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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 92 (2018) 394–404

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Exploring the potential of microalgae for new biotechnology applications T

and beyond: A review
⁎
Muhammad Rizwana, Ghulam Mujtabab, Sheraz Ahmed Memonc, Kisay Leed, Naim Rashide,
a
U.S.-Pakistan Centers for Advanced Studies in Water (USPCASW), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76062, Pakistan
b
Department of Energy and Environment, Dawood University of Engineering & Technology, M.A Jinnah Road, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
c
Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, 76062, Sindh, Pakistan
d
Department of Environmental Engineering and Energy, Myongji University, Yongin, Gyeongki, 17058, Republic of Korea
e
Department of Chemical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Defence Road, Lahore, Pakistan

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The potential of microalgae as an alternative energy source has been adequately studied. However, exclusive use
Microalgae of microalgae as an energy feedstocks cannot warrant their scalability and economical sustainability due to the
Sustainability high cost involved in their biomass processing. The co-processing of microalgae biomass with other related bio-
Bio-refinery refinery applications can offset their cost and improve their sustainability. Thus, it triggers up the need of
Biotechnological applications
exploring the potential of microalgae biomass beyond their typical use. Microalgae offer interesting features to
qualify them as alternative feedstocks for various bio-refinery applications. Microalgae have unique abilities to
utilize them for industrial and environmental applications. Thus, this review discusses to expand the scope of
integrating microalgae with other biotechnological applications to enhance their sustainability. The use of mi-
croalgae as a feed for animal and aquaculture, fertilizers, medicine, cosmetic, environmental and other bio-
technological applications is thoroughly reviewed. It also highlights the barriers, opportunities, developments,
and prospects of extending the scope of microalgae. This study concludes that sustained research funding, and a
shift of microalgae focus from biofuels production to bio-refinery co-products can qualify them as promising
feedstocks.
Moreover, technology integration is inevitable to off-set the cost of microalgae biomass processing. It is
expected that this study would be helpful to determine the future role of microalgae in bio-refinery applications.

1. Introduction group of organisms, and hence, considered as an unexploited source for

Microalgae are microscopic organisms present not only in aquatic
but also in terrestrial ecosystem. Therefore, they represent a huge
variety of species, which can live in a wide range of environment.
Microalgae primarily need three major components for growth in-
cluding sunlight, water, and carbon source [1]. They obtain nutrients
from the aquatic habitats, absorb sunlight, capture CO2 from the air,
and produce about 50% of the atmospheric oxygen [2]. Microalgae
possess an efficient biological system capable of utilizing sunlight for
the production of organic compounds [3].
Microalgae possess unique characteristics due to which they are of
commercial importance. A wide variety of microalgae species has been
identified having various biochemical and physiological characteristics.
Microalgae are capable of making stable isotopes such as 13C, 15N, and
2H, which become part of algal biomass and are used in the manu-
facturing of numerous products. Microalgae are big and unexplored
several important products.
Microalgae produce several important biochemicals which are used
a feedstock for food, fuel, and other value-added products. However,
there are several vital biochemicals which are yet to be discovered from
microalgae [4–10]. Microalgae are commercially used as human nu-
trition, animal and aquatic feed, in cosmetics products, pigments, bio-
fertilizer for extracting high-value molecules, stable isotope biochem-
icals, and for the synthesis of antimicrobial, antiviral, antibacterial and
anticancer drugs [11,12]. Microalgae species are capable of producing
different kinds of antioxidant, carotenoid, enzyme polymer, lipid, nat-
ural dye, polyunsaturated fatty acid, peptide, toxin and sterols, which
are used in several industrial products [12]. They can also produce
various compounds which can be used in pharmaceutical industry,
natural pigments [13]. Some of the high-value bioactive compounds
produced by microalgae are acetylic acids, β-carotene [14,15] agars,
agarose, alginates, carrageenans [16], polyunsaturated fatty acids [17]

