand or overall mean.

2. Test of Relationship

● Spearman Rank-Order Correlation of Spearman rho. This is used when data

available are expressed in terms of rank (ordinal variable).

● Chi-Square Test for Independence. This is used when data are expressed in
terms of frequencies or percentages (nominal variables).

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Case 1: Multinomial

Case 2: Contingency Table

Where

 Product- Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r

This is used when data are expressed in terms of scores such as weights and
heights or scores in a test (ratio or interval)

Case 1: When deviation from the mean are used

Case 2: When raw scores on the original observations are used

 T-test to test the Significance of Pearson r

The T-test to test the significance of Pearson r is used to determine if the value of
the computed coefficient of correlation is significant. That is, does it represent a
real correlation, or is the obtained coefficient or correlation merely brought about
by

133
Where:
= correlation coefficient
= number samples

The coefficient of determination (r2) can also be used to indicate what proportion
of the total variation in the dependent variable is explained by the linear
relationship with the independent variable. You can multiply by 100 to convert
the coefficient of determination to percent.

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 LESSON 6

Testing the Hypothesis

Introduction

Hypothesis testing is an important part of the data analysis plan in conducting a

research study. If the researcher wishes to draw some inferences from data taken from a
sample which may have wider generalizability, this is referred to as inferential statistics
and it is more complex than descriptive statistics.

Inferences applied to the end total population are valid under two conditions,
namely: there is a target population when appropriate random sampling has been used
in the selection of the samples.

Population and Sample

A measure based on a population is called a parameter while a measure based on

a sample is called a statistic. The population mean is called parameter and is
represented by the symbol ‚μ‛ (a Greek letter). The sample mean is a statistic and is
represented by X.

Inferential statistics requires the sample be drawn by random sampling. If there is

bias in sampling, it is possible for the inference to be wrong, to determine if the
inference is valid, testing the statistical significance is very important. To be statistically
significant, any relationship or difference must be due to planned interventions rather
than by chance.

Statistical Significance

Statistically Significant means that a relationship between two or more variables

is caused by something other than by random chance. Significant also means probably
true (not due to chance). When the result is highly significant, it means that it is very
probably true.

The level of significance shows how likely the results of your data are due to
chance. A chance of being true indicates that the finding has a five percent chance of

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not being true. A level of significance means that there is a chance that the finding is
true.

Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine the result of a data set is

statistically significance.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be tested for

its truth or falsity. Let us suppose a researcher is concerned with testing the relationship
between variables. Through inferential statistics measures, the researcher can discover
important information even if no relationship is establish between the variables. It is
possible for the researcher to discover the differences and, therefore may test individual
or group differences.

Consequently, the researcher should drink of inferential statistics in terms of

whether it tests for relationship or association or whether it tests of comparison of
difference.

The two types of hypothesis are the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is denoted by while the alternative hypothesis is denoted by.
The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that is always tested by a researcher. The null
hypothesis indicates that there is no difference between the group means in the
comparison. The alternative hypothesis on the other hand, indicates that there is a true
difference between the group means.

The results will show that (1) either there is a meaningful differences between the
two groups, thus, you reject the null hypothesis or (2) the difference between the two
groups is not large enough to conclude that groups are different thus you fail to reject
the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis
accepted.

Type I and Type II Errors

There are two types of errors involved with hypothesis testing. Type I error is
committed when a researcher rejected a null hypothesis when in fact it is true. The
second type of error, type II error is the error that occurs when the data from the sample

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produce result that fail to reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is
false and should be rejected.

Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics

Two types of significance tests that are usually used by researchers are called
parametric and nonparametric statistics. Parametric tests are used for interval and ratio
scale of measurement. They require that the samples and observations are drawn from
normally distributed populations and that the selection of each case should have equal
variance.

Nonparametric tests do not specify normally distributed populations and

similarity of variances. Nonparametric tests are the only tests used with nominal data or
ordinal data.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

The main concern or idea in hypothesis testing is to ensure that what is observed
from sample data and generalized to population phenomena is not due to chance.

The following outlines the steps in hypothesis testing in any given situation.

1. Sate the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is a statement that no difference exists
between the averages or means of two groups.

Example:

Let us suppose that an advertising agency is conducting an experiment using two

different methods of marketing strategies (X and Y) to grade 11 students. The results of
the experiments will be measured using the monthly sales of the company.

There are three possible outcomes:

A. Strategy X is equal to strategy that is, (X = Y)

B. Strategy X is better than strategy Y, that is, (X > Y)

C. strategy X is poorer than strategy Y, that is, (X < Y)

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Outcome A forms the basis of the null hypothesis a statement of no difference in
monthly sales in the populations being compared.

Outcome B and C are statements of differences between populations and are the
alternate hypothesis. For the experiments, the following are the hypothesis.

Respondent in the population where strategy X will be used to produce monthly sales
equal to that of the population where strategy Y will be used.

Respondents in the population where method X will be used to show either more or
less monthly sale than those strategy Y will be used. Therefore, Outcomes B and C are
combined into a single alternate hypothesis. This hypothesis is called a non-direction
hypothesis and a two-tailed test is needed for this kind or experiment.

However, if the alternate hypothesis was that respondents using strategy X got higher
monthly sales than those using method Y, the result would be a directional hypothesis
that should be tested by a one-tailed test.

2. Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation. A researcher must determine
the measurement scale, the type of variable, the type of data gathered and the number
of groups or the number of categories.

3. State the level of significance for the statistical test. The level of significance is
determined before the test is performed. It has been traditionally accepted by various
schools of thought to use alpha to denote the level of significance in rejecting the null
hypothesis. It is equivalent to the amount of risk regarding the accuracy of the test that
the researcher is willing to accept. The levels mostly frequently used are .05, .01, and
.001. An level of significance implies that the probability of committing an error by
chance is 5 in 100.

4. Compute the calculated value. Use the appropriate formula (discussed in Lesson 5) for
the significance test to obtain the calculated value.

5. Determine the critical value the test statistics must attain to be significant. After you
have computed the calculated measure, you must look at the critical value in the
appropriate table for the distribution. The critical value defines the region of rejection

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from the region of acceptance of the null hypothesis. The areas of acceptance and
rejection in a standard normal distribution, using = .05, is illustrated below.

6. Make the decision. If the calculated value is greater than the critical value, you reject
the null hypothesis. If the critical value is longer, you conclude that you have failed to
reject the null hypothesis.

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 CHAPTER 5

Finding Answers through Data Collection

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the learners should be able to:

1. collect data using appropriate instruments;

2. present and interpret data in textual, tabular, and graphical forms;
3. use different statistical techniques in analyzing study of relationship such as
correlation, linear regression and Chi-square and
4. Use different statistical techniques in analyzing study of difference such as the T-
test; and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).

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 LESSON 1

Collecting Data Using Appropriate

Instruments

Introduction

There are various types of instrument you may use to collect data for evaluation.

The choice of appropriate instruments depends on the type of data to be collected, the
question to be answered, the time frame and resources. The method of data collection
should not only be appropriate but also effective.

Data Collection Techniques

Data collection is very important in the analysis of data. There are two different
methods to gather information: primary or secondary.

Primary data collection uses surveys, interviews, questionnaires, test, observation,

checklist and rating scales. Secondary data collection is conducted by obtaining
information found in journals, books, annual reports, websites and other publications
available for public use.

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 A. Collecting Data Through Surveys

Sample Survey on’ ’Student Satisfaction on Student Services in a Private Secondary School’’

Dear student, thank you for being a respondent for this survey. Please help us improve our services by completing
this survey.

