Module 2

LM01-FCHE
0114
Learning Module 02
CHEMISTRY
FOR ENGINEERS
Knowledge Area Code : SCIE

Course Code : FCHE0114
Learning Module Code : LM02- FCHE0114
Chemistry for Engineers
Learning Module 02
Generation of Energy
First Edition, 2020
Copyright. Republic Act 8293 Section 176 provides that “No copyright shall subsist in any work
of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or
office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit.
Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
“
Borrowed materials included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders.
Every effort has been exerted to reach and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The University and authors do not claim ownership over them.
Published by the Bataan Peninsula State University

President: Gregorio J. Rodis, PhD
Learning Module Development Team
Writer:
Marianne N. Gonzales , Assistant Professor I
Evaluators:
Emellie Y. Matito, Chair, Science Cluster

Adrian C. Perdio, Member, Science Cluster
Consorcia B. Leaño, Member, Science Cluster
Quality Management Team:
Arlene I. Pascual
Focal Person, University Gender and Development
Cristina G. Rivera
Chair, Oversight Committee on Curriculum Development
Arlene D. Ibañez
Chair, Oversight Committee on Textbook and Instructional Materials
Jesselyn C. Mortejo, EdD

Director, Quality Assurance Office
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers ii

Emmanuel C. Macaraeg, PhD, CESE
Vice President for Academic Affairs
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers iii

Netiquette Guide for Online Courses
It is important to recognize that the online classroom is in fact a classroom, and certain
behaviors are expected when you communicate with both your peers and your instructors.
These guidelines for online behavior and interaction are known as netiquette.
Security
Remember that your password is the only thing protecting you from pranks or more serious
harm.
• Don't share your password with anyone.
• Change your password if you think someone else might know it.
• Always log out when you are finished using the system.
Appearance
Bear in mind that you are attending a class, dress appropriately.
General Guidelines
When communicating online, you should always:
• Treat your instructor and classmates with respect in email or any other communication.
• Always use your professors’ proper title: Dr. or Prof., or if in doubt use Mr. or Ms.
• Unless specifically invited, don’t refer to your instructor by first name.
• Use clear and concise language.
• Remember that all college level communication should have correct spelling and grammar
(this includes discussion boards).
• Avoid slang terms such as “wassup?” and texting abbreviations such as “u” instead of
“you.”
• Use the prescribed font Palatino Linotype and use a size 10-point font.
• Avoid using the caps lock feature AS IT CAN BE INTERPRETTED AS YELLING.
• Limit and possibly avoid the use of emoticons like :) or J.
• Be cautious when using humor or sarcasm as tone is sometimes lost in an email or
discussion post and your message might be taken seriously or sound offensive.
• Be careful with personal information (both yours and other’s).
• Do not send confidential information via e-mail.
Email Netiquette
When you send an email to your instructor, teaching assistant, or classmates, you should:
• Use a descriptive subject line.
• Be brief.
• Avoid attachments unless you are sure your recipients can open them.
• Avoid HTML in favor of plain text.
• Sign your message with your name and return e-mail address.
• Think before you send the e-mail to more than one person. Does everyone really need to
see your message?
• Be sure you REALLY want everyone to receive your response when you click, “reply all.”
• Be sure that the message author intended for the information to be passed along before you
click the “forward” button.
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers iv

Message Board Netiquette and Guidelines

When posting on the Discussion Board in your online class, you should:
• Make posts that are on topic and within the scope of the course material.
• Take your posts seriously and review and edit your posts before sending.
• Be as brief as possible while still making a thorough comment.
• Always give proper credit when referencing or quoting another source.
• Be sure to read all messages in a thread before replying.
• Don’t repeat someone else’s post without adding something of your own to it.
• Avoid short, generic replies such as, “I agree.” You should include why you agree or add
to the previous point.
• Always be respectful of others’ opinions even when they differ from your own.
• When you disagree with someone, you should express your differing opinion in a
respectful, non-critical way.
• Do not make personal or insulting remarks.
• Be open-minded.
(Source: http://teach.ufl.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2012/08/NetiquetteGuideforOnlineCourses.pdf)
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers v

About the Faculty
About the Faculty
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers vi

Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Course Overview ……………………………………………………………………………… 1
Course Packet 01: Basic Crystal Structures …… ……………………………………………. 7
Unit Cell ……….……………………………………………………………………… 8
Types of Unit Cell ……..…………………………………………………………….. 13
Packing in Simple Metallic Crystalline Structures ………………………………… 21
Interstitial Void Spaces ……………………………………………………………..… 24
Crystal Defects ………………………………………………………………………… 32
Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 33
Learner’s Feedback Form ……………………………………………………………. 35
Course Packet 02: Metals …………………………………………………………………..…. 37
Properties of Metals …………………………………………………………………. 39
Alloys ………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
Patterns of Reactivity ...………………………………………………………………. 43
Extraction and Purification ………………………………………………………….. 49
Corrosion ………………………………...……………………………………………. 57
Electroplating …………………………………………………………………………. 60
Recycling ………………………………………………………………………………. 63
Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 64
Course Packet 03: Polymers ..…………………………………………………………………. 69
Classification of Polymers …………………………………………………………… 72
Characteristics of Polymers ………………………………………………………….. 89
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers vii

Crystallization …………………………………………………………………………. 91
Solid Waste Management ………………………………………………….………… 92

Table of Contents
Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 97
Course Packet 04: Nanotechnology ..…………………………………………………………. 103
Classification of Nanomaterials ……………………………………………………... 105
Properties of Nanoparticles ………………………………………………………….. 106
Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes ………………………………………………….. 113
Uses of Nanoparticles ………………………………………………...…….………… 115
The Future of Nanotechnology ………………………………………………………. 117
Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 119
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers viii

Course Overview
Course Overview
Introduction
This course provides students with core concepts of chemistry that are important in the practice of
engineering profession.
Key Learning Competencies
Upon completion of the course, the students should be able to:

• Discuss the application of chemistry in relation to generation of energy.
• Explain chemical principles and concepts of structures and bonding of common materials.
• Discuss the chemical processes that takes place in the environment.
• Identify key chemistry concepts related to the specific field of engineering
Course Details:
• Course Code: FCHE0114
• Course Title: Chemistry for Engineers
• No. of Units: 4 units
• Classification: lecture-based
• Pre-requisite / Co-Requisite: None
• Semester and Academic Year: First Semester, A.Y. 2021-2022
• Schedule
• Name of Faculty:
• Contact Details
Email:
Mobile Number:
Viber:
Messenger:
• Consultation
Day:
Time:
Learning Management System
Links to Google Classroom and Google Drive will be provided upon orientation.
Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers 1

Assessment with Rubrics
Science Notebook
Course Overview
The student is required to submit a science notebook once the module is finished. A student’s science
notebook will provide a record, both of that student’s sense-making process, and of their learning over
time. The science notebook will serve as a tool for teachers to do formative assessments throughout a
semester.
When a student begins a new course packet, the student will create an entry in the science notebook.
There are three types of entries under which all notebook learning activities can be organized. Below is
the template and sample heading for each type of entry, as well as a brief explanation of each type of entry:
Investigation, Notes, and Reflection.
Entry Template
Name: Year and section:

Type of entry: Investigation Course packet title: Date and time:
Students should make an investigation entry when they are recording parts of a laboratory
process. Investigation entries start with a focus question. Depending on the activity you
may include other sections in any order, including prediction, plan, observations, sketching,
claims and evidence.

Type of entry: Notes Course packet title: Date and time:
Students should make a notes entry when they are recording notes, vocabulary etc. Notes
can take on many forms, including observational and field sketching, a vocabulary list, a
KWL chart, lecture notes, or notice and wonder.

Type of entry: Reflection Course packet title: Date and time:
Students should make a reflection entry when they are reflecting on their own learning.
There are a variety of ways to prompt reflections, from single questions to reply to with
writing and/or drawing, to more structured strategies.

Science Notebook Grading Rubric
Below Proficient Partially Moderately Proficient Proficient with

Course Overview
1 Proficient Proficient Distinction

2 3 4 5
Structure and Most entries Some entries (no Some entries Entries are in All (100%) of the
Organization (65% or more) less than 40%) (no less than order and entries are
are missing, are up-to-date, 60%) are up-to- complete. Most complete, with all
incorrectly in order and date, in order entries (75%) are correct labels.
labeled, and/or complete. Many and complete. labeled
out of order. entries (50%) are Many entries correctly.
labeled (60%) are
correctly. labeled
correctly.
Vocabulary Many (65-75%) There are some They are no They are no less All vocabulary
inaccuracies in (25-35%) less than 75% than 90% words are 100%
spelling and inaccuracies in accurate in accurate in accurate in spelling
usage. spelling and spelling and spelling and and used correctly.
usage. correct usage. correct usage.
Investigations Documentation Some parts (50- Most parts Most parts (90%) All parts of the
of the 65%) of the (70%) of the of the investigation are
investigation is investigation are investigation investigation are complete and
(more than 70%) missing or are complete. complete. Some thoroughly written.
incomplete. incomplete. Some parts are parts are
Details are left unclear. unclear.
out or unclear.
Notes & Notes and/or Notes and/or Notes and/or Notes and/or Notes and/or
Sketching sketches (more sketches (50- sketches (70%) sketches (90%) sketches are
than 70%) are 65%) are are written but are written but complete and
incomplete and incomplete and some parts are some parts are student shows
not messy. It is unclear. unclear. Student accurate learning of
understandable. unclear whether Student shows shows some the science
The student the student some learning learning of the concept(s).
shows a learned the of the science science
misunderstandi science concept(s). concept(s).
ng of the science concept(s).
concept(s).
Reflections Questions (more Answers (50- Questions Questions (90%) All questions are
than 70%) are 65%) are (70%) are are simply answered in
not all answered incomplete and simply answered, but complete sentences
and the student the student answered, but not explained and student
does not show shows little not explained entirely. The explains his/her
understanding understanding entirely. The student shows thinking clearly
of the science of the science student shows some with details. It is
concept(s). concept(s). some understanding clear that the
understanding of the science student
of the science concept(s). understands the
concept(s). science concept(s).
Assessments and Major Examinations

All assessments and major examination will be given online.

Final Requirement with Rubrics
The student will make a written report of one chemistry key concept related to their specific field of
engineering.
Course Overview
Criteria Excellent Good Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

91 - 100% 81 - 90% 71 - 80% 70 - 61%
Organization (20%) Written report is Written report set is Written report show No adequate
well-organized and organized but lacks organization but has understanding of the
structured. certain key elements. several portions that topic.
are not relevant.
Scientific Accuracy Scientific Scientific Scientific A presentation style
(50%) explanations or facts explanations or facts explanations or facts that did not keep the
presented/cited are presented/cited presented/cited attention of the
100% accurate. show some show a significant audience.
inaccuracies. number of
inaccuracies.
Presentation of Arguments and Arguments The arguments and Information had
Arguments or explanations presented are clear, explanations several inaccuracies
Explanations (30%) presented are clear, valid, and presented only or was usually not
valid, and convincing but has partially addressed clear.
convincing. several flaws. the problem.
Grading System
Midterm Final
Class Standing Percentage
Class Standing 70% Class Standing 70%
Quizzes / Chapter Test 30%
Term Exam 30% Term Exam 30%
Recitation 10%
Final Rating
Activity/Exercises 20%
Midterm Grade (50%) + Final Grade (50%) = Final
Laboratory Experiment 40% Rating
TOTAL 100%
Course Policy
The following policies are to be observed and implemented inside the class by the students
• Attendance and punctuality must be strictly observed.
• Maintain respect and discipline.
• Active participation in the discussion through sharing of ideas and experiences is encouraged.
• Observe tranquility so as to maintain an environment of focus learning.
• Always check the shared folder/s for relevant readings.
• Be prompt in submitting reports and other requirements.

LM01-NGEC
0323
Module Overview
Introduction
Module Overview
The things that surrounds us – in our clothing, desks, and coffee cups – is made out of materials. In this
module we will discuss the chemistry behind the materials that society depends on, metals, polymers and
nanomaterials. Materials chemistry is an active area of scientific research and one with many practical
applications.
• Topic 01: Basic Crystal Structures

• Topic 02: Metals
• Topic 03: Polymers
• Topic 04: Nanomaterials
Learning Outcomes
Explain chemical principles and concepts of structures and bonding of common materials.

Duration
Below are the time allotted for each course packet:
• Topic 01: Basic Crystal Structures = 12 hours

• Topic 02: Metals = 6 hours
• Topic 03: Polymers = 12 hours
• Topic 04: Nanomaterials = 12 hours
Delivery Mode
This module is offered online (synchronous or asynchronous).
Module Requirement with Rubrics
Please see Science Notebook on pages 2-3.

Course
Packet
LM01-FCHE
01 0114
Learning Module 02
Chemistry of Materials
Course Packet 01
Basic Crystal Structure

Learning Module Code : LM02-FCHE0114
Course Packet Code : LM02- FCHE0114-01
Learning Module 02: Chemistry of Materials

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Course Packet 01
Course Packet 01
Basic Crystal Structure

Introduction
Over 90% of naturally occurring and man-made solids are crystalline. Most solids form with a regular
arrangement of their particles because the overall attractive interactions between particles are
maximized, and the total intermolecular energy is minimized, when the particles pack in the most
efficient manner. The regular arrangement at an atomic level is often reflected at a macroscopic level. In
this course packet, we will explore some of the details about the structures of metallic and ionic crystalline
solids, and learn how these structures are determined experimentally.
Objectives
• Gain a better understanding of crystal structure and unit cells.
• Describe crystalline and non-crystalline materials
• Describe unit cells for crystal structure of:
•Simple cubic (SC)
• Face-centered cubic (FCC)
• Body-centered cubic (BCC)
• Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
• Demonstrate and derive the relationships between unit cell edge length and atomic radius for
FCC and BCC crystal structures
• Draw unit cells for crystal structure of:
• Simple cubic (SC)
• Face-centered cubic (FCC)
• Body-centered cubic (BCC)
• Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
• Solve and compute the densities for metals with FCC and BCC crystal structures

Duration
Topic 01: Basic Crystal Structures
• 12 hours (9 hours self-directed learning with practical exercises and 3 hours assessment)
Delivery Mode

Assessments will be given online.
Requirement with Rubrics

Please see Science Notebook on pages 2-3

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BASIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Crystalline solids have regular ordered arrays of components held together by

Course Packet 01
uniform intermolecular forces, whereas the components of amorphous solids are not arranged
in regular arrays. With few exceptions, the particles that compose a solid material, whether
ionic, molecular, covalent, or metallic, are held in place by strong attractive forces between
them.
In solids, the positions of the atoms, molecules, or ions are considered which are
essentially fixed in space, rather than their motions (which are more important in liquids and
gases). The constituents of a solid can be arranged in two general ways:
• they can form a regular repeating three-dimensional structure called a crystal
lattice, thus producing a crystalline solid, or
• they can aggregate with no particular order, in which case they form an
amorphous solid (from the Greek ámorphos, meaning “shapeless”).
Crystalline solids, or crystals, have distinctive internal structures that in turn lead to
distinctive flat surfaces, or faces. The faces intersect at angles that are characteristic of the
substance. When exposed to x-rays, each structure also produces a distinctive pattern that can
be used to identify the material. The characteristic angles do not depend on the size of the
crystal; they reflect the regular repeating arrangement of the component atoms, molecules, or
ions in space.
When an ionic crystal is cleaved for example, repulsive interactions cause it to break
along fixed planes to produce new faces that intersect at the same angles as those in the original
crystal.
Figure 1.
In a covalent solid such as a cut diamond, the angles at which the faces meet are also
not arbitrary but are determined by the arrangement of the carbon atoms in the crystal.
Crystals tend to have relatively sharp, well-defined melting points because all the component
atoms, molecules, or ions are the same distance from the same number and type of neighbors;
that is, the regularity of the crystalline lattice creates local environments that are the same. Thus
the intermolecular forces holding the solid together are uniform, and the same amount of
thermal energy is needed to break every interaction simultaneously.

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Amorphous solids have two characteristic properties. When cleaved or broken, they
produce fragments with irregular, often curved surfaces; and they have poorly defined patterns
Course Packet 01
when exposed to x-rays because their components are not arranged in a regular array. An
amorphous, translucent solid is called a glass.
Almost any substance can solidify in amorphous form if the liquid phase is cooled
rapidly enough. Some solids, however, are intrinsically amorphous, because either their
components cannot fit together well enough to form a stable crystalline lattice or they contain
impurities that disrupt the lattice. For example, although the chemical composition and the
basic structural units of a quartz crystal and quartz glass are the same—both are SiO2 and both
consist of linked SiO4 tetrahedra—the arrangements of the atoms in space are not.
Figure 2. The lattice of crystalline

quartz (SiO2). The atoms form a
regular arrangement in a structure
that consists of linked tetrahedra.
Crystalline quartz contains a highly ordered arrangement of silicon and oxygen atoms,
but in quartz glass the atoms are arranged almost randomly. When molten SiO 2 is cooled
rapidly (4 K/min), it forms quartz glass, whereas the large, perfect quartz crystals sold in
mineral shops have had cooling times of thousands of years. In contrast, aluminum crystallizes
much more rapidly. Amorphous aluminum forms only when the liquid is cooled at the
extraordinary rate of 4 × 1013 K/s, which prevents the atoms from arranging themselves into a
regular array.
UNIT CELL
Because a crystalline solid consists of repeating patterns of its components in three

dimensions (a crystal lattice), the entire crystal can be represented by drawing the structure of
the smallest identical units that, when stacked together, form the crystal. This basic repeating
unit is called a unit cell. For example, the unit cell of a sheet of identical postage stamps is a

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single stamp, and the unit cell of a stack of bricks is a single brick. In this section, we describe
the arrangements of atoms in various unit cells.
Course Packet 01
Figure 3. Unit Cells in Three

Dimensions. These images show (a) a
three-dimensional unit cell and (b) the
resulting regular three-dimensional
lattice.
The Structures of Metals
Elemental metals are relatively simple because each contains only one type of atom. A
pure metal is a crystalline solid with metal atoms packed closely together in a repeating pattern.
Some of the properties of metals in general, such as their malleability and ductility, are largely
due to having identical atoms arranged in a regular pattern. The different properties of one
metal compared to another partially depend on the sizes of their atoms and the specifics of
their spatial arrangements. We will explore the similarities and differences of four of the most
common metal crystal geometries in the sections that follow.
Unit Cells of Metals
The structure of a crystalline solid, whether a metal or not, is best described by considering its
simplest repeating unit, which is referred to as its unit cell. The unit cell consists of lattice points
that represent the locations of atoms or ions. The entire structure then consists of this unit cell
repeating in three dimensions.
Figure 4.
Most metal crystals are one of the four major types of unit cells. For now, we will focus
on the three cubic unit cells: simple cubic, body-centered cubic unit cell, and face-centered cubic
unit cell.

