Team members:

Phạm Thị Huỳnh Như – 47.01.301.073

Huỳnh Thị Kim Ngân – 47.01.301.064

Vương Mỹ Quý – 47.01.301.082

Võ Thị Ánh Tuyết – 47.01.301.100

COMPARING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Many plants can reproduce in two ways - asexually and sexually. Which is better?

In asexual reproduction, some of the parent's cells divide by mitosis. This makes new
cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. They are clones. Asexual
reproduction does not produce genetic variation.

1
But in sexual reproduction, some of the parent's cells divide by meiosis. The new cells
that are made are called gametes, and they have only half as many chromosomes as the
parent cell. When two sets of chromosomes in the two gametes combine at fertilisation, a
new combination of genes is produced. So sexual reproduction produces offspring that
are genetically different from their parents.

Is it useful or not to have genetic variation among offspring? This depends on the
circumstances.

Sometimes, it is a good thing not to have any variation. (If a plant, for example, is
growing well in a particular place, then it must be well adapted to its environment. If its
offspring all inherit the same genes, then they will be equally well adapted and are likely
to grow well. This is especially true if there is plenty of space for them in that area.
However, if it is getting crowded, then it may not be a good thing for the parent to
produce new offspring that grow all around it.)

Another advantage of asexual reproduction is that a single organism can reproduce on its
own. It does not need to wait to be pollinated, or to find a mate. This can be good if there
are not many of those organisms. around -perhaps there is only a single one growing in
an isolated place. In that case, asexual reproduction is definitely the best option. Do
remember, though, that even a single plant may be able to reproduce sexually, by using
self-pollination.

However, if the plant is not doing very well in its environment, or if a new disease has
come along to. which it is not resistant, then it could be an advantage for its offspring to
be genetically different from it. There is a good chance that at least some of the offspring
may be better adapted to that environment, or be resistant to that disease.

2
In flowering plants, sexual reproduction produces seeds, which are likely to be dispersed
over a wide area. This spreads the offspring far away from the parents, so that they are
less likely to compete with them. It also allows them to colonise new areas.

Farmers and other commercial plant growers also make use of these two possible
methods of propagating their plants. (For example, if a rose grower wants to produce
many more rose plants that will have flowers exactly the same as the parent plant, they
will use asexual reproduction (Figure 16.15). But if they want to produce a new variety of
rose, they will breed together two different rose plants, using sexual reproduction. )

We have seen that, if growers rely on producing new plants by asexual reproduction over
long periods of time, they run the risk of all their plants becoming vulnerable to attack by
a pest or disease. This has happened with some varieties of bananas. Breeders are now
going back to wild banana plants, and trying new breeding programmes, using sexual
reproduction, to try to produce new varieties to replace the old ones.

3
 DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER
Aerobic decomposition of organic matter by bacteria is normally an important drain on
oxygen supplies in ponds, so factors regulating decomposition are of interest.

The temperature optima of microorganisms differ among species, but decomposition is

favored by warmth.

4
Rates of decomposition generally increase over the range of 5 to 35°C.

The pH preferences of different microorganisms also differ. Generally, organic matter is

degraded faster in neutral or alkaline systems than in acid systems.

5
Aerobic decomposition requires a continuous supply of oxygen and proceeds more
rapidly when dissolved oxygen concentrations are near saturation. However,
decomposition also occurs under anaerobic conditions. Some microorganisms are capable
of degrading organic matter in either aerobic or anaerobic habitats (facultative anaerobic
organisms), while other microorganisms grow only under anaerobic conditions (obligate

6
anaerobic organisms). The end products of anaerobic decomposition are organic
compounds (alcohols, organic acids, etc.). The primary end product of aerobic
decomposition is carbon dioxide.

Some organic compounds are more resistant to decay than others. For example, sugar is
decomposed faster than cellulose, and cellulose faster than lignin. Bacteria are
ubiquitous, and species capable of attacking almost any kind of organic matter are present
in most ecological systems. The rate of decomposition of organic matter is highest during
the early stages of decomposition while the readily decomposable compounds are being
used by microorganisms. Progressively slower rates of decomposition are noted as the
microbial community uses up the more readily decomposable compounds.

Microbes are composed primarily of protein and have large percentages of carbon and
nitrogen. If the organic matter undergoing decomposition contains plenty of nitrogen,
microorganisms will grow well and some of the nitrogen from the organic matter will be

7
released to the environment as inorganic nitrogen. Nitrogen is said to be mineralized.
When organic matter is low in nitrogen content, some of the nitrogen for microbial
growth must be obtained from the environment. Nitrogen is said to be immobilized.
Decomposition can not proceed in the absence of nitrogen and the rate of decomposition
will be very slow in nitrogen-deficient systems.
The C:N ratio of organic matter has been widely used as an index of the rate at which
organic matter will decompose when added to an agricultural soil. Organic matter with a
wide C:N ratio, e.g., 40 percent carbon and 0.5 percent nitrogen, will decompose much
slower than organic matter with a narrow C:N ratio, e.g., 40 percent carbon and 4 percent
nitrogen. The organic matter concentration will increase in a soil if an organic addendum
has a wide. C:N ratio because there is insufficient nitrogen to effect its degradation.
Furthermore, nitrogen will be immobilized rather than mineralized because the addendum
does not supply enough nitrogen to satisfy microbial requirements. An organic addendum
with a narrow C:N ratio will decompose rapidly and more completely with nitrogen being
mineralized. Some of the mineralized nitrogen may even be used to decompose other
organic matter with a wide C:N ratio which would not decompose earlier. Many times
organic matter concentrations in the environment will decrease after degradation of an
organic addendum with a narrow C:N ratio.