Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962

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Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jqsrt

The impact of clouds on the brightness of the night sky

Tomasz Ście˛ żor
Faculty of Environmental and Power Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155, Krakow, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Clouds are a kind of atmospheric factor that most effectively scatters the artificial light coming from the
Received 25 November 2019 ground. Therefore, they have the most significant impact on the brightness of the night sky. The paper
Revised 12 March 2020
analyses the influence of both the level of cloudiness, as well as the genera of clouds and altitude of
Accepted 13 March 2020
its base, on amplifying of the light pollution. The impact of cloudiness on the brightness of the night
Available online 14 March 2020
sky in places with different levels of light pollution was researched. Measurements of meteorological
Keywords: elements were used together with clouds genera assessments. The introduction of an innovative method
Light pollution of identifying some genera of clouds on the base of the all-night continuous measurements of the sky’s
Clouds brightness allowed for a similar analysis in the absence of observational data specifying the genera of
Cloudiness clouds.
Sky glow A linear correlation between the cloudiness and the brightness of the night sky was found. The deter-
Scattering of light
mined linear correlation parameters allow for specifying the three types of light-polluted areas, possibly
related to the density of population. It was found that among the nine genera of the identified night
clouds, the Altocumulus, Cirrocumulus, and Cumulonimbus ones are responsible for this correlation. No
dependence of the brightness of the night sky on the clouds’ albedo was found. In case of overcast sky,
there was a clear relationship between the average altitude of the individual genus of clouds and the
brightness of the night sky. Most of the night sky brightness comes from the light scattered on the low-
est altitude clouds genera, while the least contribution comes from the light scattered on the high-level
clouds. It was also found that at the freezing temperatures, the layer of aerosols forms below the level of
the genera Nimbostratus or Stratus. This layer, thickening with the decreasing temperature, additionally
scatters the artificial light.
© 2020 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

1. Introduction
The fundamental importance of clouds in increasing the bright-
ness of the sky glow at night has been pointed out in the past. Es-
pecially indicated was their decisive role in the increase of ecolog-
ical light pollution [1,2]. Also, the colour changes of the night sky
in urban areas in the presence of cloud cover have been researched
[3]. The purpose of this work was to experimentally investigate the
impact of cloudiness, the type of clouds and the altitude of their
base on the brightness of the night sky in environments with dif-
ferent degree of light pollution.
1.1. Scattering of light by the clouds
As has already been mentioned, clouds are one of the most im-
portant natural factors affecting the brightness of the night sky
E-mail address: tsciezor@pk.edu.pl
glow. In the presence of light sources, both natural (Moon) and ar-
tificial, clouds become a secondary, extended source of light [1,2],
becoming the brightest component of the sky glow. This factor is
even more critical for the area covered by this research (mainly
southern Lesser Poland, Poland). There are over 140 days in the
year in this area, in which the cloudiness, given on a nine-degree
octant scale (0 - cloudless sky, 8 - full cloud cover), is higher than
6, at an average annual value of approx. 5 [4].
Light propagating in the atmosphere undergoes various types
of scattering. The main factor determining the type of scattering is
the size of the scattering centres. The atmosphere consists of both
gas molecules about 0.1 nm in size, as well as other particles such
as aerosols, particulate matter etc., often several orders of magni-
tude larger. Light scattering is the redirection of electromagnetic
radiation by suspended particles in the atmosphere.
There are three types of light scattering in the atmosphere, de-
pending on the size of the scattering particles or, preferably, on the
ratio of the wavelength of light to the particle size [5]. If the parti-
cle size is smaller than about 1/15 λ, which is true for the nitrogen