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: naimkanwar@yahoo.com (N. Rashid).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.034
Received 12 March 2017; Received in revised form 6 November 2017; Accepted 14 April 2018
1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Rizwan et al.
vitamin B [18], ketocarotenoidastaxanthin [19], and lutein [14,20].
Microalgae can increase the nutritional value of human and animal
feed, and they also perform a vital part in aquaculture.
Microalgae biomass processing is considerably different from ty-
pical bio-refinery feedstocks. Microalgae grow in liquid, and thus, re-
quire several steps to obtain biomass for biochemical extraction. Major
steps of microalgae biomass processing involve cultivation, harvesting,
and extraction.
Bio-refinery is the production of biofuels as well as high value co-
products from microalgal biomasses by integrating bioprocessing and
chemical technologies which have low environmental impacts.
Microalgae can produce a variety of biochemicals, which are used for
food and medical research [16,17]. Microalgae biomass offer a better
quality of protein than the vegetables, rice, and wheat but lower than
the animal protein such as milk and meat. Microalgae produce sterols
which are used to cure cardiovascular diseases. Microalgal extracts are
mostly used in face and skin care products. They are also used in the
production of hair care and sun protection products.
Microalgae can be used in the manufacturing of several industrial
products; few of the examples include pharmaceutical products, aquatic
feed, animal feed and biofertilizer. Microalgae are used in environ-
mental biotechnology, for environmental toxicants monitoring, bior-
emediation, and bioassay. Most important environmental applications
include mitigation of CO2 emissions and wastewater treatment. They
are the major source of bioactive compounds. Microalgae possess an-
tiviral, anticancer, anti-HIV, several neurological and antimicrobial
activities [44].
This review outlines the applications of microalgae biomass and
identifies the potential areas of improvements to bring advancements in
bio-based economy. It also describes the pitfalls in existing bioprocesses
for obtaining microalgae biomass; a comprehensive perspective on
biomass processing and their future applications is provided.
2. Microalgae biomass processing
Microalgae biomass processing is considerably different from ty-
pical bio-refinery feedstocks. Microalgae grow in liquid, and thus, re-
quire several steps to obtain biomass for biochemical extraction. Major
steps of microalgae biomass processing involve cultivation, harvesting,
and extraction [21–23]. In cultivation, specie selection is the basic, yet
the most important step defining the sustainability and economic via-
bility of cultivation system. In this connection, robust microalgae spe-
cies are identified. Robust microalgae are tolerant to the environmental
conditions and possess the ability to grow under stress conditions. The
subsequent step to specie selection involves the growth of microalgae in
batch or continuous system. Microalgae are cultivated in open ponds or
lakes and in closed photo-bioreactors (PBRs) which provide highly
controlled environment. The capital and operating costs involved in
open cultivation systems are generally less as compared to the closed
cultivation systems. The durability of open systems is also relatively
higher with greater biomass productivity than the closed system.
Nonetheless, the major advantage of closed reactors is their flexibility
in comparison with open reactors. The optimized growth conditions in
closed systems enable the cultivation of those microalgae, which could
not grow in open ponds. It is not easy to compare the performance of
PBRs and open ponds, as several factors must be considered during the
evaluation; one of the important factors is the microalgal species to be
cultivated and the method used to calculate productivity. Generally,
three parameters are commonly used for the evaluation of microalgal
productivity components [3] such as Volumetric productivity (VP)
measured in g/L/d, areal productivity (AP) in g/m2/d and Illuminated
surface productivity (ISP) expressed in g/m2 d. The choice of cultiva-
tion system depends upon a number of factors including the nature of
microalgae species, nutrients availability, climate, mode of cultivation
(autotrophic/heterotrophic), and more importantly the final use of
biomass [24].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 92 (2018) 394–404
Microalgae growth is measured in terms of doubling time and bio-
mass productivity. Biomass productivity is somewhat proportional to
culture density. Culture density is normalized with optical density. Due
