Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

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Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/soildyn

Time-dependent seismic fragility analysis of corroded pile-supported

wharves with updating limit states
Hamid Mirzaeefard a , Mohammad Amin Hariri-Ardebili b,c ,∗, Masoud Mirtaheri a
a
K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
b
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
c
University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Pile-supported wharves, as one of the main components in marine harbor systems, are subjected to multiple
Pile-supported wharves hazards such as earthquakes and corrosion during their lifetime. In this paper, the corrosion initiation time due
Corrosion to chloride ion diffusion (using both the deterministic and probabilistic approaches), temperature and humidity
Time-dependent fragility
variations are calculated for various steel materials in the typical pile-supported wharf of port Los Angeles.
Updating limit states
Various deterioration sources such as reduction in the ultimate strength and strain of prestressed strands and
concrete compressive strength are simulated. The updating limit state functions are identified by nonlinear
static analysis. Finally, the time-dependent fragility curves are developed using incremental dynamic analysis.
Results show that corrosion considerably reduces the seismic performance due to both structural strength and
ductility over the life cycle of the wharf. It also causes brittle fracture, a sudden and complete failure of the
corroded piles towards the end of the structure’s life cycle. Finally, a set of analytical models is proposed to
estimate the median of the aging fragility functions with a nearly constant dispersion.

1. Introduction
Several factors might cause damage to the structural components in
a port, and disrupt its functionality. They include but are not limited
to: man-made hazard (e.g., strike, fire, explosion, military attacks)
and natural hazards (e.g., earthquake, tsunami, aging). Among those
hazardous sources, the past experiences have shown that earthquakes
and corrosion are the most critical ones towards global failure and
interruption of its normal performance [1,2]. This may further cause
fatalities as well [3].
Many studies have investigated the seismic performance of pile-
supported wharves, including their sensitivity and fragility analyses.
Roth et al. [4] studied the seismic performance of pile-supported
wharves accounting for the soil–structure interaction (SSI). They high-
lighted the inherent limitations in using 1D springs where shaking-
induced permanent displacements of the underwater slope/dike were
completely ignored. Roth and Dawson [5] also used a continuous
soil modeling approach to increase the accuracy of the results and
to investigate SSI effects on the plastic hinge formation. McCullough
and Dickenson [6] investigated the behavior of piles in sloping rock
fill at marginal wharves using numerical and centrifuge models in
order to explain the performance of these structures. The results in-
dicated that modifications to current analysis methods are required
to accurately model the lateral behavior of piles in sloping rock fill.
Modifications will eventually reduce th 𝑝 − 𝑦 curve’s ultimate strength
in the down-slope direction. Chiou et al. [7] proposed a procedure
to develop the seismic fragility curves for a typical pile-supported
wharf in Taiwan. Fragility curves were constructed through a simple
statistical analysis based on the damage criteria and the obtained
responses from capacity spectrum method. A set of fragility curves
have been developed by Shafieezadeh et al. [8] using soil deformation
time-histories generated for an ensemble of synthetic and recorded
ground motions for the west coast of the U.S. The seismic fragility
curves for pile sections, pile-deck connections, relative movement of
the wharf with respect to the land-side crane rail for three limit state
(LSs) in 2D and 3D modes were obtained. Fragility analysis showed
that the relative movement of the wharf with respect to the land-
side rail was the most susceptible component to slight and moderate
damage. Thomopoulos and Lai [9] developed fragility curves of pile-
supported wharves based on nonlinear dynamic analysis. Assessment
of damage was performed by comparing envelopes of curvatures with
LS curvatures calculated on the basis of allowable material strains for
each LS. While the strains of the prestressed strands were critical for
in-ground part of piles, the crushing of core concrete governed the LS
for the pile-deck connections.

∗ Corresponding author at: University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.