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2020.106962
0022-4073/© 2020 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
2 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962
and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere, we are talking about the
so-called Rayleigh scattering. If there are particles in the atmo-
sphere comparable in size or slightly larger than the wavelength
of light (0.4–0.7 μm), then the scattering of light by these particles
is described by the so-called Mie solution. Such particles are
atmospheric aerosols as sulphates, sea salt aerosols and mineral
dust (sands). They are similar to water drops and in most cases are
transparent, i.e. they do not absorb visible radiation. However, their
size is much smaller than that of cloud drops. The third type of
light scattering in the atmosphere is non-selective scattering that
occurs on water drops or ice crystals with a diameter of 5–100 μm,
much larger than the visible wavelength (0.3–0.7 μm). As a result,
all colours are scattered similarly, and the spectral distribution of
the reflected light is the same as that of the incident light. Clouds,
consisting of water droplets or ice crystals with a diameter of ap-
prox. 10 μm, scatter the incident light in a non-selective way. These
drops practically do not absorb light in the visible spectrum range,
and each of them is the centre of light scattering. In effect, clouds
are highly reflective objects [6,7]. In the case of clouds with high
optical thickness, their base can be treated as a double-sided white
Lambert surface (i.e. a surface with constant isotropic brightness,
independent of the angle of view). Such surface effectively reflects
the light of the Sun, Moon or artificial origin in the same direction
from which it comes [8]. As the thickness of the cloud increases,
scattering plays a more significant role, while absorption decreases.
However, if the sizes of droplets increase at the base of the cloud
(e.g. just before the rain), the light absorption begins to outweigh
the scattering. The measure of the ability of the clouds to reflect
light is the albedo of the upper surface of the clouds, defined as
the percentage of sunlight reflected by them. The albedo of the
bottom cloud surface varies from 10% to 90% and depends on the
droplets size, water or ice composition and the thickness of the
cloud. Chavez [9] proposed a relative model of light scattering in
the atmosphere, which classifies scattering of light according to its
wavelength. He distinguished five atmospheric states differing in
their transparency: very clear sky, clear sky, moderate cloud cover,
haze and dense haze. In the case of a clear sky, the scattering
is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
With total cloudiness, only diffused radiation occurs, proportional
to the zero power of the wavelength.
1.2. Clouds as atmospheric aerosols
Clouds are formed in the atmosphere as a result of the local
cooling of the air to the dew point, which leads to condensation
or resublimation of water vapour on condensation centres (dust,
pollen, etc.). As a result, clouds are a visible collection of tiny wa-
ter droplets (<0.001–0.05 mm) or ice crystals, or their mixtures,
suspended in the atmosphere. Clouds may also contain drops of
water or ice crystals of larger dimensions, as well as other types of
dust particles of natural or artificial origin [10].
The appearance of a cloud depends mainly on the nature, di-
mensions, quantity and spatial distribution of its particles. It is also
determined by the intensity and colour of the light falling on the
cloud, as well as the position of the observer and the light source
relative to the cloud [8].
There are many different types of clouds that can be identified
visually in the atmosphere. Due to the altitude at which clouds
occur, low-level, medium-level and high-level clouds are distin-
guished. The altitudes at which clouds form are different in dif-
ferent latitudes and depend on the thermal conditions in the tro-
posphere, as well on the height of its upper boundary. Within
each altitude class, additional classifications are defined, based on
four basic types and combinations thereof. These types are Cir-
rus, Stratus, Cumulus and Nimbus. Each main classification may
be further subdivided into multiple clouds genera to provide the
Fig. 1. Clouds genera and their altitudes [11].
means of identifying many variations which are observed in the at-
mosphere. Low-level clouds include such genera as Cumulus (Cu),
Stratus (St), Stratocumulus (Sc) and Cumulonimbus (Cb); medium-
level clouds include Altocumulus (Ac), Altostratus (As), Nimbostra-
tus (Ns); high-level clouds include Cirrus (Ci), Cirrocumulus (Cc),
Cirrostratus (Cs) (Fig. 1) (see Appendix A).
Determining the type of clouds in the night, especially in ar-
eas free from light pollution, is difficult. In effect, the issue of
the existence of each of these genera of clouds at night has not
been thoroughly researched. After sunset, the day convective layer,
on the border of which the level of clouds is located, disappears
in favour of a nightly stable boundary layer several hundred me-
ters high. Above this layer, up to a free atmosphere, a residual
layer with sporadic turbulence extends [12]. In the summer, with
strong convection during the day (especially over reservoirs), con-
vective clouds of the Cumulus genus are formed, which after sun-
set disappear or transform into Altocumulus or Stratocumulus gen-
era [13,14]. However, the evolution of clouds is different over reser-
voirs, in cities and over rural areas.
In cities, also at night, houses and industrial plants are sources
of heat and water vapour emissions, which cause the formation
of Cumulus and Cumulonimbus convective clouds. Above the city,
vertical clouds form at the 30 0–60 0 m higher altitude than above
the non-urban area. Often convective clouds are formed directly
above industrial areas that emit heat and steam.
In rural areas, both the natural circulation factors and the ef-
fects associated with seasonal changes dominate. In winter, air
flowing from the west is the most common in Poland. Such circu-
lation is usually accompanied by Altocumulus and Stratocumulus
clouds. Relatively common continental polar air promotes cloud-
less weather, the appearance of Cirrus clouds or the presence of
low stratified clouds of the Stratus genus [13]. In spring and sum-
mer, local conditions and insolation have a more significant impact
on the formation of clouds than the circulation factors. Therefore,
during the day Cumulus clouds are most visible, and they obscure
the clouds at a higher altitude. In the evening, as convection weak-
ens, these clouds gradually disappear from the top, transforming
themselves into Altocumulus clouds, also very often found at this
time of year [13]. Autumn is characterised by low cloud cover and
high probability of high-level clouds appearing. During this period,
there is no clear dominance of any type of clouds. At the begin-
ning of autumn, convection clouds still prevail, but later the clouds
of higher levels are being increasingly revealed. At the end of au-
tumn, the ground is already cold, which promotes the formation
of low-level layered clouds. Clouds of the wavy origin such as the
Stratocumulus or Altocumulus lenticularis genera are also often en-
countered at this time of year [13].
From the above considerations, it follows that at night virtually
all the types of described clouds can occur. An apparent deficit of
 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962
convective Cumulus clouds should be visible. However, in certain
conditions (cities, industrial plants), this cloud genus should also
be observed. Generally, the evolution of clouds at night is the sub-
ject of many model considerations and requires observational ver-
ification [15–17]. First attempts of such verification were based on
satellite images [18]. Satellite research done in the South Pacific
allowed to state that clouds of the genus Cumulonimbus, warm
clouds of the genus Cirrus and low-level Cumulus and Stratocumu-
lus clouds tend to cover the sky better at night (about 2:30 local
time) than during the day. On the other hand, cold Cirrus clouds
show an opposite tendency [19].
In the aspect of the problem of scattering of artificial light by
clouds, it should be noted that different types of clouds reflect the
