Electr Eng
DOI 10.1007/s00202-017-0596-1
ORIGINAL PAPER
FPGA-in-the-loop simulation of a grid-connected photovoltaic
system by using a predictive control
Marco Morales-Caporal1 · Jose Rangel-Magdaleno1
Roberto Morales-Caporal2
Received: 24 February 2017 / Accepted: 20 June 2017
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017
Abstract Currently, the use of Field Programmable Gate
Array (FPGA) devices as control platforms is common in
areas where real-time control is important, as renewable
energy system. Grid-connected photovoltaic systems require
control strategies to optimize the performance of the com-
plete system. This article presents the implementation of
a control strategy on a FPGA platform working with a
single-phase grid-connected photovoltaic system developed
in MATLAB/Simulink environment. The control strategy of
the system consists of a variable-step MPPT algorithm with
a predictive current control to operate a boost converter on
the first stage. In the second stage, a simplified active and
reactive power control ensures that the maximum power is
transferred to the grid trough a cascaded H-bridge multilevel
inverter. A single-phase PLL based on the PQ theory is used
to track the frequency of the grid. The results obtained in the
simulation allow to validate the proposed strategy.
Keywords Photovoltaic system · FPGA · Grid-connected ·
MPPT · Cascade H-bridge multilevel inverter
B Jose Rangel-Magdaleno
jrangel@inaoep.mx
Marco Morales-Caporal
mmcaporal@yahoo.com.mx
Hayde Peregrina-Barreto
hperegrina@inaoep.mx
Roberto Morales-Caporal
rmcaporal@ieee.org
1 National Institute for Astrophysics, Optics and Electronics,
Luis Enrique Erro #1, Puebla, Mexico
2 Instituto Tecnologico de Apizaco, Tlaxcala, Mexico
· Hayde Peregrina-Barreto1 ·
1 Introduction
Due to the increase in demand of power and the increase con-
cern for global environmental protection, the photovoltaic
(PV) generation system has become one of the most promis-
ing alternative source of energy for the future, since it is clean,
pollution-free and inexhaustible. There are two main cate-
gories of PV systems: the stand alone and the grid-connected
PV systems [1]. The grid-connected PV system consists on
the injection of power into the ac mains without using stor-
age energy, so the use of switching power converter devices
which interfaces the solar array with the utility grid is always
necessary for the system. The power converter should accom-
plish two principal tasks: (i) to assure that the PV system
always delivers the maximum allowed power, which presents
a unique maximum power point (MPP), depending on atmo-
spheric conditions, such as temperature and solar irradiation;
(ii) to converts the dc current provided by the photovoltaic
panels in to the ac form at the same frequency required by
the grid, also the control of active and reactive power gener-
ated to the grid [2]. There are different topologies to achieve
these objectives in the literature [2,3], in this paper a two-
stage topology is used, because the system is single-phase and
low power level. The main task on the first stage is tracking
the maximum power point, for this several algorithms have
been proposed, the greatest part of such methods consists
in two main strategies, that are perturb and observe algo-
rithm (P&O) [4–6]. and incremental conductance algorithm
(IncCond) [4–6]. The P&O algorithm operation depends on
making periodical perturbation and comparing the PV output
power with that of the previous perturbation cycle, this tech-
nique is often used for its simplicity, but its main drawbacks
are the waste of energy in stationary conditions, when the
working point moves across the MPP, and the poor dynamic
performances exhibited when a steep change in solar irradi-
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ance occurs. IncCond is an algorithm with relatively good
performance; however, the IncCond is relatively slow, and
that limits its ability to track the MPP under rapid atmospheric
changes. Currently some papers present a new MPPT scheme
based on the theory of model predictive control (MPC) to
solve these disadvantages [7–13]. The MPC technique fea-
tures simplicity and flexibility, and can be programmed to
compensate for the inherent nonlinearities associated with
power electronic converters. Comparing to classical control
schemes, MPC delivers a fast dynamic response with a high
stability margin, making it well suited for MPPT of PV sys-
tems operating under dynamic environmental Conditions.
The works [7,12] do not predict the switching state for the
next control cycle, they only use the MPC to obtain the ref-
erence value of voltage or current to use it in a PI control,
the works [10,11] use a conventional perturb and observe
(P&O) and the work presented [8,9] uses a conventional
incremental conductance (IncCond) algorithm for identifi-
cation of reference for the MPP. However, they usually have