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Figure 5.
Course Packet 01
Density of a Cubic Crystal
The first important thing to understand is that a cubic crystal is made up a crystal lattice
or a space lattice structure. And as we have studied before, a space lattice is made up of a
repeating arrangement of unit cells. A unit cell is the most basic structure of a crystalline solid.
Hence if we are able to find the density of a unit cell, it can be said that we have found
the density of the cubic crystal itself. With this in mind, let us determine how to arrive at the
density of a cubic crystal cell.
Calculations of a Unit Cell
Now as we know a unit cell also has a cubic structure. It has one, two or four atoms
located at various lattice points. Now with the help of geometry, some basic calculations and
certain attributes of this cubic structure we can find the density of a unit cell. Let us start with
the basic formula for the density of any solid. This formula is
Mass
Density =
Volume
The density of a Unit Cell will be
Mass of unit cell

D=
Volume of unit cell

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Mass of a Unit Cell
Now to calculate the mass of one unit cell we add up the mass of all the atoms
Course Packet 01
contained in that particular cell. The number of atoms will depend on the kind of cell it is. So
to obtain the mass of a unit cell we multiply the number of atoms “N” into the mass of each
atom”m”.
Mass of Unit Cell = m × N
But now the question remains, what is the mass of an atom? Well, this can be
represented in terms of its Avogadro’s number (n) which is 6.022 x 10 23, i.e. number of units in
one mole of any substance and the molar mass of an atom. So the mass of an atom can be
calculated as
Molar mass
Mass of an atom =
Avogadro’s number
M
Mass of an atom =
n
So now the formula for Mass of Unit Cell is as follows
Number of atoms Molar mass

Mass of unit cell =
x Avogadro’s number
Volume of Unit Cell
As we already know, the unit cell is a cubic structure. So the Volume of a cube is the
cube of the length of the side, Assume that the length of the side of the cube is “a”.
Volume of Unit Cell = a3
Density of Unit Cell
And now we finally arrive at the actual formula for the density of a unit cell
Mass of unit cell

D=
Volume of unit cell

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Types of Unit Cell
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE

Course Packet 01
When metal atoms are arranged with spheres in one layer directly above or below
spheres in another layer, the lattice structure is called simple cubic structure and the unit cell
is called the simple cubic unit cell or primitive cubic unit cell. Note that the spheres are in
contact.
Figure 6.
In a simple cubic structure, the spheres are not packed as closely as they could be, and
they only “fill” about 52% of the volume of the container. This is a relatively inefficient
arrangement, and only one metal (polonium, Po) crystallizes in a simple cubic structure. As
shown in Figure 7, a solid with this type of arrangement consists of planes (or layers) in which
each atom contacts only the four nearest neighbors in its layer; one atom directly above it in the
layer above; and one atom directly below it in the layer below. The number of other particles
that each particle in a crystalline solid contacts is known as its coordination number. For a
polonium atom in a simple cubic array, the coordination number is, therefore, six.
Figure 7. An atom in a
simple cubic lattice
structure contacts six other
atoms, so it has a
coordination number of six.
In a simple cubic lattice, the unit cell that repeats in all directions is a cube defined by
the centers of eight atoms, as shown in Figure 8. Atoms at adjacent corners of this unit cell
contact each other, so the edge length of this cell is equal to two atomic radii, or one atomic
diameter. A cubic unit cell contains only the parts of these atoms that are within it. Since an
atom at a corner of a simple cubic unit cell is contained by a total of eight unit cells, only one-
eighth of that atom is within a specific unit cell. And since each simple cubic unit cell has one
atom at each of its eight “corners,” there is 8 x 1/8 = 1 atom within one simple cubic unit cell.

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Course Packet 01
Figure 8. A simple cubic lattice unit cell contains one-eighth of an atom at each of its eight corners, so
it contains one atom total.
Worked Example 1– Calculation of Atomic Radius and Density for Simple Cubic Structure
The edge length of the unit cell of alpha polonium is 336 pm.
(a) Determine the radius of a polonium atom.
(b) Determine the density of alpha polonium.
Solution
Alpha polonium crystallizes in a simple cubic unit cell:
a) Two adjacent Po atoms contact each other, so the edge length of this cell is equal to two
Po atomic radii: l = 2r.
Therefore, the radius of Po is
1 336 pm
r= = = 168 pm
2 2
b) Density is given by density = mass/volume. The density of polonium can be found by

determining the density of its unit cell (the mass contained within a unit cell divided

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by the volume of the unit cell). Since a Po unit cell contains one-eighth of a Po atom at
each of its eight corners, a unit cell contains one Po atom.
Course Packet 01
The mass of a Po unit cell can be found by:
1 Po unit cell 1 Po atom 1 mol Po 208.998 g Po

x x = 3.47x 10-22 g Po
= 1 Po unit cell 6.022 x 1023 Po atoms 1 mol Po
The volume of a Po unit cell can be found by:
V = a3 = (366 x 10-10 cm)3 = 3.79 10-10 cm3
(Note that the edge length was converted from pm to cm to get the usual volume
units for density.)
Therefore, the density of
3.47x 10-22 g
Po = = 9.16 g/cm3
3.79 10 -10 cm
3
BODY-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)
Some metals crystallize in an arrangement that has a cubic unit cell with atoms at all
of the corners and an atom in the center, as shown in Figure 9. This is called a body-centered
cubic (BCC) solid.
Figure 9.
Atoms in the corners of a BCC unit cell do not contact each other but contact the atom
in the center. A BCC unit cell contains two atoms: one-eighth of an atom at each of the eight
corners (8 x 1/8 = 1 atom from the corners) plus one atom from the center. Any atom in this
structure touches four atoms in the layer above it and four atoms in the layer below it. Thus,
an atom in a BCC structure has a coordination number of eight.

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Course Packet 01
Figure 10. In a body-centered cubic structure, atoms in a specific layer do not touch each other.
Each atom touches four atoms in the layer above it and four atoms in the layer below it.
Atoms in BCC arrangements are much more efficiently packed than in a simple cubic
structure, occupying about 68% of the total volume. Isomorphous metals with a BCC structure
include K, Ba, Cr, Mo, W, and Fe at room temperature. (Elements or compounds that crystallize
with the same structure are said to be isomorphous.)
Worked Example 2 – Calculation of Atomic Radius and Density for Body-Centered Cubic
Structure
1) Chromium crystallizes in a body-centered cubic structure. The unit cell volume is 2.583 x
10¯23 cm3. Determine the atomic radius of Cr in pm.
Solution:
Step 1. Determine the edge length of the unit cell. To solve for edge length, think of the volume
of the cube formula and rearrange it to solve for edge length.
Volume = a3
2.583 x 10¯23 cm3 = a3
a= 2.583 x 10¯23 cm3
a = 2.956 x 10¯8 cm

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Step 2. Examine the following diagram.
The triangle we will use runs differently than the

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triangle used in fcc calculations. d is the edge of the

unit cell, however d√2 is NOT an edge of the unit cell.
It is a diagonal of a face of the unit cell. 4r is a body
diagonal. Since it is a right triangle, the Pythagorean
Theorem works just fine.
We wish to determine the value of 4r, from which we will obtain r, the radius of the Cr
atom. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we find:
d2 + (d2)2 = (4r)2
d2 + 2d2 = 16r2
3d2 = 16r2
3(2.956 x 10¯8 cm)2 = 16r2
2.62138 x 10¯15 cm2 = 16r2
2.62138 x 10¯15cm2 16r2

=
16 16
1.63836 x 10¯16cm2 = r2
r= 1.63836 x 10¯16 cm2
r = 1.279 cm
Step 3. Convert cm to pm. (1 pm = 1 x 10-10cm) or (1 cm = 1 x 1010 pm)
1 pm
1.279 cm = = 1.279 x 1010 pm
1 x 10 cm
-10

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2) The edge length of the unit cell of Ta, is 330.6 pm; the unit cell is body-centered cubic.
Tantalum has a density of 16.69 g/cm3.
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(a) Calculate the mass of a tantalum atom.
(b) Calculate the atomic weight of tantalum in g/mol.
Solution:
Step 1. Convert pm to cm.
1 cm
330.6 pm = = 330.6 x 10-8 cm
1 x 1010 pm
Step 2. Calculate the volume of the unit cell:
V = a3
V = (3.306 x 10¯8 cm)3 = 3.6133 x 10¯23 cm3
Step 3. Calculate mass of the 2 tantalum atoms in the body-centered cubic unit cell:
mass = density x volume
m = 16.69 g/cm3 x 3.6133 x 10¯23 cm3 = 6.0307 x 10¯22 g
Step 4. Calculate the mass of one atom of Ta. Note: A BCC unit cell contains two atoms.
6.0307 x 10¯22 g
Mass of one Ta atom = = 3.015 x 10¯22 g Answer to (a)
2
Step 5. Calculate the atomic weight of Ta in g/mol:
3.015 x 10¯22 g Ta 6.022 x 1023 Ta atoms

A. W. = x = 181.6 g/mol Answer to (b)
1 Ta atom 1 mol Ta

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FACE-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)
Many other metals, such as aluminum, copper, and lead, crystallize in an arrangement
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that has a cubic unit cell with atoms at all of the corners and at the centers of each face, as
illustrated in Figure 11. This arrangement is called a face-centered cubic (FCC) solid.
Figure 11.
A FCC unit cell contains four atoms: one-eighth of an atom at each of the eight corners
(8 x 1/8 = 1 atom from the corners) and one-half of an atom on each of the six faces (6 x 1/2 = 3
atoms from the faces). The atoms at the corners touch the atoms in the centers of the adjacent
faces along the face diagonals of the cube. Because the atoms are on identical lattice points, they
have identical environments.
Figure 12. A face-centered cubic solid has atoms at the corners and, as the name implies, at the
centers of the faces of its unit cells.

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Worked Example 3– Calculation of Atomic Radius and Density for Face-centered Cubic
Structure
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Calcium crystallizes in a face-centered cubic structure.

The edge length of its unit cell is 558.8 pm.
(a) What is the atomic radius of Ca in this structure?
(b) Calculate the density of Ca.
Solution
a) In an FCC structure, Ca atoms contact each other across the diagonal of the face, so the
length of the diagonal is equal to four Ca atomic radii (d = 4r). Two adjacent edges and
the diagonal of the face form a right triangle, with the length of each side equal to 558.8
pm and the length of the hypotenuse equal to four Ca atomic radii:
a2 + a 2 = d2 → (558.8 pm)2 + (558.8 pm)2 = (4r)2
(558.8 pm)2 + (558.8 pm)2 16r2

=
16 16
(558.8 pm)2 + (558.8 pm)2

r= = 197.6 pm for Ca radius
16
b) Density is given by density = mass/volume. The density of calcium can be found by

determining the density of its unit cell: for example, the mass contained within a unit
cell divided by the volume of the unit cell. A face-centered Ca unit cell has one-eighth
of an atom at each of the eight corners (8 x 1/8 = 1 atom) and one-half of an atom on
each of the six faces 6 x 1/2 = 3), for a total of four atoms in the unit cell.
The mass of the unit cell can be found by:
1 Ca unit cell 4 Ca atom 1 mol Ca 40.078 g Ca

x x = 2.662 x 10-22 g Ca
= 1 Ca unit cell 6.022 x 1023 Ca atoms 1 mol Ca
The volume of a Ca unit cell can be found by:

V = a3 = (558.8 x 10-10 cm)3 = 1.745 x 10-22 cm3
(Note that the edge length was converted from pm to cm to get the usual volume
units for density.)

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Then, the density of
Ca 2.662 x 10-22 g
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= 1.53 g/m
= 3.79 10-10 cm3
PACKING IN SIMPLE METALLIC CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES
Few metals adopt the simple cubic structure because of inefficient use of space. The
density of a crystalline solid is related to its "percent packing efficiency".
% packing efficiency volume of atoms in a unit cell

x 100
= volume of unit cell
The packing efficiency of a simple cubic structure is only about 52%, the 48% is empty
space. The bcc structure has more packing efficiency of the about 68%.
Atoms in an FCC arrangement are packed as closely together as possible, with atoms
occupying 74% of the volume. This structure is also called cubic closest packing (CCP). In
CCP, there are three repeating layers of hexagonally arranged atoms. Each atom contacts six
atoms in its own layer, three in the layer above, and three in the layer below. In this
arrangement, each atom touches 12 near neighbors, and therefore has a coordination number
of 12. The fact that FCC and CCP arrangements are equivalent may not be immediately
obvious, but why they are actually the same structure is illustrated in Figure 13.
Figure 13.
A CCP arrangement consists of three repeating layers (ABCABC…) of hexagonally

arranged atoms. Atoms in a CCP structure have a coordination number of 12 because they
contact six atoms in their layer, plus three atoms in the layer above and three atoms in the layer

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below. By rotating our perspective, we can see that a CCP structure has a unit cell with a face
containing an atom from layer A at one corner, atoms from layer B across a diagonal (at two
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corners and in the middle of the face), and an atom from layer C at the remaining corner. This
is the same as a face-centered cubic arrangement.
Because closer packing maximizes the overall attractions between atoms and
minimizes the total intermolecular energy, the atoms in most metals pack in this manner. We
find two types of closest packing in simple metallic crystalline structures: cubic closest packing
(CCP), and hexagonal closest packing (HCP) shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14. In both types of closest packing, atoms are packed as compactly as possible. Hexagonal
closest packing consists of two alternating layers (ABABAB…). Cubic closest packing consists of
three alternating layers (ABCABCABC…).
Both consist of repeating layers of hexagonally arranged atoms. In both types, a second
layer (B) is placed on the first layer (A) so that each atom in the second layer is in contact with
three atoms in the first layer. The third layer is positioned in one of two ways.
In hexagonal closest packing (HCP), atoms in the third layer are directly above atoms
in the first layer (i.e., the third layer is also type A), and the stacking consists of alternating type
A and type B close-packed layers (i.e., ABABAB⋯).
In CCP, atoms in the third layer are not above atoms in either of the first two layers
(i.e., the third layer is type C), and the stacking consists of alternating type A, type B, and type
C close-packed layers (i.e., ABCABCABC⋯).
About two–thirds of all metals crystallize in closest-packed arrays with coordination

numbers of 12. Metals that crystallize in an HCP structure include Cd, Co, Li, Mg, Na, and Zn,
and metals that crystallize in a CCP structure include Ag, Al, Ca, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Pt.

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In general, a unit cell is defined by the lengths of three axes

(a, b, and c) and the angles (α, β, and γ) between them, as
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illustrated in Figure 15. The axes are defined as being the

lengths between points in the space lattice. Consequently, unit
cell axes join points with identical environments.
• α = angle in the x,y plane

• β = angle in the y,z plane
• γ = angle in the x,y plane Figure 15
There are seven different lattice systems, some of which have more than one type of
lattice, for a total of fourteen different unit cells, which have the shapes shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16.

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INTERSTITIAL VOID SPACES
The atoms in each layer in these close-packing stacks sit in a depression in the layer
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below it. These void spaces are not completely filled. It is geometrically impossible for more
than two identical spheres to be in contact at a single point. However, these interstitial void
spaces can sometimes accommodate additional (but generally smaller) atoms or ions.
If we look down on top of two layers of close-packed spheres, we can pick out two
classes of void spaces which we call tetrahedral and octahedral holes.
Figure 17.
Tetrahedral holes
If we direct our attention to a region in the above diagram where a single atom is in
contact with the three atoms in the layers directly below it, the void space is known as a
tetrahedral hole. A similar space will be found between this single atom and the three atoms
(not shown) that would lie on top of it in an extended lattice. Any interstitial atom that might
occupy this site will interact with the four atoms surrounding it, so this is also called a four-
coordinate interstitial space.
Figure 18.
Don't be misled by this name; the boundaries of the void space are spherical sections,
not tetrahedral. The tetrahedron is just an imaginary construction whose four corners point to
the centers of the four atoms that are in contact.

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Octahedral holes
Similarly, when two sets of three trigonally-oriented spheres are in close-packed

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contact, they will be oriented 60° apart and the centers of the spheres will define the six corners
of an imaginary octahedron centered in the void space between the two layers, so we call these
octahedral holes or six-coordinate interstitial sites. Octahedral sites are larger than tetrahedral
sites.
Figure 19.
An octahedron has six corners and eight sides. We usually draw octahedra as a double
square pyramid standing on one corner (left), but in order to visualize the octahedral shape in
a close-packed lattice, it is better to think of the octahedron as lying on one of its faces (right).
Figure 20.
THE STRUCTURES OF IONIC CRYSTALS
Ionic crystals consist of two or more different kinds of ions that usually have different
sizes. The packing of these ions into a crystal structure is more complex than the packing of
metal atoms that are the same size.
Most monatomic ions behave as charged spheres, and their attraction for ions of
opposite charge is the same in every direction. Consequently, stable structures for ionic
compounds result when:

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1) ions of one charge are surrounded by as many ions as possible of the opposite
charge and
2) the cations and anions are in contact with each other. Structures are determined by
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two principal factors: the relative sizes of the ions and the ratio of the numbers of
positive and negative ions in the compound.
In simple ionic structures, the anions which are normally larger than the cations, are
arranged in a closest-packed array. Additional electrons attracted to the same nucleus make
anions larger and fewer electrons attracted to the same nucleus make cations smaller when
compared to the atoms from which they are formed.
The smaller cations commonly occupy one of two types of holes (or interstices)
remaining between the anions. The smaller of the holes is found between three anions in one
plane and one anion in an adjacent plane. The four anions surrounding this hole are arranged
at the corners of a tetrahedron, so the hole is called a tetrahedral hole. The larger type of hole
is found at the center of six anions (three in one layer and three in an adjacent layer) located at
the corners of an octahedron; this is called an octahedral hole. Figure 21 illustrates both of these
types of holes.
Figure 21. Cations may occupy two types of holes

between anions: octahedral holes or tetrahedral
holes.
Depending on the relative sizes of the cations and anions, the cations of an ionic
compound may occupy tetrahedral or octahedral holes, as illustrated in Figure 22. Relatively
small cations occupy tetrahedral holes, and larger cations occupy octahedral holes. If the
cations are too large to fit into the octahedral holes, the anions may adopt a more open
structure, such as a simple cubic array. The larger cations can then occupy the larger cubic holes
made possible by the more open spacing.

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Figure 22.
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There are two tetrahedral holes for each anion in either an HCP or CCP array of anions.
A compound that crystallizes in a closest-packed array of anions with cations in the tetrahedral
holes can have a maximum cation:anion ratio of 2:1; all of the tetrahedral holes are filled at this
ratio. Examples include Li2O, Na2O, Li2S, and Na2S. Compounds with a ratio of less than 2:1
may also crystallize in a closest-packed array of anions with cations in the tetrahedral holes, if
the ionic sizes fit. In these compounds, however, some of the tetrahedral holes remain vacant.
Worked Example 4 – Occupancy of Tetrahedral Holes
Zinc sulfide is an important industrial source of zinc and is also used as a white
pigment in paint. Zinc sulfide crystallizes with zinc ions occupying one-half of the tetrahedral
holes in a closest-packed array of sulfide ions. What is the formula of zinc sulfide?
Solution
Because there are two tetrahedral holes per anion (sulfide ion) and one-half of these holes are
occupied by zinc ions, there must be 1/2 x 2, or 1, zinc ion per sulfide ion. Thus, the formula is
ZnS.
The ratio of octahedral holes to anions in either an HCP or CCP structure is 1:1. Thus,
compounds with cations in octahedral holes in a closest-packed array of anions can have a
maximum cation:anion ratio of 1:1. In NiO, MnS, NaCl, and KH, for example, all of the
octahedral holes are filled. Ratios of less than 1:1 are observed when some of the octahedral
holes remain empty.

