Frontiers of Architectural Research (2018) 7, 37–55

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Conservation and character defining elements

of historical towns: A comparative study of
Cape Coast and Elmina streets and castles
R.A. Oppong, A.B. Marfuln, Y.K. Sarbeng

Department of Architecture, College of Art and Built Environment, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana

Received 19 July 2017; received in revised form 5 November 2017; accepted 9 November 2017

KEYWORDS Abstract
Historical; The concept of historical conservation and character definition is reflected in the Liverpool
Principal street; Street of Elmina and Kingsway Street of Cape Coast in Ghana. The features of these streets are
Conservation; changing owing to urbanization and to the development of commercial retail. In this study, we
Elmina; investigated the character-defining features of Kingsway Street and Liverpool Street within an
Cape Coast
800 m radius relative to the Cape Coast and Elmina Castles, respectively, which are known for
their landmark roles as historical artifacts. We adopted a combination of mapping, philology,
and fractal geometry to assess the character-defining features of each street. The key changes
in the features of the two streets and the similarities between these features are emphasized in
our results. The features of both streets have undergone rapid changes in terms of economic
retail activities, which represent the central element defining the characters of these streets.
Furthermore, the 18th and 19th century architecture along these streets is gradually losing
their original features because of undocumented and unguided renovations, as well as
retrofitting works that are based on the discretion and taste of building owners.
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n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: amarful@yahoo.com, assasie2003@yahoo.co.uk (A.B. Marful).
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.11.001
2095-2635/& 2017 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi. This is an open access
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38
1. Introduction
The individual features that define the Kingsway Street of
Cape Coast and Liverpool Street of Elmina are investigated
and compared in this study. These cities are selected
because they are previously colonial towns and of great
historical significance. We also seek to understand the
mapping of these towns to their principal street, compare
the current features with those in the 19th and 20th
centuries, and identify the conservation practices observed
for historical buildings on the two streets.
Whereas street characteristics is the uniqueness of an
element that shapes and highlights a street (Lindsay et al.,
2009), the characteristics of a place relates to history
because places are built in specific eras and the physical
feature of a place is a historical product (Kropf, 1996;
Ja’afar et al., 2014). The character-defining features of a
town tend to portray history and culture, and they mostly
tell a story of the town's richness and density in the social,
economic, cultural, and historical environment (Warnaby,
2009; Ja’afar et al., 2014). Studies by Kropf (1996) portray
these features as the pertinent character of a place,
particularly the physical structure of the street character,
spatial organization, and architecture of the people.
A city and its constituent element are explored through
urban design, particularly through the inventive mapping of
its physical structure and condition (Peterson, 1979). A
street is a principal element within an urban space
(Peterson, 1979; Lynch, 1960; Jacobs, 2013). A street
characteristic can be measured with respect to uniqueness,
distinction, and importance of its elements. Details, such as
shops, gates, kiosks, sidewalks, street lights, signs, build-
ings, monuments, and users, contribute to the quality of a
street (Jacobs, 2013; Fruin, 1971; Ekawati, 2015). A princi-
pal street is one of the key elements that define an urban
space (Shamsuddin et al., 2007). The use of a principal
street serves as an attraction to the locality (Hillier et al.,
1993). The Royal Mile of Edinburg, George Street of Sydney,
Downing Street of London, and Oxford Street of Accra are
examples of principal streets whose features shaped urban
communities. These streets are known for their commer-
cial, social, and cultural points for encounters and
exchanges.
In historical environments, tensions exist between past
and present cultures and between familiarity with the old
and notion of progress attached to the new (Orbasli, 2002).
Cravatte (1977) attributed this tension to changes for urban
growth, with towns being in constant evolution. These
changes affect the issue of conservation, in which historical
heritage is protected for posterity, tourism, and economic
impact. However, these constant changes occurring in
historical towns affect the building styles, skyline, and
street edge features.
The central idea for the present study is based on three
principles. First, streets are abundant, and every street has
its own unique history. Second, people make places, and
character is about people, communities, and the physical
fabric. Third, street character is a dynamic concept that
changes over time.
Central to the desire to conserve the history of a place is
the issue of character (Kropf, 1996). According to Sonoda
R.A. Oppong et al.
and Hidaka (2008), theories on conserving cultural and
historical assets to which a community attaches value date
back to more than two centuries ago. Various thinkers,
including the late Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879) and the late
John Ruskin (1819–1900), reported different approaches to
the conservation of buildings and other historical heritage
and areas of interest for posterity. According to Kalcic
(2014), Viollet-le-Duc postulated that the loss of originality
in character is the consequence of the lack of analysis; thus,
to arrive at a synthesis, documentation must be established
because only quality documentation provides a sound basis
for further or future work. However, Kalcic (2014) suggested
that John Ruskin argued that it is through architecture that
we recognize our past and roots. Ruskin's approach was
aimed at preserving uniqueness, originality, and truth;
hence, it was designed for the anti-restoration movement.
The concept of historical conservation and character
defining is reflected in the cases of Cape Coast and Elmina,
both of which have strong historical roots in Ghanaian
history that are parallel to colonial rule and slave trade.
The imposition of Western rule over African traditional rule
when Europeans first encountered Africa dominated the
total environment of the region, including its social, cul-
tural, economic, historical, religious, and architectural
areas (Mimiko, 2010). The encounters of Cape Coast and
Elmina with Europe bear similar features. These features
include a sheltered bay in the rocky and promontory
leeward side, series of hills, a large lagoon located west
of the hills, and slave castles (Hyland, 1995). The castles in
Cape Coast and Elmina are among the great medieval
structures, and they have been designated as World Heri-
tage Monuments under UNESCO (Bruner, 1996; Lawrence,
1964). These castles have principal streets connecting them
to the main townships, and these streets are lined with
many historical buildings. These buildings interpret the
loosely expressed ideas of Europeans who came to trade
along the coast (Arowolo, 2010). The principal streets are
characterized by major commercial activities, historic
buildings that testify to the past colonial and post-colonial
rule (Addo, 2013), and other services and street features.
Today, Cape Coast and Elmina as historical towns have
seen changes in their principal streets from the pre-colonial
era to the post-colonial era. Thus far, no study has explored
the individual characteristics of their principal streets
(Liverpool Street, Elmina Street, Kingsway Street, and Cape
Coast) connected to the castles. Changes in the physical
environment and subsequent shift in the users’ perception
continue to translate into interventions that alter the urban
fabric and disrupt the sense of place. Moreover, retail
activities along the principal streets are multiplying, serving
as attractions for the future development of structures
along the streets for needs of the people.
2. Theoretical framework
2.1. Urban design and architectural perspective
toward the character of principal streets
Streets are enclosed spaces designed to allow movement
between buildings. They form a part of the elements that
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns 39