a fixed iteration step-size determined by the requirements of
the accuracy at steady state and the speed response of the
maximum power point tracking (MPPT), when a MPPT has
a bigger step-size, the response speed is fast but has some
trouble at steady state and when a MPPT has a small step-
size, the accuracy at steady state is better than use a bigger
step-size, but the speed response become slow [6]. Thus, the
trade-off between the dynamics and steady state accuracy has
to be resolved. In this work a variable-step MPPT algorithm
is proposed to the first stage, the main idea in the proposed
MPPT is the use of variable-step algorithm to ensure the cur-
rent control signal that signal will be used in order to have a
control based on predicted mean value (PMV) [14,15], the
PMV method takes into a count that the mean current for the
instant i(k+1) should be equal to the current reference during
the next control cycle. The use of variable-step with PMV for
the pursuit of MPP is oriented to improve the speed response
of the system to abrupt changes in solar radiation and smooth
adjustment to the maximum power point at steady state.
The second stage is used to connect a photovoltaic gener-
ator to an electrical grid. Typically, the single-phase voltage-
source inverters (VSI) are widely used in the PV power
generation systems for interfacing with the single-phase grid.
Multilevel inverters topologies are the most promising device
in power electronics, diode-clamped structure, capacitor-
clamped structure, generalized multilevel cells structure and
cascaded H-bridge structure [16,17]. Because the nature of
the PV system is not enough efficient when the PV array is
not uniformly illuminated [2], a solution is partitioning the
solar array into several subsection, each one equipped with
a dedicated MPPT, so the lost power only affects the section
where mismatch conditions occur [18]. Then, the cascaded
H-bridge (CHB) multilevel inverters, where each H-bridge
is connected to a single PV source (in this case a subsec-
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tion), seem to be an attractive choice [19]. As a drawback
the control strategy is more elaborated due to the increased
circuit complexity. In this second stage a simplified active
and reactive power control is used to deliver the power to
the grid; to implement this control strategy is necessary to
use the grid voltage and current information, such as the
frequency, phase angle and amplitude. In single-phase sys-
tem, the grid voltage and current information is much more
difficult to acquire, conventionally, the frequency and phase
angle of a single-phase voltage are obtained by detecting the
zero-crossing point, and however, this method cannot provide
the grid information instantaneously and is very sensitive to
noise. So a phase-locked loop, using modified p-q theory, is
used in order to avoid noise sensitivity [20,21].
In order to validate the effectiveness of the proposed
control techniques, they need to be tested in real time or
by developing a hardware prototype. Field Programmable
Gate Array (FPGA) is a powerful embedded technology
that provides hardware-in-loop implementation for precise
control and high speed processing. FPGAs are semiconduc-
tor devices based around a matrix of Configurable Logic
Blocks connected through programmable interconnects syn-
chronized through a top-level clock. Its limitless flexibility,
parallel computation environment, usage of different sam-
pling rates and fast operation have made it a widely used
tool for deployment of control circuits in hardware [22,23].
Hardware-in-loop is a feature which uses the hardware in
the simulation loop, i.e., a part of the loop is implemented
in the hardware and the response is received from hardware
back in the software. This leads to easy-testing and the pos-
sibility to see how the plant is behaving in hardware. In this
paper, the proposed MPPT algorithm and the power control
and the phase-locked loop (PLL) have been implemented
on FPGA and the PV system has been simulated in MAT-
LAB/Simulink.
This paper is divided into the following sections: Section 2
a brief description of the proposed system topology and the
control strategy employed are presented. Section 3 shows the
FPGA implementation. In Sects. 4 and 5 the co-simulation
results and conclusions are presented.
2 Grid-connected photovoltaic system and control
strategy
Figure 1 shows the circuit configuration of the single-phase
grid-connected PV inverters. The inverter is composed of two
PV arrays, two dc/dc boost converters, a dc-link, a dc/ac H-
bridge inverter and a current filter. Both boost converters are
operated with the MPPT function. The active and reactive
powers are transferred to the grid by the single-phase H-
bridge inverter. The configuration uses the following values:
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Fig. 1 Circuit configuration of single-phase grid-connected PV proposed inverter