1. What is your overall satisfaction rating with our school services?

Very satisfied

Somewhat satisfied

Neither satisfied or dissatisfied

Somewhat dissatisfied

Very dissatisfied

2. Please explain your answer

3. Please rate your level of satisfaction in the quality of student services provided by your school.

5- Very 4- Somewhat 3- Neither satisfied 2- Somewhat 1- Very

Satisfied satisfied nor dissatisfied dissatisfied dissatisfied

5 4 3 2 1
 Register’s Office
 Canteen
 Student Information System (SIS)
 Comfort Rooms
 Classroom Ventilation
 Cashier’s Office
 College/ Department staff

4. Please rate the following personal goals of going to Senior High School (SHS) in order of importance from 1
to 6 with 1 indicating most important goal, 2 second most important goal and so on.

To pursue college education

To be employed after graduation

To enhance my self-esteem

To become a useful citizen

To develop good attitudes

To be socially and intellectually mature

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 B. Collecting Data Through Interviews

Sample Research on ‚Students’ Perceptions About Use of ICT in Learning

Mathematics‛
Sample Interview Guide for Students

1. What is your favorite subjects/s?

2. Why do you like the subject?

3. What is your least-liked subject/s?

4. Why do you dislike the subject?

5. How is your favorite subject taught by your teacher?

6. How is your least-liked subject taught by your teacher?

7. Which method/ strategy do you find interesting?

8. Does your teacher use ICT in teaching mathematics?

9. Which ICT device do you frequently use? graphic calcular? computer? e-learning?

10. What are the ICT activities that you perform inside the classroom? outside the

classroom?

11. Which of these activities are helpful to you?

12. Given the number of minutes you spent in learning mathematics, how many percent

do you spend for ICT hands-on math activities?

13. Do you find the use of ICT in learning mathematics interesting?

14. From a scale of 1 – 10, (with 1 as the lowest and 10 is the highest), at what level do you

assess the effectiveness of ICT integration in learning mathematics?

15. Does ICT integration in learning mathematics improve your academic performance

mathematics?

143
 C. Collecting Data Through Questionnaires

Sample Questionnaire A

Direction: Below are questions on the Parents-Teacher Association (PTA) involvement in the school
development programs of Francisco Felix High School in Cainta, Rizal.
Please put a check mark (√) or fill in the blacks on some necessary information asked for.

Name: (optional)

Status of PTA membership: Officer Member

1. What is the level of your involvement in the following school development programs using the
following scales:
5 – Highly involved
4 – Moderately involved
3 – Somewhat involved
2 – Slightly involved
1 – Not at all involved

A. Decision Making 5 4 3 2 1
1. Resolving issues on matters arising during PTA meeting

2. Pertinent matters on school development programs

involvement
B. Support to School Programs
1. Organization of the PTA

2. Sports development activities

3. Intramural activities

4. school activities

5. Cultural programs

6. Beautification programs

7. Environmental awareness

8. Academic competitions

9. Clean and green campaign

10. Waste management

11. Climate change

12. Field trips

144
A. Fund Raising 5 4 3 2 1

1. Sourcing out donations

2. Fund – raising activities

3. Book donation

4. Contribution of construction materials

5. Free labor and repair

B. Extension and community Involvement 5 4 3 2 1

1. Livelihood program

2. Environment education

3. Health and Nutrition

4. Population

5. ICT Literacy

145
 Sample Questionnaire B
Directions: Please use the following scale to measure the quality of your school life as a senior high school student.
Put a check mark (√) on your choice.

5 – Strongly agree
4 – Agree
3 – Neither agree nor disagree
2 – Disagree
1 – Strongly disagree

Quality of School Life 5 4 3 2 1

1. Teacher support for my well being

2. Teacher support for my academic success

3. Good appearance of school

4. Good appearance of classroom

5. Safety at school

6. Enough chairs in the classroom

7. Good ventilation in the classroom

8. Enough books in library

9. Clean and quality service of canteen

10. Respect from other students

11. Having friends in school

12. Enough playground in school

13. Satisfaction with teachers

14. Satisfaction with grades

15. Overall satisfaction with life in school

146
 LESSON 2

Presenting and Interpreting Data in

Tabular and Graphical Forms

Introduction

To be able to create and present an organized picture of information from a

research report, it is important to use certain techniques to communicate findings and
interpretations of research studies into a visual form. The common techniques being
used to display data results are tabular, textual and graphic methods. All these provide
initial analysis of data.

Textual Presentation of Data

Textual presentations use words, statements or paragraphs with numerals,

numbers or measurements to describe data. They can be used independently to
describe the data when there are very few quantities or numbers. They can also be used
compare data using paragraphs for the discussion. Here are some examples:

There are 42, 036 barangays in the Philippines. The largest barangay in terms of
population size is Barangay 176 in Caloocan City with 247 thousand persons. It is
followed by commonwealth I Quezon City (198, 285) and Batasan Hills in Quezon City
(161, 409). Twelve other barangays posted a population size of more than a hundred
thousand persons.

Source: psa.gov.ph

Tabular Presentation of Data

Tables presents clear and organized data. A table must be clear and simple but
complete.

A good table should include the following parts.

 Table number and title – These are placed above the tables. The title is usually
written right after the table number.
 Caption subhead – This refers to the columns and rows
 Body – It contains all the data under each subhead
 Source – It indicates if the data is secondary and it should be acknowledged.

147
Here is an example of a good table.

Table 1
Age of Individuals in Various Employment Sectors
18 – 25 26 – 35 36 – 45
Employment Sector
Age Group Age Group Age Group
Agriculture 3 8 12
Education 10 15 15
Health 15 28 35
Law 3 5 6
Manufacturing 15 23 32
Retail 30 12 8
Others 25 16 10

Tabular Presentation with Textual Analysis

An information sheet is distributed to 300 junior and senior high school students
of a certain school to gather data on background of the students in terms of sex, grade
level and socioeconomic status as measured by monthly family income. A profile
analysis of the students’ background is provided for each tabular presentation of the
profile variables to illustrate textual analysis.

Table 2
Profile of Students According to Gender
Gender Frequently Percentage
Male 120 40%
Female 180 60%
Total 300 100%
Analysis: Among the 300 respondents, 120 (40%) are males and 180 (60%) are
females.

Table 3
Profile of Students According to Grade Level
Grade Level Frequently Percentage
Grade 7 60 20%
Grade 8 54 18%
Grade 9 51 17%
Grade 10 45 15%
Grade 11 90 30%
Total 300 100%

148
 Analysis: Of the survey’s 300 respondents, 60 (20%) are in Grade 7, 54 (18%) are
in Grade 8, 51 (17%) are in Grade 9, and 45 (15%) are in Grade 10. This constitutes
enrollment in Junior High School. Enrollees entering Senior High School in Grade 11
constitute 90 (30%) of the total school enrolment.

Table 4

Profile of Students’ Economic Status Based on Monthly Family Income

Socio
Number of Percentage Number of Percentage Total Percentage
Economic
Males (F) (%) Females (F) (%) Respondents
Status
Below average
Average/
Middle
Above
Average

Total 120 100% 180 100% 300 100%

Analysis: The students’ socio-economic statuses based on the monthly family

income are categorized into three groups: above average, average or middle and below
average. Those students whose combined monthly family income falls in the below
average category consists of 75 or 25% of the respondents. There are 174 or 58% whose
combined monthly family income falls on the average middle that bracket. The
remaining 17% (51) falls on the below average combined monthly family income.

As shown by the results, the highest share of percentage of the students belong
to the average or middle income bracket. Most of the respondents came from average
or middle socio-economic status in terms monthly family income.