define an urban setting. They define spaces for commercial, significance (Jacobs, 1993; Kropf, 1996; Jones et al., 2007;
social, and cultural encounter and exchanges, as well Griffiths et al., 2008); they clearly play a major role in
political spaces for parades and demonstrations (Jacobs, cultural life (Mehta, 2011). Principal streets serve as a part
1993). Lynch (1960) described a street as a path and defined of the urban realm where people have physical and visual
it as a channel along which an observer customarily, access (Jalaladdini and Oktay, 2012); as such, they serve as
occasionally, and potentially moves. From this street, a political space where parades and demonstrations are
people can observe the city. Principal streets are also held (Jacobs, 1993).
referred to as high streets, and they represent major
commercial streets in towns or cities. They are common in 2.3. Character of a Place
city centers or central business districts, and they are the
locus for shops and retail establishments (Carmona, 2015).
The Latin term genius loci “is used to describe the atmo-
Principal streets are complex cultural entities of towns that
sphere of a place and the quality of its environment.” “A
are characterized by the local identity. These streets
place has a symbolic meaning, attachment and satisfaction
connect goods, services, and users (Griffiths et al., 2008).
with a spatial setting” (Stedman, 2002). Norberg-Schulz
In the 18th century, principal streets were located within
(2000) defined a place as a space where life occurs because
traditional towns with a strong root of urbanity such that
of actions, conceptions, and physical attributes. Places then
consumers gain access to products through retail establish-
become a materialization of people's conception that they
ments, small shops, and service outlets (Stobart et al.,
can identify with and call home; to them, places provide a
2007). Urbanization places important value on principal
sense of identity that distinguishes them from others
streets as public realms that meet our daily needs. In the
(Lopez, 2010). Gehl (1989) and Jacob (1961) defined a place
present study, the concept of principal street encompasses
in terms of activities engaged in by users.
a mixed commercial and residential street that stretches to
The character of a place expresses the uniqueness of that
a monument that exerts a powerful local, cultural, and
place (Lindsay et al., 2009), and it is a product of the street
historical significance.
design (Ja’afar et al., 2012). Lynch (1960) and Alexander
The elements of a principal street include buildings,
(1979) described the concept of the character of a place as
service lines, street furniture, vegetation, and other physi-
a mental map people use as guides in a town in terms of
cal structures in built form that changes with time. These
permeability, safety, vitality, and imageability. Other
changes occur in built-up additions in old works or in new
authors emphasize the design styles, ornamentation, fea-
ones (Kropf, 1996). The urban setting is undergoing an
tures, landmarks, the way buildings define a space, and so
evolutionary process, and street elements tend to be
on (Cullen, 1971; Kropf, 1996). Montgomery (1998)
reproduced or disappear (Al_Sayed and Turner, 2012).
described the character of a place with three elements of
Elements that are part of a well-connected and accessible
an urban environment, namely, physical setting, meaning,
street are likely to survive, whereas elements connected to
and activity. What makes a town different from others is its
weak local structures are likely to disappear. These addi-
character, which is defined by its uniqueness and distinct
tions and removal of elements are due to the relationship
element that shapes and highlights its streets (Ja’afar
and connection that communities have with street elements
et al., 2014; Kropf, 1996). Character relates to history
(Al_Sayed and Turner, 2012). The elements that survive
because places are built in specific eras and their physical
contribute to the functioning of a street.
character is a historical product (Kropf, 1996).
“The historic and architectural character of buildings can
create a distinctive urban retail streetscape and in the
2.2. Critical function of a principal street
process create character” (Warnaby, 2009). New buildings
and changes to old ones affect the character and quality of
Principal streets have historically been one of the significant
a street. The use of retail signs, advertisement boards,
public spaces in many countries throughout the world. They
building extensions, television poles, electrical service
are characterized by a combination of uses (e.g., residential
lines, new paintings, etc. may produce undesirable results
and commercial use), offices and assets for services for a
or define the character of a street (Nasar and Hong,1999).
range of street facilities and services, and infrastructure,
Gehl Architects Aps (2002), Lynch (1961), Jacob (1960), and
such as street light, signage, public art, telephone kiosks,
Cooper (2003) reported on the different aspects of the
and electrical poles (Jacobs, 2013; Fruin, 1971; Jones et al.,
urban image and character as reflected on streets. The
2007; Ekawati, 2015). Principal streets provide many func-
authors asserted that the physical character of a street
tions. Jones et al. (2007) described these functions as a
focuses on the overall layout, including building design,
mixed-use function that contributes to the performance of
skyline characteristics, street edge characteristics, and
principal streets for a sustainable community. They are also
their legibility. The maintenance of these physical charac-
seen as a key component of network settlement and a path
ters requires appropriate conservation approaches.
for movement by users (Jones et al., 2007; Hillier et al.,
1993). People use principal streets for shopping, leisure
activities, engagement, and social affiliation and interac- 2.4. Guiding principles of conservation of
tions, but, traditionally, small businesses fairly thrive on character: Ruskin vs Viollet-Le-Duc
such streets (Mehta, 2011). Furthermore, principal streets
serve as a place for social encounter and interchange, and According to Feilden (1982), conservation is an action taken
they carry the local identity and landmarks of historical for the prevention of decay; it involves all actions that
40
extend the life of cultural and natural heritage structures.
Feilden (2003) focused on three aspects of conservation
practices, namely, prevention of decay, management of
change, and documentation and presentation of buildings.
These practices consider all processes for “looking after a
place to retain their architectural, historical, aesthetic and
cultural significance and includes preservation, restoration,
reconstruction and adaptation or a combination of any of
these.” Conservation prolongs the life of cultural and
historical properties for present and future use. In con-
servation, the character and appearance of historical areas
should be preserved or enhanced (Kropf, 1996). The conflict
between the preservation of the character of historical
towns and the changes occurring in the character of such
towns forms the central argument for conservation (Nasser,
2003). By the end of the 19th century, many theories and
values dedicated to historical heritage were proposed in the
area of conservation. The theories proposed by Frenchman
Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879) and English-
man John Ruskin (1819–1900) have become the key direc-
tions for heritage conservation (Frampton, 1992).
John Ruskin was a personality in the anti-restoration
movement, which gave birth to the protection of ancient
buildings (Jokilehto, 2007). His approach was aimed at
preserving uniqueness, originality, and truth (Kalcic,
2014). Viollet-le-Duc provided insights into the preservation
of heritage buildings during the period of vandalism, which