incident light to a varying degree, i.e. they have different albedos
[20]. Cloud albedo depends on many factors, such as cloud height,
the type, the size and number of particles that make up the cloud
[21]. Gourdeau [22] gives the following albedo values for selected
cloud genera:
• Cirrus: 20–40%
• Stratus: 40–65%
• Cumulus: 75%
• Cumulonimbus: 90%
It was also found that clouds absorb red light more effectively
than blue light [3]. However, the reason for this phenomenon has
not been definitively explained.
1.3. The issue of scattering of light by nocturnal clouds in the
literature
For the first time, attention was paid to clouds as amplifiers for
ecological light pollution in urban ecosystems as early as 2010–
2011 [1,2]. It was stated, that the sky glow caused by artificial
lighting from urban areas, reflected from clouds, disrupts natu-
ral biological cycles and impacts the behaviour of organisms, even
many kilometres away from the light sources.
In 2012 it was noticed that clouds increase the radiance of red
light by a much more significant factor than that of a blue one. It
was found that the gradual decrease in sky radiance observed on
clear nights in the city appears to be most pronounced at longer
wavelengths [3].
In recent years, the significant influence of light reflected from
clouds on perturbation of circadian cycles in animals and humans
has been emphasised. It has been shown that the cloud cover gen-
erally acts as an amplifier for artificial sky radiance nearby or in-
side cities, while it behaves as an attenuator for remote observers.
In 2016 the spectral amplification effect of clouds on the night sky
radiance inside a city was researched [23]. The comparison of the
in-situ measurements with a numerical model applied to the spe-
cific geographical context was also made.
The ecological consequences of city lights reflected from the
clouds were also analysed in 2017 in Spain [24]. It was found that
clouds can extend the reach of sky glow into remote areas, not
affected by light pollution on clear nights. A method has been de-
veloped that allows extraction of zenith luminance, horizontal and
scalar illuminance from one single all-sky image. It was found that
while zenith luminance reaches near-natural levels at a few kilo-
metres distance from the town on a clear night, similar levels are
only reached at few dozen kilometres on the partly cloudy night.
Measurements were also made of the darkening of the night
sky by clouds in the natural nocturnal rural environment without
the light pollution [25]. It was found, that in such environment the
luminance levels are as low as 0.05 mcd/m2 for cloudy nights. It
was also noticed that clouds strongly shift the distance scale of
sky glow; sites that appear to be nearly unpolluted on clear nights
might be quite strongly affected by artificial light on cloudy nights.
3
In addition to measurements, also model analyses of scattering
of the artificial light by clouds were made. The first model allow-
ing calculation of the brightness of a layer of clouds over a city at
night has been developed by Garstang as early as in 2001 [26]. He
showed that for a city with the population of metropolitan Den-
ver, CO (about 70 0,0 0 0, the same as Krakow, Poland), treated as
a circle of radius 12 km, the zenith night sky brightness is about
14.3 mag/arcsec2 , equivalent to 0.2 cd/m2 , roughly 10 0 0 times the
natural night sky brightness near sunspot minimum.
A methodology for modelling light pollution in suburban areas
by using geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sens-
ing (RS) technology was also developed in 2006 for Athens and its
surroundings [27].
Another theoretical model of light scattering by clouds has been
developed by Kocifaj in 2007 [28]. He includes altitude and spec-
tral reflectance of a cloud layer as the main factors for simulation
of cloudy andࢧor overcast conditions.
In 2015 the sky glow in urban and suburban areas was anal-
ysed theoretically and numerically, for the first time due to dif-
ferent cloud types [29]. The results suggest that the altitude of a
cloud imposes essential changes in the luminance distribution.
1.4. Meteorological conditions in Lesser Poland in 2014–2016
Based on the annual meteorological reports of Krakow Air-
port published until recently [30], it is possible to summarise the
changes in cloud cover in 2014–2016. The degree of cloudiness, de-
fined as a percentage of the number of days in a month on which
the cloudless sky was observed for at least half a day, in the years
2014, 2015 and 2016 was equal to 16%, 61% and 67%, respectively.
At the same time, the degree of cloudiness, defined as a percent-
age of the number of days per month on which the sky was over-
cast or almost overcast for at least half a day, was 68%, 61% and
68%, respectively. These values strongly emphasise the importance
of clouds as a significant factor in scattering artificial light at night.
2. Methods
2.1. Measuring apparatus
The basic measuring instruments used at the stationary mea-
suring points SUH, DOB and FSK (see Chapter 2.3) were Unihedron
Sky Quality Meters (SQM), type SQM-LE, directed into the zenith
with an accuracy of 5° A manual SQM-L has also been used in the
measurements made by a trained meteorological observer at the
ZAB measuring point. All these meters measure the sky radiance
in units mag/arcsec2 , in a cone with a full-width half-maximum of
20°, in a single spectral channel, approximately resembling human
photopic vision [31].
The SQM photometers have a quoted systematic uncertainty of
10% (0.1 mag/arcsec2 ) [32]. There is an additional 0.11 mag/arcsec2
shift in the fixed SMQ-LE readings due to the additional glass
present on the waterproof housing. However, this correction is
constant and common to all used meters, so it does not matter
in the research of changes in the night sky brightness. This correc-
tion is not needed, of course, in the ZAB measurements, made by
the SQM-L, but it should be taken into account when comparing
the values from this measuring point with the ones obtained in
the SQM-LE measuring points. In this paper, all SQM readings are
given without this correction.
Essential sources of data on the cloudiness are photos (saved in
JPG format) taken with all-sky cameras. Such images are available
for the SUH point (SBIG 314 camera) and, from mid-2016, for the
FSK measuring point (SBIG 340C camera). At the SUH measuring
point, all archival photos are publicly available throughout the en-
tire period of the camera’s operation. At the FSK measuring point,
4 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962
only the current picture is available online, dating since April 2017.
However, there are a few dozen archive photos from this measur-
ing point.
Data obtained from meteorological stations were also used.
There is the Davis Vantage Pro 2 automatic weather station operat-
ing at the SUH measurement point since December 28th, 2014. At
the FSK measuring point, the Davis Vantage Pro automatic weather
station is working since April 2008. Values of various meteoro-
logical elements determined at these stations, both current and
archived, are available online [http://lightpollution.pk.edu.pl/Eng/
pomiary.php]. There is no meteorological station installed at the
DOB measuring point. However, the values of meteorological ele-
ments from 2014–2016 were obtained from the Scientific Station of
the Institute of Geography and Spatial Management of the Jagiel-
lonian University in Gaik-Brzezowa, located on the opposite shore
of the Dobczycki Reservoir, just 1 km southwest of the position of
DOB measuring point.
2.2. Used units
All mag/arcsec2 readings in this paper are the SQM ones. Sky
Quality metre is a microprocessor-based transmitter of a frequency
signal from the brightness sensor TSL237, produced by Texas Ad-
vanced Optoelectronic Solutions (TAOS) Inc. This sensor has a fre-
quency output proportional to the irradiance with responsivity
2.3 kHz/μW cm2 . However, the SQM specification does not reveal
what algorithm is used for the conversion of the scale of the sen-
sor (μW/cm2 ) to the such of the meter (mag/arcsec2 ). Only the re-
lationship between a surface magnitude and a luminance scale is
known. This relationship is not straightforward. However, by as-
suming a linear correlation between the perceived surface bright-
ness (luminance) and the physical surface brightness, it can be
shown that
   