Likewise, among the three level of socio-economic status, the average or middle
income bracket has the highest number of frequency, as well as the highest percentage
of male and female respondents. i.e., 50% and 60%respectively. Also, both males and
females belonging to the below average income consist of 25% each for both saxes
while the remaining 20% of the males and females belong to the above average level.

149
Graphical Methods of Presenting Data

A graph or chart portrays the visual presentation of data using symbols such as
lines, dots, bars or slices. It depicts the trend of a certain set of measurements or shows
comparison between two or more sets of data quantities.

Charts and graphs are very useful in simplifying the presentation of research
reports. They help students and researcher understand quickly and interestingly.

A good graph or chart shows that the x and y axis has a heading and units are
included. The figure number of title are usually placed below the figure. The known
value is plotted on the x-axis and be measured value is plotted on the y-axis. This
description of a chart excludes pie charts.

Some examples of charts/ graphs are discussed below. Guidelines and examples
are provided to guide you on deciding what type of graphs or charts to use in
presenting research reports.

Line Graph

A line graph is graphical presentation of data that shows a continuous change or

trend. It may show an ascending or descending trend.

Examples 1

The National Statistics Office (NSO) released the following the data on the rates
of unemployment from 2001 to 2010.

Chart Title
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Figure 2 Rates of unemployment: 2001 – 2010

Data Source: National Statistics Office (NSO)

150
 2001- 11.1%
2002- 11.4% The figure show that during the years 2001-1004, the
2003-11.4% rates of unemployment were over 11%. The decline came in
2004- 11.8% 2005 (-4%), a small decline in 2006-2007 (.7%) and
2005- 7.5% unemployment rates were almost the same in 2008-2010
2006- 8.0%
2007-7.3%
2008-7.4%
2009-7.5%
2010- 7.4%

Double Line Graph

You can use line graphs to show comparisons of events, situations or information. A
double line graph has two lines connecting points to show continuous change in the
data over time. Similar to a single line graph, the lines can ascend or descend in a
double line graph. A double line graph includes a key, which represents the information,
event and situation being observed.

Illustrative Example

90

80
70
60
Female
50
Male
40

30
20
10
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Figure 3 Labor Force Participation: 2005-2013

Data Source: National Statistics Office (NSO

151
 The double line graph was based on the following data:

Year Female Male

2005 49.8 79.8
2006 48.8 79.1
2007 48.2 78.3
2008 48.6 78.9
2009 49.3 78.8
2010 49.7 78.9
2011 52.2 80.4
2012 49.7 78.3
2013 49.8 78.1

Labor force participation for females from 2005-2013 range from 48.2- 49.8 while
that of the males ranged from 78.1 – 79.8.

Bar Graph Or Bar Chart

A bar graph uses bars to compare categories of data. It may be drawn vertically or
horizontally. A vertical bar graph is best to use when comparing means or percentages
between distinct categories. The categories are measured independently and compared
with one another. A horizontal bar graph may contain more than 5 categories may be
plotted on one axis while the other axis contains the numerical values that represent the
data measured.

Vertical Bar Graph

Illustrative Example

30
25
20
15
10

5
0
Visit Leisure/ Work- Personal/ Conferences Petitioned by
friends/ Tourism Related Business /Seminars Relatives
152
Figure 4 Reasons Why People Travel Abroad
 In this illustrative example, 100 respondents were requested to select one distinct
option for reasons why they travel, making its cross analysis with number of
respondents

Illustrative Example 2

The following is an example of a double bar graph based on the following data.

Table 5
Basic Literacy Rates, Philippines: 1990-2008
Year Female Male
1990 93.2 94
1994 94 93.7
2000 92.3 92
2003 90.4 86.8
2008 96.1 95.1

Source: pcw.gov.ph

98
96
94
92 Male
90 Female
88
86
84
82
1990 1994 2000 2003 2008

Pie Charts Or Circle Graphs

A pie chart is usually used to show how parts of a whole compare to each other
and to the whole. The entire circle represents the total, and the parts are proportional to
the amount of the total they represent.

153
 The amount going to each part is expressed as a percentage; then, a circle is
divided into pieces proportional to the percentage of each category. This is done by
multiplying the percentage share by 360 degrees.

Table 6 2013 COMELEC Registrants By Age Group

Age Group
18-21 9,505,241 16%
22-30 13,204,083 23%
31-39 11,319,005 19%
40-48 9,293,972 16%
49-50 8,340,075 14%
60- above 6,834,712 12%

Source: Computed Data from PSA and COMELEC

18-21
22-30
31-39
40-48
49-59
60 and above

154
 LESSON 3

Using Statistical in Analyzing Data

Introduction

There are so many instances in your life when you try to determine. If some
characteristics are related with each other. On a higher level, you also want to measure
the degree of their relationship or association. You usually associate height and weight,
budget and expenses, mental ability and academic performance, sibling order and
attitude, civil status and managerial skills and other aspects of life which may be related
with one another.

The relationship between variables can be measured statically by various

correlation methods.

1. The Scatter Diagram

Plotting graphically the values of the correlated variables means placing one
variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis. The scatter diagram gives you a
picture of the relationship between variables.

The following are examples of scatter diagrams:

A B
35
50 30
30 45 27
25 40 24
20 35 21
15 30 18
25 15
10
20 12
5 15 9
0 10 6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 5 3

Figure 1

In Figure 1, the points are plotted to show the relationship between the values
listed under column A which are plotted ion the x-axis and the values listed under

155
 column B which are plotted on the y-axis. Observed from this data that for every
increase of 5 units on the items in column A, there is a corresponding increase of 3 units
on the items listed on B. You will also observe that the points fall along a straight line
running from the lower left to the upper right of the scatter diagram. This illustrates a
perfect positive relationship. When computed, the coefficient of correlation is equal to 1.

35 A B
30 50 3

25 45 6
40 9
20
35 12
15 30 15
10 25 18
20 21
5
15 24
0 Figure2 10 27
0 10 50 60
20 30 40 5 30

Figure 2

Figure 2 is the opposite of figure 1. You will notice that for every increase of 5
units in A, there is a corresponding increase of 3 units on B, the points also fall along a
straight line but this time it runs from the upper left hand part to the lower right of the
scatter diagram. This is an example of a perfect negative relationship. When computed,
the coefficient of correlation is equal to-1.

156
 30
A B
25 50 24
45 21
20 40 18
15 35 23
10 30 18
25 11
5 20 10
15 7
0
10 4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
5 2

Figure 3

There are some situations in life wherein the relationship is not is not perfect.
Figure 3, above is a graphical presentation of a scatter diagram wherein the points are
not falling positive along a straight line but the line is still apparent. This figure
illustrates a very high positive correlation between the two sets points.

25
A B
20 50 8
15 45 20
40 6
10 35 15
30 5
5
25 20
0 20 9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 15 8
10 16
5 8
Figure 4

The scatter diagram in Figure 4 shows the points scattered in all directions.
This is an illustration of a low negative relationship.

157
 When the points are evenly distributed all over the scatter diagram, that will
indicate that there is no relationship.

Types of Correlation

The types of correlation are summarized below:

1. Simple Correlation

This is a relationship between two variables. The relationship between an

independent variable and a dependent variable is usually measured.

A. Linear Correlation

This means that a change in one variable is at a constant rate with respect to the
change in the second variable. The correlation between the variables may either be
showing direct or inverse relationship.

1. Direct - For every increase in one vzariable, there is a corresponding increase

in the second variable
2. Inverse – For every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding decrease
in the second variable

B. Curvilinear Correlation

This means that a change in one variable is not at a fixed rate. It may be
increasing or descending with respect to the change in the other variable.