left behind ruined monuments according to detailed studies
and analyses (Kalcic, 2014). Viollet-le Duc asserted that to
restore a building is not to preserve, repair, or rebuild it; it
is to reinstate it in a condition of completeness that never
could have existed at any given time (Viollet-le-Duc and
Wethered, 1875). The loss of originality in character is the
consequence of the lack of analysis; thus, to arrive at
synthesis, we must conduct analysis because only quality
documentation provides a sound basis for further work
(Viollet-le-Duc, 1990). Viollet-le-Duc always established
the age and composition of every architectural heritage
before any intervention and shared reports of his findings
(Kalcic, 2014).
Ruskin (1990) described Viollet-le-Duc's restoration as an
architectural ruin because restoring anything that has never
been originally great or beautiful in architecture is impos-
sible. Ruskin and Violette-le-Duc postulated a sense of
character through conservation and documentation as a
means of ensuring originality for posterity such that how
historical heritage was and will be are acknowledged and
the true changes from history are perceived (Viollet-le-Duc,
1990). Changes in character have been argued to arise from
different perspectives, particularly as a means to express
status, cultural influences, taste, and perception. Historic
sites and houses are evidence of past lifestyles. Their
conservation and revitalization are essentially dependent
on the individual ensuring such process. As argued by
Bourdieu (1984) and Oppong and Solomon-Ayeh (2014), the
upbringing, educational level, and economic capital of
individuals are factors that influence the expression of
character in the conservation of buildings and the overall
R.A. Oppong et al.
visual character of streets, such as Liverpool Street and
Kingsway Street located in Elmina and Cape Coast.
2.5. Fractals and cityscape
The skyline of a cityscape forms part of the image of a city,
and its conservation and preservation boost the identity of
the city. Salingaros (1999) proposed that the success of an
urban space depends on visual and auditory connections
between pedestrians and the surrounding built surfaces.
The appropriate boundaries for urban space can be derived
by considering the geometrical optics of information trans-
mission (Salingaros, 1999). In architecture, fractals have
been used successfully to create interesting patterns in
building façades and form when viewed at a distance
(Vyzantiadou et al., 2007; Oppong et al., 2017).
Brown and Liebovitch (2010) defined fractal geometry as
the study of the form and structure of rough and irregular
phenomena. Fractals are sets defined by three related
principles, namely, self-similarity, scale variance, and
power law relations (Brown and Liebovitch, 2010). When
these principles converge, fractal patterns form. The
essential characteristics of fractal patterns are captured
by a statistic called fractal dimension. A set is an enumera-
tion of elements, objects, or even events. Any type of data
set can be fractal (e.g., points, lines, surfaces, multidimen-
sional data, and time series). The formal definition of
fractals by Mandelbrot (1983) is a set in which the Hausdorff
Besicovitch dimension strictly exceeds the topological
dimension. To understand fractals within the context of
conservation, we describe the following terminologies: self-
similarity, scale variance, power law relations, and mea-
surement of fractality in urban design and architecture.
2.5.1. Self-similarity
Brown and Liebovitch (2010) posited that an object is self-
similar when it is composed of smaller copies of itself, each of
which is in turn made up of yet smaller copies of the whole
and so on. The result is an object composed of a single pattern
that repeats itself many times at many different sizes.
Conceptually, the process is iterative; that is the construction
process repeats itself at each scale. According to Brown and
Liebovitch (2010), patterns that are composed of “pieces” of
many different sizes but are of similar forms (either statisti-
cally or geometrically) may well be fractal. Self-similarity may
be exact or statistical. Deterministic systems, which conform
to specific rules, can display patterns of self-similarity that are
perfect and exact. In real life, most fractals are statistical
rather than exact.
2.5.2. Scale variance
Brown and Liebovitch (2010) explained self-similarity as
objects entailing scale variance; thus, scale variance is also
diagnostic of fractals. An object is scale variant when it has
the same characteristics at every scale of observation. Real
objects usually exhibit scale invariance statistically within
finite size limits (Brown and Liebovitch, 2010).
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns
2.5.3. Power law relations
Self-similarity implies a type of relationship called “power
law.” For a set to achieve the complexity and irregularity of
a fractal, the number of self-similar pieces must be related
to their size by a power law (Brown and Liebovitch, 2010).
The connection between power laws and fractals is deep
and intimate. Power law distributions are the only scale-
invariant distributions. The wide applicability of scale
invariance provides a rational basis for fractal statistics in
the same manner as the central limit theorem provides a
basis for Gaussian statistics (Turcotte, 1997; Brown and
Liebovitch, 2010)
2.5.4. Measurement of fractality in urban design and
architecture
According to Caglioni et al. (2004), the five main measure-
ments of fractality are grid analysis (box counting), dilata-
tion analysis, correlation analysis, radial analysis, and
scaling behavior. The box counting method and radial
analysis are two commonly applied models for calculating
the fractal dimension of an urbanized area (Frankhauser
1998; Benguigui et al., 2000; Oppong et al., 2017). Fractal
dimensions are thus considered as extremely useful indica-
tors of urban spatial structures (Anas et al., 1998; Oppong
et al., 2017). They are used in the study of city perimeters
and entire urbanized surfaces, and their transformation
through time reveals important aspects of urban transfor-
mation (Lagarias, 2007; Oppong et al., 2017).
2.6. Historical overview of Cape Coast and Elmina
Ghana, once called the Gold Coast, has a range of historical
buildings of heritage interest, and some of these buildings
are of national and international significance. Elmina and
Cape Coast are historically colonial towns in southern
Ghana, whose post-European contact period has seen dra-
matic changes in settlement patterns, construction tech-
nology, and economic, cultural, and physical characteristics
(DeCorse, 1992). During the colonial era, the two towns
served as transit points from which cocoa and slaves were
transported to the diaspora (Feinberg and Holsey, 2009).
Cape Coast and Elmina are home to a number of 15th–18th
century forts, castles, and related structures that histori-
cally served as the most important nodes of the trade
network that linked Africa, Europe, and the rest of the
World (Lawrence, 1964). Today, these colonial towns main-
tain their colonial features, including the old Dutch mer-
chant homes, Trafaglar Square, and Buitenrust Lane in
Elmina. Similarly, Cape Coast has the Victoria Park with
the bust of Queen Victoria of England, a small bridge called
the London Bridge, and several European homes along
Kingsway Street (Holsey, 2008). The towns are a character-
ization of their past. Cape Coast and Elmina are located
8 miles from each other, but Elmina has seen little devel-
opment after the departure of the Europeans (Feinberg and
Holsey, 2009).
Cape Coast was originally named “Carbo Corso,” which
means “short cape”; this name was derived from the short
rocky promontory protecting a sheltered bay (Lawrence,
1964; Anquandah, 1999). The name was acquired from
Portuguese navigators and was translated to “Cape Coast”
41
by the English 400 years ago (Ward, 1967). The vernacular