E-mail address: mohammad.haririardebili@colorado.edu (M.A. Hariri-Ardebili).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106551
Received 30 June 2020; Received in revised form 7 November 2020; Accepted 13 December 2020
Available online 6 January 2021
0267-7261/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Mirzaeefard et al.
Fig. 1. Description of pile supported wharf used as case study.
Yang et al. [10] constructed 2D numerical models of vertical-pile-
supported wharves to develop seismic fragility curves. They used a
set of experimentally-based LSs, where the curvature of the pile-deck
connection was selected based on the tests information of T-headed
dowel connections. Amirabadi et al. [11] have developed an optimal
probabilistic seismic demand model for typical pile-supported wharf
structures in western U.S. and found that the spectral quantities lead
to optimal models. Heidary-Torkamani et al. [12] incorporated the soil
uncertainties to develop fragility curves. It is found that the randomness
in permeability of sandy soil had a significant effect on ductility param-
eters and permanent horizontal deformations. Su et al. [13] modeled
the soil–pile interaction (SPI) effects on the fragility curves of the
pile-supported wharves. It has been reported that a series of distinct
LSs combined with effects of SPI may lead to completely different
results in fragility curves. In two separate works, Su et al. [14,15] also
investigated the influence of soil permeability and slope strengthening
strategies on fragility results. They concluded that the soil permeability
is a parameter that may evidently affect the seismic fragility of wharf
structures. Furthermore, the soil-cement mixture retrofit of slope, is the
most effective factor to reduce the lateral deformation.
Despite various experimental and numerical studies to evaluate the
performance of the pile-supported wharves and to develop seismic
fragility curves, few studies have been conducted on chloride-induced
corrosion and aging impact on the time-dependent fragility functions.
The service life of reinforced concrete (RC) wharf structures which are
2
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551
exposed to the marine environment conditions was predicted by Kwon
et al. [16]. They have predicted the service life of the cracked concrete
in the probabilistic framework of Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). Seis-
mic vulnerability of a typical pile-supported wharf considering aging
effects due to chloride-induced corrosion of the reinforced concrete
piles identified by Banayan-Kermani et al. [17]. In order to improve the
seismic performance of the corroded wharves, carbon fiber-reinforced
polymers is used as a retrofit technique. The resulted fragility curves
demonstrate the evolving damage potential under different levels of
intensities taking into account time-dependent corrosion-induced de-
terioration. Finally, Schmuhl et al. [18] have investigated the impact
of chloride corrosion on the lateral force capacity and ductility of a
wharf-supporting prestressed concrete marine pile. The results showed
an increase in the occurrences of failure due to the alternate failure
criteria of stress corrosion cracking and brittle fracture.
As opposed to the studies related to the geotechnical aspects of
pile-supported wharf, the studies which are addressing the aging and
deterioration of these infrastructures are very rare. In majority of those
studies the corrosion process is modeled using an approximate formulas
without taking into account the nonlinear time-dependent parameters
such as temperature and humidity. Clearly, there is gap in long-term
risk assessment of pile-supported wharf which need to be quantified in
a more precise and systematic way.
In this paper, a series of extra factors is used to accurately cal-
culate the deterministic and probabilistic corrosion initiation time. In
H. Mirzaeefard et al.
Fig. 2. Load-deformation curves at different soil layers.
addition, the uncertainties in the parameters such as surface chloride,
critical chloride, diffusion coefficient, and the concrete cover are con-
sidered to improve the reliability of the deterministic model. While
all the previous studies have only considered the reduction in steel
material properties (e.g., cross-sectional are and ultimate stress), we
further account for the reduction of ultimate steel strain that causes
a large reduction in ductility and concrete compressive strength. The
ductility reduction introduces a new concept of time-dependent damage
LSs (which have been never studied before). In order to capture the
chloride degradation effects on the piles capacity, the reduction of
concrete and steel mechanical properties is identified over the time.
Finally, the time-dependent fragility curves are generated.
2. Finite element modeling of a Wharf structure
2.1. Case study model description
A typical pile-supported wharf located at the Port of Los Angeles
is used as a vehicle for investigation of aging and shaking effects [13–
15,19]. The 2D profile of such container wharf is shown in Fig. 1(a).
It is 317.2 m long and 30.5 m wide. The distance between piles is 6.7
m, except between pile F and E which is 3.7 m. Along the longitudinal
direction, there are a total of 52 bays each one in an identical distance
of 6.1 m from each other. Along the transverse direction, there are six
rows of prestressed RC piles each one is 42 m long. While the pile rows
F and E have an identical depth in the ground, the rest have various
underground depths. The concrete deck supported on these piles has a
minimum thickness of 0.46 m. The rigid connection between piles and
deck is considered according to the instruction provided by [13,14].
The wharf deck is modeled using linear elastic beam elements. The
dike has an inclination of 31deg . According to the configuration of the
wharf structure, a selected frame for simulation is shown in Fig. 1(b).
Due to the general uniformity and symmetry along the longitudinal
axis of the wharf, the 2D model of a middle frame is established with
OpenSees software [20]. While there exists many papers adapting the
2D state-of-the-practice modeling technique for pile-supported wharves
(e.g., [4,5,8,10,13–15,21–27]), it is equally important to point out the
importance of 3D modeling too. In order to account for the plan irreg-
ularities, pile-to-pile interaction, as well as the interaction of adjacent
wharf sections, the 3D modeling techniques is used [19,28–31]. Among
others, the major finding in these papers was that response of the piles
is dictated by the resulting soil deformation mechanisms.
Dead load consists of the weight of the entire structure includes
piles and deck. The pile-supported wharf is a container type that
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Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551
bears a substantial amount of live load equal to 50 kN/m2 [32]. Note
that the width of the loading area for middle frame in 2D numerical
model is 6.10 m, See Fig. 1(b). The mass considered for the dynamic
analysis includes the structural dead load, and 10% of the uniform live
load [33].
2.2. Pile numerical modeling
The pile cross-section has an octagonal shape, Fig. 1(c), whose
sides are 253 mm long. The prestressed seven-wire strands for all
piles conform to ASTM A416, Grade 250, and impose an effective
prestress of 1062 MPa. The initial strain in strands is equal to 𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑖 ∕𝐸𝑠 =
1062∕196,500 = 0.005 (and later will be shown in Fig. 12 for both
corroded and non-corroded strands). The prestressed strands are, in
fact, pre-tensioned members which are fully bonded to the concrete.
The diameter of the strands is 15.2 mm. The standard also specifies
that the diameter of the middle wire must be larger than the outer ones
by an amount no less than 0.102 mm. The wires in this study were
specified directly to the minimum specification, resulting in an outer
and inner wires diameter of 5.020 mm, and 5.122 mm, respectively.
The 28 days concrete compressive strength is 49.0 MPa. Diameter of
all spirals is 12.8 mm which conform to ASTM A615, Grade 60 whose
pitch along the length of the piles is 51 mm.
In order to model the stress–strain relationship of the steel ma-
terial, steel02 material in OpenSees is adopted which represents
the constitutive model by Giuffre–Menegotto–Pinto. For the pile itself,
the concrete01 model with Kent–Scott–Park model and degraded
linear unloading/reloading stiffness is utilized. The pile cross-section is
discretized by 16 elements both in the circumferential and radial direc-
tions (4 series of elements in intact core, 6 series for the cracked core,
and 6 series for the cracked cover), See Fig. 1(d). The prestressed piles
are modeled using dispBeamColumn elements with five integration
points along their length. Each element is approximately 1.0 m. The
impact of confined and unconfined concrete material are considered
using the relations by Mander et al. [34]. A list of material properties
is provided in Table 1.
2.3. Soil-pile interaction
The soil profile underneath the wharf, Fig. 1(a), has different layers
with various properties listed in Table 2. An important consideration
in the SPI analysis is to develop a reliable estimation of soil and
other material behavior subjected to the applied lateral load. For this
H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Table 1
Properties of steel material [19,34].
Symbol Property Quantity
Steel
𝐹𝑠𝑦 Prestressed strand yield strength [MPa] 1,490
𝐹𝑠𝑢 Prestressed strand ultimate strength [MPa] 1,725
𝐸𝑠 Prestressed strand elastic modulus [MPa] 196,500
𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑖 Prestressed steel initial stress [MPa] 1,062
𝐹𝑦𝑠 Spiral yield strength [MPa] 413.6
𝐹𝑢𝑠 Spiral ultimate strength [MPa] 620
𝐸𝑠 Spiral elastic modulus [MPa] 199,948
Concrete
𝑓𝑐′ Unconfined concrete compressive strength [MPa] 49.0
𝜖𝑐′ Strain at unconfined concrete peak strength 0.002
𝜖𝑐 Strain at unconfined concrete crushing strength 0.005
𝑓𝑐𝑐′ Confined concrete compressive strength [MPa] 75.0
′
𝜖𝑐𝑐 Strain at confined concrete peak strength 0.0073
𝑓𝑐𝑢 Confined concrete compressive crushing strength [MPa] 64.0
𝜖𝑐𝑢 Strain at confined concrete crushing strength 0.0186