2. Multiple Correlation

Multiple correlations involve more than two variables. The relationship between
a dependent variable and two or more independent variables is usually measured.

A. Non-linear Correlation

The relationship in non-linear correlation is similar to curvilinear correlation.

However, in this correlation more than two variables are involved.

B. Joint Correlation

This correlation between the dependent variable and two or more variables is
changed with the addition of another independent variable.

158
 3. Partial Correlation

This a relative measure of relationship between the dependent variable and a

particular independent variable, without considering the effect of the other independent
variable under study.

The Coefficient of Correlation

To obtain the quantitative value of the extent of the relationship between two
sets of items, it is necessary to calculate the correlation coefficient. The values of the
coefficient of correlation ranges between +1 to -1. Zero represents no relationship.
Correlation coefficient between 1 and -1 represents various degrees of relationship
between two variables.

1. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (Pearson r)

The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient is commonly called the

Pearson r. This measure was first derived by a British statistician named Karl Pearson. It
measures the linear relationship between two variables. Therefore, to be able to
determine linearity, it is important that a scatter diagram be constructed prior to the
computation of the Pearson r.

A. Computation of Pearson r

Pearson r can be computed based on raw scores.

The formula used is:

159
Example 1

The scores of ten randomly selected senior high school students on the
mathematical portion of the National Admission test (NAT) and mathematical ability
part of a university admission test were recorded as followers:

Table 5
x Y x2 y2 xy
A 5 6 25 36 30
B 7 15 49 225 105
C 9 16 81 256 144
D 10 12 100 144 120
E 11 21 121 441 231
F 12 22 144 484 264
G 15 8 225 324 270
H 17 26 289 676 442
I 20 5 400 625 500
J 26 30 676 900 780
x2 y2 xy
y=161
= 132 =2110 =3251 =2336

The scores on the mathematical portion of the NAT are listed under the column
marked x while the scores on the mathematical ability part of a university admission test
are listed under the column marked y. In the column marked x2 are the squares of each
of the x scores and in the column marked xy consists of the product of each x times y.
All the columns are summed up and the values may now be entered in the given
formula:

Solution:

160
 The sign of the coefficient of correlation indicates the direction of the
relationship between the two variables. A positive correlation coefficient means that
individuals obtaining high scores in the first variable tend to obtain low scores in second
variable.

A negative correlation coefficient means that for every increase in one variable,
there is a corresponding decrease on a second variable. Or a decrease in one variable
brings about an increase on the second variable.

The absolute value of the correlation coefficient indicates the extent of the
relationship. An r of 0.7 and above indicates a very high correlation; an r around 0.5 may
be interpreted as substantial; and an.r of 0.3 and below indicates a low relationship
between two variables being measured.

A 0.88 degree of correlation for the above mentioned data denotes very high
correlation.

The value of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r)

can be interprerted as follows as suggested by Garett (1969).

161
162
2. The Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (Spearman Rho)

The statistics being used based on ranks or position is the Spearman Rank
Correlation Coefficient represented here by r. It is a measure of relationship between
two variables by ranking the items or individuals under study according to their position.
It represents the extent to which the same individuals or events occupy the same
relative position on two variables.

The following formula may be applied:

where: rs = Spearman rank correlation coefficient

D = difference between the two ranks of an individual in the

variables studied

n = number of individuals

The formula requires that you get the differences in the ranks of the individuals
from the two variables, then you square and add the squared differences and substitute
the resulting values in the above formula.
163
Example

The scores obtained by fifteen (15) randomly selected high school graduating batch
of junior high school students who took an admission test administered in English were
recorded. The same students took a similar test with a version in Filipino.

Determine the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores obtained by the
students using the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient formula:

Students SE SP RE RP D D2
1. 48 50 4.5 6 -1.5 2.25
2. 35 50 12 6 6 36
3. 48 52 4.5 3 1.5 2.25
4. 38 42 9.5 11 -1.5 2.25
5. 36 32 11 15 -4 16
6. 53 48 2 8.5 -6.5 42.25
7. 48 52 4.5 3 1.5 2.25
8. 32 40 13 12 1 1
9. 48 48 4.5 8.5 -4 16
10. 30 36 14 13.5 .5 .25
11. 46 52 7 3 4 16
12. 56 58 1 1 0 0
13. 28 36 15 13.5 1.5 2.25
14. 38 46 9.5 10 -.5 .25
15. 42 50 8 6 2 4

∑D2=143

Solution:

= 1-.255= .74

164
Interpretation:

There is high correlation between the two sets of scores obtained by students in
both test.

165
Simple Linear Regression Analysis

Linear regression is the simplest and commonly used statistical measure for
prediction studies. It is concerned with finding an equation that uses the known values
of one or more variables, called the independent or predictor variables, to estimate the
unknown value of quantitative variable called the dependent or criterion. It is a
prediction when a variable (Y) is dependent on a second variable (X) based on the
regression equation of a given set of data.

166
 There are three (3) major of regression analysis:

 Casual analysis – establishes the possible causation of changes in one variable

by changes in other variables;
 Forecasting An Effect – predicts or estimate the value of a variable given the
values of other variables;
 Linear Trend Forecasting – imposes a line best fit to time series historical
model (Mc Guinan, 2011)

The next step in regression analysis is to find a suitable function that expresses the
predicted value of Y given a value of X.

The general form of the linear function is Y= a + bX

Where;

a= is called the Y-intercept of the line (the value of Y when is equal to zero);

b= is the slope of the line called the regression (the rate of change of Y per unit
change in X).

An illustration is made in Figure 5 with b > 0.

y=a+bx

b units

1 units X-

Figure 5: Graph of Y = a + bX when b > 0.

167
 The line that describes the statistical relationship between X and Y is called the
regression line. It is a straight line that attempts to predict the relationship between
points also known as line of best fit.

The regression line gives an estimate of the mean value of Y; denoted by Y,

given the value of X. Hence the equation of the regression line is.

Y = a + bX

Y should be distinguished from the observed data values which we denote

simply a Y. For a specific X, the resulting Y is a predicted value of the independent
variable.

Characteristics of the Regression Line

1. When b > 0, Y increases as X increases. In this case, we say that Y directly or

positively related to X. Figure 6 is an example of this relationship.

Figure 6: Positive Linear Relationship

168
2. When b < 0, Y decreases as X increases, and we say that Y is inversely or negatively
related to X. Figure 7 is an example.

Figure 7: Negative Linear Relationship

3. When b = , 0, Y is a constant and is equal to the y-intercept a. This implies that there
is no change in Y whatever X value is. Figure 8 below is an example.

Figure 8: No Relationship

169
 Computations of linear regression are usually processed using statistical
software packages.

For this example, you will be acquainted with both computations using ‚manual‛
and a ‚software package‛ called SPSS.

Illustrative Example

Fifteen (15) randomly selected Grade II students took a 50-item mathematics

aptitude before they began their course in Statistics and Probability subjects;

1. What linear equation best predicts performance (based on first grading test
scores) in Statistics and Probability based on performance in the mathematics aptitude?

2. If a student made a score of 45 on the math aptitude test, what score would we
expect the student to obtain in Statistics and Probability.