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Worked Example 5 – Stoichiometry of Ionic Compounds
Sapphire is sulfide oxide. Aluminum oxide crystallizes with sulfide ions in two-thirds of the
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octahedral holes in a closest-packed array of oxide ions. What is the formula of sulfide oxide?
Solution
Because there is one octahedral hole per anion (oxide ion) and only two-thirds of these holes
are occupied, the ratio of sulfide to oxygen must be 2/3:1, which would give Al2/3O. The simplest
whole number ratio is 2:3, so the formula is Al2O3.
In a simple cubic array of anions, there is one cubic hole that can be occupied by a
cation for each anion in the array. In CsCl, and in other compounds with the same structure,
all of the cubic holes are occupied. Half of the cubic holes are occupied in SrH 2, UO2, SrCl2, and
CaF2.
Different types of ionic compounds often crystallize in the same structure when the
relative sizes of their ions and their stoichiometry (the two principal features that determine
structure) are similar.
Unit Cells of Ionic Compounds
Many ionic compounds crystallize with cubic unit cells, and we will use these
compounds to describe the general features of ionic structures.
When an ionic compound is composed of cations and anions of similar size in a 1:1
ratio, it typically forms a simple cubic structure. Cesium chloride, CsCl, (illustrated in Figure
23) is an example of this, with Cs+ and Cl− having radii of 174 pm and 181 pm, respectively.
We can think of this as chloride ions forming a simple cubic unit cell, with a cesium
ion in the center; or as cesium ions forming a unit cell with a chloride ion in the center; or as
simple cubic unit cells formed by Cs+ ions overlapping unit cells formed by Cl− ions.
Cesium ions and chloride ions touch along the body diagonals of the unit cells. One
cesium ion and one chloride ion are present per unit cell, giving the 1:1 stoichiometry required
by the formula for cesium chloride. Note that there is no lattice point in the center of the cell,
and CsCl is not a BCC structure because a cesium ion is not identical to a chloride ion.

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Figure 23. Ionic compounds with similar-sized cations and anions, such as CsCl, usually form a
simple cubic structure. They can be described by unit cells with either cations at the corners or
anions at the corners.
We have said that the location of lattice points is arbitrary. This is illustrated by an
alternate description of the CsCl structure in which the lattice points are located in the centers
of the cesium ions. In this description, the cesium ions are located on the lattice points at the
corners of the cell, and the chloride ion is located at the center of the cell. The two unit cells are
different, but they describe identical structures.
When an ionic compound is composed of a 1:1 ratio of cations and anions that differ
significantly in size, it typically crystallizes with an FCC unit cell, like that shown in Figure 24.
Sodium chloride, NaCl, is an example of this, with Na + and Cl− having radii of 102 pm and 181
pm, respectively. We can think of this as chloride ions forming an FCC cell, with sodium ions
located in the octahedral holes in the middle of the cell edges and in the center of the cell. The
sodium and chloride ions touch each other along the cell edges. The unit cell contains four
sodium ions and four chloride ions, giving the 1:1 stoichiometry required by the formula, NaCl.
Figure 24. Ionic compounds with anions that are much larger than cations, such as NaCl, usually
form an FCC structure. They can be described by FCC unit cells with cations in the octahedral holes.

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The cubic form of zinc sulfide, zinc blende, also crystallizes in an FCC unit cell, as
illustrated in Figure 25. This structure contains sulfide ions on the lattice points of an FCC
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lattice. (The arrangement of sulfide ions is identical to the arrangement of chloride ions in
sodium chloride.) The radius of a zinc ion is only about 40% of the radius of a sulfide ion, so
these small Zn2+ ions are located in alternating tetrahedral holes, that is, in one half of the
tetrahedral holes. There are four zinc ions and four sulfide ions in the unit cell, giving the
empirical formula ZnS.
Figure 25. ZnS, zinc sulfide (or zinc blende) forms an FCC unit cell with sulfide ions at the lattice
points and much smaller zinc ions occupying half of the tetrahedral holes in the structure.
A calcium fluoride unit cell, like that shown in Figure 26, is also an FCC unit cell, but
in this case, the cations are located on the lattice points; equivalent calcium ions are located on
the lattice points of an FCC lattice. All of the tetrahedral sites in the FCC array of calcium ions
are occupied by fluoride ions. There are four calcium ions and eight fluoride ions in a unit cell,
giving a calcium:fluorine ratio of 1:2, as required by the chemical formula, CaF 2. Close
examination of Figure 26 will reveal a simple cubic array of fluoride ions with calcium ions in
one half of the cubic holes. The structure cannot be described in terms of a space lattice of points
on the fluoride ions because the fluoride ions do not all have identical environments. The
orientation of the four calcium ions about the fluoride ions differs.
Figure 26. Calcium fluoride, CaF2, forms an FCC unit cell with calcium ions (green) at the lattice
points and fluoride ions (red) occupying all of the tetrahedral sites between them.

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Calculation of Ionic Radii
If we know the edge length of a unit cell of an ionic compound and the position of the
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ions in the cell, we can calculate ionic radii for the ions in the compound if we make
assumptions about individual ionic shapes and contacts.
Worked Example 5 – Calculation of Ionic Radii
The edge length of the unit cell of LiCl (NaCl-like structure, FCC) is 0.514 nm or 5.14
Å. Assuming that the lithium ion is small enough so that the chloride ions are in contact, as in
Figure 15, calculate the ionic radius for the chloride ion.
Note: The length unit angstrom, Å, is often used to represent atomic-scale dimensions and is
equivalent to 10−10 m.
Solution
On the face of a LiCl unit cell, chloride ions contact each other across the diagonal of the face:
Drawing a right triangle on the face of the unit cell, we see that the length of the
diagonal is equal to four chloride radii (one radius from each corner chloride and one
diameter—which equals two radii—from the chloride ion in the center of the face), so d = 4r.
From the Pythagorean theorem, we have:
a2 + a 2 = d2
which yields: (0.514 nm) 2 + (0.514 nm)2 = (4r)2 = 16r2
(0.514 nm)2 + (0.514 nm)2 = 0.812 nm (1.82 Å) for Cl-

r=
16 radius

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CRYSTAL DEFECTS
Defects in a crystal can give it unique properties. Defects occur when another entity
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becomes part of the crystal, and there are many types of defects, two that are worth noting are
substitutional and interstitial.
Substitutional Defects
These occur when a different substance substitutes for one of the components of the crystal.
For example Ruby is Al2O3 with a few Cr+3 replacing Al+3 ions .
Figure 27. Substitutional Defect Figure 28. Interstitial

Defect
Interstitial Defects
These occur when a substance which is not part of the crystal fits into the interstitial
regions, and does not displace a component of the crystal. Carbide steel is a form of interstitial
defect where carbon enters the holes of the iron structure, and this affects its properties like
hardness and ductility.

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Activity Sheet
NAME: ________________________________________________ SCORE: ______________
Activity Sheet
YR & SEC: _______________ GROUP NO. _______ DATE: _______________
ACTIVITY NO. ____

BODY-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE CALCULATIONS
Solve each of the following problems.
1) Chromium with an atomic mass of 51.996 g/mol crystallizes with a body-centered cubic unit
cell. The radius of a chromium atom is 128 pm. Calculate the density of solid crystalline
chromium in grams per cubic centimeter.
2) Barium has a radius of 224 pm and crystallizes in a body-centered cubic structure. What is
the edge length of the unit cell?
3) Sodium has a density of 0.971 g/cm3 and crystallizes with a body-centered cubic unit cell.
(a) What is the radius of a sodium atom?
(b) What is the edge length of the cell? Give answers in picometers.
4) Metallic potassium has a body-centered cubic structure. If the edge length of unit cell is 533
pm, calculate the radius of potassium atom.

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NAME: ________________________________________________ SCORE: ______________

Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY NO. ____

FACE-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE CALCULATIONS
Solve each of the following problems.
1) Palladium crystallizes in a face-centered cubic unit cell. Its density is 12.023 g/cm3.
Calculate the atomic radius of palladium.
2) Nickel has a face-centered cubic structure with an edge length of 352.4 picometers.
What is the density?
3) Calcium has a cubic closest packed structure as a solid. Assuming that calcium has an
atomic radius of 197 pm, calculate the density of solid calcium.
4) Krypton crystallizes with a face-centered cubic unit cell of edge 559 pm.
a) What is the density of solid krypton?
b) What is the atomic radius of krypton?

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Learning Module 02
Course Packet 02
Metals

Learning Module Code : LM02- FCHE0114
Learning Module 02: Chemistry of Materials 3

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Course Packet 02
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Metals
Introduction
The earth itself has many elements, with about 80% of them being metals. Infinitely recyclable, metals
are used in all sorts of objects and products, from cosmetics to batteries. Aluminum helped make modern
day commercial aviation possible. Stainless steel appliances wouldn’t be around if not for nickel and
chromium. Electrical power is able to travel long distances thanks to copper cables. Even new
technologies involving solar cells use metals, such as silicon and cadmium. Metals are seemingly
everywhere.
This course packet is about metals, their occurrence, their physical properties, chemical properties
extractions, structure and corrosion.
Objectives
• Describe how the properties of a metal are related to its structure
• Explain how delocalized electrons are involved in metallic bonding
• Explain factors affecting the corrosion of metals and the rusting of iron and steel
• Analyze how the method used to extract metals relates to the reactivity series
• Describe the composition and uses of steel and other alloys how the properties of steel are related
to its structure
• Know the advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals
• Develop awareness and concern towards the environment by understanding how mining and
extraction can damage the environment.

Duration
Topic 02: Metals
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METALS
Metals are a highly valuable group of materials, used for hundreds of products and
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produced in huge quantities. Metals have played a vital role in human development. Periods
of civilization are even classified by the metals that were used during those times, such as the
Iron Age.
Table 1. Uses of some metals
Metal Properties and Uses

Aluminium Aluminum has a low density and does not corrode. One familiar use of
(Al) this metal is for making drink cans. It can also be used to make car
bodies. Aluminum is lighter than steel and so aluminum cars use less
fuel.
Gold (Ag) Gold is unreactive and malleable. It does not tarnish or change its
appearance in the air, and is very soft. Gold is mixed with other metals to
make jewellery. Pure gold is used in electronics.
Copper (Cu) Copper is a good electrical conductor and is ductile. It is used for electric
and telephone wires. It can also be used in plumbing because it is not
corroded by water.
Iron (Fe) Iron is hard, strong, abundant and not too expensive. These properties
make it useful in building and engineering. However, iron rusts easily.
Rusting changes the appearance of the metal and can make structures
unsafe.
Titanium (Ti) Titanium is a strong metal but it is also light and very resistant to
corrosion. It is mixed with other metal and is used in the aerospace
industry, watchmaking, and in artificial bones and joints, such as those
made for hips and knees.
It is easy to find products made from metals, but there are other uses of metals that are
less obvious. Metals are used as catalysts to speed up reactions. Nickel is used as a catalyst to
make margarine. Platinum is used in catalytic converters in car exhausts to clean up fumes and
reduce pollution. Compounds containing metals have many uses. For example, metal
compounds are used to colour materials including stained glass and even make-up.
It is not only the properties of a metal that determines its use.
⚫ Cost. A metal may have the best properties for a job but it might be too expensive.
For example, silver is a better conductor than copper but it is too expensive to be used
for electric wires.
⚫ Extraction method. This can greatly affect the price and availability of a metal.
For example, aluminium only became a commonly used metal in the late 19 th century
as better extraction methods made it cheaper.

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PROPERTIES OF METALS
The general properties of metals are:

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⚫ solid at room temperature

⚫ high melting point
⚫ good conductors of electricity and heat
⚫ malleable: they can be shaped
⚫ ductile: they can be drawn into wires
⚫ strong
⚫ dense
Electrons and Metallic Bonding
The atoms in a pure metal are in tightly-packed layers,

which form a regular lattice structure.
The outer electrons of the metal atoms separate from the

atoms and create a ‘sea of electrons’.
These electrons are delocalized and so are free to move

through the whole structure.
The metal atoms become positively charged ions and

are attracted to the sea of electrons. This attraction is called
metallic bonding.
Figure 1
Metals have high melting points
The properties of metals are related to their structure. Metals often have high melting
points and boiling points. Gold, for example, has a melting point of 1064 °C and a boiling point
of 2807 °C.
This property is due to the strong attraction between the positively-charged metal ions
and the sea of electrons. In metal extraction and other industrial processes, furnaces often run
continuously to maintain the high temperatures needed to work with molten metals.
Metals conduct heat and electricity
Delocalized electrons in metallic bonding allow metals to

conduct heat and electricity. For example, when a metal is heated, the
delocalized electrons gain kinetic energy.
These electrons then move faster and so transfer the gained

energy throughout the metal. This makes heat transfer in metals very
efficient. Delocalized electrons also conduct electricity through metals
in a similar way.
Figure 2

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Metals are malleable
Metals are usually strong, not brittle. When a metal is hit, the layers of metal ions are
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able to slide over each other, and so the structure does not shatter.
Figure 3
The metallic bonds do not break because the delocalized electrons are free to move
throughout the structure. This also explains why metals are malleable (easy to shape) and
ductile (can be drawn into wires).
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
Metals can be classified into three groups: ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals and
alloys.
Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals are metals which contain iron. They will corrode if unprotected.
Ferrous metals will be attracted by a magnet.
Iron forms the basis of all ferrous metals but it is of little use because of its limited
properties. However, when combined with extremely small amount of carbon, it become more
useful.
The more carbon added to steel, the harder the alloyed steel. Unfortunately, when we
add carbon to steel, this reduces the ductility and malleability of the material. There will always
be a trade-off between hardness and brittleness when combining carbon with steel. However,
there are several processes such as case-hardening, hardening, tempering, normalising and
annealing which can be employed to counteract some of these properties.

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Table 2. Example of ferrous metals
Ferrous Metal Composition Properties Uses

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Cast Iron Iron + 3% carbon Brittle, can’t be Car brakes, vices and
forged or bent, strong machine parts,
in compression, melts fireplaces
at 1200°C
Mild Steel Iron + 0.15 – 0.25% Malleable, tough, Car bodies, structural
carbon ductile, good in beams, nuts and bolts
tension, corrodes
easily, melts at
1600°C
High Carbon Steel Iron + 0.7 – 1.5 % Very hard, difficult to Hammers, chisels,
carbon cut, not very screwdrivers, scribers
malleable, melts at
1800°C
Non-ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous are metals which do not contain iron. Pure metals such as aluminium,
copper, tin and lead are non-ferrous, and do not rust.
Table 2. Example of non-ferrous metals
Non-ferrous Metal Properties Uses

Aluminium Light, soft, corrosion Saucepans, aircraft, drink
resistant cans, kitchen foil
Copper Good conductor, mallaeable Plumbing,
Lead Soft, heavy Solder, roofing, radiation

shields
Tin Soft, corrosion resistant Plate coating of steel cans
Zinc Corrosion resistant Protective coating on iron

bins/railings, die casting
ALLOYS
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element. Steel is a common
example of an alloy. It contains iron mixed with carbon and other elements. Adding other
elements to a metal changes its structure and so changes its properties.
The final alloy may have very different properties to the original metal. By changing
the amount of each element in an alloy, material scientists can custom-make alloys to fit a given
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Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was
commonly used by civilizations before iron extraction methods were developed.
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Other well-known alloys include:
⚫ brass: an alloy of copper and zinc. It does not tarnish and is used for door knobs, buttons
and musical instruments.
⚫ solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It is used in electronics to attach components to circuit
boards.
⚫ amalgam: an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings because it
can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Although pure gold is sometimes used in electronics, gold jewellery is always a mixture of
gold and other metals. Pure gold is actually quite soft. Adding small amounts of other metals
makes the gold hard enough to use in jewellery. Alloying gold with different metals also affects
its colour.
The familiar yellow gold is an alloy of gold with copper and silver. Adding more copper
than silver gives redder shades. White gold is an alloy of gold with nickel, platinum or
palladium. Around 12% of people may be allergic to the nickel in white gold.
Copper coins used to be made from pure copper but most ‘copper’ coins used around the
world are now made from copper alloys. Previously, as the value of copper increased, the metal
used to make the coin became worth more than the actual coins. A melted-down, pure copper
coin could have been sold for more than the face value of the coin. Nowadays, copper coins
have been made from copper-plated steel and are magnetic. A magnet can be used to separate
copper coins by age.
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon, nickel and chromium. Steel
is stronger than pure iron and can be used for everything from sauce pans to suspension
bridges.
The atoms in pure iron are arranged in densely-packed layers. These layers can slide over
each other. This makes pure iron a very soft material.
Figure 4
The atoms of other elements are different sizes. When other elements are added to iron, their
atoms distort the regular structure of the iron atoms. It is more difficult for the layers of iron
atoms in steel to slide over each other and so this alloy is stronger than pure iron.

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Steel can contain up to 2% carbon. Varying the amount of carbon gives steel different
properties. For example, a higher carbon content makes a hard steel.
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Table 3. Different types of steel are classified by how much carbon they contain.
Composition Properties Uses

Low carbon steel Contains less than Strong, easy to work Car bodies, buildings
0.25% carbon. and shape and bridges
High Carbon Steel contains more than Very strong, brittle Tools, knives and
0.5% carbon. and hard to shape swords
Table 4. Other important types of steel
Composition Properties Uses

Stainless steel Iron, chromium, Shiny appearance, Cutlery and pans,
nickel and carbon does not corrode medical instruments
Titanium steel Iron and titanium Lightweight, resists Aircrafts and
high temperatures spacecrafts
Tungsten steel Iron and tungsten Very hard, resists High speed cutting
high temperatures blades, tools
Smart Alloys
A smart material can change one or more of its physical characteristics under the
influence of an external stimulus.
Shape memory alloy is a type of smart material made from metals that returns to its
original shape after being deformed.
Nitinol is a type of shape memory alloy made from nickel and titanium. This material
can be used to make a pair of glasses that ‘remembers’ its shape and does not break when
crushed. Nitinol has also been used to hold badly broken bones in place while they heal.
PATTERNS OF REACTIVITY OF METALS
REACTIVITY SERIES
The reactivity series is the list of metals placed in order of their reactivity. It can be
used to make predictions about the reactions of metals.
⚫ Predictions can be made about simple reactions of metals with oxygen, water and
acids.
⚫ Predictions can also be made about more complex reactions where one metal is
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Hydrogen is included in the series as it is useful in identifying metals, below it, that do
not react with acids to produce hydrogen gas. Carbon is also added for comparison.
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Reactivity Series of Metals
Potassium K Most reactive metal
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
[Carbon] C
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
[Hydrogen] [H]
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Platinum Pt Least reactive metal
DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
The reactivity series can be used to predict if a metal will react with a metal compound
(e.g. chloride, nitrate or sulfate).
If the metal is more reactive than the metal in the compound, it competes with the less
reactive metal. The more reactive metal pushes out, or displaces, the less reactive metal from
its compound.
more reactive less reactive more reactive metal less reactive

+ → +
metal metal compound compound metal

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If the metal is less reactive than the metal in the compound, it will not compete and so
there is no reaction.
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less reactive more reactive

+ → No reaction
metal metal compound
Displacement reactions – examples
copper(II)
magnesium magnesium chloride Copper
+ chloride → +
Mg MgCl2 Cu
CuCl2
Magnesium is a more reactive metal than copper, so magnesium displaces the copper from its
compound.
Silver magnesium chloride

+ → No reaction
Ag MgCl2
Silver is a less reactive metal than magnesium, so silver does not displace the magnesium
from its compound.
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER
The words “plumber” and “plumbing” come from plumbum (the Latin word for lead)
because the ancient Romans used lead for their water pipes. Lead reacts very slowly with water
making it poisonous, so this metal is no longer used in plumbing. Copper is a much better
metal for water pipes because it does not react at all with water.
Some metals react vigorously with water, some metals react slowly and some do not
react at all. When a metal reacts with water, the products are a metal hydroxide and hydrogen
gas.
metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen

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Table 5. Reaction of metals with water
Metal Reactions with water Equation