name for the town is Oguaa, which is from the Fante word
Gua, meaning “market” (Arhin, 1995). Cape Coast has 30
satellite towns and villages, and it serves as the nerve
center of the traditional Oguaa area (Nti, 2002). The early
townsmen from Mankesim first settled in the present day
Efutu on Jukwa Road, which is 10 miles from Cape Coast.
Cape Coast was the capital of the Gold Coast until 1877. It
has the most surviving pre-1900 buildings and is one of the
tourism hubs of Ghana (Delage, 1998). The existence of
castles, the surviving historic buildings in Cape Coast, has
played an important role in the social, economic, and
physical structure of the town (Delage, 1998).
Elmina was captured by the Dutch in 1637 and was
dominated by the Danes at the eastern side (Ozinga,
1966). The name Elmina was derived from the Portuguese
word “La Mina,” meaning “mine.” Gold trade became the
main reason for the town's existence, with the local peoples
and the Dutch mutually benefitting from trade activities
(Hyland, 1972; Holsey, 2008). This situation led to the idea
of the Portuguese to build a permanent structure on the
settlement that would facilitate their gold trading activ-
ities. Following the order of King Juan II, the Portuguese
erected the Elmina Castle on January 19, 1482 and named it
“Saint Sao Jorge da Mina,” meaning “George on the mine
castle” (DeCorse, 1992; Lawrence, 1964). The Elmina
Castle, which is a small rectangular fortress, was built by
600 men with building materials from 12 ships from Portugal
led by Don Diego Azambuja. The castle was the center of
Portuguese operations for over 150 years (Lawrence, 1964).
Elmina later became a major town for slave trade when the
value of gold was low and the labor force required in
America increased the value of African slaves (Steekelen-
burg et al., 2008). As trade progressed, the Dutch and
Portuguese traders married local women and built homes
with stones from the Elmina locality. These homes were
fashioned on European architecture. About 1200 homes
were built, but most of them have collapsed due to the
lack of maintenance. Currently, 122 homes remain, but they
are in different states of repair.
2.6.1. Architectural styles and prevailing ones in Cape
Coast and Elmina
During the colonial era, the African coastal elite built family
residences resembling British Palladian architecture to align
themselves with the prime source of power, that is, the
Europeans (Micots, 2010). The architecture of the towns
was not merely borrowed but transformed into local con-
struct (Hull, 1976; Micots, 2010). This habit of imitation,
according to Holsey (2008), was a means by which the
coastal elite separated themselves physically from the
inland people to impress the Europeans with their cultural
differences. Their family houses reflected their wealth,
identity, and status to the rulers and other coastal elites.
The architectural style of Cape Coast and Elmina, which
dates back from the pre-colonial years to colonial times and
later to the period of independence, has become a story for
post-colonial development. Houses were commonly con-
structed from stone nog, brick, masonry, or rammed earth,
with the development of cement plastering making it
difficult to determine the building materials used (Micots,
42
2010). The walls were usually 16–18 in. thick and were
constructed with technology transported to the coast via
European trade; this technology was common wherever the
Europeans traded (Crain, 1994). Buildings were of similar
plans and construction (Micots, 2010). The Europeans also
used African technologies, materials, plans, and design
elements for their own residences. They combined elements
of Akan courtyard houses, European Palladian architecture,
and Afro-Portuguese sobrado (Gocking, 1999).
Akan courtyards were the most dominant in the coastal
houses in Elmina and Cape Coast. The houses were rectan-
gular with small entrance doors leading to the courtyards.
Many Africans practiced communal living, which resulted in
the creation of courtyards or compounds within houses. The
main houses mostly served as a space for sleeping, shelter,
and storage. The Europeans introduced two-story houses on
the Coast, and these structures are currently prevailing in
Cape Coast and Elmina. Specifically, the Europeans built
their two-story homes on hills with many windows and
verandas in front. These two-story homes featured mono-
lithic or wooden staircases in the verandas or courtyards
leading to the upper floors with wooden flooring (Micots,
2010). European architecture was characterized by the use
of arched openings, windows aligned to the upper floor,
entranceways either left opened or fitted with a door, sill
designs, and decorative elements of classical orders for
columns (Buisseret, 1980). It also had multiple chambers of
Afro-Portuguese sobrado style from a central corridor, as
well as timber verandas. It had a symmetrical plan, which
was reflected in the front view. This plan was adopted for
tropical climates in regions where the Europeans traded.
The sobrado style originated from Portuguese trade posts
(Mark, 2002). The local rulers adopted this style as a symbol
of status and wealth.
3. Methodology
3.1. Methods and strategies
This comparative study of the character defining elements
of Kingsway Street in Cape Coast and Liverpool Street in
Elmina adopted a combination of research methods. The
philosophical underpinning or worldview of the research is
post positivism and pragmatism. According to Creswell
(2014), post positivists believe in determination, reduction-
ism, empirical observation, and measurement, as well as
theory verification. For McGregor and Murnane (2010),
quantitative measurements of what, where, and when are
associated with positivism. Flowers (2009) explained that a
positivist position is derived from that of natural science
and is characterized by the testing of the hypotheses
developed from existing theories (hence deductive or
theory testing) through the measurement of observable
social realities. Pragmatics or realists emphasize being real,
and they allow issues to determine the right methods to be
applied. Creswell (2014) described them as realists, pro-
blem-centered, pluralistic, and real-world practice-
oriented. The data collection strategy in the current work
included the usage of mapping, philology, interview guide,
and questionnaires to assess the character defining ele-
ments of Kingsway Street and Liverpool Street.
R.A. Oppong et al.
The use of fractal geometry in the testing of fractal
theory and philology as a data collection and analysis
strategy demonstrates the adoption of positivist and
pragmatist world views. The maps of Cape Coast and
Elmina in a 1:2500 scale were obtained from the Town
and Country Planning Departments of Cape Coast and
Elmina. The maps were updated to indicate new build-
ings, buildings of historical importance, and coordinates
for taking photographs of the skyline and assessing street
edge character within an 800 m radius, with the castles
as the central reference point (Figs. 1 and 2). The
current maps and streetscape of Kingsway Street and
Liverpool Street (early 21st century) were assessed and
compared with the historical maps and streetscape from
the 19th and 20th centuries. Architectural theory and
philology were applied in the context of analysis.
Furthermore, the study applied fractal geometry to
assess the skylines and street edge characters of Kings-
way Street, Cape Coast, and Liverpool Street in Elmina.
Fractalyse 2.4 software was utilized for fractal dimen-
sion assessment with the box count method. The physical
elements that dominate the skyline and street edges
were also determined with the software.
3.2. Procedure for determining the fractal
dimensions Dr for the skyline and street edges of
Kingsway and Liverpool Streets
This section outlines the procedure for determining the
fractal dimension Dr of the skyline and street edges using
the box count method.