f s = 21.700 KHz, C pv = 50 µF, Cb = 250 µF, Lb =

2.5 mH, L = 2 mH.

2.1 Variable-step MPPT algorithm

The main idea of using an MPPT is to extract the maximum

power of the system despite changes in the level of solar
radiation and the operating temperature of the PV array, it
will improve the overall system performance. According to
the IncCond algorithm, the maximum power is reached when
the power variation with respect to the voltage is zero [14],
see Fig. 2.
Measuring the instantaneous values of current I (k) and
voltage V (k) and past values I (k − 1) and V (k − 1) of
the PV array, it is possible to calculate the values of cur-
rent I (k + 1) and voltage V (k + 1) to the next control cycle
to get the maximum power point (MPP). To obtain a favor-
able performance of the system, this paper proposes the use
of a variable-step MPPT. It changes the increment of the
current reference (ΔI) based on the closeness of the maxi-
mum power point. If the system is far from the MPPT, the
change on the reference value is large. But if the system
is close, the reference must be small. To obtain the most
Fig. 2 P–I curve of the photovoltaic array
favorable value of the increment of current (ΔI), it is neces-
sary to calculate the slope of the power curve, with a large
value of the slope, the value of current reference should
change fast to reach the MPPT and with a small value of
the slope the reference should change slow to do not lose
the MPPT. With a zero slope the value of reference should
not change. To obtain a variable current increment, a fixed
reference (ΔIr e f ) multiplied by a variable N is used. N will
depend of the value of the slope. Equations (1)–(4) show
how the proposed MPPT algorithm gets the value of incre-
ment in the current reference current for the next instant
control.

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Fig. 3 Typical steady state current on a boost converter

 
dP 
  2.2 Predictive mean value current control
 dI  = |tanθ | (1)

tanθ The boost converter can be modeled by only two circuits due
sinθ | = √ (2)
1 + tanθ the state of the transistor Sb(t), Sb = 1 denotes that the
 dP 
  transistor is closed or “on” for a fraction time which is called
0 < N =  dI  < 1 (3) duty cycle (ton ), when Sb = 0 is denoted that the transistor is
1 +  ddIP 
2
open or “off” for the remainder of the time (Ts −ton ) [13]. The
ΔI = N ∗ ΔIr e f (4) main idea of the predictive controller based on PMV [14,15]
is to calculate the “on” time for the next control cycle (7).
 
In order to achieve the correct current value for the next 2 i ∗ (k + 1) − i(k + 1) − f 2 (k + 1) · Ts
control cycle, it is necessary to know the sign of the slope, in ton (k + 1) =
2 f 1 (k + 1) − f 2 (k + 1)
case the slope is positive it is necessary to increase the current
(7)
at the next instant; otherwise, when the slope is negative, the
current must be reduced to the next control cycle. Using the where f 1 and f 2 are the values of current when the power
derivative of power and current it is possible to establish transistor of the boost converter is “on” and “off”, respec-
the signal of the slope. When d P/dI is zero, the system is tively, as shown in Fig. 3, f 1 corresponds to the time portion
in the MPP, if the value of d P/dI is more than zero, the when the transistor is “on”, in this time, the current in the
slope is positive, in the other case, if the value of d P/dI is inductor (L) of the boost converter only depends of the volt-
less than zero, the slope is negative, see Fig 2. The d P/dI age source (v pv ), so the value can be obtained by
conditions can be written in terms of current and voltage
by: v pv
f 1 (k + 1) = (8)
L
dP d(V I ) dV ∼ ΔV When the transistor switches to the “off” state, the energy
= =V+I =V+I (5)
dI dI dI ΔI stored in the inductor is transferred to the capacitor and the
load, so f 2 corresponds to
Knowing the sign of the slope it is now possible to
determine if the value of the current increment is added or v pv vc (k + 1)
f 2 (k + 1) = − (9)
subtracted to the actual current value for the next control cycle L L
(6), this is the reference value. The increase or decrease of
The value of i ∗ is obtained from the MPPT stage, and it is the
the reference signal of current in the boost converter changes
reference current. The prediction of the time “off” is obtained
the point of maximum power.
by

i ∗ (k + 1) = I (k) ± ΔI (6) to f f (k + 1) = Ts − ton (k + 1) (10)

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2.3 Active and reactive power control vd i d