purpose, and according to Fig. 1(e), multiple horizontal and vertical

nonlinear springs are placed along the pile to simulate the soil load-
deformation. The springs are inserted at all nodes along the pile, and
their material properties are directed by the soil layer in which the Fig. 3. 𝑝 − 𝑦 curves at different soil layers associated with Pile A.
pile crosses. A total of 400 vertical and horizontal springs are used to
model the entire soil profile. The interaction between the pile and the
surrendering soil in the horizontal direction is modeled by 𝑝−𝑦 springs,
while the vertical direction is modeled by 𝑡−𝑧 and 𝑄−𝑧 springs for side
and tip resistance, respectively. Fig. 1(e) shows only a limited number
of springs around the piles for illustrative purposes.
To estimate the 𝑝 − 𝑦 curves, four different relations have been
adopted: API [35] for sand, Matlock [36] for soft clay, Reese and Welch
[37] for stiff clay, and EMI [38] for quarry rockfill. On the other hand,
to determine the 𝑡−𝑧 and 𝑄−𝑧 curves, the recommendations by API [35]
is implemented. Next, the characteristics of load-deformation of all soil
layers under static and cyclic loading have been applied to zero-length
elements in OpenSees. These elements have two nodes with identical
coordinates in which one of them is considered to be fixed and the
other is free along the length of the pile. OpenSees uniaxial material
models of PySimple1, TzSimple1, QzSimple1 are assigned to
horizontal and two vertical directions, respectively. Due to lack of
appropriate material for stiff clay in OpenSees, Pinching4 material Fig. 4. Corrosion process in reinforced concrete.
is used to estimate its load-deformation. This material properly depicts
the behavior and gap formation in the stiff clay soils [39]. In order
to model the quarry rockfill, steel02 material model is used. The
prestressed strands [43], which leads to cracking and spalling of the
hysteresis load-deformation curves of different soil layers are illustrated
concrete. Deterioration process is usually divided into two main phases:
in Fig. 2. As seen 𝑝 − 𝑦 soil strength of sand is higher than other soil
initiation and propagation, See Fig. 4. There is no corrosion during the
layers and has the most effect of stability of pile-supported wharf.
initiation period. At this phase, only the chloride ions are gradually
One may note the soil load-deformation curves in cyclic condition
are usually less than those under static loading. For example, Fig. 3 diffused through concrete piles towards the prestressed strands. Once
shows the 𝑝−𝑦 curves for all soil layers of pile A under static and cyclic the chloride concentration, at the depth of prestressed strands, reaches
loading. The soil depth is calculated from level 0.0 in Fig. 1(a). One its critical value, the propagation phase begins. The propagation phase
may easily track the capacity reduction in cyclic mode. This reduction consists of two sub-stages: rust expansion and cracking. The main
in soil’s strength will be later considered in seismic analyses. A high structural deterioration starts after crack initiation. Therefore, a reli-
permeability (i.e., 1 m/s) is adopted in finite element simulation to able estimation of the corrosion initiation time plays a crucial role
prevent potential liquefaction. The damping for soil and structural to improve the accuracy of the subsequent performance assessment.
elements are assumed to be 5% and 1%, respectively [11]. There exists two approaches to estimate the corrosion initiation time:
(1) deterministic, and (2) probabilistic.
3. Chloride-induced corrosion
3.1. Deterministic approach
Strands corrosion due to chloride attack is the major deterioration
source of the concrete piles in marine environments. This phenomenon
decreases the diameter of the corroded prestressed strands, and subse- In the absence of the applied electrical field and stable moisture
quently reduces the members’ strength. If the chloride penetrates into condition of the concrete core, the diffusion is the major mechanism
the bulk of concrete, the alkali protective layer of reinforcement is in chloride transport through the concrete. In order to investigate the
degraded, and the corrosion of the embedded steel bars is initiated [40– diffusion process, it is important to find the variation in the chloride
42]. The corrosion products can expand more than three times of sound content at different depths of the concrete member. The penetration of

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H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Table 2
Soil layers properties.
Elevation [m] Soil description 𝜌 [kg/m3 ] 𝜙𝑠 [deg] G [MPa] c [kPa]
32.0–52.0 Quarry rockfill 2240 45 141 0
45.5–52.0 Loose marine sand 1920 32 100 0
39.0–45.5 Dense marine sand 2000 36 151 0
37.0–39.0 Medium dense marine sand 2000 34 127 0
29.5–37.0 Soft to stiff lagoonal clay 1760 0 26 80
25.0–29.5 Stiff lagoonal clay 1840 0 43 108
17.0–25.0 Stiff lagoonal clay 1840 0 84 135
0.0–17.0 Very dense lakewood-San Pedro sand 2080 38 279 0

Note: Density: 𝜌, friction angle: 𝜙𝑠 , Shear modulus: G, Cohesion: c.

chloride ions into concrete piles follows the Fick’s second law of diffu- The mathematical expression of those coefficients can be summarized
sion. For a semi-infinite 1D diffusion, the equation can be formulated as [49–51]:
as [44]: ⎧ 𝐷ref
[ ( )] = 10(−12.6+2.4𝑤∕𝑐)
⎪ ( )𝑚
𝑥 𝑡ref
𝐶(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐶𝑠 1 − erf √ (1) ⎪ 𝐹1 (𝑡) = 𝑡
2 𝐷𝑐 𝑡 ⎪ ( )( )
⎨ 𝐹 (𝑇 ) 𝑈 1 (3)
= exp 𝑅𝑐 − 𝑇1
where 𝐶(𝑥, 𝑡) in [kg/m3 ]
is the chloride ion concentration, 𝐶𝑠 in ⎪ 2 𝑇ref
⎪ ( )−1
[kg/m3 ] is the surface chloride, erf is the Gaussian error function, 𝑥 (1−𝑅𝐻)4
⎪𝐹3 (𝑅𝐻) = 1 + (1−𝑅𝐻
is the depth measured from the surface, 𝑡 is the time of exposure, and ⎩ )4 𝑐