A 9 megapixel camera with a 1920  1080 pixel resolu-
tion was used to take pictures of the skylines of the
streets at 100 m intervals (A to H) within the study radius.

The skyline images were traced in AutoCAD and saved to
4  (508 mm  286 mm) TIF for analysis in Fractalyse
2.4 software.

Grid boxes with a maximum size of 2200 mm  1600 mm
(N) were superimposed on the traced images in Fracta-
lyse 2.4. The size δ of the meshes varied. Then, for every
value δ, the number N(δ) of meshes available covered the
occupied traced outline.

The box covering the traced outline of the skyline or
street edge followed the sequence 12, 1/22, ……, 1/2n,
which represented the size of the grid at scale δ.

When an nth was selected, we obtained an nth set of data
of the same size and the corresponding number of boxes
used to determine the fractal dimension for fractal
geometry.

The fractal dimension was determined from the relation-
ship Dr ¼ InIn ð1=δÞ
NðδÞ
(1 o Dr o 2)
The procedure for determining the fractal dimension was
repeated with a 5 megapixel camera (400  800 pixel
resolution) to compare the means of the fractal dimen-
sions obtained with two different cameras at the selected
coordinate.

The reliability of the calculated Dr value was estimated
by the correlation coefficient of 0.9, which is considered
good according to Batty (2005) and Benguigui et al.
(2000) (Figs. 3–5).
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns 43

Figure 1 Map of Cape Coast showing radius of study area and Kingsway Street in yellow.
(Source: Adapted from The Town and Country Planning and Modified’, 2016).