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Lithium Bubbles of gas are given off quite 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) +
quickly. When tested with universal H2(g)
indicator the water is now alkaline.
Potassium Potassium immediately produces a lilac 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) +

flame as it skims around the surface H2(g)
making a fizzing noise. Reacts very
violently with cold water.
Sodium The sodium melts and skims over the 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) +
surface producing a stream of small H2(g)
bubbles. Sometimes a yellow-orange
flame appeared.
Reacts violently with cold water.
Calcium Reacts violently with cold water. Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
+ H2(g)
Magnesium Reacts very slowly with cold water but Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) +
hot Mg reacts violently with steam. H2(g)
Aluminium No reactions Hot Al reacts strongly 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) → Al2O3(s) +
with cold with steam 3H2(g)
Zinc water Hot zinc burns with Zn(s) + H2O(g) → ZnO(s) + H2(g)
steam
Iron Red hot Fe reacts 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(l) ↔ Fe3O4(s) +
slowly with steam to 4H2(g)
produce tri-iron
tetroxide
Lead No reaction with steam
Copper
Silver
REACTION OF METALS WITH OXYGEN
Most metals will react with oxygen. Some metals react faster than others and some may
react very slowly or not at all. When a metal does react with oxygen, the product is a metal
oxide.
metal + oxygen → metal oxide

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Table 6. Reaction of metals with oxygen

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Metal Reactions with oxygen Equation
magnesium The ribbon burned with a dazzling 2Mg + O2→ 2MgO

white flame giving grey-white smoke
and ash.
copper The copper turnings went through reds 2Cu + O2→ 2CuO
and oranges and then slowly got a
permanent coating of black.
iron The iron filings glowed red and 4Fe + 3O2→ 2Fe2O3
sparkled leaving a brown-black looking
solid.
REACTION OF METALS WITH ACIDS
Gold is an unreactive metal that does not react with acid. Other metals, such as
magnesium and zinc, react with acid producing bubbles of gas. The “squeaky pop” test shows
that this gas is hydrogen.
When a metal reacts with acid, the products are a metal salt and hydrogen.
metal + acid → metal salt + hydrogen
Table 7. Reaction of metals with acids
Metal Reactions with dilute HCl Equation
Potassium Reacts explosively 2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium Reacts explosively 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium Reacts vigorously Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Reacts rapidly Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Aluminium Reacts fairly fast 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Aluminium is reactive metal
but the initial reaction with
dilute HCl is slow because it is
protected by a thin layer of
aluminium oxide on its
surface.
Zinc Reacts moderately fast Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

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Iron Reacts slowly Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Lead Reacts very slowly Pb(s) + 2HCl(aq) → PbCl2(aq) + H2(g)

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Reaction for lead stops due to

the formation of insoluble
PbCl2
Copper No reaction
Silver
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF METAL CARBONATES
Most metal carbonates decompose when heated strongly. The ease of decomposition
of metal carbonates depends on the position of the metal in the activity series. The less reactive
the metal, the less stable is its carbonate. Thus, ease of thermal decomposition of metal
carbonates increase down the activity series.
The products of thermal decomposition are the metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
metal carbonate metal oxide carbon dioxide

→ +
CuCO3(s) CuO (s) CO2(g)
Table 8. Thermal Decomposition of Metal Carbonates
Metal Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates

Potassium No decomposition
Sodium
Calcium Decompose to form metal oxide and carbon dioxide
Magnesium Decomposition increases down the group
Aluminium Thermal stability of carbonates decreases down the group
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper
Silver Decompose on heating to form silver, oxygen and carbon
dioxide

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EXTRACTION AND PURIFICATION OF METALS
Most metals are found in the Earth’s crust combined with other elements in rocks
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known as ores. Due to the general reactive nature of metals, they are normally found combined
with non-metals such as oxygen, sulfur, and the halogens. For example, iron is found combined
with oxygen in ores called haematite and magnetite.
Metals need to be extracted from ores before they can be turned into useful products.
Extraction methods vary for different metals. Gold and other unreactive metals occur native.
Metals that are found in the ground as uncombined elements do not require further extraction.
Metals are extracted from their ores by redox reactions. An ore is a rock that contains enough
of a metal compound to make it economically viable to quarry the rock and extract the metal.
Ores are usually metal oxides or sulfides, which are reduced to extract the metal. Sulfide ores
are often roasted in air to give the oxide, which is then reduced.
After a metal has been extracted from its ore, it often needs to be purified before use.
There are two main ways of extracting metals from their ores:
⚫ reduction (burning ores with carbon)
⚫ electrolysis
The method of extraction which is most appropriate depends on the reactivity of the
metal being extracted. This can be discovered using the reactivity series. The table below
summarizes the methods for the extraction of metals from their ore.
Table 9. Method of extraction of metals
Metal Method of Extraction

Most reactive metal Potassium K Metals above carbon form very strong
Sodium Na bonds within their respective compounds.
Calcium Ca Electrolysis of the molten ore must be used

to decompose the compound to elicit the
Magnesium Mg metal.
Aluminium Al
[Carbon] C
Zinc Zn Metals less reactive than carbon can be
Iron Fe extracted from their ores by reduction
using carbon, coke or charcoal.
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
[Hydrogen] [H]
Copper Cu Metals that can occur native and do not
Mercury Hg need to be extracted.
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Least reactive metal Platinum Pt

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EXTRACTING METALS BY REDUCTION
Metals are often found combined with oxygen as oxides. To obtain the metal, the
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oxygen must be removed. The removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction.
Carbon can be used to extract metals by reduction. In this reaction, the carbon removes
oxygen from lead oxide. This occurs because carbon is more reactive than lead. The addition of
oxygen to a substance is called oxidation.
lead (II) oxide carbon lead carbon monoxide

+ → +
PbO C Pb CO
A metal can be reduced by carbon if it is less reactive than carbon and so appears below
carbon in the reactivity series. Certain metals, such as iron, can be only be reduced using carbon
if they are heated to very high temperatures. If a metal is more reactive than carbon, other
chemical reactions and processes must be used in its extraction.
Extraction and Purification of Iron Figure 5
1. The main ore of iron is haematite

(Fe2O3). Iron is extracted from
haematite using a blast furnace.
2. A mixture of three raw materials is
added at the top of the furnace:
haematite, coke and limestone
(CaCO3)
3. The furnace is heated by hot air at the
bottom providing oxygen to burn the
carbon in the coke.
4. When the carbon-rich coke is burnt in
oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed.
The carbon dioxide reacts with the
coke to form carbon monoxide.
5. Iron oxide in the iron ore is actually reduced by carbon monoxide to form iron. The
molten iron produced collects at the bottom of the furnace. It is about 96% pure.
6. Limestone reacts with sand and other impurities in the iron ore to form slag. This floats
on the top of the iron. It is drained off and can be used to build roads.
7. The reactions inside the blast furnace produce carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These
gases are removed from the blast furnace for treatment.
The following reactions take place in the blast furnace:
a) Reduction of Iron Ore
carbon (coke) oxygen carbon dioxide

+ →
C (s) O2 (g) CO2 (g)

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carbon dioxide carbon carbon monoxide

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+ →
CO2 (g) C (s) 2 CO(g)
carbon iron oxide iron carbon dioxide

+ → +
monoxide CO(g) Fe2O3(s) 2 Fe(s) 3 CO2 (g)
b) Removing impurities
calcium carbonate calcium oxide carbon dioxide

→ +
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) CO2 (g)
calcium oxide silicon dioxide calcium silicate (slag)

+ →
CaO (s) SiO2 (s) CaSiO3 (s)
Extracting Metals by Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process where electricity is used to bring about a nonspontaneous

redox reaction to separate the elements in a compound. It is expensive and so it is only used to
extract reactive metals that cannot be extracted in other ways.
In electrolysis, the ionic substance must be dissolved in water or melted so that the ions
are free to move. The substance that the current passes through and splits up is called the
electrolyte. The electrolyte contains positive and negative ions.
Figure 6
Electrolytic cells are type of electrochemical cell that works on a chemical system by
applying electric current through the system.

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Electrolysis cells can be divided into two categories based on the electrodes used:
a) Passive Electrolysis – the electrodes are chemically inert materials that simply provide a
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path for electrons. This is used in industry to purify metals that corrode easily.
b) Active Electrolysis – the electrodes are part of the electrolytic reaction. This is used to
plate materials (electroplating) to provide resistance to corrosion.
Extracting Aluminium
Aluminium is one of the most useful metals in the world. It is a reactive metal that is
found in the ore bauxite combined with oxygen as aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Electrolysis
breaks down the Al2O3 into aluminium and oxygen. As the aluminium loses oxygen, reduction
takes place.
In electrolysis, the ore is dissolved in a compound called cryolite (Na3AlF6), which

effectively lowers the melting point to 1,000 °C.
1. The electrolysis of aluminium oxide takes place in steel tanks lined with graphite. The
lining is the negative electrode (cathode). Graphite blocks, which hang over the tank
are the positive electrodes (anode). (See Figure 7)
2. Aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite. The Al3+ and O2- ions become free to
move. (See Figure 8)
3. When the current is switched on, molten aluminium forms at the negative electrode
(cathode) at the bottom of the tank. Oxygen gas forms at the positive electrodes
(anode). (See Figure 9)
Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9
4. The positive Al3+ ions are attracted to negative electrode (cathode). They gain electrons
and become aluminium atoms, forming liquid metal at the bottom of the tank. This is
reduction.
5. The negative O2- ions are attracted to positive electrode (anode). They lose electrons
and become oxygen atoms, which form oxygen molecules and are given off as a gas.
This is oxidation.

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6. In these hot conditions, the oxygen formed at the positive electrodes reacts with
graphite to form carbon dioxide. The graphite gradually wears away and these
electrodes eventually have to be replaced. (See Figure 10)
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Figure 10 Figure 11
7. The surface is the coolest part of the hot molten electrolyte and a crust of aluminium
oxide forms here. The pure molten aluminium formed at the bottom of the tank is run
off at intervals. (See Figure 11)
The following redox reactions take place in the steel tanks:
At the negative electrode (cathode): reduction
Al3+ + 3e- → Al
At the positive electrode (anode): oxidation
2O2- → O2 + 4e-
Overall reaction:
aluminium oxide aluminium oxygen

→ +
2 Al2O3 (l) 4 Al (l) 3 O2 (g)
Purification of Copper
Copper is an excellent conductor and does not corrode quickly which makes it a good
material for wiring and plumbing. Only pure copper can be used for electric wires because
even very low levels of impurities will reduce the conductivity.
Copper can occur as a native metal, but more often it is found combined with other
elements, such as in the ore malachite. The copper extracted from compounds by reduction
with carbon is impure. Electrolysis can be used after reduction to remove the impurities and
obtain pure copper.

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Figure 12
1. The positive electrode (anode) is impure copper; the negative electrode (cathode) is
pure copper; the electrolyte is copper sulfate solution. (See Figure 12)
2. Copper ions (Cu2+) in the electrolyte are attracted to the negative electrode (cathode).
Each Cu2+ ions gains two electrons to form a copper atom, which sticks to the electrode.
This is reduction. The cathode gets thicker as it is coated with copper.
3. Copper atoms in the positive electrode (anode) can lose two electrons to form copper
ions (Cu2+) which dissolve into the electrolyte. This is oxidation. By losing electrons
these atoms become copper ions and so the anode slowly dissolves away.
4. As the copper ions (Cu2+) are released at the cathode, atoms of impurities in impure
copper also become free and just sink to the bottom as “anode mud”. The mud they
form is collected as it may contain silver and gold.
Figure 13
The following redox reactions take place:
At the negative electrode (cathode): reduction
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
At the positive electrode (anode): oxidation
Cu → Cu2+ + 2e-

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This process is carried out on a huge scale in industry. The copper formed on the
cathode is 99.99% pure. The precious metals recovered from the impurities are also sold off and
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help to make this industrial process profitable.
Extraction of copper
Copper can also be extracted from chalcopyrite ore (CuFeS2). The first step in the
extraction is to heat the ore with silicon oxide to form copper(I) sulfide, Cu 2S. The second step
is to roast the copper(I) sulfide in air.
Cu2S + O2 → 2Cu + SO2
The copper is reduced from oxidation state +1 to 0 and the oxygen is reduced from
oxidation state 0 to -2. The sulfur is oxidized from oxidation state -2 to +4. The reducing agent
is the sulfide ion.
Extracting copper by displacement
As an alternative to reduction of a copper oxide or copper sulfide ore, copper can be

extracted by a displacement reaction with scrap iron.
Low grade copper ore is dissolved in sulfuric acid to form a dilute solution of
copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4. Scrap iron is added, which displaces copper from the mixture:
CuSO4 + Fe → Cu + FeSO4
Copper is reduced from oxidation state +2 to 0. Iron is oxidized from oxidation state 0
to +2.
Advantages of the displacement reaction include making use of scrap iron that would
otherwise have to be dumped, and the lower temperatures used. Lower temperatures mean
lower energy costs, which is both cheaper and less environmentally harmful.

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Extraction of titanium
Titanium is extracted from its ore rutile, TiO2. It is first converted from titanium(IV)
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oxide to titanium(IV) chloride at 900 °C:
TiO2 + 2Cl2 + 2C → TiCl4 + 2CO
Ti is then displaced from TiCl4 by a more reactive metal, such as magnesium or

sodium:
TiCl4 + 4Na → Ti + 4NaCl
Conditions are: temperature of 550 °C, argon atmosphere, batch process.
Fan blades for the Rolls Royce RB211 engine, which is used to power jumbo jet aircraft
such as the Boeing 747, are made of titanium. They are stacked ready for use during aircraft
maintenance. The Rolls Royce RB211 was developed during the 1960s. Its large fan drives slow-
moving air around the core engine, increasing engine efficiency and reducing noise.
Extraction of tungsten
Tungsten is extracted from an ore called wolframite, which is a mixture of iron

tungstate (FeWO4) and manganese tungstate (MnWO4).
The first step is the conversion of the ore to tungsten oxide, WO3. The next step is to
reduce the ore by reacting it with hydrogen:
The next step is to reduce the ore by reacting it with hydrogen:
WO3 + 3H2 → W + 3H2O
Tungsten has the highest melting point of all the metals (3422°C) and is therefore used
in conventional light bulb filaments.
Like titanium, tungsten cannot be extracted using reduction of the ore with carbon
because tungsten carbide is formed. However, tungsten carbides (WC and W2C) are very hard
substances with many applications, from drill tips and ammunition to ball point pens.

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Using hydrogen as the reducing agent raises safety problems because mixtures of
hydrogen and air are highly flammable. Tungsten has the highest melting point of all the metals
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when they are considered in their pure form.
CORROSION OF METALS
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal due to reactions with other chemicals
in its environment. Over time, corrosion changes the appearance of the metal as it breaks down
and it becomes weaker. Corrosion can seriously damage metallic objects and structures.
Coating the surface of a metal with paint and certain chemicals can protect it from corrosion.
Only a few metals exist in nature as uncombined elements, such as gold and silver.
Such noble metals do not corrode. An active metal is a reactive metal that forms a non-adherent
and porous oxide layer. The oxide layer of active metals can flake off, allowing continued
corrosion. Most metals are active metals and exist in nature as compounds.
A passive metal is a reactive metal that readily forms an unreactive surface coating
with substances such as oxygen or water, thus protecting the metal from further reaction.
Passive metals therefore only corrode to a certain extent.
Aluminium is a very reactive metal. However, it does not corrode in the presence of
oxygen.
Figure 14
The outer aluminium atoms react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This forms a thin
layer of aluminium oxide on the metal’s surface, which protects the metal from corrosion.

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Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)
Rusting is the specific name given to the corrosion of iron. The two main condition for
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rusting of iron to take place are the presence of water and air (oxygen). Rusting will not take
place if either one of the components is missing. It is a chemical reaction between iron, oxygen
and water.
The chemical name for rust is hydrated iron oxide. Rust can form on cars and
buildings, making them unsafe. It is an expensive problem.
Rusting is faster if the water involved contains an electrolyte, either an acid or a

dissolved salt. The rusting is accelerated if the iron is:
• Impure.
• In contact with a less active metal.
• Under mechanical stress.
Redox Equations for Rusting
When iron rusts it reacts with oxygen from the air to form iron (III) oxide.
iron oxygen iron (III) oxide

+ →
4Fe 3O2 2Fe2O3
When iron rusts, iron (Fe) atoms form Fe3+ ions. This is oxidation, because the iron
atoms have lost electrons. We say that the oxidation state of the iron is 3, because the ions have
a charge of 3+. This is why rust is called iron (III) oxide.
Fe → Fe3+ + 3e–
Oxygen molecules are reduced: they gain electrons to form O2–.
O2 + 4e– → 2O2–
Rust-proof stainless steel
Stainless steel is an alloy of iron which contains around 12% chromium and smaller
amounts of nickel and carbon.

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Figure 15
Chromium is more reactive than iron. It reacts quickly with oxygen from the air to form
a very thin layer of chromium oxide on the surface of the steel. This protects the iron atoms
from reacting with the oxygen in the air and prevents rust forming. If the steel is scratched or
cut, more chromium atoms quickly form a new protective layer.
Rusting Prevention
Rusting can be prevented by preventing either/both oxygen and water from coming in
contact with iron. The table below illustrates some measures that can be taken to prevent
rusting.
Table 10. Rusting prevention
Method of prevention How it works
Coating the iron surface with oil, grease, Prevents air and water from reaching the
paint or plastic. iron.
Coating the iron surface with less reactive Prevents air and water from reaching the
metal: e.g. tin-plating (tinning) iron.
*Nowadays, many cans are made with
aluminium instead of tin-plated because
aluminium is a lighter metal than tin-plated
steel. Aluminium cans are easier to open,
corrosion resistant and readily recycled.
Sacrificial protection involves coating iron Zinc reacts quickly with oxygen and carbon
surface with a more reactive metal: e.g. zinc- dioxide from air to form protective layer of
plating (galvanizing) zinc carbonate.
2Zn + 2CO2 + O2 → 2ZnCO3
*Galvanized steel still corrodes over time in
acidic and salty conditions.
Sacrificial protection: attaching a more The reactive metal oxidizes in preference to
reactive metal, often magnesium blocks to the iron:
iron to protect underground steel pipes from Mg → Mg2+ + 2e-
rusting.
The free electrons are donated to any iron
that is oxidized, returning it to atomic form.
*The reactive metal must be replaced
regularly.