finally, 𝐷𝑐 in [m2 ∕s] presents the diffusion coefficient.
The corrosion initiation time, value of the surface chloride, and
mechanism of the chloride penetration vary due to a high degree by
the exposure conditions of concrete piles in the marine environment.
In this respect, three exposure conditions can be specified according to
the position of the structural elements in relation to chloride ions on
ascending areas of the pile [45]:
• Atmospheric zone: Concrete is not exposed directly to seawater and
is only affected by chloride carried by sea spray wind.
• Splash/Tidal zones: Concrete is subject to wetting and drying cycles,
leading to the highest risk for chloride-induced corrosion.
• Submersion zone: Concrete is constantly immersed in seawater, and
corrosion risk is low due to lack of oxygen availability.
In order to determine the depth of splash/tidal zones, the differences
between the maximum and minimum water levels in the Los Angeles
Port during the past 20 years are collected [46]. The average and
maximum of these values are 2.5 m and 2.9 m, respectively. Note that
this data belongs to the water height from tidal measurements, and
they do not consider the wave height driven by wind and weather
effects. These secondary factors increase the depth of the splash/tidal
zone. Accordingly, the atmospheric zone assumed one discrete 0.5 m
length element, the splash/tidal zone consists of 5 m length elements
of piles, and the Submersion zone includes the remaining elements. This
assumption is consistent with Schmuhl et al. [18].
Based on different exposure zones discussed above, the surface
chloride is assumed to be 0.17% (i.e., 4.08 kg/m3 ) and 0.48% (i.e.,
11.53 kg/m3 ) of concrete mass for atmospheric and splash/tidal zones,
respectively [47]. According to Glass and Buenfeld [48], the surface
condition of 0.5M NaCl concentration solution (i.e., 17.7 kg/m3 of pore
solution) simulates complete submersion in the sea water. Due to the
negligible oxygen content in submersion zone or locations fully in soil,
the surface chloride in submersion zone is assumed to be 3 kg/m3 .
This assumption is consistent with Schmuhl et al. [18]. As we will
describe later, this amount of chlorine will not cause corrosion in the
submersion zone. The critical chloride content, 𝐶𝑐𝑟 , is considered to be
0.11% (i.e., 2.75 kg/m3 ) of concrete mass [47]. The chloride diffusion
coefficient, 𝐷𝑐 , is calculated by taking into account the effects of major
influential parameters, such as the water-to-cement ratio (𝑤∕𝑐), age of
the concrete, ambient temperature, and relative humidity [49]:
𝐷𝑐 = 𝐷ref . 𝐹1 (𝑡) . 𝐹2 (𝑇 ) . 𝐹3 (𝑅𝐻)
where 𝐷ref is diffusion coefficient estimated for a reference temperature
and humidity, 𝐹1 (𝑡) is the concrete age coefficient, 𝐹2 (𝑇 ) is the tem-
perature coefficient, and 𝐹3 (𝑅𝐻) is the relative humidity coefficient.
where 𝑤∕𝑐 = 0.45, 𝑡ref = 28 [days] is the reference time, 𝑚 = 0.04 is
the empirical age factor, 𝑈𝑐 = 43.2 [kJ/mol] (for 𝑤∕𝑐 = 0.45) is the
activation energy during the diffusion process, 𝑅 = 8.314 [J/mol K] is
gas constant, 𝑇ref = 296 [K] is the reference temperature, RH presents
the relative humidity, and 𝑅𝐻𝑐 = 75% is the critical RH level.
Functions 𝐹2 (𝑇 ) and 𝐹3 (𝑅𝐻) are calculated using the recorded tem-
perature and relative humidity for Los Angeles area during time period
2000–2020 [46]. According to Fig. 5(a), these data have a periodic
trend, and a sinusoidal function can be fitted to get the analytical form.
For a total of 75 years (900 months), the temperature and relative
humidity at the 𝑗th month of the structure’s life cycle can be best
presented as:
{ ◦
𝑇 ( K) = 282.7 + [7.4 sin(0.000045𝑗 + 1.6) + 8.0 sin(0.53𝑗 − 2.1)]
𝑅𝐻(%) = 62.5 + [8.0 sin(0.000045𝑗 + 1.6) + 6.9 sin(0.53𝑗 − 1.9)]
(4)
where 𝑗 ∈ (0, 900] presents the month.
Fig. 5 illustrates the variation of diffusion coefficient, and three
functions in Eq. (3). As seen functions 𝐹1 and 𝐹3 (in this area) and 𝐹2
for the temperature less than 296 K reduce the 𝐷𝑐 factor. Moreover,
the diffusion coefficient decreases over lifetime of the structure. Finally,
the maximum chloride content at each year, Eq. (1), for three exposure
zones is determined and plotted in Fig. 5(f). This maximum chloride
content occurs at August in which the temperature and humidity are
both very high. As seen in this figure, corrosion initiation does not
occur in atmospheric and submersion zones for the first 75 years (those
curves do not exceed the critical chloride content). The main reason is
the low amount of surface chloride in these zones and presence of the
sufficient concrete cover. In splash/tidal zone, the corrosion initiation
is about 12.3 years after construction.
The structural deterioration takes place after crack initiation. Due
to rust expansion, the tensile stresses are increased in the concrete, and
the cracking is initiated. Liu [52] proposed the following equation to
estimate the crack initiation time:
𝑊
𝑡𝑐𝑟 = 𝑐𝑟 (5)
2𝑘𝑝
where 𝑊𝑐𝑟 is the critical amount of corrosion products in [mg/mm],
and 𝑘𝑝 is the rate of rust production.
More details on crack initiation time can be found in [52]. For
the current case study, the crack initiation time is calculated to be
(2)
0.55 years (or 201 days). Since the corrosion initiation time (i.e., 12.3
years) is much higher than the calculated crack initiation time (i.e., 0.55
year), we assume that cracking occurs immediately after corrosion
initiation time.

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H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Fig. 5. Visualization of the parameters involving in deterministic diffusion modeling.

3.2. Probabilistic approach Table 3

Random variables and their statistics.

So far, a deterministic model has been developed which does not ac- RV Distribution Mean COV Reference
count for multiple sources of uncertainties corresponding to the model 𝑥 Normal 0.076 [m] 0.20 [58]
parameters such as surface chloride content, critical chloride value, 𝐷𝑐 Lognormal 2.233 × 10−12 [m2 /s] 0.58 This study
Atmospheric 4.08 [kg/m3 ] 0.3125 [47]
concrete cover, and diffusion coefficient. An alternative solution to ad-
𝐶𝑠 Normal Splash/Tidal 11.53 [kg/m3 ] 0.176 [47]
dress these shortcomings is use a probabilistic approach. As mentioned Submersion 3 [kg/m3 ] 0.10 [59]
earlier, the corrosion initiation time is defined as the time required
𝐶𝑐𝑟 Lognormal 2.75 [kg/m3 ] 0.172 [47]
to reach the critical chloride value at a specific depth of the concrete
piles. Therefore, one can adopt the concept of structural reliability,
and compare the demand and capacity to develop a probabilistic LS.
Assuming the surface chloride content as a demand (or stressor), 𝑆, Next, these values are plug in to the diffusion model, and a total of
and the critical chloride value for corrosion initiation as capacity (or 1,000,000 MCS is performed which results in a lognormal distributional
resistance), 𝑅, the time-dependent LS can be defined as [53,54]: model for the chloride diffusion coefficient with mean of 2.233 × 10−12
[ ( )]
[m2 ∕s] and COV of 0.58. All RVs are listed in Table 3. Note that the
𝑥
𝐺(𝑈 , 𝑡) = 𝑅(𝑈 , 𝑡) − 𝑆(𝑈 , 𝑡) = 𝐶𝑐𝑟 − 𝐶𝑠 1 − erf √ (6) last row presents the uncertainty in capacity.
2 𝐷𝑐 𝑡
The resulted probability density function (PDF) of chloride content
where 𝑈 is the set of random variables (RVs), and 𝑡 presents the time. (i.e., demand) and the critical chloride threshold value (i.e., capacity)
𝐺 > 0 represents the safe region, while 𝐺 < 0 refers to the failure are shown in Fig. 6. For brevity of presentation, only three time laps
region. (i.e., 25, 50 and 75 years) are displayed. As seen, the PDF of the
In general, there are three sources of uncertainties in prediction of critical chloride content is constant (physics-based), while the one
the service life [55]: associated with chloride content increases over time. According to this
• Uncertainties associated with model parameters such as structural probabilistic approach, even in atmospheric and submersion areas, the
members dimensions and geometry. PDF of the chloride content partially overlaps the critical one. Note that
• Uncertainty in material properties of the concrete such as poros- in deterministic model, we did not have such an observation.
ity, water-to-cement ratio, mechanical and thermal properties, and Based on the probabilistic model in Eq. (6), the reliability analysis
diffusion coefficient. of a corrosion initiation time is conducted via crude MCS. A total of
• Uncertainty in the natural variability and time dependency of the 1,000,000 samples are generated, and the chloride content is calculated
environmental stressors which are applied to the structure. at the level of prestressed strands. In these simulations, the chloride
diffusion coefficient, surface, and critical chloride content are all RVs,
Following the previous studies [56,57], one modeling-related RV See Table 3. The MCS is propagated for different time intervals from
(i.e., depth of the concrete cover, 𝑥); and two material-related RVs 1 to 75 years, and the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the
(i.e., chloride diffusion coefficient, 𝐷𝑐 , and surface chloride content, corrosion initiation time is calculated as shown in Fig. 7. Again, the
𝐶𝑠 ), are considered in probabilistic analyses. The chloride diffusion results are presented for three exposure zones in the concrete pile.
coefficient Eq. (2) can be expressed as a function of water-to-cement According to this figure, the probability of corrosion at the end of
ratio, temperature, and relative humidity. The following mean and
the structure’s life cycle, for the atmospheric, the splash/tidal, and the
coefficient of variation (COV) are assumed for three parameters all with
submersion zones are 17%, 82%, and 1.1%, respectively.
normal distributional models:
Assuming the 50% probability of corrosion occurrence as a scalar
• Water-to-cement ratio: mean = 0.45 and COV = 0.05 [58], criteria [58], one can observe that the splash/tidal zone reaches to this
• Temperature: mean = 290 [◦ K] and COV = 0.02, and point only after 30 years of construction, while none of the atmospheric
• Relative humidity: mean = 70% and COV = 0.072. The statistical data and submersion zones ever reach to this value during the life time of
related to the temperature and RH are those recorded for Los Angeles the structure. Reducing the criteria to 10% probability of corrosion
area during time period 2000–2020. occurrence [56], the initiation time occurs after 10 and 52 years in the

6
H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Fig. 6. Probability distribution functions of chloride content at different locations and time intervals.