Figure 2 Map of Elmina showing the radius of the study area and Liverpool Street in green.
(Source: Adapted from The Town and Country Planning and Modified’, 2016).
44
4. Findings and discussions
4.1. Kingsway Street and Liverpool Street in the
19th and 20th centuries
When slave trade was abolished in 1807 and colonial rule
ended in1885, Ghana embraced the slave structure, forts,
and castles as their cultural and historical heritage. Among
the forts and castles are the Cape Coast and Elmina Castles,
which were listed as UNESCO heritage sites in 1979. The
castles are linked to the main towns and approached by
their principal streets, namely Kingsway Street (Cape Coast)
and Liverpool Street (Elmina). Kingsway Street is located at
the central business district of Cape Coast, a town with a
population of 108,374 that serves as the capital of the
central region. Liverpool Street is located in Elmina, a town
with a population of 33,567 habitants. These streets are
considered as historical streets with mixed use dominated
by residential and commercial activities. The streets have
been in existence since the 19th century according to the
maps of Cape Coast (Figure 6) and Elmina (Figure 7). Other
Figure 3 Image showing the skyline of Kingsway Street from
coordinate A.
Figure 4 Fractal geometry of image from coordinate A with superimposed grid boxes with a maximum size of 2400 mm 
1600 mm.
R.A. Oppong et al.
streets and roads that have been in existence in the same
period include Jackson Street, Intin Street, and Castle
Street in Cape Coast and Dutch Cemetery Road, Lime
Street, access to Fort Jago and the Dutch cemetery road,
and Kwa Amankwah Link in Elmina.
The 19th century maps indicate existing structures along-
side forts and castles, although they may have been altered
or replaced with new ones. These structures include the
Gothic House, Christ Church, Wesleyan Cathedral of Cape
Coast, and Benya Bridge of Elmina. Some buildings may have
also been demolished. In the case of Cape Coast, where in
the “1950's and early 1960's, a large area to the North and
North West of the Castle was cleared,” old houses were
demolished to make room for infrastructural development
(civic area).
The structures on the west of the Elmina Castle (Figure 8)
were destroyed because of the British bombardment in
1873. This event resulted in the resettlement by the locals
in the north side of the Benya Lagoon, as explained by
DeCorse (1992). Documentary evidence indicates that the
streets in Elmina were few and narrow. By the end of the
18th century, two main streets ran through the town, as
described by DeCorse (1992). The first street led to the
front of the castle northward to the Benya Bridge, which
spanned the Benya Lagoon (Liverpool Street), and to the
west side of the castle through the town. These paths were
described as dirty and ill kept for all streets in the coastal
towns.
The related images of Liverpool Street (Figure 8) and
Kingsway Street (Figure 9) of Cape Coast indicate the
character of the streets in the 19th century. The image in
Figure 9, which was taken by Hendrick Muller, a Dutch
businessman and philanthropist in Elmina, characterizes the
19th century Kingsway Street. Notwithstanding the residen-
tial character, commercial activities were performed on the
street in the form of petty trading on table tops in front of
houses. Kingsway Street was characterized with greens,
which provided shade for the traders along the street.
The 20th century image of Castle Street (Figure 10),
taken by the Basel Mission in 1901–1917, is an example of
the street character of Cape Coast within the period, and it
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns 45

Figure 5 Fractal dimension (Dr) determined with Fractalyse 2.4 for fractal geometry from coordinate A.

Figure 6 19th Century plan of Cape Coast showing Liverpool Street in 1874 by W.T.G Lawson
(Source: National Archives, 2017).

demonstrates the architectural character of the time.
Evident are the styles of European Palladian architecture
and Afro-Portuguese sobrado described by Micots (2010).
Traces of this style of architecture are seen in the character
of the present-day Liverpool and Kingsway Streets.
4.2. Present-day Kingsway Street of Cape Coast
and Liverpool Street of Elmina
Kingsway Street (Figure 9) is known for its commercial
activities. It has residential buildings of historical
46
Figure 7 Map of Elmina showing the Fort and Elmina Castle in 1803.
(Source: Dutch National Archives 2014).
Figure 8 A section of Liverpool Street leading to the castle around 1865 showing parts of the old town later destroyed during the
British bombardment (Source: Dutch National Archives 2014).
significance in addition to the town's shrine, London Bridge,
and Oguaa Akoto (symbolic monument), which are historical
symbols of the town. The streets have an average width of
8 m and are constructed with asphalt and no drain covers,
except for the entry points to retail shops. No bus stops are
built along the street and parking lots, and on-street
parking is used, causing street congestion. Pedestrian access
is also absent; as such, pedestrians compete with vehicles,
resulting in pedestrian and vehicular conflicts. The street is
currently known for its commercial activities. The ground
floors of buildings along the street (historical and new ones)
are used for commercial activities (either retail or whole-
sale) that attract people from within and outside the town.
The store frontages have entry porches leading to double
metal doors or wooden doors measuring 1.5–2 m in width. A
R.A. Oppong et al.
comparison of the present-day Kingsway Street with the
19th century street at the same location indicates a major
change in the street character (Figure 11).
Along Kingsway Street are buildings of historical impor-
tance, with new buildings replacing old ones. Liverpool
Street has no new developments compared with Kingsway
Street of Cape Coast. The historical buildings along both
streets are a representation of 19th and 20th century
buildings that have been altered. Unlike the 19th century
Kingsway and Liverpool Streets that were dotted with trees,
the current Kingsway Street has no greens, except for the
civic area, which was developed in the north of the Cape
Coast Castle at Liverpool Street at the entry point of
Kingsway Street. The ground floors of buildings along the
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns
Figure 9 Kingsway Street toward the south (1870–1890) by Hendrik Muller.
(Source: http://gcdb.doortmontweb.org, 2017).
Figure 10 View of the castle toward Castle Street (present-day chapel square).
(Source: Basel Mission Archives, 2017).
street are used for commercial activities (retail or
wholesale).
The Elmina Township was built around the Castle and
approached Liverpool Street (Figure 12). The street is
known for the remaining historical buildings, the Chapel
Square, and the Benya Bridge. Liverpool Street is also
characterized by an average width of 7 m. The street
appears narrower than Kingsway Street. Liverpool Street
has one main taxi station located at the Chapel Square.
Users of taxi services stop at the taxi station or at the entry
point to the Benya Bridge.
4.3. Comparative study of the skyline and street
edge of Kingsway Street and Liverpool Street with
fractal dimension and physical features
The skyline character of Kingsway Street, Cape Coast is
compared with that of Liverpool Street, Elmina using
47
Fractal geometry (traces of the skyline). The fractal geo-
metries are compared on the basis of their corresponding
fractal dimensions (Dr). The comparison is performed to
assess any significant difference in the elements defining
the skyline characters of Kingsway Street and Liverpool
Street according to their fractal geometries. Fractalyse
2.2 software is used to determine their fractal dimensions.
The skyline fractal dimension (Dr) for Kingsway Street is
compared with that for Liverpool Street (Table 1). Fractal
dimension (Dr) is calculated from the fractal geometries
from eight skylines for each street.
The fractal dimension (Dr) of Kingsway Street ranges from
1.176 to 1.255 (Table 1 and Figure 13), with an average Dr of
1.219 and standard deviation of 0.028908 for the assess-
ment of accuracy, which is low enough to warrant the use of
the Dr values as the primary indicator to characterize the
skyline of the streets. The Dr of Liverpool Street ranges
from 1.215 to 1.330 (Table 1 and Figure 14), with an average
Dr of 1.264 and standard deviation of 0.040260.
48 R.A. Oppong et al.