P= (12)
2
The control of active and reactive power is designed to deliver vd i q
Q= (13)
to the grid the power generated by the PV array as active 2
power with unity power factor or modify the phase angle of
the current and inject the power generated by the PV array From (12) and (13) equations of the current reference
as reactive power. The total power is limited by the nominal value to inject the maximum power as active or reactive
apparent power [24,25]. Figure 4 shows the stationary and power to the grid can be obtained as shown (14–16)
rotating reference frame, and (11) shows the transformation
2P∗ 2Ppv 2Pmax
from stationary to rotating reference frame quantity. Where i∗ = = ⇒ (14)
f is the voltage or current, subscript d, q are component on vg vg vg
the rotating reference frame and α, β are components on the vd i q
Q= (15)
stationary reference frame, subscript g is the grid component. 2
The ω = dθ/dt is the angular frequency of grid voltage. This vd i q
Q= (16)
is the base to the proposed active and reactive power control. 2

     Now (14) and (16) can be transformed in stationary frame

fd cosθ sinθ fα
= (11) and used as a current controller (17) and (18).
fq −sinθ cosθ fβ
i q∗
In the rotating reference frame, the vq is equal to zero ϕ = tan −1 (17)
i d∗
when the rotating reference frame is synchronized with the
grid voltage (vg ) then P and Q can be obtained by (12) and i g∗ = i m∗ cos(θ + ϕ) (18)
(13), respectively.
2.4 Proposed single-phase PLL

For this work a PLL based on the theory of instantaneous

Fig. 4 Two reference frames used in the proposed control
reactive power is implemented, which, although initially
developed for poly-phase systems, can be modified to be
used in single-phase systems [21]. The input signal of the
PLL system is the measured single-phase voltage (vα ), which
is assumed to be equal to the coordinate α (v  α) of the two-
phase stationary reference frame (αβ coordinates). The β
coordinate (v  β) is obtained by introducing a phase delay of
π/2 rad on the voltage vα . Assuming that the grid current is
in phase with the voltage, the system is:

Fig. 5 Single-phase PLL control system

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Fig. 6 Block diagram of the whole control system

Fig. 7 Used FPGA resources of the implemented control system

     √       √ 
vα vg (ωt) 2V (sinωt) iα i g (ωt) 2I (sinωt)
= = √ = = √ (20)
vβ vg (ωt − π/2) 2V (sinωt − π/2) iβ i g (ωt − π/2) 2I (sinωt − π/2)
(19)

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Using (19) and (20) is possible to find the fictitious active written in VHDL code. Quartus prime generates a FIL block
and reactive power value (21) that represents the HDL code, this block represents the FPGA
in Simulink environment. At each simulation step, PV cur-
        
p v vβ iα p̄ p̃ rent, PV voltage, Grid voltage and Grid current are exported
= α = + (21)
q vβ −vα iβ q̄ q̃ to the FPGA, they are processed in the controller and then out-
put pulses are sent to the Simulink trough a Gigabit Ethernet
The principle of operation of the proposed PLL structure connection. Communication between Simulink and FPGA is
is to cancel the dc component of the fictitious instantaneous strictly synchronized.
power ( p̄). Figure 5 shows the system to obtain the value of Despite the predictive algorithm is characterized by its
angle θ ∗ . complex and iterative aspect requiring the use of fast circuits
in computing time and dense numbers of logic gates, the
whole control algorithm can be implemented into the FPGA
3 FPGA implementation Cyclone IV E (EP4CE115F29C7) platform. The control sys-
tem needs only 35% of the logical elements and 23% of the
FPGA-in-the-loop (FIL) simulation provides the capability multipliers despite that the proposed control (variable-step
to use MATLAB/Simulink for testing designs in real hard- MPPT with predictive current control and active and reactive
ware for any VHDL code. In this work photovoltaic system is power control with PLL) works principally with multiplier
simulated using MATLAB/Simulink and the proposed con- and registers, it means that the control proposed might be
trol is executed in a board Cyclone IV-Altera DE2-115 (see implemented in a FPGA platform with less resources without
Fig. 6). To work in FIL, first the control proposed must be compromise the performance. Figure 7 shows the hardware
resources used of FPGA Cyclone IV E (EP4CE115F29C7)
platform by the two control units of the power converter
(variable-step MPPT with predictive current control and
active and reactive power control with PLL). As can be seen,
this chip is largely sufficient to implement the control circuit
of two-stage grid-connected photovoltaic (GCPV) system.
Subsequently, the designed control algorithms can be safely
implemented into the FPGA chip.