mag/arcsec2 = −2.5 × log cd/m2 + const.
The constant can be determined by giving the reference point
of these two scales. Following the reference of 3.2 × 10−6 cd/m2 for
26.33 mag/arcsec2 for the V-band [33], one can obtain the relation
   
mag/arcsec2 = 12.59 − 2.5 log cd/m2 , (2)
or vice versa
(cd/m2 ) = 108930 × 100.4 ∗ (mag/arcsec2 ).
These relationships were discussed in detail by Bará [34,35].
Because of the very low surface brightness of the night sky, the
commonly used unit is millicandela per square metre (mcd/m2 ). In
this paper, the scale mag/arcsec2 is used, but for illustrative pur-
poses also an auxiliary mcd/m2 axes are added to the plots.
2.3. Measuring points
Data obtained at four stationary measuring points were used
for the analysis (Fig. 2). At all these points, the HPS lamps were the
dominant sources of light pollution during the measuring period.
• SUH measuring point
Lat = 49°34 09 N
Long = 20°04 02 E
Height = 1009 m
The site is located at the astronomical observatory of the Ped-
agogical University of Krakow on the Suhora summit in the Gorce
Mts., 55 km south of Krakow. This observatory is the highest lo-
cated one in Poland.
At this measuring point, measurements of the brightness of the
night sky are carried out using an automatic meter SQM-LE. This
position is treated as a "reference point" to the other ones, due
to its relatively high altitude above the ground level, as well as to
remoteness from both residential areas and large reservoirs.
SQM-LE measured the brightness of the night sky, denoted as
Sa , every night, starting from the sunset and ending with the
sunrise, at an interval initially of ten minutes (until March 11th,
2016), and then of five minutes, which in the considered period
(2015–2016) gave almost 72 thousand of measurement data. At the
same time, an all-sky camera worked on this measurement point,
mounted along with the SQM-LE, continuously taking photos of the
entire sky all day, from February 17th, 2014. Free archive of dated
pictures from this camera (337 648 images until March 24th, 2017)
allows each time to check the causes of changes in the bright-
ness of the night sky recorded with the SQM-LE. These photos also
allow an overall assessment of the type of clouds visible in the
sky. There is also a meteorological station at the SUH measure-
ment point. It continuously measures several meteorological ele-
ments (including air temperature, dew point temperature, humid-
ity, precipitation, as well as wind direction and speed) in fifteen-
minutes intervals. The meteorological data are available online
(http://www.as.up.krakow.pl/main/weather.html). The database ob-
tained in this way contains nearly 86 thousand records. Also, data
from the AAG cloud sensor are available.
The maximum Sa value measured at the SUH measuring point
was 21.7 mag/arcsec2 .
• DOB measuring point
Lat = 49°52 17 N
Long = 20°04 23 E
Height = 273 m
The fixed measurement point, using the automatic SQM-LE
meter, was launched on February 21st, 2014 above the drinking
water intake at the dam in Dobczyce (23 km south of Krakow).
(1)
In the set of measuring points, it is treated as a "natural mea-
suring point", which primary purpose is to study the impact of
changes in the brightness of the night sky on the ecosystem of
the Dobczyce Reservoir [36]. Also, it is located on the shore of a
large reservoir, on the outskirts of a small town (Dobczyce), only
0.5 km away from its centre. The SQM-LE performs continuous
measurements of Sa all night, at the interval of five minutes.
During the research period (2014, 2015 and 2016) it gave almost
(3) 125 thousand measurement data.
In the analysis of measurement data were also used the values
of meteorological elements, determined at the Scientific Station of
the Institute of Geography and Spatial Management of the Jagiel-
lonian University in Gaik-Brzezowa, located on the opposite bank
of the Dobczyce Reservoir, just 1 km southwest of the DOB mea-
surement point. These data include air temperature and relative
humidity, wind speed and direction, measured in minute intervals,
as well as atmospheric pressure, measured three times a day, and
the amount of precipitation from the pluviography, broken down
into hourly intervals. As a result, during the measurement period
(2014–2016) it gave a database containing over 1.5 million records.
Unfortunately, at this position we do not have parallel photos
of the night sky. However, the novel discrete derivative method of
determining the type of cloudiness [37] (see also Appendix B) al-
lowed, also in this case, to make a similar analysis as at the SUH
measurement point.
The maximum Sa value measured at DOB measuring point was
21.1 mag/arcsec2 .
• FSK measuring point
Lat = 50°03 12 N
Long = 19°49 26 E
Height = 292 m
 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962
Fig. 2. Radiance measured in 2019 by DMSP satellite for the Lesser Poland area. Red points marked the locations of measuring points used in this paper. [VIIRS/DMSP Earth
Observation Group, NOAA National Geophysical Data centre, https://www.lightpollutionmap.info].
The fixed measurement point, also using the automatic SQM-
LE meter, was launched on August 27th, 2014 at the Astronomical
Observatory of the Jagiellonian University "Fort Skała" (8 km west
of the centre of Krakow).
In the set of measuring points, the FSK measuring point is
treated as an "urban measuring point" located within a large city.
The SQM-LE at the FSK measuring point performs continuous
measurements of Sa all night, every five minutes. During the re-
search period (2014, 2015 and 2016), it gave almost 143 thousand
measurement data.
There is also the automatic meteorological station of the Davis
Vantage Pro type, operating since April 1, 2008. At five-minute in-
tervals, several meteorological elements are measured (e.g. air tem-
perature and relative humidity, dew point temperature, air pres-
sure, speed and wind direction and amount of precipitation). Dur-
ing the measurement period (2014–2016) it gave a database con-
taining almost 312 thousand records.
For some periods, we have also several dozen images of the
night sky taken with the all-sky camera, which allowed for af-
firmative verification of the discrete derivative method mentioned
above.
The maximum Sa value measured at the FSK measuring point
was 20.0 mag/arcsec2 .
• ZAB measuring point
Lat = 50°07 12 N
Long = 19°46 58 E
Height = 238 m
Regardless of the three fixed, stationary measuring points based
on SQM-LE automatic meters, on May 15th, 2012 in Zabierzów
(12 km northwest from Krakow, 7 km north from the FSK measur-
ing point) the so-called meteorological measuring point was estab-
lished, based on the SQM-L hand meter.
The purpose of the measurements carried out at the ZAB mea-
suring point is to determine the relationship between meteorolog-
ical conditions, in particular the genera of clouds, and the bright-
ness of the night sky, in a strongly light-polluted suburban area.
The measurement is taken every moonless night around the lo-
cal midnight; in addition to the Sa value, some meteorological el-
5
ements (air temperature, horizontal visibility) are noted. Above all,
the genera of clouds are determined by the experienced observer.
As a result, in the period 2012–2016, about 670 measurements of
Sa value were made, together with specifying the genera of clouds.
The maximum Sa value measured at ZAB measuring point was
20.4 mag/arcsec2 .
2.4. Discrete derivatives method
It is often an occurrence that night photos that allow determin-
ing the cloudiness and the genera of clouds are not available. Ac-
cordingly, a simple method has been developed, enabling an ob-
tainment of these data on the base of mathematical analysis of
continuous all-night measurement of Sa .
Analysis of all-night measurements of Sa at SUH and FSK
measuring points led to the conclusion that the dynamics of the
clouds affect the course of Sa vs time curve in different ways,
depending on their type, with cloudless nights being particularly
pronounced. It was found that the changes in the state of the
night sky are best described by the derivative of the Sa value over
time T, because just such derivative informs about how rapidly
the Sa changes. We have sets of discontinuous measurements, so
in this case, the discrete derivative dSa /dT must be calculated.
In order to achieve the highest possible accuracy, the discrete
derivative was determined by using the central finite difference
method (see Appendix B). It was found that this method (referred
to in the paper as the "derivative method" or "discrete derivative
method") make it possible to distinguish with certainty a cloud-
less sky from a cloudy one (Fig. 3). In the case of a cloudless sky,
changes in the value of the derivative dSa /dT during the night do
not exceed 0.5 mag/arcsec2 /hour, regardless of the level of light
pollution in the area. With slightly less certainty, it is also possible
to distinguish high-level clouds from low- and medium-level
ones. In areas with low levels of light pollution, dSa /dT does
not exceed 1.0 mag/arcsec2 /hour for high-level clouds, exceeding
2.0 mag/arcsec2 /hour for low-level ones. In heavily light-polluted
areas, the recognition of cloud type by the described method
is much more difficult, although possible. In this case, first of
all, it should be determined from observations, which pattern of
6 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962

The complete picture of the clouded night sky at the research

area was obtained for the ZAB measuring point, where a trained
observer-meteorologist determined the clouds genera visible in the
field of view of the SQM-L meter. Over the entire measurement
period, it was found that cloudy nights account for 45%, while clear
nights account for 32% of all nights.
The proportions of individual genera of clouds in the following
years are given in Table 2 (during some nights it was not possible
to determine such, hence sometimes the total percentage does not
add up to 100%).
In the whole measurement period during the year, in the win-
ter months (January-February and October-December) the clouds
of the St genus dominated, the number of which decreased signifi-
cantly in the summer months. In the spring period, the share of Sc
genus clouds increased. This genus in June became the dominant
cloud type of the clouded night sky.

3.2. The effect of clouds on the brightness of the night sky at

Fig. 3. Sample numerical derivative dSa /dT for a few nights at the FSK measuring
station (measurements: September 2015 and December 2016).
derivative changes during the night corresponds to a given type of
cloudiness. Description of the method and a few examples of its
use has also been presented in [37].
2.5. Statistical software
For all statistical calculations and analyses, the program Origin
2018 (OriginLab Corporation [38]) was used. Also, all graphs were
made using this software.
3. Results
3.1. Cloudiness of the night sky at the measuring points
Of the stationary measuring points, the complete assessment of
cloudiness was possible in the case of the SUH one, where, in ad-
dition to the measured Sa values, all-sky photos are available for
each night. Although these photos do not allow for an accurate
determination of the type (genus) of cloud, it is rather simple to
distinguish cloudless nights from the cloudy ones. It is also possi-
ble to notice the difference between the sky covered by low- and
medium-level clouds and the one covered by high-level clouds.
Comparison of all-sky photos with the dSa /dT graphs has allowed
with high probability to assign the shape of these graphs to dif-
ferent genera of clouds. This assignment enables us to roughly es-
timate the clouds genera in the case when only the overnight Sa
measurements are available [37] (see also Appendix B).
This discrete derivative method was used to determine cloudi-
ness at the DOB measuring point (for which no all-sky images are
available) and at the FSK measuring point (for which the available
all-sky images confirmed the correctness of identification).
A summary of the percentage share of cloudless nights and
ones overcast by clouds of various altitude is given in Table 1.
research sites
The impact of the presence of clouds on the brightness of the
night sky glow at a given position can be shown by making his-
togram determining the frequency of the occurrence of the night
with a given measured Sa value in various conditions: the cloud-
less and moonless sky, the cloudless sky and the overcast one.
In the case of the SUH measurement point, the full histogram,
also including cloudy and lunar nights, shows a distribution of
brightness starting from Sa = 16.5 mag/arcsec2 with a single,
clear dominant at Sa = 21.0–21.4 mag/arcsec2 (maximum value, 26
nights during the year, at Sa = 21.4 mag/arcsec2 ) (Fig. 4, white
columns). After taking into account just moonless nights (Moon
phase from −0.4 to 0.4 [2]) only the mentioned dominant remains
(the part from 16.5 to 20.2 mag/arcsec2 disappears) in the range
from 20.3 to 21.7 mag/arcsec2 (Fig. 4, orange columns). A detailed
analysis of the state of the SQM entrance window and also the
state of the atmosphere, made for each of these nights, based on
all-sky photos, allowed to exclude the effects of a seemingly very
dark sky, associated with covering the SQM entrance window by
snow or flooding by rain, or with the presence of fog. The remain-
ing histogram shows the distribution of only cloudless and moon-
less nights (Fig. 4, blue columns). It can be seen that even in the
presence of clouds (Fig. 4, orange columns), the Sa value is always
higher than 20.0 mag/arcsec2 . This histogram, taking into account