4.1. Strands

Pitting is the typical corrosion mechanism that occurs in prestressed

strands and reinforcing elements which are subjected to chloride corro-
sion [63–65]. Unlike uniform corrosion, the pitting corrosion involves
development of deep pits may occur randomly over the length of a
typical strands in the presence of chloride ions. In order to explain the
behavior of the corroded seven-wire strands, Jeon et al. [64] proposed
a representative model of a pit configuration as shown in Fig. 8(a).
This pit configuration has been considered in accordance with type-1
corrosion [64]. The gray area shows the residual cross-sectional area.
Fig. 7. Probability of corrosion for different zones.
As can be seen, the internal wire remains sound.
The loss of cross-sectional area in the corroded strands can be
calculated as:
splash/tidal and the atmospheric zones, respectively, and never occurs
in the submersion zone. 𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 2𝑟2 (𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) (7)
Recall that the corrosion initiation time obtained from deterministic
and,
approach in splash/tidal zone was 12.3 years, which is close to the ( )
probabilistic one with a 10% probability of corrosion occurrence crite- 𝑑𝑝
𝜃 = arccos 1 − 0 ≤ 𝑑𝑝 ≤ 2𝑟 (8)
ria. This provides a higher confidence in accepting the 10% criteria. The 2𝑟
objective of the probabilistic approach is only providing extra informa- where 𝑟 is the radius of one wire, and 𝑑𝑝 is the pit depth (in the radial
tion about the sensitivity of the acceptance criteria in this approach. direction).
In all the subsequent sections, the deterministic approach is used to The maximum pit depth, in [mm/yr], along each wire of strands
estimate the corrosion initiation and its structural deterioration [17, can be expressed as [66]:
50].
𝑑𝑝 = 0.0116 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 . 𝑅 . 𝑡 (9)
4. Impact of corrosion on structural components 𝑑𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
where 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 is the corrosion rate in [𝜇 A/cm2 ], 𝑅 = 𝑑𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑒
is pitting factor
Durability of the concrete structures is highly affected by the cor- varies from 4 to 8, and 𝑡 is the time since corrosion initiation in [years].
rosion of the prestressed strands and the spirals. Corrosion is a time- In the current paper, 𝑅 is assumed to be 5.65 (as proposed to Stewart
dependent phenomenon in which the mechanical properties of ma- [66]).
terials are reduced over the structure’s life cycle. This may have a The corrosion rate is time-dependent, and reduces over time. It is
significant influence on the strength and ductility of the RC or pre- expected that the production of rust will reduce the diffusion of the iron
stressed concrete members. Steel corrosion has the following major ions away from the steel surface. Also, the area ratio between the anode
mechanisms: and cathode is reduced. This means that the corrosion rate will decrease
over time. In this regard, the corrosion rate is determined as [67]:
1. Reduction of cross-sectional area for reinforcement,
2. Reduced ductility of reinforcement, 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (𝑡) = 0.85 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (1) . 𝑡−0.29 (10)
3. Reduction of strength and ductility of concrete due to cracking and where 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (1) is the corrosion rate at the beginning of the corrosion
reduced confinement, propagation given by:
4. Reduced bond strength (of both reinforcement and prestressed strands),
3.78(1 − 𝑤∕𝑐)−1.64
5. Stress corrosion of prestressed strands 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (1) = (11)
𝑥
This paper accounts for all these effects except reduction of bonding where 𝑥 presents the reinforcement cover in [cm].
interaction, and ductility of concrete. While bounding interaction is an Fig. 8(b) shows the corrosion rate for 75 years of the structure’s life
important effect [60,61], its incorporation requires a continuum level cycle (after corrosion initiation time). After calculating the corrosion
finite element modeling of the system [62] which is beyond the scope rate and the pit depth, the loss of cross-sectional area of seven-wire
of this paper. prestressed strand is calculated as shown in Fig. 8(c). The relative
The objective of Section 3 was to identify the occurrence of the reduction in cross-sectional area, 𝜂, of strands after 75 years is 17%
corrosion in piles, and to determine the corrosion initiation time. Once based on the following equation:
we confirmed that the piles will experience corrosion in its life cycle,
𝐴𝑠𝑙,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟
its structural effects are discussed in this section. Hereafter, whenever 𝜂= (12)
𝐴0
we refer to the ‘‘time’’ parameter, we meant the time after corrosion
initiation time, i.e., 12.3 years. where 𝐴0 is the initial cross-sectional area and is 139.4 [mm2 ].

7
H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Fig. 8. Corrosion in strands, including mechanics, rate and mechanical properties.

Jeon et al. [64] investigated the reduction of mechanical properties

of the materials such as strength and ductility of steel material. Fol-
lowing a series of tensile tests, the stress–strain relation of a corroded
strands is defined, with the bi-linear model. The ultimate stress and
strain values of strands are determined by

𝑓𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝜂 + 𝑏 (13)
{ 2
𝑐𝜂 + 𝑑𝜂 + 𝑒 𝑑𝑝 < 0.5 mm
𝜀𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = (14)
𝑓 𝜂𝑔 𝑑𝑝 ≥ 0.5 mm
where 𝑓𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 and 𝜀𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 are the ultimate stress and strain of the
corroded strands, respectively. Other coefficients are: 𝑎 = −1991.8,
𝑏 = 1748, 𝑐 = −5.96, 𝑑 = −1.3, 𝑒 = 0.0754, 𝑓 = 0.0025, and 𝑔 =
−0.621. Ultimate stress and strain of strands (after corrosion initiation
time) are plotted in Figs. 8(d) and 8(e), respectively. After 75 years
of structural life, the ultimate stress and strain have been reduced 25%
and 90%, respectively, meaning that corrosion had significant effect on
the ductility of the structure and caused brittle behavior of structure.
Moreover, the yield stress and strain, are defined as:

𝑓𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.85𝑓𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (15)