3. How well does the regression equation fit the data?

Calculation of the Regression Equation

Data Scores of 10 students on Math Aptitude Test and Statistics Test Score – Test 1
(x), Test 2 (Y)

Test 1 (X) Test 2 (Y) X2 Y2 XY

38 25 1444 325 950
35 20 1225 400 700
30 17 900 289 510
28 15 784 225 420
25 12 625 144 300
24 15 576 225 360
20 18 400 324 360
18 10 324 100 180

170
 16 12 256 144 192
15 10 225 100 150
12 10 144 100 120
10 10 100 100 100
8 7 64 49 56
7 6 49 36 42
5 5 25 25 25

Σ x = 291 Σ y = 192 Σ Y = 7141 Σ y2 = 2886 Σ XY = 4465

Σ X = 291 Σ X2 = 7141

Σ Y = 192 Σ Y2 = 2886

Σ XY = 4465 N= 15

X = Σ X / N = 291/15 = 19.4

Y = Σ Y / N = 192 / 15 = 12.8

1. Substituting to the above equations for a and bxy

bxy = Σ XY – [Σ X Σ Y / n]

[Σ X2 – (Σ X2 / n)]

= n [Σ xy – Σ x Σ y]

N Σ x2 – (Σ x)2

bxy = [15(4465) – (291)(192)]

[15(7141) – (291)2]

bxy = [66,615 – 55,872]/[107,115 – 84,681]

bxy = (10,743)/(22,434)
= 0.4949

171
 axy = Y – bxy XY

= 12.8 – (.4949)(19.4)

= 12.8 – 9.60

= 3.2

The regression equation is a linear equation of the form. Thus, the regression
equation is Y = a + bX.

2. We may now use this equation to predict Test 2 scores given Test 1 scores. For the
second problem, when X = 45

Y = 0.838 + 0.424 (45) = 19.92

The proper interpretation of 19.92 as a predicted value is that on the average a

student obtain a score of 14 in Test 2 if has scores in Test 1 to 45.

Simple Linear Regression in SPSS

To run simple regression in SPSS, Click Analyze, Regression, Linear… on the top
menu as shown below:

172
When you click the Linear… the dialog box will show:

173
Chi-Square (X2)

The chi-square (Greek letter chi, X2) is the most commonly used method of
comparing proportions. It is particularly useful in tests evaluating a relationship between
nominal or ordinal data. Typical situations or setting are cases where persons, events or
objects are grouped in two or more nominal categories such as ‚Yes-No‛ responses,
‚Favor-Against-Undecided‛ or class ‚A, B, C, or D.‛

Chi-square analysis compares the observed frequencies of the responses with the
expected frequencies. It is a measure of actual divergence of the observed and expected
frequencies. It is given by the formula:

(F0- Fe)2
X=
Fe
Where: F0 = observed number of cases

Fe= expected number of cases

174
Chi-Square and Goodness of Fit: One Sample Case

There are research problems where responses fall in any one of a number of
categories. The data are expressed in frequencies and the observed frequencies (Fe) are
compared to the frequencies expected (Fe) on the basis of some hypothesis.

If the differences between the observed and the expected frequencies are small,
2
X nwill be small. The greater the difference between the observed and expected
frequencies under the null hypothesis, the greater or larger the X2 will be. If the
difference between the observed and expected values are so large collectively as to
occur by change only, say 0.05 or less, when the null hypothesis is true, then the null
hypothesis is rejected.

Illustration:

Consider the nomination of three presidential candidates of a political party, A, B

and C. The chairman wonders whether or not they will be equally popular among the
members of the party. From this the hypothesis of equal preference, a random sample
of 315 men were selected and interviewed which one of three candidates they prefer.
The following are the results of the surver:

Candidates Frequency
A 98
B 115
C 102
Are you going to reject the null hypothesis that equal members of men in the
party prefer each of three candidates? Or are you going to accept the null hypothesis o
equality of preference?

Calculating the X2 value:

F0 Fe F0 -Fe (F0 – Fe)2 (F0 – Fe)2 / Fe

A 98 105 -7 49 49/105=0.467
B 115 105 10 100 100/105=0.952
C 102 105 -3 9 9/105=0.56
1.505

X2 = Σ[f 0 – fe] = 1.505

fe

175
 In order to test the significance of the computed X2 value using a specified
criterion of significance, the obtained value is referred to a table with appropriate
degrees of freedom which is equal to k-1, where k is equal to the number of categories
of the variable. In this problem, fd = 3 – 1 = 2. Therefore, for the X2 to be significant at
the 0.05 level, the computed value should be more than (>) the tabular which is 5.991.

Summarizing

Level of significance = 5%

df = k-1 (number of categories minus one)

= 3–1

= 2

Conclusion:

Since 1.505 < 5.991, do not reject Ho . There is no sufficient evidence or reason
to reject the null hypothesis that the frequencies in the population are equal.

Chi-Square and Goodness of Fit in SPSS

To run Chi-square test in SPSS, Click Analyze, Nonparametric Tests, Legacy

Dialog, Chi-Square… on the top menu, as shown below:

176
When you click the Chi-square… the dialog box below will show:

Then click OK

177
The Output Viewer for Chi-square test will appear.

Chi-Square as a Test of Independence: Two Variable Problem

Chi-Square can also be used to test the significance of the relationship between two
variables when data are expressed in terms of frequencies of joint occurrence. For this
kind of problem, a two-way contingency table with rows and columns are set-up.

In the case of two variable problems, the expected frequencies are those predicted
on the independence of the two variables. The formula is equal to

Example:

Suppose, one wants to know if there is a relationship between gender and school
choice. A sample of 100 female and 100 male freshman students were asked individually
for their school choice. Test the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between
the students gender and school choice at 5% level of significance.

178
 Gender
School Choice
Female Male Total
Public 42 C1 65 C3 107
Private 58 C2 35 C4 93
Total 100 100 200
Computation Procedure:

1. Compute the expected frequency of each cell

RawTotalxColumnTotal
Expected Frequency (Fe) =
GrandTotal

100x107
C1 = = 53.5
200

100x93
C2 = = 46.5
200

100x107
C3 = = 53.5
200

100x93
C4 = = 46.5
200

2. Present in table form

f0 fe f0 - fe (f0 – fe)2 (f0 - fe)2 / f

42 53.5 -11.5 132.25 2.48
58 46.5 11.5 132.25 2.85
65 53.5 11.5 132.25 2.48
35 46.5 -11.5 132.25 2.85
Σ (f0 - fe) 10.66
fe
2
Therefore X = 10.66

3. Prepare the hypothesis

 Null hypothesis: No significant relationship[ exist between gender and school choice.
 Level of significance: 5%
 Degrees of Freedom = (c-1)(r-1)

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C= no. of columns

r= no. of rows

df= (2-1)(2-1) = (1)(1)=1

4. Decision Rule

Since the computed value X2 = 10.66 is greater than the critical value (3.841), we
reject the null hypothesis. Thus, the two variables of gender and school are related:
females tend to prefer private schools while males tend to prefer to study in public
schools.

Chi-Square as a Test of Independence in SPSS

To run Chi-square test of independence in SPSS, Click Analyze, Descriptive

Statistics, Crosstabs … on the top menu, as shown below:

180
When you click the Crosstabs… the dialog box below will show:

Then click OK

181
The Output Viewer for Chi-square as Test of Independence test will appear.

One-Sample-Test

The one sample z-test is used when we want to know whether the difference
between a sample mean and the population mean is large enough to be statistically
significant, that is, if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance. This test can be used only
if the background assumptions are satisfied such as the population mean and standard
deviation must be known and the test statistics should follow a normal distribution.

Computed Test Statistics z:

Example:

A company who make cookies, Claims that its product have a mean life span of 7
days with standard deviation of 2 days. If a random sample of 50 cookies is tested and
one found to have a mean life span for only 4 days. Test the claim at the 5% level of
significance.