Table 1
Percentage of cloudless nights (n0 ), cloudy nights with low- and medium-level
clouds (nLM ) and cloudy nights with high-level clouds only (nH ) throughout the
year.

2014 2015 2016

n0 nLM nH n0 nLM nH n0 nLM nH

SUH – – – 40% 32% 21% 35% 33% 24%

DOB 22% 48% 28% 20% 48% 30% 16% 50% 27%
Fig. 4. The distribution of nights: all (white), moonless (orange), cloudless and
FSK – – – 31% 53% 15% 20% 54% 21%
moonless (blue), at the SUH measuring point in 2015.
 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962 7

Table 2
Clouds genera observed at the ZAB measuring point in subsequent measuring years.

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 All years

Cloudless sky 39% 33% 26% 26% 31% 30%

Ac 5% 5% 8% 7% 7% 6%
As 1% 0% 2% 2% 1% 1%
Cc 1% 2% 4% 3% 1% 2%
Cs 0% 3% 3% 4% 7% 4%
Ci 7% 5% 10% 11% 9% 8%
Cb 4% 0% 3% 2% 0% 2%
Ns 6% 14% 8% 9% 6% 9%
Sc 20% 8% 10% 12% 14% 12%
St 18% 32% 24% 23% 24% 24%
Low level (Cb, Ns, Sc, St) 47% 53% 45% 46% 43% 47%
Medium level (Ac, As) 6% 5% 10% 8% 8% 7%
High level (Cs, Ci, Cb) 8% 10% 16% 18% 16% 14%
Summary percentage of the cloudy nights 61% 67% 71% 72% 67% 68%

also the similarity of distribution of cloudless and moonless nights
to the distribution of only moonless nights, indicates the negligible
share of artificial light scattered on the clouds in the brightness of
the night sky at this mountain measuring point.
In the case of the DOB measuring point, the full histogram, also
including cloudy and lunar nights, shows a clear bimodal charac-
ter, where one of the dominants falls on nights with Sa = 18.5–
19.7 mag/arcsec2 , while the other on nights with Sa = 20.5–
21.1 mag/arcsec2 (Fig. 5, white columns). After considering only the
moonless nights, bimodal distribution is still visible: Sa = 18.8–
20.0 mag/arcsec2 (50 nights in the year), with a maximum of
19.4 mag/arcsec2 (8 nights), and 20.2–21.1 mag /arcsec2 (also 50
nights in the year), with the maximum value of 20.9 mag/arcsec2
(15 nights) (Fig. 5, orange columns). A detailed analysis made for
each of these nights, using the discrete derivative method, also ex-
cluded effects associated with covering the meter entrance win-
dow by snow or flooding by rain. The remaining histogram shows
the distribution of only cloudless and moonless nights (Fig. 5, blue
columns). In such conditions, the measured Sa reaches values from
20.7 to 21.2 mag/arcsec2 (from 24 nights in 2014 and 2016, to 35
nights in 2015).
The presented analysis proves that the second dominant of the
bimodal distribution (for higher Sa values) undoubtedly is con-
nected with the cloudless sky. The first dominant should be associ-
ated with artificial light, coming mainly from urban lighting of the
city of Dobczyce, and then reflected from the clouds. It is worth
noting here that the maximum of this dominant, i.e. the largest
number of nights, occurs at Sa = 19.4 mag/arcsec2 , or maybe even
Sa = 18.8 mag/arcsec2 , which is of 1.2 mag/arcsec2 smaller than
the one determined at the SUH measuring point.
In the case of the FSK measuring point, the histogram of all
nights, including cloudy and lunar ones, shows the bimodal char-
acter not very clearly expressed. The first, pronounced dominant
falls on the nights with Sa = 17.1–17.8 mag/arcsec2 , while the sec-
ond, problematic, on the nights with Sa = 18.7–19.9 mag/arcsec2
(Fig. 6, white columns). Including only moonless nights, the bi-
modal distribution becomes clearer. The first dominant is visible
for Sa = 17.1–18.2 mag/arcsec2 (65 nights in the year), with a maxi-
mum of 17.7 mag/arcsec2 (10 nights), and the second dominant oc-
curred for Sa = 19.4–19.9 mag/arcsec2 (39 nights in the year), with
a maximum value of 19.8 mag/arcsec2 (12 nights) (Fig. 6, orange
columns).
The application of the discrete derivative method allowed to
extract from the collection of measurements a subset of only
cloudless nights. It was found that in the case of moonless and
cloudless nights merely a second dominant with a Sa value rang-
ing from 19.3 to 20.0 mag/arcsec2 (2015; 41 nights) or 19.6 to
20.1 mag/arcsec2 (2016; 32 nights) is visible (Fig. 6, blue columns).
Such distribution means that this second dominant can be
connected with the cloudless sky, with a maximum value of
Sa = 20.1 mag/arcsec2 (4 nights). The first dominant is probably,
similarly as in the case of the DOB measuring point, associated

Fig. 5. The distribution of nights at the DOB measuring point in 2014. Fig. 6. The distribution of nights at the FSK measuring point in 2015.
8 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962

Fig. 8. The distribution of nights at the very centre of Krakow in 2009 r.