𝑓𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟
𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = (16)
𝐸𝑠
where, 𝐸𝑠 is the elastic modulus of strands, 𝑓𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 and 𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 are the
yield stress and strain of the corroded strands, respectively. Fig. 9. Mechanical properties of spirals.
Finally, stress–strain relation of the corroded strands can be math-
ematically expressed as:
{ experimentally by Du et al. [68]. They conducted both accelerated and
𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑠 𝜀𝑠 < 𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 simulated corrosion tests on the bars embedded in the concrete and
𝜎𝑠 (𝜀𝑠 ) = 𝜀 −𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟
0.85𝑓𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 + 𝜀 𝑠 −𝜀 0.15𝑓𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝜀𝑠 ≤ 𝜀𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 concluded that the strength of steel bars decreases with chloride pene-
𝑠𝑢,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟
tration. Subsequently, the following equation is proposed to determine
(17)
the time-dependent loss of yield strength in the corroded reinforcing
The stress–strain curves for the prestressed strands are shown in bars:
Fig. 8(f) for different time intervals. As can be seen, the ductility of 𝑠 𝑠
𝑓𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = (1 − 0.005𝜂) 𝑓𝑦,0 (18)
prestressed strands is significantly reduced due to the corrosion effect.
This reduction is evident in early age of corrosion. 𝑠
where 𝑓𝑦,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 is the yield strength of the corroded spiral, 𝑠
is the yield
𝑓𝑦,0
strength of non-corroded spiral, and 𝜂 can be calculated from Eq. (12)
4.2. Spirals (assuming that steel mass loss can be approximately computed from its
cross-sectional area loss). While a same equation is used to calculate
The spirals are subjected to corrosion as well. Due to the differences the area reduction, the 𝜂 in this sub-section is the relative reduction
of chemical composition between prestressed strands and reinforcing in cross-sectional area of spiral. It is noteworthy that there have been
bars, another strength reduction model is used for spirals, See Eq. (18). proposed several different relations to calculate the reduction in cross-
The residual strength of the corroded reinforcing bars was investigated sectional area (e.g., Val and Melchers [69] for reinforcement) that are

8
H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Fig. 10. Mechanical properties of concrete.

quite similar to our assumption in this paper and they follow the pit
configuration corrosion.
Furthermore, the reduction of cross-sectional area of the spiral can
be expressed by Eq. (7). Residual cross-sectional area and yield stress of
spiral are shown in Fig. 9. The relative reduction in cross-sectional area
and yield stress of spiral after 75 years are 5% and 2.5%, respectively.
Note that spirals are not modeled directly in the OpenSees software;
however, their effects on mechanical properties of the confinement
concrete are described in the following section.

4.3. Concrete

The effects of corrosion-induced cracking due to rust expansion on

concrete compressive strength and structure’s loading-carrying capacity
should be included in modeling. Shayanfar et al. [70] investigated
the reduction in concrete’s maximum compressive strength in terms of
degree of corrosion by construction of various experimental specimens
and subjecting them to an accelerated corrosion test. They proposed the
following equation for the reduced compressive strengths in concrete:
′ ′
𝑓𝑐,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = (1 − 𝜆) 𝑓𝑐,0 (19)
′ is the initial concrete compressive strength equal to 49 MPa,
where 𝑓𝑐,0
𝜆 is the percentage of compressive strength reduction expressed by the
following equation: Fig. 11. Section and structural capacity.

𝜆 = 2.288 𝜂 − 1.733 for 𝑤∕𝑐 = 0.45 (20)

Taking into account Eq. (19), the compressive strength of concrete
during the wharf’s life cycle (after corrosion initiation time) can be
plotted as shown in Fig. 10(a). Moreover, the stress–strain curves of
the cover concrete (i.e., unconfined concrete) is obtained as shown
in Fig. 10(b). Note that the depth of crack propagation around the
prestressed strands is considered twice the cover [70,71]. Therefore,
three zones have been considered in the cross-section of a pile: cover,
cracked core, and uncracked core. In order to calculate the compressive
strength of the cracked core, after calculating the loss of cross-sectional
area, and strength of strands and spiral and concrete compressive
strength, the mechanical properties of the confined concrete are de-
termined using Mander et al. [34] relation over time, and is shown
in Fig. 10(c). As can be seen in Fig. 10, after corrosion initiation, the
concrete compressive strength reduces from its initial value 49 [MPa] to
only 30 [MPa] after 75 years (i.e., 39% of reduction). Also, the confined
compressive strength is reduced to only 53 [MPa] in the last year of
structure’s life (i.e., 30% of reduction).
nonlinear material stress–strain relationship. For a given axial load
there exists an extreme compression fiber strain, 𝜀, and a section
curvature, 𝜙 = 𝜀∕𝑐, in [1/length] (where 𝑐 is the depth of the neutral
axis). A unique bending moment can be calculated at this section cur-
vature from the stress distribution. The extreme concrete compression
strain and section curvature can be iterated until a range of moment–
curvature values are obtained. According to moment–curvature curves,
strength and ductility of the pile section are reduced in its life cy-
cle. The maximum moment obtained from the intact pile’s section is
675 [kN m], and the curvature is higher than 0.1 m−1 , while the
maximum moment and the corresponding curvature obtained from
the corroded pile’s section after 75 years are 485 [kN m] and 0.025
m−1 , respectively. These last two numbers are minimum of all ‘‘max-
imum moments’’ and ‘‘maximum curvatures’’ obtained from corroded
piles in their life cycle. The difference between the moment–curvature
curves from intact and corroded piles sections is due to using the real
stress–strain relations of prestressed strand in accordance with Fig. 8(f).

5. Results 5.2. Updating limit states

5.1. Moment-curvature diagrams
Having the time-dependent mechanical properties of steel and con-
crete from previous section, the next step is to compute the time-
dependent moment–curvature diagrams of pile section as shown in
Fig. 11(a). Moment–curvature analysis is a method to accurately de-
termine the load-deformation behavior of a concrete section using
Determination of a series of proper LSs is essential towards seismic
fragility function derivation. The LSs for wharf components are defined
by qualitative damage states (DSs) such as slight, moderate, severe,
and complete. For this purpose, Permanent International Association
for Navigation Congresses (PIANC) [72] has provided a set of strain
limits for constitutive materials of pile sections for the first two DSs
(i.e., slight and moderate). Shafieezadeh et al. [73] assumed that the