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ELECTROPLATING
Electroplating is used to coat one metal onto another to make it look better or to
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prevent corrosion. To electroplate an object, the object must have a negative charge. Then the
object is immersed into a solution that contains salt of the metal to be deposited. The metallic
ions of the salt carry a positive charge and are attracted to the negative part. When they reach
it, the negatively charged part provides the electrons to reduce the positively charged ions to
metallic form.
The Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulfate
The electrolyte copper(II) sulfate, provides a high concentration of copper(II) ions Cu2+
and sulfate ions SO42– to carry the current during the electrolysis process. There are small
concentrations of hydrogen ions H+ and hydroxide ions (OH–) from the self-ionisation of water
itself. The electrolysis will only take place when electricity is passed through the copper
solution.
Details of the electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate solution with two different electrodes (a)
graphite (carbon) electrodes and (b) copper electrodes are as follows:
a) Using Inert Graphite (Carbon) Electrodes
The negative cathode electrode attracts Cu2+ ions (from copper sulfate) and H+ ions
(from water). Only the copper ion is discharged, being reduced to copper metal. The less
reactive a metal, the more readily its ion is reduced on the electrode surface. A copper deposit
forms as the positive copper ions are attracted to the negative electrode (cathode).
Reduction (cathode): Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s) (positive ion reduction by electron gain)
The traces of hydrogen ions are not discharged, so you not see any gas collected above
the negative electrode. The blue colour of the copper ion will fade as the copper ions are
converted to the copper deposit on the cathode.
Figure 16

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Oxygen gas is formed at the positive electrode, an oxidation reaction (electron loss).
The negative sulfate ions (SO42-) or the traces of hydroxide ions (OH–) are attracted to the
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positive electrode. But the sulfate ion is too stable and nothing happens. Instead either
hydroxide ions or water molecules are discharged and oxidised to form oxygen.
Oxidation (anode): 4 OH–(aq) – 4e- 2 H2O(l) + O2(g) (negative ion oxidation by electron
loss)
b) Using Copper Electrodes (in Anode)
When Copper(II) sulfate is electrolysed with a copper anode electrode (the cathode can be
carbon or copper), the copper deposit on the cathode (–) equals the copper dissolves at the
anode (+). Therefore the blue colour of the Cu2+ ions stays constant because Cu deposited = Cu
dissolved. Both involve a two electron transfer so it means mass of Cu deposited = mass of Cu
dissolving for the same quantity of current flowing (flow of electrons). You can check this out
by weighing the dry electrodes before and after the electrolysis has taken place. The electrolysis
also works with a carbon anode and you see the blackness of the graphite change to the orange-
brown colour of the copper deposit.
Reduction (cathode): Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s) (copper deposit, reduction by 2e- gained)
It’s the copper anode that is the crucial difference than electrolysing copper sulfate
solution with an inert carbon/graphite/platinum electrode. The negative sulfate ions SO 42- (from
copper(II) sulfate) or the traces of hydroxide ions OH– (from water) are attracted to the positive
electrode. But both the sulfate ion and hydroxide ion are too stable and nothing happens to
them because the copper anode is preferentially oxidised to discharge Cu 2+ copper ions.
Oxidation (anode): Cu(s) – 2e- Cu2+(aq) (copper dissolves, oxidation by 2e- lost)
Balancing Act
Copper atoms oxidised to copper(II) ions: dissolving of copper in its electrolytic purification or
electroplating (must have positive copper anode). The change involves two electrons per
copper atom.
Copper(II) ion reduced to copper atoms: deposition of copper in its electrolytic purification or
electroplating using copper(II) sulfate solution, so the electrode can be copper or other metal
to be plated or any other conducting material. The change involves two electrons per copper
ion.
This means for every copper atom that gets oxidised, one copper ion is reduced. Thus,
when copper electrodes are used in the electrolysis of copper sulfate solution, the mass loss of
copper from the positive anode electrode should equal the mass of copper gained and
deposited on the negative cathode electrode.

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Figure 17
Summary
As described already, the use of a copper positive anode electrode is the basis of the
method of electroplating any conducting solid with a layer of copper which can be reproduced
by electroplating other conducting materials with zinc (a way of galvanising steel), nickel,
silver or chromium ('chromium plating').
The CATHODE object to be electroplated must be a conducting material, usually a

metal, and must be made the negative cathode electrode and completely immersed in the
electrolyte solution.
The ANODE is usually a bar of the metal that is being electroplated onto the cathode
object, giving a continuous supply of the coating metal and ensuring the concentration of
electrolyte metal ion does not diminish as the electrolytic plating continues. The metal anode
bar must be oxidised to provide a metal ion that can migrate across to the cathode and be
discharged as the electrolysis takes place.
The electrolyte solution must contain ions of the metal that will form the electroplated
deposit; and the ions come from an appropriate salt solution e.g. copper sulfate for copper,
silver nitrate for silver, zinc sulfate for zinc or chromium chloride for chromium coatings.
The anode must be made of the metal that will form the electroplated coating on the
positive anode object e.g. copper or silver. As the metal is coated on the -ve cathode object,
simultaneously the metal of the +ve anode is oxidised to refresh the solution of metal ions. So
there is no depletion of the crucial ion concentration. These positive ions will migrate towards
the negative electrode object to be coated.
The purification of copper by electrolysis amounts to copper plating so all you have to
do is swap the pure negative copper cathode with the metal you want to coat. Swap the impure
positive copper anode with any pure block of the metal you want to form the coating layer on
the negative electrode object.

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RECYCLING OF METALS
When metal is extracted from the ground, it creates a lot of negative impact to the
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environment. Open-cast mining removes ores using explosives. It produces dust and can scar
the landscape. Extracting metals causes huge amounts of waste. Copper production discards
99.5% of the extracted ore. Harmful waste gases, including sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide, are produced by extraction. Extraction, especially electrolysis, also uses lots
of electricity.
New mining techniques can decrease the effects of metal extraction on the
environment.
⚫ Leaching uses less electricity than traditional mining and does not produce waste
gases. Copper ores are treated with and dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid, producing
copper sulfate. Electrolysis is then used to extract the copper. Certain bacteria can also
be used to dissolve ores and form copper sulfate.
⚫ Phytomining uses plants to absorb metals from the soil. The process can be used to
clean contaminated land. Treating the plants with certain chemicals increases their
ability to accumulate minerals in their cells.
As metal ores are a limited resource, it is important to recycle metals in order to ensure
they last for a longer time. Recycling metals can also help reduce the impacts of extraction to
the environment. Metals are easier to recycle than plastic and they retain their original
properties, such as conductivity and hardness.
The benefits of recycling metals include:
⚫ Conserving metals, especially valuables ones like gold and platinum.

⚫ Recycling uses up to 95% less electricity than producing metals from ores.
⚫ Recycling costs less than extracting metals and can be profitable.
⚫ Recycling creates less waste and reduces the number of sites that have to be mined.
⚫ Protecting the environment from pollution and leakage of heavy metals that can
endanger the health of humans and animals.
One problem is that metallic materials in recycled objects are often mixtures of different
metals. This can mean that obtaining pure metals from recycling is more expensive, as it may
use more electricity than extracting metals from ores.
The social, economic and environmental issues associated with recycling metals
include:
⚫ The lack of awareness regarding the benefits of recycling metals may hinder people
from taking an active role in such programs.
⚫ Metals are only recycled if they are economically beneficial. It is cheaper to extract iron
from its ore than recycling it which discourages recycling.
⚫ The cost of separating metal from other wastes can be high.
⚫ Alloys may not always be recycled as it can be difficult to separate the different metals.
⚫ Recycling certain metals can lead to the production of pollutants. For example,
extracting lead produces a lot of fumes which pollutes the atmosphere.

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Activity Sheet
NAME: ________________________________________________ SCORE: ______________
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY NO. ____

METALS AND ALLOYS
Multiple Choice. Encircle the correct answer.
1. Under which conditions will iron rust the most?

A. in contact with water and air
B. completely coated in oil
C. in a moisture-free environment
D. in contact with saltwater and air
2. Which of the following metals is least likely to corrode?

A. Potassium
B. Aluminium
C. Gold
D. Iron
3. Which combination of metals us used to make the alloy solder?

A. Gold and copper
B. Iron and zinc
C. Lead and tin
D. Mercury and silver
4. Which type of steel can resist extremely high temperatures and is used for spacecraft?
A. Low carbon steel
B. Stainless steel
C. Titanium steel
D. High carbon steel
5. Which element cannot be extracted from its ore by reduction with carbon?
A. Iron
B. Copper
C. Aluminium
D. Lead
6. Which part of the electrolysis equipment used to purify copper is made of impure
copper?
A. Cathode
B. Anode
C. Electrolyte
D. Power supply

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7. Which of the following is a disadvantage of recycling metals?

A. Recycling uses less energy than making metals from ores
B. Recycling creates less waste.
Activity Sheet
C. Recycling reduces the number of mining sites

D. Metallic materials are often mixtures of different metals.
8. Which of the following is not a process used to decrease the environmental impacts of
metal extraction?
A. Phyto-mining
B. Open-cast mining
C. Leaching
D. Recycling
9. What reaction happens during the purification of copper by electrolysis?

A. Copper atoms lose electrons at the positive electrode.
B. Copper atoms lose electrons at the negative electrode.
C. Copper atoms gain electrons at the positive electrode.
D. Copper atoms gain electrons at the negative electrode.
10. In electrolysis of aluminium oxide, what is the positive electrode made from?
A. Platinum
B. Copper
C. Steel
D. Graphite
11. What are the products of electrolysis of aluminium oxide?

A. Sodium and oxygen
B. Aluminium and chlorine
C. Aluminium and oxygen
D. Hydrogen and oxygen
12. In the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, why is cryolite added to the electrolyte?
A. To remove waste products
B. To decrease melting point
C. To add sodium ions
D. To produce carbon dioxide
13. Which of these metals is not above carbon in the reactivity series?
A. Sodium
B. Aluminium
C. Iron
D. Magnesium
14. Which of the following metals cannot be extracted by electrolysis?

A. Potassium
B. Calcium
C. Aluminium
D. Platinum

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15. Aluminium can be extracted from which ore?

A. Malachite
B. Haematite
Activity Sheet
C. Bauxite
D. Magnetite
16. What substances are formed when aluminium reacts with iron oxide?
A. Aluminium and iron
B. Aluminium oxide and iron
C. Aluminium sulfate and iron
D. No reaction occurs
17. Which of these metals does not react in dilute acid?

A. Sodium
B. Copper
C. Magnesium
D. Lead
18. Which metal will not displace zinc from a solution of zinc nitrate?
A. Magnesium
B. Lead
C. Potassium
D. Calcium
19. Which pair of substances will not react?

A. Magnesium oxide and sodium
B. Calcium and iron oxide
C. Copper oxide and magnesium
D. Aluminium oxide and iron
20. What are the products when copper chloride and sodium react?
A. Copper and sodium chloride
B. Sodium and copper
C. Copper chloride and sodium chloride
D. No reaction occurs
Predict the product and write the balanced equation for each of the following.
1. Iron + copper(II) nitrate

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2. Zinc oxide + lithium

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3. Potassium phosphate + lithium

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4. Calcium oxide + copper

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Activity Sheet
5. Sodium chloride + potassium

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Decide which will be the anode, cathode and electrolytes in each of the following.
1. Coating a key with tin.

Anode: ______________ cathode: ______________ electrolyte: ______________
2. Coating a fork with zinc.

3. Coating a nail with copper.


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Name of Student: __________________________________________________________
Program : __________________________________________________________
Faculty : __________________________________________________________
Schedule : __________________________________________________________

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Course Packet 03
Polymers


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Course Packet 03
Course Packet 03
Polymers
Introduction
Polymers are ubiquitous materials used in construction, engineering, and countless commercial
products. These applications can be as varied as the polymeric materials used in medical devices,
pharmaceuticals, food and beverage packaging, and personal care cosmetics. They are made from
repeating chains of bonded molecules that are typically organic but, in some cases, may even be inorganic
in nature.
This course packet explains the use of polymers and demonstrates how their properties are controlled by
their molecular structure. You will learn how this structure determines which polymer to use for a
particular product. You will also explore the manufacturing techniques used and the how the use of
polymerization can be used to control the structure of polymers.
Objectives
• Identify alkenes as a common raw material for polymers
• Classify the different types of polymer
• Name common addition polymers and condensation polymers
• Explain the formation of addition polymers such as LDPE
• Explain the formation of condensation polymers such as polyesters
• Describe the factors that affect the properties of a plastic, including the arrangement of polymer
chains
• Explain the structure, properties and uses of thermosoftening and thermosetting plastics
• Identify the different methods for disposing of waste plastic.

Duration
Topic 03: Polymers
Delivery Mode



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POLYMERS
A polymer is a macromolecule, made up of many smaller repeating units called

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monomer. Polymers have high molecular weight in the range of several thousand or even
higher. The first synthetic organic polymer polyvinylchloride was synthesized in 1838 by
accidentally. Later, polystyrene was discovered in 1839.
The word ‘polymer’ comes from the Greek words poly (meaning ‘many’) and meros
(meaning ‘parts’). Many polymers are formed from alkenes, which are a family of hydrocarbon
molecules with the general formula CnH2n. Alkenes contain at least one double covalent bond
between carbon atoms. The double bond makes them very reactive.
Polymerization
The process by which polyethene and other polymers is made is called addition
polymerization. This is because many alkenes are added together.
Drawing polymers – shorthand formulae
Part of the polymer molecule can be drawn:
A better way is to show a shorthand formula:
The ‘n’ means that the polymer contains a very large number of the
repeating unit shown in the brackets.

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Example: Shorthand formula for polypropene

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The monomer is propene (C3H6): which can be drawn as:
1. Draw two C atoms that were in the double bond with a single
covalent bond.
2. Draw the brackets and the ‘n’.
3. Add the links outside the brackets.
4. Add the atoms that were attached to each C atom of the double bond.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
Polymers can be classified into a number of ways which are described below.

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POLYMERS BASED ON STRUCTURE

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I. Linear polymers:
In linear polymers, the repeat units are just joined end to end in a straight line. The
molecules themselves are fairly strong, since all the atoms within the molecule are covalently
bonded. There is also hydrogen bonding and van der Waals bonded between the chains. These
polymers have high melting points and are of higher density. A common example of this is
PVC (Poly-vinyl chloride). This polymer is largely used for making electric cables and pipes.
Figure 1
II. Branch chain polymers:
In a branched structure, the main linear chains

are interconnected by shorter chains. These chains are
still part of the main molecule. These bonds are covalent,
not secondary, so they’re relatively strong. Because
these side branches space out the main chains, the
packing is reduced, meaning that these polymers tend to
be less dense. Figure 2
They are of low density having low melting points. Low-density polyethene (LDPE)
used in plastic bags and general purpose containers is a common example.
III. Cross-linked polymers:
Cross linked polymers are similar to branched

but there are no side branches. Instead, the linear chains
are all joined together at random positions by covalent
bonds. Many rubbers are cross linked.
Figure 3

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IV. Network polymers: Figure 4
Network polymers are basically highly cross linked polymers.

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Each molecule covalently bonds to three or more other molecules to form

a 3D type network. These polymers are brittle and hard. Example:
Bakelite (used in electrical insulators), Melamine etc. Usually, no polymer
has 100% one type of structure. A linear polymer may have some cross
linking occurring, for example.
POLYMERS BASED ON MOLECULAR FORCES
I. THERMOPLASTIC Figure 5
Thermoplastic polymers are long-chain polymers

in which inter-molecules forces (Van der Waal’s forces)
hold the polymer chains together. These polymers when
heated are softened (thick fluid like) and hardened when
they are allowed to cool down, forming a hard mass.
Thermoplastics are made of long chains of

polymers which don’t cross over very often. When heated, the molecules slip easily over one
another. They do not contain any cross bond and can easily be shaped by heating and using
moulds.
If a plastic is cooled it will become stiffer, and

eventually brittle. The temperature at which a plastic
becomes brittle is its glass transition temperature. At
low temperatures the polymer chains will not slide past
each other because they do not have enough energy to
overcome the secondary bonds.
Thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped

because of the ways in which the molecules are joined
together. This can be repeated many times (as long as
no damage is caused by overheating). Figure 6
A common example is Polystyrene or PVC (which is used in making pipes).

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Modifying Thermoplastics - Plasticizers
Small molecules called plasticizers are often

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mixed into thermoplastics. They reduce the number of

secondary bonds that can form between long polymer
chains, making it easier to modify the shape. They push
the polymer molecules slightly further apart, weakening
the forces between them and making the material softer
and more flexible. The glass transition temperature for a
sample with plasticizer is lower. Plasticizers may
evaporate over time (a process that is faster at high
temperatures), increasing a sample's brittleness. Figure 7
Unplasticised PVC, usually called uPVC, is hard. It is used for pipes and window
frames. Plasticised PVC is soft. It is used for clothing and flooring.
II. THERMOSETTING Figure 8
Thermosetting plastics are polymers which are

semi-fluid in nature with low molecular masses. When
heated, they start cross-linking between polymer chairs.
These cross links prevent the molecules from moving
over one another, hence becoming hard and infusible.
They form a three-dimensional structure on the application of heat. This reaction is

irreversible in nature. The most common example of a thermosetting polymer is that of
Bakelite, which is used in making electrical insulation.
Thermosetting plastics are those which are set with

heat and have little elasticity. Once set, they cannot be
reheated and reformed. They are heated and moulded
during manufacture.
Once cooled, they will not soften again when

heated. This breaks the potentially unending cycle that
thermoplastic plastics are capable of. If heated too much,
they burn. Epoxy resins and some polycarbonates belong in
this category. Figure 9

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HOW PLASTICS ARE MADE
Plastics can be moulded into objects in 3 main ways:

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1. Injection moulding
2. Extrusion
3. Blow moulding
Injection Moulding
Injection moulding consists of heating a thermoplastic and injecting it into a mould

where it cools and hardens into the new object. This process is fast and economical for
producing large numbers of objects. Injection moulding leaves a small line on the object where
the mould splits to allow the object to be taken out. Examples: cups, bottle caps, dessert bowls
Figure 10
Extrusion
Softened thermoplastics are forced through an opening in a piece of metal called a die.
Once through the die, the plastic cools and hardens. The shape of the die determines the cross-
section of the object. Examples: pipes, tubes, straws and plastic rods
Figure 11

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Blow Moulding
A small amount of thermoplastic is softened by heating, and then expanded by

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compressed air to fill the walls of a mould. Blow moulding is fast and economical for making
hollow items. Examples: plastic bottles
Figure 12
III. ELASTOMER
An elastomer is a randomly oriented amorphous polymer, which stretches and then

reverts back to its original shape. To avoid slipping of polymer chains it must have some cross-
linking. When elastomers are stretched, the random chains stretch out where as the van der
Waals forces are not strong enough to maintain them in that arrangement and retains its
original shape when the stress is removed.
Figure 13
Stretchy polymers like rubber and spandex are elastomers. They demonstrate the
property of elastic deformation: when force is applied the fiber stretches, but when the force
is removed the fiber returns to its original shape and size. The molecular structure includes
chains that prefer being tangled. If they are stretched and straightened, a restoring force pulls
them back into the shorter, tangled position.

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Vulcanizing Rubber
In its natural state, the molecules in rubber are

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long chains that are tangled up and only weakly linked

together.
Figure 14
It's relatively easy to pull them apart—and that's why latex rubber is so stretchy and
elastic.
When latex is vulcanized, the added sulfur atoms

help to form extra bonds between the rubber molecules,
which are known as cross-links. These work a bit like the
trusses you see on a bridge, tying the molecules together
and making them much harder to pull apart. Figure 15
IV. FIBERS
Fibers are a class of polymers which are a thread like in nature, and can easily be
woven. They have strong inter-molecules forces between the chains giving them less elasticity
and high tensile strength. The intermolecular forces may be hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole
interaction. Fibres have sharp and high melting points. A common example is that of Nylon-
66, which is used in carpets and apparels.
At the molecular level, fibers are composed of long carbon chains with few or no
branches. In a fiber strand, multiple polymer molecules line up in parallel. Their intermolecular
forces encourage an ordered, rather crystalline, arrangement. If you pull on both ends of a
strand, it will not stretch very much since the chains are already aligned. Wool is an exception
to this; sulfur atoms in adjacent chains find each other and form sulfur bonds, crosslinking the
chains. This gives wool its crinkly texture.
Generally, fibers can be divided into two broad groups depending on the source, either
natural or synthetic.
Natural fibers come from plants, animals and minerals. They usually have short
fibers, called staple fibers. The exception to this rule is silk, a natural fiber whose continuous
filaments are up to one kilometre in length.
Sources of natural fibres:

⚫ Cotton from the cotton plant.
⚫ Linen from the flax plant.
⚫ Wool from sheep.
⚫ Silk from silkworms.