Fig. 7. The distribution of nights at the ZAB measuring point in 2012–2016.

with artificial light reflected from the clouds. The maximum

of this dominant, i.e. the largest number of nights, occurs at
Sa = 17.7 mag/arcsec2 , or even possibly Sa = 17.1 mag/arcsec2 ,
which is significantly lower than at the DOB measuring point.
This phenomenon is undoubtedly associated with a much higher
intensity of illumination of the cloud base by artificial lights
coming from a large city.
A similar, clearly bimodal histogram was found for the ZAB
measuring point (Fig. 7). In this case, the first dominant falls on
the nights with Sa = 17.4–18.6 mag/arcsec2 (the largest number
of nights occurs at Sa = 18.0 mag/arcsec2 ), while the second one
on the nights with Sa = 19.8–20.4 mag/arcsec2 (the largest num-
ber of nights occurs at Sa = 20.2 mag/arcsec2 ). When only cloud-
less nights are included in the analysis, solely the second domi-
nant becomes visible at Sa = 20.0–20.4 mag/arcsec2 (85 nights in
the year), with a maximum value of 20.4 mag/arcsec2 (2 nights)
(Fig. 7, blue columns).
An analogous analysis, done for measurements carried out in Fig. 9. Sa value vs cloudiness. The numbers correspond to the following measuring
points featured in Table 3. Red lines: first group in the table, blue lines: second
2009 within the city of Krakow using SQM-L hand-held meters, group, green lines: third group.
showed bimodality of the distribution at all measuring points, re-
gardless of whether lunar nights were included or not, with the
first dominant, at approx. 15 mag/arcsec2 , visible only for cloudy were also continued in subsequent years throughout all south-
nights (Fig. 8). ern and central Poland. During these measurements, the genera of
The presented analysis proves that the first dominant in the bi- clouds were not identified. Only the percentage amount of cloudi-
modal distribution is connected solely with the artificial ground ness was determined, based on the visibility of stars in the mea-
lights reflected from clouds. In contrast, the second one is related suring area of the meter.
to the dispersion of the same lights on atmospheric aerosols. The For each measuring point was found a clear linear correlation
decisive impact of clouds on the brightening of the night sky glow of the Sa value with the cloudiness (coefficient R > −0.92) (Fig. 9).
manifests itself as the increase in the number of nights within the If we describe a linear trend line by the equation:
first dominant in the described distributions with an increase in
Sa = C LS · CC + Sb (4)
the level of light pollution. While at the mountain SUH measur-
ing point the first, "cloud" dominant does not exist, it is already where:
as distinct in the DOB measuring point as the second, "clear-sky" Sa – measured value [mag/arcsec2 ];
dominant. In the urban FSK measuring point, the first dominant is CC – cloudiness [%];
significantly distinguishable from the latter, “clear-sky” one. the Sb parameter corresponds to the brightness of the clear, cloud-
less and moonless sky, while the CLS is the direction factor de-
3.3. The effect of the degree of cloudiness on the brightness of the termining the efficiency of light reflection by clouds. In Table 3,
night sky the values of the above coefficients are given for all the measuring
points. Also, it provides Smax values, determining the brightness of
Already, the first research done in 2008–2010 showed that one the sky glow of the overcast sky. The different text colours corre-
of the main, if not the essential factor of the night sky glow, are spond to the identified three groups of light-polluted areas.
clouds [2]. All visual estimates of the percentage of cloudiness in Of course, the difference in Sb values in various environments is
the zenith, in the field of view of the SQM-L meter, were done associated with the scattering of artificial light on numerous types
in parallel with the Sa measurements. Measurements of this type of aerosols of the cloudless sky. It depends on both the level of
 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962
Table 3
Linear trend coefficients of the Sa value as a function of cloudiness (according to statistics Poland data 2011–2014).
light pollution in the environment (i.e., in particular, the popula-
tion of the village [39–47]), as well as the concentration and type
of aerosols (mainly particulate matter) [48].
The above analysis shows that clouds perform two functions.
In areas free of light pollution, they reduce the natural brightness
of the night sky, obscuring non-atmospheric natural light sources.
At the same time in light-polluted areas, they are the main factor
increasing the intensity of the night sky glow.
The CLS coefficient can be considered as a parameter determin-
ing the amplification of light pollution by clouds. In Table 3, three
groups of light-polluted areas can be distinguished, differing in the
value of the CLS factor (marked by different text colours):
1. CLS equal to approx. −0.022: areas located near large urban
centres. Probably, in this case, the sources of light illuminating
the clouds are both the local lights from these areas, as well as
the lights of close, large urban centres.
2. CLS equal to approx. −0.016: large cities and "isolated" villages,
surrounded by less light-polluted areas. In this case, the only
sources of light illuminating the clouds are these cities or vil-
lages.
3. CLS greater than −0.010: measuring points located in areas
with low population density, in the vicinity of which there are
only small towns, which are the sources of low light pollution.
It is noteworthy that the only area among those studied, in
which clouds act as a factor suppressing the natural background
of the night sky, is Roztoki Górne hamlet in the Bieszczady
Mountains (No 15 in Table 3).
3.4. The effect of the clouds genera on the brightness of the night sky
Earlier studies treated clouds only as light scattering objects,
not distinguishing between their types. Based on previous obser-
vations, as well as literature data [8,49,50], it was found that the
genera of clouds are of great importance for the brightness of the
night, cloudy sky. Two important factors are amplifying the light
pollution associated with cloud genus: the altitude of its base and
its albedo. In order to research this issue, data obtained at the ZAB
measurement point were used, where a trained observer contin-
uously performs measurements of sky brightness at every moon-
less night at the LMT midnight, using an SQM-L portable meter. At
the same time, he records such parameters as ambient tempera-
ture, horizontal visibility and, above all, determines the genus of
clouds and cloudiness at the zenith, in the SQM-L field of view.
Sometimes, specifying the genus of cloud at night causes problems,
in particular, the distinction between clouds of St and Ns genera.
However, this task is facilitated in urban and suburban conditions
9
by ground lights illuminating the clouds in the light-polluted area.
Without much doubt, the low-, medium- and high-level clouds can
be distinguished at night in such conditions.
In total, 671 observations were made in 2012–2016, of which
207 nights were cloudless (31%), and for only 26 nights the genera
of clouds could not be determined.
At the LMT midnight of each of the remaining 438 nights,
9 out of 10 primary genera of clouds were found (probably
no Cu genus clouds were observed, although in a few cases
the observer had doubts). The percentage of uncertain identifi-
cations of a given cloud genus was also determined (Table 4).
amongst the abovementioned genera of clouds, a decrease in
the Sa value (i.e. an increase in the surface brightness of the
night sky) along with an increase in cloudiness was found for
clouds of the Ac genus (CLS = −1.18; Smax = 18.9 mag/arcsec2 ),
Cc genus (CLS = −0.72; Smax = 19.2 mag/arcsec2 ), Cb genus
(CLS = −1.76; Smax = 18.1 mag/arcsec2 ) and Sc genus (CLS =
−1.83; Smax = 18.0 mag/arcsec2 ). In each of these cases,
Sb = 20.0 mag/arcsec2 , which was to be expected. No significant
changes in the Sa value were found with increasing cloudiness
for the Cs genus (Sa = 19.4 mag/arcsec2 ). For Ci genus clouds,
up to 60% cloudiness, the level of sky brightness remains con-
stant (Sa = 20.0 mag/arcsec2 ). Only with cloudiness over 60%, it
increases to Smax = 18.4 mag/arcsec2 . Noteworthy is the similarity
of the Sa vs cloudiness dependence for Sc and Cb genera clouds
(lower Sa value) and Cc and Ci genera clouds (higher Sa value), as
well as the separateness of this dependence for Ac genus clouds
(intermediate value).
The dependence of Sa on ambient temperature was also in-
vestigated. In the case of the genera of clouds mentioned above,
there were no changes in this value over the entire tempera-
ture range. In the case of layered clouds (genus Ns and genus
St), covering the whole sky, it was found that at positive tem-
peratures the Sa value remains constant (Ns: 17.8 mag/arcsec2 ; St:
18.0 mag/arcsec2 ). However, at negative temperatures, the Sa value
decreases (Ns: up to 15.6 mag/arcsec2 ; St: up to 15.9 mag/arcsec2 ).
It was found that, in these conditions, horizontal visibility di-
minishes with decreasing temperature. This phenomenon means
that at negative temperatures below a layer of the Nb or St gen-
era clouds are formed some aerosols, densifying as the temper-
ature drops. These aerosols, of course, also scatter the artificial
lights. It is consistent with the literature on the subject, accord-
ing to which these types of clouds are sometimes accompanied by
even drizzle or very light rain, and below the base of Nb genus
clouds there are often frayed clouds of the genus Stratus fractus
(St fra) [50].
10 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962

Table 4
List of clouds genera observed in the years 2012–2016 at the ZAB measurement point.