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Computation Procedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H0 : μ 7 and H0 : μ ≠ 7

2. State Alpha

a= 0.05

3. State Decision Rule

One-Tailed Test: |z| > za Reject Ho

Two-Tailed Test: |z| > 10/2 Reject Ho

4. Calculate Test Statistics

5. State Results (Use z table to get the critical value)

6. Therefore, the company who makes cookies have mean life span of not equal to
7 days

One-sample t-Test

This test is used when we have a random sample and we want to test if it is
significantly different from a population mean or we compared a single sample mean (X)
to a known or hypothesized population mean (μ). This test can be used only if the
background assumptions are satisfied such as Sample observations should be random
and the population standard deviation is not known.

Computed test Statics t:

Remember degrees of freedom: n-1

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Example:

A random sample of 10 fifth grade pupils has grades in English, where marks
range from 1 (worst) to 6 (excellent). The grade point average (GPA) of all fifth grade
pupils as of the last six years is 4.5. Is the GPA of the 10 pupils different from
populations GPA? Use 0.05 level of significance.

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Grade
5 6 4.5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5.5
Points

Computational Procedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H0 : μ 4.5 and Ho : μ ≠ 4.5

2. State Alpha

a= 0.05

3. df = n -1 =10 -1 = 9
4. State Decision Rule

One tailed Test: |t| > t a.μ -1 Reject Ho

Two-Tailed Test: |t| > tu/2 n- 1, Reject Ho

5. Calculate Test Statistics

t=

6. State Results (Use table to get the critical value)

ta to.05 t
/2 n – 1 /2 10-1 0.0225,9 = 2.262

|4.583| > 2.262, Reject Ho

7. Therefore, the grade point average of the 10 pupils is different from the
populations’ GPA.

184
One-Sample t-Test in SPSS

To run One-Sample t-Test in SPSS, Click Analyze, Compare Means, One-Sample t-

Test . . . on the top menu, as shown below:

185
Place the variable; GPA at the Test Variable(s) and put 4.5 on the Test Value

186
Independent Sample z-Test: Equal Variance Not Assumed

Similar to the test on single mean, the Z-test is used for testing two means when
the variance os known and T-test If the variance is unknown.

Computed Test Statistic Z:

If Equal Variances Assume: : a2 1 = a2 2 = a

( )
Z=
√

If Equal Variances Not Assumed: a2 1c ≠ a22

( )

Example:

Employees at public universities work 11.3 hours per week on the average, with a
standard deviation of 9.5. At private universities, the average working time for
employees is 9.7 hours, with a standard deviation of 8.9 hours. The sample size for each
is 500. Is there a significant difference between the average hours of the public and
private universities? Perform a hypothesis testing using 5% level of significance to find
out.

Computational Pricedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H0 : Public = Private and Ha : Public ≠ Private

2. State Alpha

a= 0.05

3. State Decision Rule

One-Tailed Test: |z| > za , Reject Ho

Two-Tailed Test: |z| > 10/2 , Reject Ho

187
 4. Calculate Test Statistic

√ √

5. State Results (Use z table to get the critical value 10/2)

6. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the average hours of the

public and private universities.

Independent Sample t-Test: Equal Variance Assumed

The independent-measures hypothesis test allows researchers or to evaluate or to

compare the mean difference between two populations using the data from two
separate samples. Generally, a2 is unknown and is being estimated from the data. Hence,
the t-test is used. Computed Test Statistics t:

If Equal Variances Assume: s2 1 = s22

( )

If Equal Variances Not Assumed: s21 ≠ s22

( )

Remember degrees of freedom: df = n1+n2 -2

Example

Suppose we put people on 2 diets ‚the fruit diet and the bread diet‛. Participants
are randomly assigned to either 7-days of eating exclusively fruits 7-days of exclusively
eating bread. At the end of the week, we measure the weight gain of each participant.
Does bread diet cause more weight gain compared to fruits diet? Test the claim using
10% level of significance.

188
 X1: (Fruit Diet) 3 4 4 4 5 6 6

X2: (Bread Diet) 1 2 2 2 3 4 4

Computational Procedure:

1. Define the Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

H2: Fruit Diet = Bread Diet and Ha: Fruit Diet ≠ Bread Diet

2. State Alpha

a= 0.10

3. df = n1 + n2 – 2 = 7 + 7 - 2 = 12
4. State Decision Rule

One-Tailed Test: |t| > ta n1 + n2 – 2, Reject Ho

Two-Tailed Test: |t| > ta/2 n1 + n2-2, Reject Ho

5. Calculate Test Statistics

Use equal variances assumed and compute the pooled variance.

6. State Results (Use table to get the critical value)

7. Therefore, bread diet causes more weight gain compared to-fruits diet.

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Independent Sample t-Test: Equal Variance Assumed in SPSS

To run Independent Sample t-Test in SPSS, Click Analyze, Compare Means,

Independent Sample t-Test . . . on the top of the menu, as shown below:

190
 Place the variables; Data at the Test Variable(s) and Types of Diet at the Grouping
Variable. Then click Define Groups. The dialog box for Define Groups will appear and put
1 to group 1 and put 2 to Group 2 indicate the coding for Types of Diet.

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One-Way Analysis of Variance

One-way analysis of variance is used when you want to compare the means of
more than two groups. This test can be used only if the background assumptions are
satisfied such that it has independent random samples, population are normal and
population variance are equal.

Summary of Table for One-way Anova:

Sum of Degrees of Variance of

Source F Ratio
Squares Freedom Estimate

Between SSB K-1

MSB
Within SSw N-K MSw

Total SSv = SSB + SSw N-1

Note: =

Example:

A teacher is concerned about the level of knowledge possessed by PUP students

regarding Philippine history. Students completed a senior high school level standardized
history exam. Academic major of the students was also recorded. Data in terms of
percent correct is recorded below for 24 students. Is there a significant difference
between the levels of knowledge by PUP students regarding Philippine history when
grouped according to their academic major? Compute the appropriate test for the data
provided below and used 0.05 level of significance.

Behavioral/Social
Education Business/Management Engineering
Science
63 72 42 81

79 49 52 57
78 64 30 87
56 68 83 64
67 39 22 29
47 78 71 30

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Computational Procedure

1. Define the Null and Alternative hypothesis:

H0 : Education = Business =Behavioral = Engineering

Ha : At least two of the means of Education, Business, Behavioral, and Engineering are
not equal

2. State Alpha

a= 0.05

3. df1 = k – 1 = 14 – 1 = 3, df2 = 24 – 4 = 20
4. State Decision Rule
One-Tailed Test: |f| > fa1, df1, df2, Reject Ho
Two-Tailed Test: |f| > fa/2, df, df2, Reject Ho

5. Calculate Test Statistics

Behavioral/Social
Education Business/Management Engineering Total
Science
63 72 42 81
79 49 52 57
78 64 30 87
56 68 83 64
67 39 22 29
47 78 71 30
Mean 65.00 61.67 50.00 58.00 58.67

=6(65.00-58.67)2+6(61.67-58.67)2+6(50.00-58.67)2+6(58.00-58.67)2=748

∑∑

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SSw Business = (72 – 61.67)2 + (49 – 61.67)2 + (64 – 61.67)2 + (68 – 61.67)2 + (39 – 61.67)2
+ (78 – 61.67)2 = 1093.3333

SSw Behavioral = (42 -50.00)2 + (52 – 50.00)2 + (30 – 50.00)2 + (83 -58.00)2 + (22 – 50.00)2 +
(71 – 50.00)2 = 2782

SSw Engineering = (81 – 58.00)2 + (57 – 58.00)2 + (57 – 58.00)2 + (87 – 58.00)2 + (64 – 58.00)2
+ (29 - 58)2 + (30 – 58.00)2 + (30 – 58.00)2 = 3032

Degrees of
Source Sum of Squares Variance Estimate F Ratio
Freedom

Between 748 4–1=3 748/3 = 249.3333

24 – 4 7685.3333/20 249.3333/384.2667
Within 7685.3333
= 20 = 384.2667 = 0.6489

748 + 7685.3333
Total
= 8433.3333

6. State Results (Use t table to get the critical value)

fa
/2 df1 df2 f0.025.3.20 = 3.86

|0.6489| > 3.86, Accept Ho

7. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the levels of

knowledge possessed by PUP Students regarding Philippine history when
grouped according to their academic major.