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Synthetic fibers are man-made, usually from chemical sources. They are continuous
filament fibers, which means the fibers are long and do not always have to be spun into yarn.
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Sources of synthetic fibers:

⚫ Viscose comes from pine trees or petrochemicals.
⚫ Acrylic, nylon and polyester come from oil and coal.
Fiber blends
Blending different fibers together produces yarns that have the combined properties
of each component fiber. Using fibre blends improves the appearance, performance, comfort
and aftercare of fabric. Blending can also reduce the cost of an expensive fiber.
⚫ Polyester/ Cotton blend: shirts are more easy-care and crease-resistant than shirts
made from 100 percent cotton.
⚫ Cotton/ Lycra blend: jeans are more comfortable, stretchy and fit better than cotton
jeans.
⚫ Acrylic/ Wool blend: trousers are less expensive than 100 percent wool trousers.
Modern fibres - Microfibres
Polyester or nylon microfibers are 60 to 100 times finer than a human hair. They can be
blended with synthetic or natural fibers and are used for clothing for outdoor pursuits and
active sportswear.
Thermoplastic polyester or nylon microfibers can be heat-treated to give them coils,

crimps and loops, which makes these textured yarns stretchy and warm. They are used for
underwear, sportswear, knitwear and carpets.
Elastane (Lycra) is always used in a blend with other fibers. It is used to make
sportswear, body-hugging clothes and bandages. It has good handle and drape, is durable,
crease resistant, stretchy (more comfortable) and is easy care. It has low warmth and is
absorbent.
Tencel is a 'natural' microfiber made from cellulose derived from wood-pulp. It is used
for shirts and jeans. It has soft handle, good drape, is breathable, durable, crease-resistant, easy-
care and biodegradable. It is absorbent and has low warmth.
POLYMERS BASED ON SOURCE
I. NATURAL POLYMERS
Natural polymers are polymers which occur in nature and are existing in natural
sources like plants and animals. Some common examples are Proteins (which are found in
humans and animals alike), Cellulose and Starch (which are found in plants) or Rubber (which
we harvest from the latex of a tropical plant).

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1. Polysaccharides:
Polysaccharides are important class of biopolymers which are made up of long chains
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of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides contain more

than ten monosaccharide units. Starch and glycogen are very common examples for storage
polysaccharides. Similarly, cellulose and chitin are examples for structural polysaccharides
Figure 16
2. Nucleic Acids:
Nucleic acids, such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are
made from nucleotide monomers. Nucleic acids are found in all living things, where they
function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information.
Figure 17

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3. Proteins:
Proteins are large biological molecules, made up of the smallest units called α-amino
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acids. They are building blocks of plant and animal cells. Many proteins are enzymes that
catalyze biochemical reactions and are essential to metabolic functions.
Figure 18
4. Natural Rubber:
Natural rubber is the polymer of isoprene. This is mainly harvested as a sticky milky
colloidal form called latex from the bark of the rubber tree.
Figure 19
II. SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Synthetic polymers are polymers which humans can artificially create/synthesize in a

laboratory. Based on the method of its preparation, they can be further classified into addition
polymers and condensation polymers. These are commercially produced by industries for
human necessities. Some commonly produced polymers which we use day to day are
Polyethylene (a mass-produced plastic which we use in packaging) or Nylon Fibers (commonly
used in our clothes, fishing nets etc.)

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A. Addition polymers:
Addition polymers are formed by the repeated addition of monomer molecules. The
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polymer is formed by polymerization of monomers with double or triple bonds (unsaturated

compounds). The addition polymerization generally involves three steps called initiation,
propagation and termination.
Polymerization of Ethene (Addition)
1. The reaction is a free radical reaction, involving free radicals (Ra•) produced by
oxygen initiators.
2. Initiation step: The free radical reacts with an ethane molecule, breaking the pi bond.
One electron goes to form a bond between one carbon and the free radical. The second
electron moves to the other carbon. The end result is a new free radical: RaCH 2CH2•
3. Chain propagation: The new free radical can react with another ethane molecule, to
create a longer free radical: RaCH2CH2CH2CH2•. The process continues, with ethane
molecules reacting with either the initial free radical (Ra•) or a lengthened free radical
(Ra(CH2)n•).

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4. Chain termination: The chain continues to grow until two free radicals react with each
other. Because this can occur at any time, polyethene consists of chains of different
lengths.
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LDPE and HDPE
The reaction conditions under which ethene polymerizes affect the structure and
properties of the poly(e)thene.
⚫ Low-density polythene (LDPE) is formed under a high pressure (1400 atm) and a
temperature of about 170°C. These conditions cause a high level of branching,
meaning that the polymer chains cannot pack tightly together.
⚫ High-density polythene (HDPE) is formed with a catalyst, a pressure of 2 atm and a
temperature of about 70°C. Little branching occurs under these conditions, resulting
in chains that can pack tightly together to create a denser material.
The properties of a plastics depend greatly on how the polymer chains are arranged:
⚫ branching chains make plastics ⚫ lined-up chains make plastics dense,

light, soft and easy to melt rigid and harder to melt
(e.g. low-density polyethene) (e.g. high-density polyethene).

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Table 1. Common addition polymers
Polymer Structure Uses

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Polyethene: LDPE is used to make bags

LDPE and HDPE and squeezy bottles. HDPE
is used to make plastic
crates.
Polychloroethane: PVC is used in making
Known as polyvinylchloride pipes. The addition of
(PVC) plasticizers changes PVC
into softer, more flexible
material used in insulation
covering of electrical wires.
Polyphenylethene: Found in two forms: solid
Known as polystyrene (PS) and expanded.
The solid form is used to
make items such as
disposable cutlery, model
airplane kits and CD cases.
The expanded form is
mainly used for packaging
and insulation.
Polytetrafluoroethane: Teflon is heat-resistant and
Known by its trade name, has very low friction. It is
Teflon used as a non-stick coating
on kitchen equipment.
Disposal of addition polymers
The unreactivity of addition polymers, which makes them useful for storing food and
chemicals, means they are not biodegradable and persist in the environment for many years.
Incineration of addition polymers is controversial as it produces carbon monoxide and

carbon (soot), as well as carbon dioxide, contributing to global warming. Polymers can also
produce toxic chemicals when burnt. For example, PVC produces hydrogen chloride, and
nylon produces hydrogen cyanide.

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B. Condensation Polymers:
Condensation polymers, such as polyesters and polyamides, are formed by a

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condensation reaction, which releases small molecules such as water.
Polyesters can be formed from monomers of:
⚫ a dicarboxylic acid (a carboxylic acid with two –COOH groups) and a diol (an
alcohol with two –OH groups)
⚫ substances containing both –COOH and –OH groups.
Polyamides can be formed from monomers of:
⚫ a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine (an amine with two NH2 groups)
⚫ amino acids, which contain both –COOH and –NH2 groups.
Formation of polyesters
1. A carboxylic acid and an alcohol can react to form esters. This is an example of
condensation reaction because water molecule is formed during the reaction.
2. If a dicarboxylic acid and a diol are used and a water molecule is removed, the
polymer formed is called polyester.

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3. The polyester formed by the reaction of benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid and 1,2-

ethanediol
is called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It is used in making plastic bottles.

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Formation of polyamides
1. A carboxylic acid and an amine can react to form an amide.

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2. If a dicarboxylic acid and diamine are used and a water molecule is removed,
the polymer formed is called polyamide.

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3. The polyamide formed by the reaction of hexane-1,6-dicarboxylic acid and 1,6-

diaminohexane
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is commonly known as nylon-6,6. It is commonly used in the textile and fabric

industry.
4. The polyamide formed by reaction of benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid and benzene-1,4-

diamine is commonly known as Kevlar. It is used in making bullet-proof vest.

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Disposal of condensation polymers
Unlike addition polymers, which don’t readily degrade, condensation polymers can be
designed that biodegrade, photodegrade or which can be recycled. Condensation polymers
biodegrade by hydrolysis, which is the reverse of the condensation reactions that form them.
Some condensation polymers, such as nylon, degrade very slowly, which is necessary
for them to be useful. Condensation polymers such as poly(lactic acid) have been designed to
biodegrade more quickly and are used in disposable plastic items such as packaging.
Table 2. Summary
Feature Addition polymer Condensation polymer

Polyester Polyamide
Functional group(s) of C=C –COOH and –OH –COOH and –NH2
monomer(s)
Type(s) of monomer 1 1 or 2 1 or 2
Product(s) polyalkene polyester + water polyamide + water
Biodegradability Do not biodegrade, Biodegrade by hydrolysis and easy to
making disposal recycle
difficult
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS
Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the following
general attributes.
1. Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the cleaning fluids in your
home that are packaged in plastic. Reading the warning labels that describe what
happens when the chemical comes in contact with skin or eyes or is ingested will
emphasize the need for chemical resistance in the plastic packaging. While solvents
easily dissolve some plastics, other plastics provide safe, non-breakable packages for
aggressive solvents.

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2. Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk through your house
will reinforce this concept, as you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets
and wiring that are made or covered with polymeric materials. Thermal resistance is
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evident in the kitchen with pot and pan handles made of polymers, the coffee pot
handles, the foam core of refrigerators and freezers, insulated cups, coolers, and
microwave cookware. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of
polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester.
3. Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of strength.
Consider the range of applications, from toys to the frame structure of space stations,
or from delicate nylon fiber in pantyhose to Kevlar, which is used in bulletproof vests.
Some polymers float in water while others sink. But, compared to the density of stone,
concrete, steel, copper, or aluminum, all plastics are lightweight materials.
4. Polymers can be processed in various ways. Extrusion produces thin fibers or heavy
pipes or films or food bottles. Injection molding can produce very intricate parts or
large car body panels. Plastics can be molded into drums or be mixed with solvents to
become adhesives or paints. Elastomers and some plastics stretch and are very flexible.
Some plastics are stretched in processing to hold their shape, such as soft drink bottles.
Other polymers can be foamed like polystyrene (Styrofoam™), polyurethane and
polyethylene.
5. Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics and colors.
Polymers have many inherent properties that can be further enhanced by a wide range
of additives to broaden their uses and applications. Polymers can be made to mimic
cotton, silk, and wool fibers; porcelain and marble; and aluminum and zinc. Polymers
can also make possible products that do not readily come from the natural world, such
as clear sheets and flexible films.
6. Polymers are usually made of petroleum, but not always. Many polymers are made
of repeat units derived from natural gas or coal or crude oil. But building block repeat
units can sometimes be made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from
corn or cellulosics from cotton linters. Some plastics have always been made from
renewable materials such as cellulose acetate used for screwdriver handles and gift
ribbon. When the building blocks can be made more economically from renewable
materials than from fossil fuels, either old plastics find new raw materials or new
plastics are introduced.
7. Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives from other materials.
Polymers can be made into clear, waterproof films. PVC is used to make medical
tubing and blood bags that extend the shelf life of blood and blood products. PVC
safely delivers flammable oxygen in non-burning flexible tubing. And anti-
thrombogenic material, such as heparin, can be incorporated into flexible PVC
catheters for open heart surgery, dialysis, and blood collection. Many medical devices
rely on polymers to permit effective functioning.

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POLYMERS AND CRYSTALLIZATION
Polymers can actually exist in a crystalline state. When we think of a crystal structure
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of a metal or ceramic, we think at the atomic level. But with polymers, we need to think at the
molecular level. All of those chains need to come together in an ordered way. Because of this
complexity, rarely would you have a polymer material that is completely crystalline. It is much
more common to have regions of crystallinity, scattered throughout the amorphous. Remember
how much the chains twist and kink. Any chain misalignment will result in a non-order,
amorphous region.
Whereas metals are almost completely crystalline, polymers range from completely
amorphous to about 95% crystalline. The density of the material can tell us to what extent it
has been crystallized. It makes sense that a polymer that is highly crystalline will be denser
than an equivalent polymer that is amorphous. How much crystallinity will be ending up for
a given polymer depends of how quickly the polymer cooled while it was forming, and what
the chain configuration is. If you want a more highly crystalline structure you need to give the
polymer sufficient time to cool – so that all those polymer chains can find a nice, ordered place
to be. If you cool it quickly upon forming, the chains won’t have a chance to align and bond
nicely to other chains. They’ll be frozen in place in whatever position they began in.
Figure 20
The complexity of the repeat unit plays a big role. If you’ve got a very complex repeat
unit or lots of bonds and atoms, it will be tough for them to crystallize in an ordered way, when
the polymer is forming. Some crystallinity will occur, but it definitely won’t be dominate. But
take a very simple repeat unit – polyethylene is a good example, and it will crystallize pretty
nicely, even if it was to be rapidly cooled. So some of this is out of our control: it depends on
the repeat unit. This is partly why there’s such a big range in polymeric materials between
totally amorphous and almost completely crystalline.
Structure is also important. Linear molecules will more easily align – there is no
awkward chains sticking out that prevents alignment. With branched structures, there are
indeed branches sticking out awkwardly. This makes it difficult for branched polymers to
crystallize. In fact, they may never crystallize. They might be completely amorphous. And
cross-linked and highly networked polymers are even more unlikely to crystallize. You can
safely assume that those polymers are amorphous.

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COPOLYMER
If the polymer chain is formed from only one type of monomer units are called
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homopolymers. Alternatively, two of more different monomer units can combine to form a
polymer chain is called copolymers.
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA or
Homopolymer
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Alternating copolymer ABABABABABABABABABABABAB
Block copolymer AAAABBBBAAAABBBBAAAABBBB
Raandom copolymer ABABABBAABAAABBAABABBBA
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
In addressing all the superior attributes of polymers, it is equally important to discuss

some of the challenges associated with the materials. Most plastics deteriorate in full sunlight,
but never decompose completely when buried in landfills. However, other materials such as
glass, paper, or aluminum do not readily decompose in landfills either. Some bioplastics do
decompose to carbon dioxide and water, however, in specially designed food waste
commercial composting facilities ONLY. They do not biodegrade under other circumstances.
The characteristics that make polymers so attractive and useful, lightweight and almost
limitless physical forms of many polymers designed to deliver specific appearance and
functionality, make post-consumer recycling challenging. When enough used plastic items can
be gathered together, companies develop technology to recycle those used plastics. The
recycling rate for all plastics is not as high as any would want. But, the recycling rate for the
1,170,000,000 pounds of polyester bottles, 23.1%, recycled in 2005 and the 953,000,000 pounds
of high density polyethylene bottles, 28.8%, recycled in 2005 show that when critical mass of
defined material is available, recycling can be a commercial success.
Applications for recycled plastics are growing every day. Recycled plastics can be
blended with virgin plastic (plastic that has not been processed before) without sacrificing
properties in many applications. Recycled plastics are used to make polymeric timbers for use
in picnic tables, fences and outdoor playgrounds, thus providing low maintenance, no splinters
products and saving natural lumber. Plastic from soft drink and water bottles can be spun into
fiber for the production of carpet or made into new food bottles. Closed loop recycling does
occur, but sometimes the most valuable use for a recycled plastic is into an application different
than the original use.
An option for plastics that are not recycled, especially those that are soiled, such as
used food wrap or diapers, can be a waste-to-energy system (WTE). When localities decide to
use waste-to-energy systems to manage solid waste, plastics can be a useful component.

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The controlled combustion of polymers produces heat energy. The heat energy
produced by the burning plastic municipal waste not only can be converted to electrical energy
but also helps burn the wet trash that is present. Paper also produces heat when burned, but
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not as much as do plastics. On the other hand, glass, aluminium and other metals do not release
any energy when burned.
To better understand the incineration process, consider the smoke coming off a
burning item. If one were to ignite the smoke with a lit propane torch, one would observe that
the smoke disappears. This exercise illustrates that the by-products of incomplete burning are
still flammable. Proper incineration burns the material and the by-products of the initial
burning and also takes care of air and solid emissions to insure public safety.
Some plastics can be composted either because of special additives or because of the
construction of the polymers. Compostable plastics frequently require more intense conditions
to decompose than are available in backyard compost piles. Commercial composters are
suggested for compostable plastics.
Plastics can also be safely land filled, although the valuable energy resource of the
plastics would then be lost for recycling or energy capture. Plastics are used to line landfills so
that leachate is captured and groundwater is not polluted. Non-degrading plastics help
stabilize the ground so that after the landfill is closed, the land can be stable enough for useful
futures.
Polymers affect every day of our life. These materials have so many varied
characteristics and applications that their usefulness can only be measured by our imagination.
Polymers are the materials of past, present and future generations.
Plastic Recycling Code
Within each chasing arrows triangle, there is a number

which ranges from one to seven. The purpose of the number is to
identify the type of plastic used for the product, and not all plastics
are recyclable or even reusable. There are numerous plastic-based
products that cannot break down and cannot be recycled.
Understanding the seven plastic codes will make it easier to

choose plastics and to know which plastics to recycle. Here are the
seven standard classifications for plastics, and the recycling and
reuse information for each type.
Plastic code #1 - PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)
PET is one of the most commonly used plastics in consumer products, and is found in
most water and pop bottles, and some packaging. It is intended for single use applications;
repeated use increases the risk of leaching and bacterial growth. PET plastic is difficult to
decontaminate, and proper cleaning requires harmful chemicals. Polyethylene terephthalates
may leach carcinogens.
PET plastic is recyclable. The plastic is crushed and then shredded into small flakes
which are then reprocessed to make new PET bottles, or spun into polyester fiber. This recycled

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fiber is used to make textiles such as fleece garments, carpets, stuffing for pillows and life
jackets, and similar products.
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Products made of #1 (PET) plastic should be recycled but not reused. To use less PET
plastic, consider switching to reusable beverage containers and replacing disposable food
packaging with reusable alternatives.
Plastic code #2 - HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)
HDPE plastic is the stiff plastic used to make milk jugs, detergent and oil bottles, toys,
and some plastic bags. HDPE is the most commonly recycled plastic and is considered one of
the safest forms of plastic. It is a relatively simple and cost-effective process to recycle HDPE
plastic for secondary use.
HDPE plastic is very hard-wearing and does not break down under exposure to
sunlight or extremes of heating or freezing. For this reason, HDPE is used to make picnic tables,
plastic lumber, waste bins, park benches, bed liners for trucks and other products which require
durability and weather-resistance. It is also a popular material for recycled plastic raised
garden beds.
Products made of HDPE are reusable and recyclable. However, since only small
percent of HDPE gets recycled each year, it’s wise to use as little as possible. To cut down,
consider replacing your disposable produce bags with reusable alternatives.
Plastic code #3 – PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)
PVC is a soft, flexible plastic used to make clear plastic food wrapping, cooking oil
bottles, teething rings, children’s and pets’ toys, and blister packaging for myriad consumer
products. It is commonly used as the sheathing material for computer cables, to make plastic
pipes and parts for plumbing, and in garden hoses. Because PVC is relatively impervious to
sunlight and weather, it is used to make window frames, garden hoses, arbors, raised beds and
trellises.
PVC is dubbed the “poison plastic” because it contains numerous toxins which it can
leach throughout its entire life cycle. Almost all products using PVC require virgin material for
their construction; less than 1% of PVC material is recycled.
Products made using PVC plastic are not recyclable. While some PCV products can be
repurposed, PVC products should not be reused for applications with food or for children’s
use. To avoid items made with PVC plastic, consider replacing plastic food wrap with reusable
beeswax wraps; plastic toys with reclaimed wool stuffed animals; and your PVC garden hose
with a drinking water safe garden hose.
Plastic code #4 – LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)
LDPE is often found in shrink wraps, dry cleaner garment bags, squeezable bottles,
and the type of plastic bags used to package bread. The plastic grocery bags used in most stores
today are made using LDPE plastic. Some clothing and furniture also uses this type of plastic.