Cloud genus Abbreviation Number of nights % Number of uncertain identifications Percentage of uncertain identifications

altocumulus Ac 41 9% 8 20%
altostratus As 7 2% 6 86%
cirrocumulus Cc 14 3% 7 50%
cirrostratus Cs 23 5% 16 70%
cirrus Ci 53 12% 9 17%
cumulonimbus Cb 10 2% 6 60%
nimbostratus Ns 55 13% 5 10%
stratocumulus Sc 78 18% 17 24%
stratus St 157 36% 20 13%

Together 438

4. Discussion

According to the literature, the days of overcast or almost over-

Fig. 10. Average Sa value vs the possible range of altitude of the base of various
cloud genera, determined at the ZAB position.
The brightness of the cloud is related to its ability to reflect
light (albedo). The researched data did not show any Sa depen-
dence on the albedo of different types of clouds, reported in the
literature [47].
3.5. The effect of cloud base altitude on the brightness of the night
sky
The second factor affecting the brightness of the clouds should
be the altitude of their base. An analysis of this relationship
was carried out for data obtained at the ZAB measuring point.
As a source of information about the altitude of the cloud base,
the mean base altitudes of individual genera of clouds given
in the literature [50] were used, verifying them with meteoro-
logical reports published online (https://en.allmetsat.com/metar-
taf/poland.php?icao = EPKK) for the Krakow Airport, situated only
4.5 km away.
According to the obtained graph (Fig. 10), the largest contri-
bution to the night sky glow comes from the light scattered on
the lowest level clouds of the St and Ns genera. In both cases,
Sa = 17.9 mag/arcsec2 , taking into account only the values mea-
sured at positive ambient temperatures (to avoid the effect of
light scattering on ground-based aerosols). The less contribution
comes from Sc genus (Sa = 18.3 mag /arcsec2 ), then Cb genus
(Sa = 18.8 mag /arcsec2 ), and then As and Ac genera (Sa = 19.0–
19.1 mag/arcsec2 ). The smallest one comes from the high level
clouds of the Cc, Ci, Cs genera (respectively Sa = 19.2 mag/arcsec2 ;
19.3 mag/arcsec2 ; 19.5 mag/arcsec2 ).
cast sky prevail in Lesser Poland. The reports of the meteorologi-
cal station at the Krakow Airport show that there are about 60%
of such days during the year. An analysis of visual observations
of night cloudiness at the ZAB measurement point, not far from
this airport, showed, in turn, that about 53% of the nights have
zenithal cloudiness exceeding 80%. Measurements carried out in
various places in Poland showed that in the presence of ground
light sources, the brightness of the sky glow increases rapidly with
growing cloudiness, wherein this increase appears to be linear. This
phenomenon means that clouds are a strong factor amplifying light
pollution, while the amount of gain depends on the amount of ar-
tificial light reaching the clouds. This one, in turn, appears to be
proportional to the population density of the area [51]. It seems
that the population density is more critical in this case than the
population itself, which has already been reported in the litera-
ture [52–57]. As a result, within a large city, the ground illumi-
nance by light reflected from clouds often exceeds the illuminance
by the full Moon. Previous research [58] has shown that this phe-
nomenon occurs in the centre of Krakow for as much as 38% of
moonless nights. This percentage means that a cloudy sky has a
decisive impact on ecological light pollution, affecting the natural
environment. Clouds above city centres not only completely pre-
vent visual astronomical observations there, but they also affect
such activity in a distant region that is not covered by clouds.
It was found that low-base clouds (genera of Stratus, Stra-
tocumulus, Nimbostratus, Cumulonimbus) constitute almost 70%
of clouds occurring at night. Combining this with the percentage
of cloudy nights during the year, it means, that on average 37%
of nights are cloudy with low-level base clouds. As demonstrated
when analysing data from the ZAB measuring point, these clouds
make the most significant contribution to the brightness of the
night sky glow. Due to the convergence of the percentage of low-
base clouds with the percentage of nights with intense ground
lighting in the centre of a large city, one can put forward the the-
sis that the main factor which scatters city lights are just low-
level clouds. As a result, artificial light at night, reflected from such
clouds, is a strong disturbing factor to the natural environment, so
it should be considered the main cause of ecological light pollu-
tion.
5. Conclusions
The described studies show that clouds are an essential factor
determining the brightness of the sky glow of the night sky in con-
ditions of light pollution, with the most significant contribution by
the lowest clouds, sometimes accompanied by precipitation or sur-
face layers of fog.
As the cloudiness increases in light-polluted areas, the bright-
ness of the night sky glow also increases. In areas free of this type
 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962
of pollution, the cloudy sky is darker than the cloudless one. The
value of the directional coefficient of the sky brightness vs degree
of cloudiness can be an indicator of the degree of light pollution
of the area. Only two measurements appear to be sufficient for its
initial determination: the first with a cloudless sky and the second
with the overcast sky. This directional coefficient and other param-
eters of the described relationship are currently being determined
for the more numerous places in Poland.
It should be remembered that the brightness of a cloudy sky
is influenced not only by the degree of cloudiness, but also by
other factors, both natural (altitude of the cloud base) as well as
anthropogenic (population density and the level of light pollution
associated with it). As the altitude of the cloud base increases, the
brightness of the cloudy sky decreases. This brightness also dimin-
ishes with decreasing population density. This phenomenon means
that the strongest effect of amplifying light pollution is visible in
densely populated regions with low-level clouds overcasting sky.
These areas should be considered the most threatened by ecolog-
ical light pollution. This threat applies not only to the centres of
large cities, but also to protected areas, such as national parks and
nature reserves, located nearby, or even within urban agglomera-
tions.
Further research on the impact of clouds on the brightness of
the night sky, in particular using various types of atmosphere pen-
etrating devices, such as SODAR, is planned. This research should
allow comparison of the obtained data with existing models of
scattering of light in the clouds, especially the Kocifaj one [28].
Research of the effects of cloudiness on the brightness of the
moonlighted sky is also planned. In this case, depending mainly
on their types, clouds perform the function of either distracting or
shielding the moonlight. Although this issue is not directly related
to light pollution, it must be taken into account when interpreting
continuous measurements of the brightness of the night sky glow.
Data for reference
The SQM measurements data for all measurement points are
available at http://lightpollution.pk.edu.pl/Eng/pomiary.php
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Tomasz Ście˛ żor: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation,
Visualization, Software, Writing - review & editing.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank employees of the Mt Suhora As-
tronomical Observatory (SUH measuring point), especially Walde-
mar Ogłoza and Marek Dróżdż, for providing the meteorological
data and all-sky camera images; Aleksander Kurek for providing