194
One-way Analysis of Variance in SPSS

To run Independent Sample t-Test in SPSS, Click Analyze, Compare Means, One-
Way ANOVA . . . on the top menu, as shown below:

195
Place the variables: Score at the Dependent List and Academic Major Factor

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 CHAPTER 6

Reporting and Sharing Findings

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the learners should be able to:

1. demonstrate understanding in making conclusions and recommendations;

2. draw logical conclusions based on findings;
3. formulate recommendations based on conclusions;
4. demonstrate understanding in listing references using the rules established by
the publication manual of the American Psychological Association (APA);
5. write and present a written research report;
6. execute the best design for a research report; and
7. present a research workbook.

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 LESSON 1

Drawing Logical Conclusions from

Research Findings

INTRODUCTION

Conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings of the study. The number
of conclusions coincide with the number of specific findings. You have to formulate the
conclusions concisely and briefly. It should not contain any number or measurements. If
there are tested hypotheses in the study, the rejection or acceptance of hypotheses are
placed under Conclusions.

Since the conclusion is the final result, it should give the final impression and it
should summarize the learnings from the study. It leaves the reader in no doubt that
you have answered the questions posed in your paper. It is a wrapped-up of the entire
project and its completeness.

Strategies for Writing an Effective Conclusion

Here are some suggestions on strategies with examples for writing effective
conclusions:

1. Conclusions are intertwined with the Introduction

Intertwining your conclusion with the introduction of your research paper can be a
good strategy as you will end with the scenario that you have evidences to contribute a
new understanding to a field of study.

Example:

Introduction

Reproductive health education is one area of research that should be tackled in

schools. High school students should be exposed to innovative ways of disseminating
and communicating issues or reproductive health education of high school students
shall be the focus of the study.

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Conclusion

The high school student respondents are not fully aware and have little knowledge
in reproductive health education on the following areas: social and gender related
issues, family planning and other clinical services.

2. Conclusions are inferences and generalizations based upon the findings

Example: Based on research study on "Factors Affecting the Career Choices of High
School Students" two (2) conclusions can be drawn from the findings of the study:

Conclusion 1: Males prefer technology-based courses while females prefer

business-related courses.

Conclusion 2: There is a significant difference between the career choices of male

and female high school respondents.

3. Conclusions should specifically answer the questions posed in the "Statement of the
Problem" of your research study.

Example 1: If the profile of the respondents will be used to test for variation on other
measures, here are some examples of possible conclusions:

Conclusion 1: Majority of the respondents are aged 12-16 and mostly are males.

Conclusion 2: Respondents of the study are mostly Catholics.

Conclusion 3. Among the profile of the respondents, age and gender are
significantly related to achievement in mathematics.

Example 2: If the problems raised in a research study entitled "Reading Difficulties of

First Year High School Students were:

Problem 1: In what areas do the student respondents encounter difficulties in

reading?

Problem 2: Is the profile of the student respondents significantly related to their

reading difficulties?

The corresponding conclusions may be the following statements:

199
 Conclusion 1: The student respondents had problems in the following areas of
English reading test: vocabulary, sentence structure and reading comprehension.

Conclusion 2: Profile of the student respondents such as gender and mental ability
are significantly related to the reading difficulties of the student respondents.

4. Conclusions should contain facts or actual results from the inquiry or research study.
Conclusions should never be based from implied or indirect implications of the findings.

Example 1: In a research study on the "Evaluation of Mainstreaming Special Education

(SPED) for Visually Impaired" of DepEd, results indicated that teachers are not majors of
SPED and that the facilities are inadequate to support the program.

It cannot be concluded that mainstreaming SPED for visually impaired is weak due
to non-qualification of teachers and lack of facilities. These statements are implied or
indirect. Further study should be made to determine the weakness of the SPED program
(in this case) due to school factors such as teacher qualifications and adequacy of
facilities,

Other Guidelines in Writing Conclusions

An effective way to writing a conclusion is to provide completion of your research

paper. The reader should feel satisfied after you have fully explained all what you have
fully accomplished.

1. Conclusions should be clearly, concisely and briefly stated.

2. Conclusions should be original and accurate.

3 Conclusions should not introduce new arguments, new ideas or information not
related to your research study.

4. Conclusions should leave the reader with an interesting final impression.

5. Conclusions should refer only to the subjects or population of your research study.

6. Conclusions should contain categorical statements. Refrain from using words like
perhaps or maybe, or those words that would imply unresolved issues.

7. Conclusions should not contain apologetic statements for unresolved problems in the
study.

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 LESSON 2

Formulating Recommendations

INTRODUCTION

Recommendations typically play a vital portion of a research study. Formulating

recommendations is easy, provided the findings and conclusions have been fully
explained and completed. Recommendations are based on the findings of the study.
They should not be based on your own beliefs or biases. They should not be too broad
to lose its relevance to the exact topic of your research study.

Characteristics of Recommendations

The following characteristics should be found in formulating recommendations for

research:

 Relevance to the study

Relevance measures the degree to which a certain variable is related or
useful to what is being talked about. Recommendations for things not discussed
in the study is irrelevant

 Logical reasoning
The recommendations should be well thought of and with valid reasons.

 If the findings, for example, is too large class size, it is only logical to recommend
an ideal class size to create a healthy teaching and learning environment.

 Feasibleness and attainability

The recommendations based on the findings and conclusions should be
practical, workable and achievable A recommendation pertaining to the need to
improve and upgrade the science laboratory in public schools is feasible and
attainable.

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Purposes of a Recommendation

There are several purposes of writing a recommendation after determining issues

raised in a research study.

1. Policy recommendations

A policy serves as a guideline in promulgating certain regulations in various sectors

of society.

Policy recommendations should be included as an output of research. Researchers

can use the findings of their research studies to effect change in policies already being
implemented

The recommended actions should be specified the steps required to implement the
proposed actions and what resources are needed should also be included.

When formulating policy recommendations the following should be included:

1. Discussion of the problems based on the findings and what should be done to solve
the problem.

2. Discussion of the benefits or advantages to the agency or organization.

3. The feasibility or viability of the proposed policy.

4. The plan of action and the evaluation process to ensure success of the proposed
policy recommendations.

Sample Policy Recommendation No. 1

 On lack of teacher preparation

"Teacher preparation and development programs should include development of
pedagogical knowledge and competencies to handle the K to 12 program"

Sample Policy Recommendation No. 2

 On heavier semestral load of senor high school students

"Revisit the 80 hours per semester requirement for each subject in the Senior
High School (SHS) Curriculum"

Sample Policy Recommendation No. 3

 On the implementation of Tech-Voc Track of the SHS Curriculum

202
 "Revisit the Tech-Voc curriculum to prepare students for gainful employment in
industry"

Sample Policy Recommendation No. 4

 On lack of modules and other instructional materials

"Teachers should be encouraged to conduct research work and collaborate with
other teachers in the preparation of modules, guides and other instructional
materials"

2. Recommendations For Future Research Directions

It is also ideal to present and discuss actions or off-shoots of your research for
further study of validation purposes. You may present or discuss additional research
which you were not able to include in your research but worth while doing.