9
H. Mirzaeefard et al.
Table 4
Strain limits associated with defined LSs.
Material Limit States
Slight Moderate Severe
Core and cover concrete compressive strain 0.004 0.008 _ _
Core concrete compressive strain _ _ 2∕3𝜀𝑐𝑢
Non-corroded prestressed strand strain 0.005 0.015 2∕3𝜀𝑠𝑢
Corroded prestressed strand strain _ _ 2∕3𝜀𝑠𝑢
severe damage in a pile section occurs when the constitutive materials
of the section reaches the strain limit of 2/3 of their corresponding ulti-
mate strain(i.e. 𝜀𝑐𝑢 and 𝜀𝑠𝑢 ). In this study, the complete DS corresponds
to the point in which the strain limit in steel or concrete material
reaches to their ultimate strain (one is enough). The strain limits for
each of the constitutive materials are presented in Table 4.
Note that according to the previous section, the ultimate strain in
the prestressed corroded strands varies over time. Therefore, the time-
dependent LS should be defined during the structure’s life cycle. For
this purpose, Chiou et al. [7] suggested to perform pushover analysis
to compute the qualitative demands associated with different DSs. A
nonlinear static pushover analysis is required by gradually increasing
the lateral displacement of the wharf deck. The increased drift increases
the steel and concrete strains sequentially, as well as the transition
from slight DS to complete one. The bound limits of LSs are identified
by the relationships between steel or concrete strain, and the demand
parameter (i.e., deck displacement) is established by the pushover
analysis. Determining the bound limits of seismic demands for different
DSs, consists of five following steps:
1. Perform pushover analysis at different time intervals, Fig. 11(b).
2. Determine the structural elements with high probability of failure.
These elements are generally located on the pile deck connection,
elements near the soil slope surface, or the highest element in the
splash/tidal zone.
3. Determine the minimum deck displacement corresponding to fiber
core and cover concrete material strain in each LSs presented in
Table 4.
4. Determine the minimum deck displacement corresponding to the
prestressed strand (corroded or non-corroded) material strain in
each LSs presented in Table 4.
5. Determine the minimum deck displacement calculated from steps 3
and 4 (i.e., minimum value from steps 3 and 4). This value accounts
for the simultaneous impact of concrete and prestressed strands’ LSs
(and is used as a compound metric showing which material governs
the global LS).
According to Fig. 11(b), the load-carrying capacity of the structure
decreases due to corrosion over time. Due to the minor corrosion at the
early ages, this reduction is negligible. Fig. 12 presents the relationship
between the demand parameter (i.e., deck displacement) and the steel
and concrete material’s strain of the first damaged element. Positive
strain indicates the tensile stresses in prestressed strands while the
negative strain is an indicator of compressive stress in the core and
cover concrete. It should be noted that due to the initial tension, there
is an initial strain in the prestressed strands.
It is found that in the early ages after the corrosion initiation, the
elements with highest strain in concrete and steel fiber are located in
the pile-deck connection. As explained in Section 3.1, this part of the
structure is in the atmospheric zone and is not corroded. Also, the strain
in the elements with corroded prestressed strands in the splash/tidal
zone is low and does not affect the LSs. This means that LSs in the early
ages are determined by strain of non-corroded materials in pile-deck
connection that are shown in Fig. 12(a).
According to Section 4, the strength and ductility of the cor-
roded pile-supported wharf have been decreased during the life cycle.
Strength reduction causes an increase in the strain of the corroded
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551
strands located in the splash/tidal zone. Note that the strain of corroded
strand in early ages of wharf is very low. Moreover, the ductility
reduction decreases the LSs related to the ultimate strain, See Table 4.
Complete According to Fig. 12(b), at the middle ages (i.e., after 35 years of
corrosion), the strain of the corroded strands is a determinant factor
𝜀𝑐𝑢 in severe and complete LSs. Although the strain of the non-corroded
𝜀𝑠𝑢
strands (which are located in the pile-deck connection) is higher than
𝜀𝑠𝑢
the corroded ones in Fig. 12(b), the severe and complete LSs are
determined by the ultimate strain of the corroded strands (See Table 4)
that has decreased over time. One should notice that after 35 years,
the ultimate strain of the corroded strands has more reduction, and
according to Table 4, the severe and complete LSs (i.e., 2∕3𝜀𝑠𝑢 and 𝜀𝑠𝑢 )
are decreased resulting in reduction of the corresponding deck displace-
ment. This value (i.e., deck displacement) is less than displacement
corresponding values in non-corroded strands and core concrete.
Therefore, the combination of different LS definitions with aging
problem causes updating LSs over the life cycle of the structure. In
this way, the determinant factor in slight and moderate LSs is the
compressive strain of the concrete in pile deck connection, while it is
strain of the corroded strands in the severe and complete LSs. These
lead to a significant reduction of severe and complete LSs in the middle
years of the structure, Table 5. Prior to year 35, all LSs are governed
by strain of the strand and concrete material of non-corroded element
in pile-deck connection in atmospheric zone.
After 35 years, corrosion is highly propagated in the splash/tidal
zone, due to reduction in strength and ductility of the prestressed
strands and concrete. Therefore the elements in this region determine
the LSs. This can be also observed in Fig. 11(b) where there is a sudden
reduction in pushover curves after 35 years. Moreover, it is important
to note that critical strains are not always recorded at a same location
over time. For example, the deck displacement corresponding to the
following two scenarios might be compared at any time 𝑡 during the
life cycle of the structure: (1) strain of corroded strands of pile ‘‘F’’
in splash/tidal zone, and (2) strain of core concrete of pile ‘‘E’’ in
pile-deck connection in atmospheric zone. Finally, the minimum deck
displacement from multiple competing scenarios is selected as a final
(or global) LS value at each time step of the analysis. A Mat [74] script
is developed in which searches for strain values in all materials and all
locations and reports the minimum deck displacement to be used for
updating LS.
In the final years, the corrosion has greatly increased so that all
four LSs have determined by steel and concrete material elements in the
splash/tidal zone. This means that although the maximum moment and
shear occur in pile-deck connection, elements in splash/tidal zone are
too weak and they initiate the failure. As shown in Fig. 12(c), the strain
of the corroded strands has increased to ultimate strain, while the strain
of non-corroded strands in pile-deck connection is not significantly
changed. According to five steps of DS calculation, and the above-
mentioned explanations, the time-dependent LSs of the pile-supported
wharf are defined as summarized in Table 5. The relative reduction
of time-dependent LSs for slight, moderate, severe and complete states
after 75 years is 25%, 23%, 70% and 78%, respectively.
5.3. Ground motion selection and deconvolution of records
The required ground motion records for nonlinear transient analyses
can be either artificially generated or selected from the recorded ones.
A relatively large set of 60 ground motions is used in this paper. These
records have been generated by the FEMA/SAC project [75] for the Los
Angeles area, and they include both the records from previous earth-
quakes and the artificially-generated ones. Suites of time-histories are
provided at 2%, 10%, and 50% probabilities of occurrence in 50 years.
Each intensity level includes 20 records. The spectral acceleration and
the median curve for three categories of records are shown in Fig. 13.
In order to generate appropriate input acceleration time-histories,
all 60 records were deconvoluted based on the soil profile of the model
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H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Fig. 12. Strain-deck displacement relationship at different time intervals.

Fig. 13. Response spectra for 60 records.