Figure 11 Commercial activity in Kingsway Street at the same location as shown in Figure 9
(Source: Authors', 2016).

Figure 12 Present-day Liverpool Street compared with 19th century Liverpool Street in Figure 8 at the same location
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Table 1 Fractal Dimensions at Corresponding Fractal Geometries at Coordinates.

A B C D E F G H

Kingsway Street 1.220 1.199 1.246 1.209 1.195 1.176 1.255 1.249
Liverpool Street 1.269 1.330 1.223 1.228 1.280 1.215 1.300 1.270

Figs. 15 and 16 show Dr values of 1.255 and 1.33, respec-
tively. By comparing the Dr values of the skylines of Kingsway
Street and Liverpool Street, we found that Liverpool Street had
a high degree of roughness with its skyline compared with
Kingsway Street. Kingsway Street had a high level of service
extension in the skyline, a large amount of vegetation, and a
high degree of roughness for its roofline, i.e., more hip and
gable end rooflines. Despite the similarities at close range, the
visual character of the buildings, and physical character of their
skylines, their fractal geometry varied. Liverpool Street in
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns 49

Figure 13 Skyline with the least services and vegetation, resulting in least Dr value (1.176) at Kingsway Street
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Figure 14 Skyline with the least services and vegetation, resulting in least Dr value (1.215) at Liverpool street
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Figure 15 Skyline with the highest services and vegetation, resulting in high Dr value (1.255) at Kingsway street
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Elmina had a high degree of services, vegetation, and roofline
that defined the skyline.
4.4. Comparative study of street edges of
Liverpool and Kingsway Streets
An examination of the street edges and building edges of
both streets indicated the closeness of the buildings to the
streets. However, comparing the Dr of the building edges
along the streets revealed that the building edges at Kings-
way Street are more aligned to the street edge than those
at Liverpool Street. The Dr of the building edge (1.46) at
Kingsway Street (Figure 17) approaches the same value as
the Dr of the street edge (1.45) in comparison with the Dr
values of the building edge and street edge of Liverpool
Street (Figure 18) at 1.158 and 1.58, respectively.
Despite the differences in the alignment of the building
edges in the two towns, both streets have their buildings
close to the street edge, and the gaps between the building
edge and street edge are used for retail activities. The
retail activities do not strictly occur in the enclosed spaces
of the ground floors of buildings but extend to the roadside,
with selling activities observed in tracks, table tops, kiosks,
mat tops, and hawking areas. The level of commercial
activity at Kingsway Street is more intense than that at
Liverpool Street.
4.5. Building character of Kingsway Street and
Liverpool Street
The historical building character of Kingsway Street and
that of Liverpool Street play a role in the overall character.
50 R.A. Oppong et al.

Figure 16 Skyline with the highest services and vegetation, resulting in high Dr value (1.330) at Liverpool street
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Figure 17 Street edge, building edge, and retail activity area at Kingsway Street,
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Figure 18 Street edge, building edge, and retail activity area of Liverpool Street
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

This historical building character proposed by Micots (2010)
and Hyland (1995) suggest a colonial architectural style with
European influence. A survey conducted on the overall
visual character of the external features of buildings at
Kingsway and Liverpool Streets led to the categorization of
the historical buildings into two classes. The first typology
comprises a wooden first floor and façade characterized by
timber post and wooden balustrade veranda, as well as
commercial shops at the ground floor with freestanding
concrete columns that are evenly spaced (labeled 1–5 in
Figs. 19 and 20). The second typology is characterized by a
plain façade with stores at the ground floor and windows
flanking the first floor (labeled 6–10 in Figs. 19 and 20). Both
typologies have the ground floor serving as commercial area
with the entrance facing the streets and the first floor
serving as a residential area for the extended families of
owners.
The survey of the overall visual character of the buildings
for Kingsway Street is summarized in Table 2; that for
Liverpool Street is presented in Table 3. The two types of
houses represent a 19th and 20th century colonial archi-
tecture that characterizes the present-day Elmina and Cape
Coast. The buildings can be identified with Liverpool and
Kingsway Streets. These houses were built with massive
walls that were 400–500 mm thick, and they differed from
present-day masonry walls measuring 150 mm thick. The
two-story houses, or abrɔsan, were adopted from Europeans
in Cape Coast. They were constructed with rammed earth,
whereas others were constructed from concrete blocks and
stone. They had external staircases of monolithic construc-
tion that was built against the outside wall connecting the
ground floor to the upper floors. The buildings had court-
yards at the back of the stores for outdoor storage and
cooking activities.
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns 51

Figure 19 Survey of architecturally significant buildings, Kingsway Street

(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Figure 20 Survey of architecturally significant buildings, Liverpool Street

(Source: Authors’, 2016).
The buildings were simple and rectangular in shape, and
most had two stories with a wooden or masonry staircase
within the courtyard or at the front porch. The roof types,
which defined the skyline, were hipped roof, Dutch roof,
mono pitch roof, or gable roof. The roofs had an overhang of
300 mm on average and wooden fascia and low roof angles
mostly of corrugated iron or aluminum sheeting. The roofs
of the buildings are characterized by their straight fascia
along the streets. The architectural styles are characterized
by wooden floors and concrete screed floors revealed in the
elevation on the street. The building walls were made of
rammed earth or concrete blocks with cement plaster.
Vertical columns of either concrete or wood supports
defined the front porches. The massive concrete columns
measured 400 mm wide or had a radius of 200 mm with
decorations. The porches served as entry points to the
stores from the street and included a sitting area in the first
floor. They are characterized by wooden balustrade and
timber post (Figure 21).
52 R.A. Oppong et al.