4 Simulations results

Figure 8 shows the FPGA board in the simulation of

Fig. 8 Picture of the co-simulation FIL the proposed algorithm. The system has two arrays with

Fig. 9 Power output and current injected to the grid under a change in the solar irradiation level

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Fig. 10 Sudden irradiation change: grid voltage and grid current
Fig. 11 Change in the current and voltage grid due the change in the power injection to the grid
two panels in series and two in parallel each working
at 25 ◦ C. The simulated array produces 880W max the-
oretical. Figure 9 shows the levels of the power output
of the system with MPPT and predictive current control
proposed, the current injected to the grid changes its ampli-
tude too as response to the change in the solar radiation
level
Figure 10 shows the behavior of the voltage output and
current output during the irradiance transition, from the figure
it can be appreciated the neatness of the current form, always
in phase with the grid voltage. (The voltage signal is divide
by 5 to be appreciated with the current)
Figure 11 shows how the system works with change in
the deliver power to the grid. At 2 s, the system changes
between active power and reactive power, the value of the
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grid current changes abruptly but the grid voltage does not
change. Figure 12 shows only the current during the abruptly
change.
Figure 13 shows how the behavior of the voltage output of
the inverter during the change in the radiation level. Figure 14
presents the voltage output during the change of the power
from active to reactive.
Figure 15 shows a comparison of power output between
proposed MPPT in multi-string topology and proposed
MPPT in string topology in relation to the maximum power
theoretical, the efficiency of the systems can be measured
by (22). The efficiency is showed in Table 1. To improve
the response of the IncCond MPPT and reduce the ripple
the increment size can be decreased, but the response of the
system becomes slower.
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Fig. 12 Current behavior during the transition between active and reactive power

Fig. 13 Change in the current and constant voltage output from the inverter during the change in the power injection to the grid

Fig. 15 Comparative between proposed MPPT and IncCond MPPT

Fig. 14 Change in the current and constant voltage output from the
inverter during the transition between active and reactive power
When the system delivers power to the grid, the current
should have a lower harmonic distortion. The use of a cas-
 t2 cade H-bridge reaches a good performance in the current;
Pdt Fig. 16 shows the behavior of the current and the THD of
η M P P T =  t2t1 (22)
t1 Pmax dt
the signal. Fig. 17 shows the harmonic spectrum when the

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Table 1 Efficiency of the

Algorithm Tracking efficiency, η M P P T (%)
proposed algorithm
Theoretical maximum power 100
Proposed MPPT with proposed multi-string topology 99.5726
Proposed MPPT algorithm with string topology 99.0901
IncCond MPPT algorithm with string topology 97.7376

Fig. 16 Harmonic spectrum of the grid current with the proposed control

Fig. 17 Harmonic spectrum of the grid current with diode-camped inverter

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system is working with a diode-clamped inverter with equal
number of levels.
5 Conclusion
In this paper, the control method for two-stage grid-connected
photovoltaic system has been proposed, the PV system was
developed and simulated with MATLAB/Simulink software,
and an FPGA platform was used to implement the control
strategy with two main functions: MPPT control and inverter
control. The variable-step MPPT algorithm has proven to be
a good choice to achieve the maximum power of the system
compared to more widely used method such as IncCond algo-
rithm. Other features of the proposed MPPT algorithm are
that it calculates the duty cycle in the boost converter, unlike
others those, it uses the model predictive control to obtain a
reference value. The advantage when using a variable step is
observed in Fig. 15 where the difference in the ripple between
the power signal of the proposed MPPT proposed control and
others algorithms like IncCond is significant, this can affect
the THD. On the other hand, active and reactive power con-
trol, with PLL based on the porque theory used to control the
cascaded H-bridge inverter, allows to change the injection
of power between active and reactive, depending on the grid
need. Also use a multilevel inverter permits to reduce the
THD. The verification method through the FIL simulation
confirmed the performance of the control strategies imple-
mented in an FPGA platform and thus validate the precision
and efficiency without the need of the complete system,
this increases the safeness, eliminates errors and guarantees
greater success when implementing the entire GCPV circuit.
The main advantages of the implemented control strategy are:
simplicity related to the computational requirements of the
control circuit and easy implementation in the FPGA device,
besides increasing the total efficiency of the system.
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