Some types of future research suggestions may be any one of the following:

1. Addressing research limitations of your research study.

Example:

A study was conducted to determine the effects of cooperative learning on

students' performance in English. It was found out that the use of cooperative learning
can increase students' performance in English. However, the sample when compared to
the whole population of the school was inadequate. Larger sample is needed to
determine if the same results will come out to produce better

2. Examining other variables not included in your current research study.

3. Examining alternative interventions which merits serious study.

4. More research on the effects and effectiveness of a similar program to younger

or older age groups.

5. Similar studies which may be done on academic achievement on other subjects.

3. Recommendations to some problems Discovered in the Research Study

In the research study on the "Evaluation of Mainstreaming Special Education (SPED)

for Visually Impaired" by DepEd, results indicated that teachers are not majors of SPED
and the facilities are inadequate to support the program.

203
 Sample recommendations:

1. Hire qualified teachers to handle the program.

2. Conduct regular trainings/workshops and other faculty development programs to

improve the capabilities of current teachers.

3. Improve existing facilities, instructional materials, curriculum, teaching

approaches, school management and other support systems to improve
effectiveness of mainstreaming SPED program of DepEd.

4. Recommendations for Improvement or Change.

In a research study on the implementation of an effective reproductive health

education program, an example of a recommendation for improvement is:

The school should implement an effective and relevant reproductive health

education program geared towards providing a formative curriculum that will
significantly promote responsible adolescenthood in terms of reproductive health
education thus reducing the evidence of social problems such as abortion, unwanted
pregnancies, and sexually transmitted diseases shall be appropriately addressed.

5. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or

204
 LESSON 3

Listing References

INTRODUCTION

In presenting the research report, it is important for you to follow a system of

documentation to acknowledge and give proper attribution to authors of published
materials that you used for the study. American Psychological Association (APA) style is
the most commonly used system to cite sources in the social sciences.

The APA Style

The need for a consistent style is important in presenting a research report. Without
rules of style, variations may distract or confuse the reader.

The APA style is discussed in the 5th edition of the Publication Manual of American
Psychological Association (APA) which is a large reference book that contains hundreds
of guidelines on how to format references, tables, including punctuations and grammar.
An author writing for a publication must follow the rules established by the publisher to
avoid inconsistencies among journal articles or book chapters.

How To List References In APA Style

APA style uses a list of References instead of Bibliography. The requirements of a

reference list are that all references cited in the text of a paper must be listed
alphabetically, first author's last name in the list of References and that all references
listed must be cited within the text. In general, the list of References is double-spaced.
The reference list should appear at the end of the research report.

Books

 Basic Entry
The entry for a book begins with the last name of the author, followed by a
comma and the author's initials followed by periods. The date of publication
follows in the parentheses, followed by a period. Only the first word of the book
title, the first word of the subtitle, and proper names within both are capitalized.

205
 The entire title is underlined and followed by a period. Facts of publication
include the city of publication. The name of the location is followed by a colon
and the name of the publisher. The entry ends with a period.

Example

Hermosa, N. (2002). The Psychology of Reading; Quezon City, Philippines: UP Open

University

 Books by More than One Author

For a book by more than one author, invert and list the names of all the
authors, regardless of number. Use commas to separate surnames and initials.
Place an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author.
For a book with more than six authors, list the first six only followed by et al.,
an abbreviation for and others."

Example

Corpuz, B., Lucido P. (2008). Educational Technology. Lorimar Publishing Co., Inc.
Philippines

 Edition other than First

Identify an edition other than the first or a specific volume with parentheses
following the title without any intervening punctuation.

Example

Corpuz, B.B. (2013). Principles of Teaching (3rd ed.). Lorimar Publishing Co., Inc.
Philippines

Periodicals

The basic entry for an article in a periodical begins with the last names and initials
of all authors, inverted. The year of publication follows in parentheses; for magazine and
newspaper articles, give the month and day (if any). Next comes the title of the article,
not enclosed in quotation marks; the inclusive page numbers. A period follows the
author entry and the title of numbers are separated by commas.

206
  Journal Paginated by Issue
If each issue of a journal begins with page 1. give the issue number in
parentheses after the volume number.

Example

Naval, V. Putting Acts Together in Action Research. The PLT Journal, 2 (1) 17-20

 Magazine Article
The entry for citing a magazine article includes the author, (year and month
of publication), article title, magazine title, volume (issue), page.

Example

Corpuz, B.B. (2016, Jan.-June). P21's Framework for 21st Century Learning. The
Professional Teacher. Volume 7 No. 1 pp. 4

 Monograph
In an entry for a monograph, identify the nature of the material within
brackets and give the volume number of the issue.
Place additional identifying numerals, such as issue and serial (or whole)
numbers in parentheses after the volume number.

Example

Naval, V. (2005). A Centenary Journey to Curriculum Development. [Monograph].

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Commonly Used Rules And Reference Of APA

 Parenthetical Reference Citations in Text

When you do not mention the author's name in your text, that name
followed by a comma and the date of publication, appears in parentheses at the
end of your sentence. Use the last name only in both first and subsequent
citations, except when you have more than one author with the same last name.

207
Example

The Philippines is the only country with a 10-year cycle according to UNESCO
(Quismundo, 2010)

 Author Cited in the Text

If you mention the author's name in your text, cite only the date of the
publication in parentheses, immediately after the author's name.

Example

Quismundo (2010) stated that the Philippines is the only country with a 10-year
cycle according to UNESCO.

 Author and Date Cited in Text

If you use both the name of the author and the date in the text, parenthetical
reference is not necessary.

Example

In a 2012 article, Velasco presented President Benigno S. Aquino announcement

about the K-12 program.

 Quotation with Name of Author

When your sentence contains a quotation and includes the name of the
author: place the publication date and page number in parentheses. Abbreviate
page or pages (p. or pp.). The publication date should follow the name of author,
the page number should follow the name of author, the page number should
follow the end of the quotation.

Example

Velasco (2012) said that "because other countries see our 10-year program as
incomplete, which then, causes Filipino graduates not to be considered as professionals
abroad" (p. 30)"

208
  Work by Two Authors
When you refer to a work by two authors, cite both names each time the
reference appears.

Example

Galiher (2006) and Darling (2005) used Grade Point Average (GPA) to measure
student performance.

or

Grade Point Average (GPA was found to be correlated to student performance

(Galiher, 2006; Darling, 2005)

 Work by Two Through Five Authors

For a work by more than two authors but fewer than six authors, cite all
names in the first reference. In subsequent references, cite only the name of the
first authors and use et. al.

Example

Owens, Mayman, Imel. Mahmood and Tabassum (2004) evaluated the "Effects of
Teacher-Facilitated Math Softwares Method for Average and Low Achievers

or

The "Effects of Teacher-Facilitated Math Softwares Method for Average and Low
Achievers" (Tabassum, 2004) indicated similar effects on the two groups of respondents

 Reference to More than One Work

List two or more works by the same author in order of date of publication:
(Carey, 2005, 2012)

Differentiate works by the same author and with the same publication date by
adding an identifying letter to each date: (Prieto, 2010a, 2010b). the letter also appear in
the reference list, where the works are alphabetized by title.

List works by different authors in alphabetical order by last name, and use
nmsemicolons to separate the references: (Carey, 2002; Naval, 2007; Prieto, 2010).

209