Table 2 Survey of visual character of selected buildings of historical significance at the Kingsway Street.

Building Type 1 Type 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Skyline
Roof straight roof edge / / / / / / / / / /
Vertical features
TV pole/ satellite dish  /  /  / /  / /
Vertical columns free standing / / / / /     
Vertical columns projecting on wall         / 
Wooden facade / / / / /     
Symmetrical windows      / / / / /
Central door          
Building is symmetrical / / / / / / /  / 
Horizontal features
Advertisement / / / / / / / / / /
Horizontal strip      / / / / /
Designed Lintel      / / /  /
Entrance Canopies      / / / / /
Conservation Practices
Documentation          
Help from Ghana Museum and Monument          
My own specification / / / / / / / / / /

Table 3 Survey of visual character of selected buildings of historical significance at the Liverpool Street.

Building Type 1 Type 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Skyline
Roof straight roof edge / / / / / / / / / /
Vertical features
TV pole/ satellite dish       /   
Vertical columns free standing / / / / / / / / / /
Vertical columns projecting on wall /      / / / 
Wooden facade  / / / / / / / / /
Symmetrical windows / / / / / / / / / /
Central door        / / /
Building is symmetrical / / / / / / / / / /
Horizontal features
Advertisement / / / / / / / / / /
Horizontal strip /     / / / / /
Designed Lintel          
Entrance Canopies          
Conservation Practices
Documentation          
Help from Ghana Museum and Monument       /   
My own specification / / / / / / / / / /

X- Building do not have feature.

/- Building have feature.

The doors and windows were symmetrically placed on the
façade. The doors were made of jalousie panels or hard
wood panels and were either rectangular or arched. The
windows were dominated by jalousie windows with an
introduction of casement glass windows as a new trend. As
a result of the thickness of the walls, most windows and
door frames were recessed within the wall. The buildings
had a symmetrical façade in both types, with columns,
doors, and windows radiating from a central axis, as
evidenced in type 2 on both streets. Discussions with
building owners indicated that windows and doors have
Conservation and character defining elements of historical towns 53

Figure 21 Character of 19th century residence (type 1) at Kingsway Street.

(Source: Authors’, 2016).

Figure 22 Windows flanking the first floor of a building (type 2) at Kingsway Street
(Source: Authors’, 2016).

been altered considerably over time. Decorative lintels and 5. Conclusions

entablatures also surmounted the buildings (Figure 22).
In all instances, the renovation or retrofitting of the
buildings were done at the discretion and according to the
taste of the building owners. These works were not based on
any documentation, and they included

Re-roofing certain portions of the building

Painting of exterior walls and other buildings in the
compound

Repairs on roofs, walls, and columns

Re-plastering

Changing of doors and windows
These alterations may have changed the character of the
buildings considerably over time, thereby affecting the
overall visual character of the streets.
This study compared the character defining elements of
Liverpool Street in Elmina and Kingsway Street in Cape
Coast. The two towns have seen major changes in their
character since the 19th century. These changes include the
following:

Progressive removal of greeneries from the street, result-
ing in the present-day absence of greens along the streets

Alterations in architectural character of buildings of
historical significance, although some still maintain their
architectural character from the 19th century

The streets functioning as commercial streets, which
extend to the street edge and supplant the historical
significance of the streets

Introduction of new buildings to replace old ones to meet
retail and commercial needs

Introduction of service lines and related essentials along
the streets; use of retail signs, advertisement boards,
54
television poles, electrical service lines, new paintings,
etc.
These changes can be related to the increase in popula-
tion, introduction of new technologies, and the demand to
meet changing user needs, preferences, or tastes. The
assessment of the skylines with fractal dimension as pro-
posed by Cooper (2003) indicated that both historical
streets generally had extensive service lines (streetlights
and electrical, telephone, and television poles and lines) in
their skylines with little greenery. Liverpool Street, for
example, had a higher degree of roughness in the skyline
than Kingsway Street. The spread of service lines in the
skyline reduced the quality of the environment due to their
frowzy, unsightly, and disorganized character. The study also
indicated the character of the street edges. In comparing
the street edges of Kingsway Street and Liverpool Street, we
found that the commercial activities were highly influential
for the characters of the street edges for both streets.
Despite the fact that the buildings were close to the street
edge, the limited available spaces were used as temporary
retail points, such as table top sales, hawking areas, and
product displays. This characteristic is an indication of the
growth of commercial retail activities on the streets.
The findings from users’ sense of place suggested that the
inhabitants are in tune with their functional attachment to
the streets, which supersedes their emotional attachment.
Users also expressed this fulfilment when choosing the
streets in comparison with others; such condition was
influenced by the users’ length of stay. The degree of
attachment is an indication of the importance of the place
to a user. In the context of Liverpool Street and Kingsway
Street, functional attachments play a significant role as a
distinctive character of the streets; this function is central
to the commercial activities on the streets. Moreover, this
condition indicates that these historical streets are gradu-
ally losing their historical significance to commerce.
As Kingsway and Liverpool Streets are undergoing inevi-
table changes in character, conservation measures should be
employed to shed light on the historical and cultural values
of the towns with these streets. Furthermore, by-laws can
be made by the Ghana Museum and Monuments and the
Ghana Tourist Board to ensure that some of the historical
buildings that are locally listed as monuments are altered
and repaired with appropriate conservation documentation
and approaches. Doing so will preserve the architectural
features of the historic buildings that contribute to the
historic character of Liverpool and Kingsway Streets. By-
laws should be in place for the future retrofitting of old
buildings to add new ideas and modern design techniques to
the interior while preserving the external features that
contribute to the overall street character. Further research
can consider a detailed study of the historical buildings and
identify appropriate measures for the conservation of
historical buildings.
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