the sky brightness measurements made at the Jagiellonian Univer-
sity "Fort Skała" Astronomical Observatory (FSK measuring point);
Sławomir Stachniewicz for measurements of the night sky bright-
ness and meteorological analysis of the nocturnal clouds at Za-
bierzów (ZAB measuring point); Anita Bokwa for providing mete-
orological data from the Jagiellonian University Gaik-Brzezowa sta-
tion near Dobczyce (DOB measuring point).
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be
found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2020.106962.
11
Appendix A
Due to the external appearance of clouds, an international clas-
sification has been developed, taking into account ten specific
types (genera) of clouds [50]:
• Genus Altocumulus (Ac), medium level billowy cloud – a kind
of medium-level clouds composed of white or grey fine seg-
ments or small clouds, sometimes adjacent to each other and
forming a layer;
• Genus Altostratus (As), medium level layered cloud – a cloud in
the form of a thick and dense blue or grey layer, through which
the Sun or the Moon shines like through frosted glass. It con-
sists of water drops and ice crystals. It often covers the entire
sky, and sometimes is accompanied by light rain or snowfall.
Occurs at an altitude of 2–5 km;
• Genus Cirrus (Ci), feather cloud – belongs to high-level clouds;
made of ice crystals. This genus of clouds emerges in the up-
per troposphere. The altitude of the base of cirrus clouds is at
the 0 C air temperature level. It is higher in tropical latitudes
and lower in the polar ones. In Europe, Cirrus clouds can oc-
cur at altitudes between 60 0 0 and 12,0 0 0 m. Temperatures in
Cirrus clouds are usually in a range from −10 to −40 C. The
tropopause is a natural barrier to Cirrus clouds tops;
• Genus Cirrocumulus (Cc), billowy-feather cloud – cloud in the
form of a thin, white shoal, which individual elements, seen
from the ground, have an angular size below 1° These are high-
level clouds, occurring at an altitude of 60 0 0–12,0 0 0 m. Built of
ice crystals only, they do not give rainfall. They arise as a result
of slow heating of Cirrus or Cirrostratus clouds from below;
• Genus Cirrostratus (Cs), feather-layered cloud – the cloud in the
form of a transparent, foggy, often almost invisible curtain, does
not give rainfall. It consists mainly of lamina-shaped ice crys-
tals. It often causes the phenomenon of halo around the Sun
and the Moon, which sometimes is an only clear sign of this
genus. It belongs to the high-level clouds, occurs at an altitude
of 60 0 0–12,0 0 0 m;
• Genus Cumulus (Cu), billowy cloud – is a separate, thick, white
cloud, made of water droplets. Its upper part (except for the
genus of Cumulus fractus) has the shape of a dome. The hori-
zontal base of this cloud is always located at the altitude in the
range from about 60 0–250 0 m. Cumulus clouds are, therefore, a
type of clouds formed in the low troposphere. Sometimes they
are accompanied by light rain. These clouds can quickly trans-
form, and the typical lifespan of a small Cumulus is 10–30 min;
• Genus Cumulonimbus (Cb), rainy billowy cloud – dense cloud
expanding vertically to the altitude of several kilometres, some-
times in the shape of a tower, with an upper smooth sur-
face, terminated dome- or cauliflower-shaped (Cumulonimbus
calvus), or in a more extensive form in the high layer (Cumu-
lonimbus capillatus), reminiscent of a giant anvil or fungus. The
base of this type of clouds is located at an altitude of 2–3 km,
while their upper ceilings in the tropics may exceed an altitude
of 20 km. They are composed of water droplets in the lower
part and ice crystals in the upper part. These are the clouds
most developed in the vertical direction, which is why physi-
cal phenomena occurring in them are very violent. These types
of clouds can be a source of sudden rainfall, snowfall or hail,
which is often accompanied by electrical discharges (thunder-
storms);
• Genus Nimbostratus (Ns), rainy layered cloud – cloud in the
form of a dark grey uniform layer, usually wholly covering the
sky. It is made up of water drops and ice crystals. It is a cloud
that gives the longest-lasting rain or snow. The lower cloud
base occurs at an altitude of 20 0–50 0 m (often underneath, at
an altitude of 10 0–20 0 m and even lower, there are still jagged
12 T. Ście˛ żor / Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer 247 (2020) 106962
Stratus fractus clouds). The cloud thickness is substantial and
reaches 4–6 km. It often connects to the Altostratus cloud above
and, therefore, it always wholly obstructs the solar disk;
• Genus Stratus (St), layered cloud – cloud in the form of a
uniform white or greyish layer, the base of which is below
600 m above the ground. The occurrence of this type of clouds
is sometimes accompanied by drizzle or very light rain. At
night, these clouds significantly limit the process of cooling the
ground, and, during the day, limit the flow of solar radiation.
They cause adequate warming at night and cooling during the
day. The Stratus cloud differs from the fog in that its base does
not touch the ground. These clouds usually form on the warm
front;
• Genus Stratocumulus (Sc), billowy-layered cloud – a cloud in
the form of a grey layer or many patches resembling blocks,
which are usually flattened. It is made of clouded water drops.
Sometimes it is accompanied by light rain. It usually occurs be-
low an altitude of 2400 m. The layered structure is often asso-
ciated with temperature inversion above the top of the cloud.
Appendix B
Changes in the time course of any function f (T) are most natu-
ral to analyse by determining the derivative df(T)/dT. In the case
when f(T) = const during the whole measuring period (as the Sa
value during a cloudless night), the derivative df(T)/dT (in this case
dSa /dT) remains equal to zero. Any change in the value of Sa means
the appearance of a non-zero value of dSa /dT. Of course, the bright-
ness of the night sky is not described by a functional relationship
but by a discrete set of measuring points. This feature means that
the only possible method for determining the dSa /dT value is nu-
merical differentiation.
Numerical differentiation allows for estimating the derivative of
a mathematical function by using values of the function. The sim-
plest method is a finite difference approximation one [59]. A sim-
ple two-point estimation is to compute the slope of a nearby se-
cant line through the points (x − h, f(x − h)) and (x + h, f(x + h)).
In the case of described measurements, these points are respec-
tively (Ti − dT, Sa (Ti − dT)) and (Ti + dT, Sa (Ti + dT)), where Ti is the
time of the ith measurement and dT is the time interval between
two successive measurements. The slope of the line connecting
these two measuring points around the time Ti , so the derivative
dSa /dT at the Ti point, is equal to:
d Sa i Sa (Ti + dT ) − Sa (Ti − dT )
= (B1)
dT 2 · dT
This formula is known as the symmetric difference quotient,
and the method as the central finite difference one. In this case,
the first-order errors cancel, so the slope of these secant lines dif-
fer from the slope of the tangent line by an amount that is approx-
imately proportional to dT2 . For small values of dT this is a quite
accurate approximation to the tangent line.
In this paper, the daily time range of measurements is equal
to about 13 h in the winter months and about 10 h in summer
ones, and the time interval dT is equal to 10 min. It means that
dT constitutes about 1% of the daily time range. This percentage is
sufficient to consider dT as a very small value, allowing a reliable
numerical differentiation.
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