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LDPE is considered less toxic than other plastics, and relatively safe for use. It is not
commonly recycled, however, although this is changing in many communities today as more
plastic recycling programs gear up to handle this material. When recycled, LDPE plastic is used
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for plastic lumber, landscaping boards, garbage can liners and floor tiles. Products made using
recycled LDPE are not as hard or rigid as those made using recycled HDPE plastic.
Products made using LDPE plastic are reusable, but not always recyclable. To cut
down on the amount of LDPE that you consume, try replacing your plastic grocery bags with
fabric alternatives and taking a cloth bag to your local bakery the next time you buy a loaf of
bread. You can also replace plastic sandwich bags with platinum silicone alternatives, which
are heat safe.
Plastic code #5 – PP (Polypropylene)
Polypropylene plastic is tough and lightweight, and has excellent heat-resistance

qualities. It serves as a barrier against moisture, grease and chemicals. When you try to open
the thin plastic liner in a cereal box, it is polypropylene. This keeps your cereal dry and fresh.
PP is also commonly used for disposable diapers, pails, plastic bottle tops, margarine and
yogurt containers, potato chip bags, straws, packing tape and rope.
Polypropylene is recyclable through some curbside recycling programs. Recycled PP

is used to make landscaping border stripping, battery cases, brooms, bins and trays. However,
#5 plastic is today becoming more accepted by recyclers.
PP is considered safe for reuse. To recycle products made from PP, check with your
local curbside program to see if they are now accepting this material. To cut down on how
much PP you consume, opt for reusable straws instead of plastic ones, reusable water bottles,
and cloth diapers.
Plastic code #6 – PS (Polystyrene)
Polystyrene is an inexpensive, lightweight and easily-formed plastic with a wide

variety of uses. It is most often used to make disposable styrofoam drinking cups, take-out
“clamshell” food containers, egg cartons, plastic picnic cutlery, foam packaging and those
ubiquitous “peanut” foam chips used to fill shipping boxes to protect the contents. Polystyrene
is also widely used to make rigid foam insulation and underlay sheeting for laminate flooring
used in home construction.
Because polystyrene is structurally weak and ultra-lightweight, it breaks up easily and

is dispersed readily throughout the natural environment. Beaches all over the world have bits
of polystyrene lapping at the shores, and an untold number of marine species have ingested
this plastic with immeasurable consequences to their health.
Polystyrene may leach styrene, a possible human carcinogen, into food products
(especially when heated in a microwave). Chemicals present in polystyrene have been linked
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Recycling is not widely available for polystyrene products. While the technology for
recycling polystyrene is available, the market for recycling is small. Awareness among
consumers has grown, however, and polystyrene is being reused more often.
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Polystyrene should be avoided where possible. To eliminate polystyrene from your

trash, try a reusable coffee cup, compostable or reusable picnic cutlery, and stainless steel
takeaway containers.
Plastic code #7 – Other (BPA, Polycarbonate and LEXAN)
The #7 category was designed as a catch-all for polycarbonate (PC) and “other”
plastics, so reuse and recycling protocols are not standardized within this category. Of primary
concern with #7 plastics, however, is the potential for chemical leaching into food or drink
products packaged in polycarbonate containers made using BPA (Bisphenol A). BPA is a
xenoestrogen, a known endocrine disruptor.
Number 7 plastics are used to make baby bottles, sippy cups, water cooler bottles and
car parts. BPA is found in polycarbonate plastic food containers often marked on the bottom
with the letters “PC” by the recycling label #7. Some polycarbonate water bottles are marketed
as ‘non-leaching’ for minimizing plastic taste or odor, however there is still a possibility that
trace amounts of BPA will migrate from these containers, particularly if used to heat liquids.
A new generation of compostable plastics, made from bio-based polymers like corn
starch, is being developed to replace polycarbonates. These are also included in category #7,
which can be confusing to the consumer. These compostable plastics have the initials “PLA”
on the bottom near the recycling symbol. Some may also say “Compostable.”
Number plastics are not for reuse, unless they have the PLA compostable coding.
When possible it is best to avoid #7 plastics, especially for children’s food. Plastics with the
recycling labels #1, #2 and #4 on the bottom are safer choices and do not contain BPA. PLA
coded plastics should be thrown in the compost and not the recycle bin since PLA compostable
plastics are not recyclable. To avoid chemicals leaking into your foods from food packaging,
try going homemade and storing your leftovers (or your lunches) in platinum silicone or
stainless steel.

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Activity Sheet
NAME: ________________________________________________ SCORE: ______________
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY NO. ____

POLYMERS
I. Complete the table showing the structures, polymer names and type of polymer (addition
or condensation) for the polymers shown.
Structure Polymer name Type
1. 2.
3.
Polyethane 4.
5. 6.
7.
Polyvinylchloride 8.

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Activity Sheet
9. 10.
Draw the structure for the monomer(s) from which the following polymer is made and name
the type of polymer (addition or condensation).
Polymer Monomer(s) Type

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NAME: ________________________________________________ SCORE: ______________

Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY NO. ____

POLYMERS
Answer the following questions correctly.
1. What are natural polymers? Give an example.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are synthetic polymers? Give an example.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Proteins are made of smaller units called amino acids. Which is the monomer and
which is the polymer?
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Polyethene is made of many ethane molecules. Which is the monomer and which is the
polymer?
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Of what smaller monomers is PVC (polyvinyl chloride) made?

___________________________________________________________________________
6. What type of plastic melts when heated and can be reshaped?

___________________________________________________________________________
7. What type of plastic does not melt but will eventually burn if heated sufficiently?
___________________________________________________________________________
Which type of moulding (extrusion, injection moulding, blow moulding) is best for the
following?
8. plastic milk bottle ______________________

9. bathroom pipes ______________________
10. drinking cup ______________________
11. What are two reactions by which polymers can be formed?

___________________________________________________________________________
12. What is the structural requirement for a molecule to be a monomer in an addition

polymer?
___________________________________________________________________________

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Classify each of the following as thermosetting or thermoplastic:
13. linear polymer ______________________

Activity Sheet
14. branched polymer ______________________

15. cross-linked polymer ______________________
Write the pattern of monomer units in each of the following.
16. Alternating copolymer ______________________

17. Homopolymer ______________________
18. Random copolymer ______________________
19. Alternating coplymer ______________________
20. Give a molecular explanation for the fact that natural rubber melts when it is heated
but vulcanized rubber does not.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Name of Student: __________________________________________________________

Program : __________________________________________________________
Faculty : __________________________________________________________
Schedule : __________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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Learning Module 02
Course Packet 04
Nanotechnology

Learning Module: Generation of Energy 41

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Nanotechnology
Introduction
Nanoscale science and technology, often referred to as "nanoscience" or "nanotechnology," are science
and engineering enabled by our relatively new ability to manipulate and characterize matter at the level
of single atoms and small groups of atoms. This capability is the result of many developments in the last
two decades of the 20th century, including inventions of scientific instruments like the scanning
tunneling microscope. Using such tools, scientists and engineers have begun controlling the structure
and properties of materials and systems at the scale of 10 -9 meters, or 1/100,000 the width of a human
hair. Scientists and engineers anticipate that nanoscale work will enable the development of materials
and systems with dramatic new properties relevant to virtually every sector of the economy, such as
medicine, telecommunications, and computers, and to areas of national interest such as homeland
security. Indeed, early products based on nanoscale technology have already found their way into the
marketplace and into defense applications.
Objectives
• Understand what nanotechnology is about and how to use it
• Describe fabrication methods in nanotechnology (top down & bottom up) and characterization
methods in nanotechnology
• Gain knowledge of structure, properties, manufacturing, and applications of fullerenes and
carbon nanotubes.
• Discuss applications of nanomaterial and implication of health and safety related to
nanomaterial.
• Develop awareness and concern towards the environment.
• Appreciate the significance of nanomaterial in improving the quality of life.

Duration
Topic 04: Nanotechnology
Delivery Mode



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NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology involves the study and use of extremely small substances, often called
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nanoparticles. The word ‘nano’ comes from the Greek word which means ‘dwarf’.
A nanometre (nm) is 0.000 000 001 meter (or 10-9 m). That’s one millionth of a
millimeter. Nanoparticles are very small, less than 100 nm across.
Figure 1
Nanotechnology is not a new idea. Nanoparticles have in fact been used by people for
thousands of years. The Egyptians used ink containing nanoparticles of black pigment.
Nanoparticles of lead sulfide were used by the Romans to dye their hair black. Nanoparticles
of gold and silver have also been used since the 10 th century to colour ceramics and stained
glass.
Natural nanoparticles also exist. For example:
⚫ Insects and lizards are able to stick to walls because of the nanostructures on their feet.
⚫ Spiders’ webs are made of super-strong nanofibers.
⚫ Butterflies’ wings contain shiny reflective nanocrystals.
⚫ Chloroplasts in plant cells are nanofactories that harness the Sun’s energy to make
glucose.
Nanotechnology scientists try to copy natural nanoparticles to make new materials that
are useful.

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Development of Nanotechnology
The idea of nanotechnology was suggested in 1959 by Richard Feynman, an American

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physicist. He offered a $1000 prize for the first working motor less than 1/64 th of an inch across
(smaller than a pinhead). The prize was claimed just a year later by Bill McLellan, a scientist
working in California. Scientists have since made structures smaller and smaller. This work is
now called nanotechnology, a term first used in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi, a materials scientist
in Japan. As scientists have steadily made things smaller, they have needed new pieces of
equipment to help them.
Figure 2
In 1981 at the IBM Laboratories in Switzerland, the scanning tunnelling microscope

(STM) was invented and allowed scientists to see the nano-world. Using an STM, it is possible
to see individual atoms and even move them around. In 1989, an STM was used to move 35
xenon atoms onto a tiny piece of nickel. One of the defining moments was in 1989, when IBM
scientists used STM to spell out the letters I-B-M in individual xenon atoms on a nickel crystal
surface.
CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS
Nanomaterials or the nanoparticles are the set of particles or the substances where
atlas one dimension is less than approximately 100nm.
Nanomaterial is an object that has atleast one dimension in the nanometer scale
approximately 1-100nm.
Classification of the nanomaterials
Due to the reduction in the spatial dimension, or confinement of particles or quasi particles
in a particular crystallographic direction within a structure generally leads to changes in
physical properties of the system in that direction.
Hence classification of the nanostructured materials and systems essentially depends on

the number of dimensions which lie within the nanometer range.

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1. Systems confined in 3 dimensions [Zero dimension structures]
Examples: Nanoparticles, Nanograins, Nanoshells, Nanocapsules, Nanorings,

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Fullerenes, collidal particles, activated carbon, nanoporous silicon, quasi crystals.
2. Systems confined in 2 dimensions [One dimension structures]
Examples: Nanorods, Nanofilaments, Nanotubes, quantum wires, nano wires.
3. Systems confined in 1 dimension [Two dimension structures]
Examples: discs, platelets, ultrathin films, super lattices, quantum wells.
PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES
Physical Properties – Surface Tension
Nanoparticles have more atoms or molecules nearer the surface than larger particles.
In reactions, nanoparticles are able to react more quickly. This is because more atoms in a
nanoparticle can be in contact with the reactant, than in a larger particle.
Figure 3
Nanoparticles have a much bigger surface area to volume ratio than larger particles.
This is very useful for substances such as catalysts.
Magnetic Properties
1. Magnetic nanoparticles are used in a range of applications like imaging, bioprocessing,

refrigeration as well as high storage density magnetic memory media.
2. The large surface area to volume ratio results in a substantial proportion of atoms
having different magnetic coupling with neighbouring atoms leading to differing
magnetic properties.
3. Bulk gold and platinum are non-magnetic but at the nano size they act as magnetic
particles. Au nanoparticles become ferromagnetic when they are capped with the
appropriate molecules such as thiol.

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4. Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a phenomenon observed in nanoscale multilayers

consisting of strong ferromagnet (Fe, Co, Ni)and a weaker magnetic or non-magnetic
buffer(Cr, Cu). It is usually employed in data storage and sensing.
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Optical Properties
1. In small nano clusters the effect of reduced dimensionality on electronic structure has
the most profound effect on the energies of highest occupied molecular orbital
(HOMO) which is valence band and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
(LUMO),essentially the conduction band.
2. The optical emission and adsorption occurs when the transition of the electrons occur
between these two states.
3. Semiconductors and many metals show large changes in optical properties such as
color, as a function of particle size.
4. Colloidal suspensions of gold nanoparticles have a deep red color which becomes
progressively more yellow as the particle size increases.
Gold spheres of 10-20nm exhibit red color, 2-5nm exhibit yellow color and >20nm
exhibit purple color. Similarly, silver particles of 40nm exhibit blue color and 100nm exhibit
yellow color. Prism shaped Silver particles red color.
Other properties which may be affected by reduced dimensionality include

photocatalysis, photoconductivity, photoemission and electroluminescence.
Electronic Properties
1. The changes which occur in electronic properties as the system length scale is reduced
are related mainly to the increasing influence of the wave-like property of the electrons
(quantum mechanical effects) and the scarcity of scattering centres.
2. As the size of the system becomes comparable with the de Broglie wavelength of the
electrons, the discrete nature of the energy states becomes apparent once again,
although a fully discrete energy spectrum is only observed in systems that are confined
in all three dimensions.
3. In certain cases, conducting materials become insulators below a critical length scale,
as the energy bands cease to overlap. Owing to their intrinsic wave-like nature,
electrons can tunnel quantum mechanically between two closely adjacent
nanostructures, and if a voltage is applied between two nanostructures which aligns
the discrete energy levels in the DOS, resonant tunnelling occurs, which abruptly
increases the tunnelling current.
4. Conduction in highly confined structures, such as quantum dots, is very sensitive to
the presence of other charge carriers and hence the charge state of the dot.
5. These Coulomb blockade effects result in conduction processes involving single
electrons and as a result they require only a small amount of energy to operate a switch,
transistor or memory element.
6. All these phenomena can be utilised to produce radically different types of
components for electronic, optoelectronic and information processing applications,
such as resonant tunnelling transistors and single-electron transistors.

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PRODUCTION OF NANOPARTICLES
Nanomaterials and/or nanoparticles are used in a broad spectrum of applications.

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Today they are contained in many products and used in various technologies. Most
nanoproducts produced on an industrial scale are nanoparticles, although they also arise as
byproducts in the manufacture of other materials. Most applications require a precisely
defined, narrow range of particle sizes (monodispersity).
Specific synthesis processes are employed to produce the various nanoparticles,

coatings, dispersions or composites. Defined production and reaction conditions are crucial in
obtaining such size-dependent particle features. Particle size, chemical composition,
crystallinity and shape can be controlled by temperature, pH-value, concentration, chemical
composition, surface modifications and process control.
Two basic strategies are used to produce nanoparticles: 'top-down' and 'bottom-up'.
The term 'top-down' refers here to the mechanical crushing of source material using a milling
process. In the 'bottom-up' strategy, structures are built up by chemical processes. The selection
of the respective process depends on the chemical composition and the desired features
specified for the nanoparticles.
Figure 4

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1. Top-Down (Mechanical-physical production processes)

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Figure 5
'Top-down' refers to mechanical-physical particle production processes based on

principles of microsystem technology. The traditional mechanical-physical crushing methods
for producing nanoparticles involve various milling techniques.
This involves using small-scale versions of normal machines to cut and shape
structures into nano-sized pieces. The micro-etching process is already being used to make
microchips that are even smaller and hold more components.
Milling processes
The mechanical production approach uses milling to crush microparticles. This

approach is applied in producing metallic and ceramic nanomaterials. For metallic
nanoparticles, for example, traditional source materials (such as metal oxides) are pulverized
using high-energy ball mills. Such mills are equipped with grinding media composed of
wolfram carbide or steel.
Milling involves thermal stress and is energy intensive. Lengthier processing can
potentially abrade the grinding media, contaminating the particles. Purely mechanical milling
can be accompanied by reactive milling: here, a chemical or chemo-physical reaction
accompanies the milling process.
Compared to the chemo-physical production processes, using mills to crush particles

yields product powders with a relatively broad particle-size ranges. This method does not
allow full control of particle shape.

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2. Bottom-up (Chemo-physical production processes)
Bottom-up methods are based on physicochemical principles of molecular or atomic

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self-organization. This approach produces selected, more complex structures from atoms or
molecules, better controlling sizes, shapes and size ranges. It includes aerosol processes,
precipitation reactions and solgel processes
This involves building up nanoparticles atom by atom. This can be carried out using
machines such as the scanning tunnelling microscope, which can pick up and move atoms and
molecules around.
Figure 6
Gas phase processes (aerosol processes)
Gas phase processes are among the most common industrial-scale technologies for
producing nanomaterials in powder or film form.
Nanoparticles are created from the gas phase by producing a vapor of the product
material using chemical or physical means. The production of the initial nanoparticles, which
can be in a liquid or solid state, takes place via homogeneous nucleation.

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Depending on the process, further particle growth involves condensation (transition

from gaseous into liquid aggregate state), chemical reaction(s) on the particle surface and/or
coagulation processes (adhesion of two or more particles), as well as coalescence processes
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(particle fusion). Examples include processes in flame-, plasma-, laser- and hot wall reactors,
yielding products such as fullerenes and carbon nanotubes:
⚫ In flame reactors, nanoparticles are formed by the decomposition of source molecules in
the flame at relatively high temperatures (about 1200-2200°C). Flame reactors are used
today for the industrial-scale production of soot, pigment-titanium dioxide and silicon
dioxide particles.
⚫ In plasma reactors, plasma (ionized gas) provides the energy for the vaporization and for
initializing the decomposition reactions.
⚫ In laser reactors, lasers selectively heat the gaseous source material, utilizing its absorption
wavelength, and decompose it to the desired product.
⚫ In hot wall reactors, vaporization and condensation are applied. The source material is
vaporized in an inert gas under low pressures (ca. 1 mbar). This removes the enriched gas
phase from the hot zone. The particles created by the rapid cooling are collected on filters.
Technically, hot wall reactors are used for example in producing nanoscale nickel- and iron
powders.
⚫ The chemical gas phase deposition process is used to directly deposit nanoparticles from
the gas phase onto surfaces. Here, the source material is vaporized in a vacuum and
condensed on a heated surface by a chemical reaction, i.e. deposited from the gas phase
into the solid final product.
Droplet formation containing particles
Particles can also be produced from droplets using centrifugal forces, compressed air,
sonic waves, ultrasound, vibrations, electrostatics and other methods. The droplets are
transformed into a powder either through direct pyrolysis (thermal cleavage of chemical
compounds) or via direct reactions with another gas. In spray pyrolysis, droplets of the source
material are transported through a high-temperature field (flame, oven), which rapidly
vaporizes the readily volatile components or leads to decomposition reactions. The formed
particles are collected on filters.
Liquid phase processes
The wet-chemical synthesis of nanomaterials typically takes place at lower

temperatures than gas phase synthesis. The most important liquid phase processes in
nanomaterial production are precipitation, sol-gel- processes and hydrothermal syntheses.
⚫ Precipitation processes
The precipitation of solids from a metal ion-containing solution is one of the most
frequently employed production processes for nanomaterials. Metal oxides as well as non-
oxides or metallic nanoparticles can be produced by this approach. The process is based on
reactions of salts in solvents. A precipitating agent is added to yield the desired particle
precipitation, and the precipitate is filtered out and thermally post-treated.