Table 5 expressed in terms of an engineering demand parameter (EDP) such as

Time-dependent LSs for deck displacement [m] as demand parameter.
stresses, and drifts [80]. While a fragility curve can be derived based on
Year Slight Moderate Severe Complete different methods such as expert opinion [81], damage data collected
0 0.056 0.073 0.257 0.452 from past earthquakes [82], or numerical simulations [83], we use the
5 0.056 0.073 0.256 0.451
latter option in this paper.
10 0.055 0.072 0.253 0.443
15 0.054 0.071 0.251 0.438
The well-known incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) method is
20 0.053 0.070 0.246 0.429 adopted to perform the multiple nonlinear transient analyses and de-
25 0.052 0.068 0.241 0.419 velop fragility curves [84,85]. While the analyses were performed with
30 0.051 0.066 0.231 0.411 5 years of time increment, we will report only the representative
35 0.050 0.064 0.155 0.230
years and data. Moreover, the IDA is performed by increasing the
40 0.049 0.063 0.144 0.211
45 0.048 0.062 0.136 0.174 seismic excitation, progressively taking an increment 0.1 PGA𝑗 , where
50 0.047 0.061 0.097 0.125 𝑗 represents each those 60 original records (therefore the record scaling
55 0.046 0.060 0.091 0.116 is non-uniform). In this paper, a total of 18,630 transient analyses
60 0.045 0.059 0.086 0.110 were performed that each one taking 7 min (in average) in a core 𝑖7
65 0.044 0.058 0.081 0.105
70 0.043 0.057 0.078 0.100
Inter processor. Fig. 15 shows the IDA curves for 3 representative years
75 0.042 0.056 0.076 0.098 (i.e., intact, after 35 and 75 years). This figure also includes the 16%,
50% and 84% fractiles.
Fig. 16(a) collects all time-dependent 16%, 50% and 84% sum-
marized IDA curves for time 0:5:75 years. As seen, the dispersion of
using DEEP SOIL v 7.0 [76]. This method is a mathematical process that the 16% curves is higher than median and 84% curves. Moreover,
enables the user to determine the amplitude and frequency content of Fig. 16(b) illustrates transition from collapse level in median curves.
a particular earthquake record to obtain the expected input record for While the horizontal and vertical axes show the PGA and age of
structure [8,17,77]. For this purpose, the general quadratic/hyperbolic deterioration, the color contour is the 𝛥𝑚𝑎𝑥 . According to this figure,
model proposed by Groholski et al. [78] is used for curve fitting deterioration decreases the maximum deck displacement in which the
scheme that automatically modifies the reference curves introduced wharf is failed. It is important to note that the asymptotic of this
by Darendeli [79] based on the specified shear strength at the large transition is essentially nonlinear and non-uniform.
strains. Detailed procedure can be found in Hashash [76]. All 60 Finally, the fragility curves are developed using the IDA results, and
records deconvoluted to every soil layer of each six piles. Note that also the LSs explained in Table 5. Fragility function is computed based
there are totally 47 soil layers for all piles. Therefore, each record on [86]:
deconvoluted to 47 records (a total of 60×47 = 2,820 records), and used [ ]
[ ] ln(𝑖𝑚) − ln(𝜇LS )
as input signals during transient analysis by applying to all fixed nodes P LS|IM = 𝑖𝑚 = 𝛷 (21)
of zero-length 𝑝 − 𝑦 soil springs. The input and deconvoluted records 𝛽LS
[ ]
of pile F (as an example) are shown in Fig. 14 for the 1940 Imperial where P LS|IM = 𝑖𝑚 is the probability of exceeding the LS, 𝛷[ . ] is
Valley earthquake. the standard normal CDF, and 𝜇LS and 𝛽LS are median and logarithmic
standard deviation (STD) – also called dispersion – of the IM (i.e., PGA).
5.4. Time-dependent fragility curve Subsequently, the fragility curves for various LSs are shown in
Fig. 17. According to this figure, corrosion has limited effect on slight
This last section describes the developed time-dependent fragility and moderate LSs, and the results fragility curves are very close to each
curves. The seismic fragility is defined as the probability of exceedance other throughout the life cycle of the pile-supported wharf. The main
of a certain LS for specific level of ground motion intensity measure reason can be attributed to the fact that the structure has not been
(IM) such as peak ground acceleration (PGA). The LSs are usually significantly affected by the material nonlinearity. However, there is

11
H. Mirzaeefard et al.
Fig. 14. Input and deconvoluted records at different soil types.
Fig. 15. IDA curves including their fractiles.
Fig. 16. Time-dependent IDA summary curves and surfaces.
a significant differences among fragility curves in severe and complete
damage LSs. This is due to the reduction of strength and ductility due to
corrosion according to Section 5.2. Under a constant shaking intensity,
the deteriorated structure will experience higher probability of damage.
Fig. 18 is, in fact, a complementary plot to Fig. 17 in which four
LSs are plotted directly at three different ages. One major observation
is that increasing the age of the structure pushes the higher LS fragility
curves to left and makes four LSs close to each other. In other words,
at higher ages, there is smaller difference among the various fragility
curves, which subsequently cause a sudden transition from slight to
12
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551
complete LSs. This is an important finding which clearly shows there
is not enough warrant time for a deteriorated wharf, and even under a
relatively small intensity shaking (for example 0.4g), the structure may
experience 80% of its complete damage state.
Finally, Fig. 19 presents the time-dependent median, dispersion, and
COV of various LSs. As seen, the median for slight and moderate LSs
are linearly decreasing with a very mild slope, Fig. 19(a). However, the
severe and complete LSs have a sudden drop in their median values. As
of the dispersion, there is no meaningful relation between 𝛽 and time.
Again, for slight and moderate LSs, the 𝛽 value is practically constant
over time, while two higher LSs show some fluctuations, Fig. 19(b). For
all practical purposes, we may recommend a 𝛽 value of 0.7. According
to Fig. 19(c), the COV of all LSs are increasing by an increase in time.
We propose a series of analytical solutions for median of various LSs.
A linear form is chosen for slight and moderate LSs, while a Sigmoid
type [87] is fitted into severe and complete LS data points:
{
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑡 Slight − Moderate
𝜇LS = 𝑐3 (22)
1+𝑐 exp(−𝑐 𝑡)
+ 𝑐 6 Severe − Complete
4 5
where 𝑐𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, … , 6) coefficients are optimized based on nonlinear
constrained optimization techniques. For the current case study, the
following values are obtained with coefficient of determination of 0.99:
• Slight LS: 𝑐1 = −0.00045, 𝑐2 = 0.135
• Moderate LS: 𝑐1 = −0.00056, 𝑐2 = 0.169
• Severe LS: 𝑐3 = −0.308, 𝑐4 = 324.5, 𝑐5 = 0.155, 𝑐6 = 0.483
• Complete LS: 𝑐3 = −0.476, 𝑐4 = 470.2, 𝑐5 = 0.167, 𝑐6 = 0.693
6. Summary
In this paper, the effect of corrosion on seismic behavior of a typical
pile-supported wharf in the port of Los Angeles is investigated. For this
purpose, a detailed 2D model is developed in OpenSees. The interaction
between the piles and soil in the horizontal direction are modeled by
𝑝−𝑦 springs, and the vertical direction is modeled by 𝑡−𝑧 and 𝑄−𝑧 soil
springs for side and tip resistance, respectively. The major observations
were as follows:
H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

Fig. 17. Fragility curves for different LSs.

Fig. 18. Time-dependent fragility curves.

Fig. 19. Time-dependent statistics of fragility functions.

• The corrosion initiation time is calculated with a deterministic and
probabilistic approach considering nonlinear time-dependent param-
eters such as temperature and humidity. Due to low amount of surface
chloride and sufficient concrete cover, the corrosion initiation does
not occur in Atmospheric and Submersion zones. In splash/tidal zone,
the corrosion initiation time with deterministic approach is estimated
to be 12.3 years. On the other hand, the probabilistic model provides
the corrosion initiation time in a stochastic nature.
• The impact of corrosion on reduction of area in steel material and the
mechanical properties such as the reduction in the ultimate strength
and strain of prestressed strands, reduction in strength of spirals, and
concrete compressive strength in core and cover are simulated.
The relative reduction of cross-sectional area of strands, ultimate
strength and strain after 75 years are 17%, 25% and 90%, respec-
tively. The relative reduction of cross-sectional area and yield stress of
spiral after 75 years are 5% and 2.5%, respectively. Furthermore, the
relative reduction of compressive strength in core and cover concrete
after 75 years are 39% and 30%, respectively. It is understood that
during the life cycle, the strength and ductility of the corroded pile-
supported wharf is reduced over time. The reduction in ductility

13
H. Mirzaeefard et al. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 142 (2021) 106551

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