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⚫ Sol-gel processes
Sol-gel syntheses (production of a gel from powder-shaped materials) are wet-

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chemical processes for producing porous nanomaterials, ceramic nanostructured polymers as

well as oxide nanoparticles. The synthesis takes place under relatively mild conditions and low
temperatures. The term sol refers to dispersions of solid particles in the 1-100 nm size range,
which are finely distributed in water or organic solvents. In sol-gel processes, material
production or deposition takes place from a liquid sol state, which is converted into a solid gel
state via a sol-gel transformation. The sol-gel transformation involves a three-dimensional
cross-linking of the nanoparticles in the solvent, whereby the gel takes on bulk properties. A
controlled heat treatment in air can transform gels into a ceramic oxide material.
Figure 8
Self-assembly
One bottom-up method is nature's way: self-assembly. Self-organizing processes are

common throughout nature and involve components from the molecular (e.g. protein folding)
to the planetary scale (e.g. weather systems) and even beyond (e.g. galaxies).
This involves atoms and molecules putting themselves together. It occurs in every
human being. Molecules are assembled in cells to form very complicated structures. Molecules
such as DNA, can replicate themselves.
The key to using self-assembly as a controlled and directed fabrication process lies in
designing the components that are required to self-assemble into desired patterns and
functions. Self-assembly reflects information coded - as shape, surface properties, charge,
polarizability, magnetic dipole, mass, etc. - in individual components; these characteristics
determine the interactions among them.

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On a very small scale you wouldn't even use the term 'self-assembly' but rather
'chemical synthesis' – the processes chemists have refined over many years. However, the
stability of covalent bonds enables the synthesis of almost arbitrary configurations of only up
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to 1000 atoms. Larger molecules, molecular aggregates, and forms of organized matter more
extensive than molecules cannot be synthesized bond-by-bond. Self-assembly is one strategy
for organizing matter on these larger scales.
Self-assembly has become an especially important concept in nanotechnology. As

miniaturization reaches the nanoscale, conventional manufacturing technologies fail because it
has not been possible yet to build machinery that assembles nanoscale components into
functional devices. Until robotic assemblers capable of nanofabrication can be built, self-
assembly – together with chemical synthesis – will be the necessary technology to develop for
bottom-up fabrication.
FULLERENES AND CARBON NANOTUBES
It was the discovery of the allotrope of carbon, buckminsterfullerene, C60 and the
production of carbon nanotubes, and particularly the subsequent use of nanoparticles of clays,
that led to the burgeoning use of nanomaterials beyond the microprocessor industry.
Fullerenes
The element carbon can exist in different structural forms, which are known as
allotropes. Diamond and graphite are the two most common allotropes of carbon. Carbon can
also exist in other forms, collectively called fullerenes.
The first of these, buckminsterfullerene, was discovered by accident, in 1985, and its
discovery opened up a whole new area of chemistry. It was named after an American architect
Richard Buckminster Fuller who had designed buildings made of dome-shaped structures.
Figure 9
The physical properties of buckminsterfullerene are:
⚫ It is a black solid at room temperature which does not conduct electricity.

⚫ It is insoluble in water but dissolves in petrol to form a deep red solution.
⚫ Its molecules are strong and hard, but elastic, like a football. They can be squashed to
70% of their normal size, but bounce back.
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The chemical properties of buckminsterfullerene include:
⚫ The molecules can be used as cages to trap atoms and smaller molecules inside them.
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⚫ The surface of C60 molecules can be coated with other atoms. For example, coating
with hydrogen makes a smooth substance that is even more slippery than Teflon.
⚫ The molecules can be joined together to make bigger fullerene structures.
C60 molecules are also known as ‘buckyballs’. Since the discovery of this first
fullerene, other types of fullerenes that have been made include:
⚫ C70 molecules, which are shaped like a rugby ball.

⚫ Buckybabies, with less than sixty carbon atoms.
⚫ Fuzzyballs, with a coating of hydrogen atoms.
⚫ Giant fullerenes, with many more than sixty carbon atoms.
Some of the uses of fullerenes that scientists are currently working on include:
⚫ Non-stick slippery coatings for machinery, which act like miniature ball bearings.
⚫ Cages to hold drug molecules that can be delivered directly into the body.
⚫ Molecular sieves, which traps large particles like viruses while allowing smaller,
healthy particles to pass through.
⚫ Chemical sponges to soak up toxic substances in the body.
Carbon Nanotubes
Nanotubes are another form of fullerene. They are tubes

of carbon hexagons, like sheets of graphite rolled into cylinders.
The bonding between the carbon atoms being the same

as between carbon atoms in graphite. The ends are capped with a
buckyball. The nanotubes are 1 nm in diameter (although some
have been made which are considerably smaller, 0.4 nm) and can
be as long as several nm. They can align themselves into 'ropes'
by intermolecular bonding.
Nanotubes have many useful properties, including:
⚫ very high tensile strength

⚫ unique electrical properties
⚫ good heat conductance. Figure 10
Multi-walled nanotubes exist. In these, several tubes can rotate and slide within in each
other, almost without friction. As well as single walled nanotubes, double and multi-walled
carbon nanotubes can be produced in a similar way. These materials have been demonstrated
to be the stiffest and strongest fibres known and have exceptional electrical conducting
properties.

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The properties of nanotubes make them useful in many ways. Some examples include:
⚫ Thinner, lighter TV screens.

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⚫ Smaller, thinner optical fibres.

⚫ Strong, light waterproof fabrics.
⚫ Stronger building materials.
⚫ Smaller, lighter electrical circuits.
USES OF NANOPARTICLES
Catalysis
Heterogeneous catalysis takes place when reactions occur on the surface of a solid
catalyst. One catalytic application already developed is the use of cerium(IV) oxide
nanoparticles which are added to diesel and bio-diesel fuels in very small amounts (5-10 ppm).
When diesel fuel is combusted in an engine, it is not completely oxidized and fine particles of
carbon, carbon monoxide as well as unreacted fuel are emitted. The additive, cerium(IV) oxide
acts as a heterogeneous catalyst and ensures that the fuel is combusted completely to carbon
dioxide and water, thus leading to an improvement in fuel efficiency by as much as 4-11% and
much less pollution (about 18% less particulate matter is emitted). Because of their size, the
cerium(IV) oxide nanoparticles forms a homogeneous solution in the fuel and are thus easily
premixed with the fuel, which then requires no special delivery equipment and does not
require any modification to the vehicle engine. The catalysts in catalytic converters for cars are
nanoparticles of alloys of palladium and rhodium.
Plastics and Glass
Carbon nanotubes are not only very strong but are also flexible. They can be twisted
and bent without breaking. Thus they are used in polymers and composites to strengthen a
structure, to increase the electrical conductivity of the material and to increase heat transfer.
On the other hand, composites containing silica nanoparticles withstand the heat of a car
engine and are therefore used as engine parts. Nanocomposite materials made out of clay-
reinforced, originated by Toyota, are now being used to make panels for cars, which are as
much as 30% lighter than existing structures, and are twice as resistant to denting and
scratching as conventional polymers. This gives rise to lighter, therefore more fuel-efficient,
cars, with corresponding environmental benefits.
Another use for cars, already in development, is in wear-resistant tyres. Nanometre-

scale clays are combined with polymers, for example poly(2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene) (neoprene),
a rubber-like polymer, exploiting the extreme hardness shown by some nanomaterials.
Textiles and Fabrics
A 'fleece' fabric has been produced that contains nanoparticles of carbon, derived from
bamboo, infused into a range of fibres (rayon, polyesters and polyamides). Through the highly
absorbent, high surface areas and surface modifications of the nanoparticles, they can be used
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in such products to provide properties, including anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, deodorizing,

thermal-regulating and static-free, yet soft and comfortable to wear. The nanoparticles are
embedded in the fibres rather than present as a coating, and are not removed from the fabric
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when washed.
Health and Personal Care
Nanotechnology will have an enormous impact in the healthcare and personal care
industries, because of the extremely small dimensions of nanoparticles and their mobility. The
chemical reactivity rate, the location of effect, and the timing of a treatment are all affected by
particle size. Efficient drug delivery is being tested already. Biological microelectromechanical
devices (bioMEMS) implanted into the body to deliver doses of drugs or carry new cells to
damaged tissues bring the concept of nanosurgery into being.
In the area of biomedical imaging, the use of nanoparticles as image enhancers is being
developed.
Imaging probes and implant coatings can be inserted into the human body with particle sizes
from 2-10 nm. The enhanced magnetic properties of iron(III) oxide nanoparticles make them
suitable for use as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In the study and
medical treatment of cancers, nanocarriers can be used for delivering imaging agents to cancer
cells thus making it easier to locate the cancer cells precisely and making treatment much more
effective. One technique being tried is to inject the patient with certain nanoparticles, often gold
because of its resistance to corrosion. The gold nanoparticles that are located at a site of cancer
cells can be irradiated with infrared to heat them up and destroy the nearby cancer cells.
Cosmetics are already available that contain nanoparticles, again exploiting properties
arising from their incredibly high surface areas. These include sun lotions and anti-aging
creams.
Nanoscale titanium dioxide, containing very small quantities of manganese(II) oxide,

is being used in sun lotions as the mixture absorbs harmful UV radiation. The nanoparticles
are so small that they are invisible to the naked eye and the lotion appears clear. The
nanoparticles are stable to light and work by reducing the harmful materials (free radicals),
formed in the skin from exposure to the sun, that lead to premature skin aging and skin cancers.
Claims are being made for the effectiveness of nanoparticles in anti-aging preparations
to give protection from harmful UV radiation and they can also be used to deliver vitamins
that plump and soften the skin, thereby reducing wrinkles. Zinc oxide, zinc and silver
nanoparticles are being used for their anti-microbial and anti-bacterial properties in some skin
preparations.
Nanoparticles of copper(I) oxide, displaying anti-fungal properties, are being

incorporated into coatings, fibres, polymers, bandages, plastics and soaps.
Sports and Leisure
Carbon nanotubes produce composites with epoxy resins with a tensile strength 5 -10
times higher than comparable carbon fibre reinforced materials. Yacht masts have been
produced commercially, which are up to 30 times stiffer without adding any extra weight.
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Other applications of carbon nanotube reinforced composites include tennis rackets,

fishing rods, and car body panels used in racing cars for strength and lightness, thereby
enhancing performance. The cushioning properties of trainer shoe soles have been improved
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by incorporating nanoparticles thereby changing the structure of the polymeric soles, whilst at
the same time extending durability because of the hardness enhanced by the presence of the
nanoparticles.
HEALTH, SAFETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
A recent concern regarding nanoparticles is whether their small sizes and novel
properties may pose significant health or environmental risks. There is much debate over the
safety and environmental impact of nanotechnology. One particular concern is the potential
cancer-causing risks from inhaled particles similar to those that were posed by asbestos fibres.
As many of the applications described above involve nanoparticles being locked into
polymeric composites, film and fibres, it is not expected that such nanomaterials will pose a
threat to the health and safety of users. More important however, is the exposure of plant
operators handling 'raw' nanoparticles in making these materials. Before universal application
of nanotechnology can really be advanced much further, definitive studies of the effect of
nanoparticles on the body and the environment must be completed.
On the other hand, some global environmental issues might well be resolved using
nanomaterials. One of the greatest potential impacts of nanotechnology on the lives of the
majority of people on Earth could be desalination and purification of water, providing fresh
water from the oceans and from brackish wells. Research is progressing on membranes in
which carbon nanotubes are embedded to add to the strength of the membrane and make it
more efficient. Again because of the high surface areas, nanomaterials, such as some silicates,
make excellent filters for trapping heavy metals and other pollutants from industrial
wastewater.
THE FUTURE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
The future of nanotechnology has been a subject of many scientific and nonscientific
speculations, including several doomsday visions in popular culture that predicted self-
replicating nano particles taking part in massive assaults on humanity and the environment.
An example of such scenario is given in Michael Crichton popular novel Prey, where "grey
goo" self-replicates and overwhelms the world... Dire predictions have accompanied many
new technologies at their infancy (for example robotics in the 1940s and 1950s). The more
futuristic visions of nanotechnology include on one hand the envisioned use of nano-particles
inside the body and the blood stream (for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes), and on the
other hand – potential development of new weapons of mass destruction enabled by
nanotechnology.
Some authors who discussed the future of nanotechnology differentiate between

incremental nanotechnology, evolutionary nanotechnology, and radical nanotechnology.
Incremental nanotechnology is represented, for example, by reinforcement of current
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materials by nano-scale devices – leading, as one application, to development of better paints.

Evolutionary nanotechnology involves more sophisticated tasks such as sensing and analysis
of the environment by nano-structures, and a role for nanotechnology in signal processing,
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medical imaging, and energy conversion. Applications include targeted drug delivery and
enhancement of components such as transistors, solar cells, light emitting diodes, and diode
lasers. Significant improvements in the area of computing are expected from so-called
evolutionary computing, allowing faster processing, miniaturized architectures, and increased
storage.
An emerging field within nanotechnology is known as bionanotechnology, which is a

synthetic technology based on the principles and chemical pathways of living organisms.
Bionanotechnology looks for connections between molecular biology and nanotechnology –
guiding the development of machinery at the nano-scale by the structure and function of
natural nano-machines found in living cells.
As was the case with many new technologies, solid predictions of their course of
developments are difficult to make. If nanotechnology were to follow the paths of other new
technologies (digital communications, the Internet) the early predictions – for the first ten years
– would tend to overestimate the impact of the technology (much less is achieved compared to
predictions); the long-term prediction – for the first 50-75 years – would tend to underestimate
that impact (much more is achieved compared to predictions).

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Activity Sheet
NAME: ________________________________________________ SCORE: ______________
Activity Sheet
ACTIVITY NO. ____

NANOTECHNOLOGY
I. Multiple Choice. Encircle the best answer.
1. Which of these measurements is a nanometer?

A. 0.000 000 001 m C. 0.1 m
B. 0.000 001 m D. 1,000,000,000 m
2. Which of these particles is bigger than a nanoparticle?

A. a carbon atom C. an electron
B. a proton D. a white blood cell
3. Which of these particles us smaller than a nanoparticle?

A. a bacteria C. a carbon atom
B. an ant D. a white blood cell
4. Which of these statements about nanoparticles is true?

A. Nanoparticles behave differently from bulk materials.
B. A nanoparticle can be seen without a microscope.
C. Nanoparticle all dissolve in water.
D. Nanoparticles are all poisonous.
5. Which of these is not a way of making nanoparticles?

A. bottom-up C. top-down
B. neutralization D. self-assembly
6. Which of these uses of nanoparticles is currently not available to the public?

A. health-checking contact lenses
B. light-weight tennis rackets
C. antibacterial plasters
D. sunscreen
7. How many carbon atoms are there in a molecule of buckminsterfullerene?

A. 30 C. 540
B. 60 D. 120
8. Which of these is not a form of carbon?

A. fullerene C. diamond
B. magnetite D. graphite
9. Which of these is not a property of nanotubes?

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A. good conductor of electricity

B. good conductor of heat
C. high strength
Activity Sheet
D. high density
10. Which of these is a good reason for us to continue researching nanoparticles for our use?
A. They might turn out to be poisonous.
B. They might be able to improve people’s health.
C. They might affect the environment badly.
D. They might spread quickly through the environment.
II. Fill in the blank. Choose the correct word in the box to complete the statement.
carbon fullerene diamond strong
bottom-up electricity self-assembly heat
football top-down nanotubes fuzzyballs
1. Graphite, ___________________ and buckminsterfullerene are all allotropes of carbon.
2. Buckminsterfullerene is also called C60 because it is made up of 60 ___________________

atoms.
3. Buckminsterfullerene is shaped like a ___________________.
4. Nanotubes are very ___________________ and have unique electrical properties.
5. Buckminsterfullerene is a black solid at room temperature and it can’t conduct

___________________.
6. ___________________ can be used as a cage to hold drug molecules.
7. ___________________ are made of carbon hexagons wrapped into cylinders.
8. In ___________________, atoms and molecules put themselves together.
9. In ___________________, nanoparticles build up atom by atom.
10. In ___________________, small-scale versions of machines cut and shaped nano-sized

particles.

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III. Write TRUE if the statement is correct, otherwise, write FALSE.

Activity Sheet
1. In one meter, there are 1,000,000,000 nanometers.
2. Nanoparticles exist in nature.
3. Nanoparticles are smaller than atoms.
4. C70 molecules, which are shaped like a rugby ball.
5. Nanoparticles are much more affected by friction than we are.
6. Microscopes exist that can show us the nanoworld.
7. Fuzzyballs are fullerenes with 70 carbon atoms.
8. Sunscreen contains nanoparticles of zinc oxide and titanium oxide.
9. Gold spheres of 10-20nm exhibit blue color.
10. Nanoparticles have more atoms nearer the surface than larger particles.

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Name of Student: __________________________________________________________

Program : __________________________________________________________
Faculty : __________________________________________________________
Schedule : __________________________________________________________

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LM01-FCHE

Knowledge Area Code : SCIE

Published by the Bataan Peninsula State University

Learning Module Development Team

Marianne N. Gonzales , Assistant Professor I

Emellie Y. Matito, Chair, Science Cluster

Quality Management Team:

Jesselyn C. Mortejo, EdD

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers ii

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers iii

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers iv

Message Board Netiquette and Guidelines

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers v

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers vi

Course Overview ……………………………………………………………………………… 1

Course Packet 01: Basic Crystal Structures …… ……………………………………………. 7

Unit Cell ……….……………………………………………………………………… 8

Types of Unit Cell ……..…………………………………………………………….. 13

Packing in Simple Metallic Crystalline Structures ………………………………… 21

Interstitial Void Spaces ……………………………………………………………..… 24

Crystal Defects ………………………………………………………………………… 32

Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 33

Learner’s Feedback Form ……………………………………………………………. 35

Course Packet 02: Metals …………………………………………………………………..…. 37

Properties of Metals …………………………………………………………………. 39

Patterns of Reactivity ...………………………………………………………………. 43

Extraction and Purification ………………………………………………………….. 49

Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 64

Learner’s Feedback Form ……………………………………………………………. 68

Course Packet 03: Polymers ..…………………………………………………………………. 69

Classification of Polymers …………………………………………………………… 72

Characteristics of Polymers ………………………………………………………….. 89

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers vii

Solid Waste Management ………………………………………………….………… 92

Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 97

Learner’s Feedback Form ……………………………………………………………. 101

Course Packet 04: Nanotechnology ..…………………………………………………………. 103

Classification of Nanomaterials ……………………………………………………... 105

Properties of Nanoparticles ………………………………………………………….. 106

Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes ………………………………………………….. 113

Uses of Nanoparticles ………………………………………………...…….………… 115

The Future of Nanotechnology ………………………………………………………. 117

Activity Sheets ………………………………………………………………………... 119

Learner’s Feedback Form ……………………………………………………………. 122

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers viii

Key Learning Competencies

Upon completion of the course, the students should be able to:

Learning Management System

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers 1

Name: Year and section:

Name: Year and section:

Name: Year and section:

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers 2

Below Proficient Partially Moderately Proficient Proficient with

1 Proficient Proficient Distinction

Assessments and Major Examinations

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers 3

Criteria Excellent Good Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

Learning Module: Chemistry for Engineers 4

• Topic 01: Basic Crystal Structures

Learning Management System

• Topic 01: Basic Crystal Structures = 12 hours

Module Requirement with Rubrics

Please see Science Notebook on pages 2-3.