to variation in color of different microalgae species, absorbance wa-
velength also changes. Most of the microalgal absorbance range is be-
tween 600 and 700 nm. Growth rate can also be measured by total cell
count or particle analyzer. However, these methods are not so accurate.
Low growth rate, and thus, low biomass productivity are major bot-
tlenecks towards microalgae cultivation. Biomass productivity largely
depends on a wider range of cultivation parameters including micro-
algae strain, nutrients, light, temperature, pH, mixing, substrate con-
centration and purity of the culture. To achieve the maximum biomass
productivity cultivation conditions should be optimized.
Microalgae are capable of exploring their environments for resource
conservation and their efficient utilization. Generally, for microalgae
growth, an adequate supply of a carbon source and light is required to
carry out photosynthesis [25,26]. For the growth of microalgae, not
only the organic carbon source (e.g. sugar, protein, and fat), salts, vi-
tamins, and nitrogen and phosphorous are also required. An equili-
brium among operating parameters (such as, molecular oxygen, CO2,
pH level, temperature, light intensity, and removal of product and by-
product) is also crucial [3]. During biofuels production from micro-
algae, the effects of operational parameters and their interrelationship
to manipulate them is essential to know. It is important to obtain a
successful control over the composition of microalgae species, even at
industrial scale. According to De Pauw et al. [27], cultures of micro-
algae which are correctly handled are quite resistant to microbial
contamination [28].
Microalgae are capable of growing under different types of meta-
bolic conditions such as autotrophic, heterotrophic, photo-
heterotrophic, and mixotrophic. Arthrospira platensis, Chlorella vulgar-
is,and Haematococcuspluvialis are few examples of strains which can
grow in photoautotrophic, heterotrophic, and mixotrophic conditions.
While other microalgalstrains, for instance, Scenedesmusacutus and
Selenastrum capricornutum can grow either photoautotrophically, het-
erotrophically, or photoheterotrophically [29]. In microalgae, meta-
bolic shift ocuur as a result of variation in environmental conditions.
The algal metabolism also varies depending on the change in pH, which
depends on the stoichiometry of the growth of microalgae.
The next step to cultivation is harvesting. During harvesting mi-
croalgal biomass is separated from the culture medium. It is one of the
expensive steps during microalgal biodiesel production as it accounts
for 20–30% of the total biomass production cost [30]. For the removal
of huge amount of water and processing a large volume of microalgal
biomass, an appropriate method for harvesting is required. Some of the
common methods used for harvesting are: filtration, ultrafiltration,
centrifugation, and sedimentation sometimes combined with floccula-
tion or flocculation–flotation are combined together [30]. According to
Richmond, quality of the product is one of the main criteria for the
selection of suitable harvesting method [3]. For harvesting of low value
products, gravity sedimentation is followed by flocculation. Similarly,
for the recovery of high-value products, such as products used for food
or aquaculture purpose, continuously operating centrifuges are re-
commended as they can process large volumes of biomass.
Another important criteria for the selection of harvesting method is
its potential to adjust the biomass density or the desired moisture level
in the final concentrate to the optimum level [3,30]. Gravity sedi-
mentation generally produces more diluted sludge than the biomass
recovered through centrifugation, which significantly affects the eco-
nomics of downstream processing. Since thermal drying is more ex-
pensive than the mechanical dewatering; therefore, in order to decrease
the overall production cost, the final concentrate with higher solids
content is necessary. In order to increase shelf-life of the final product,
dehydration of biomass is a common practice. A number of drying
methods such as drum-drying, freeze-drying, spray-drying, and sun-
drying are mostly used for drying of Chlorella, Spirulina, andScenedesmus
M. Rizwan et al.
[3]. Due to the presence of high water content in microalgal biomass,
sun-drying is not considered as an effective drying method while spray
drying is not an economical method for low-value products. Microalgae
drying is followed by cell disruption in order to release metabolites of
interest from the cells. For microalgal cell disruption, numerous
methods can be used depending on the composition of the cell wall and
on the nature of the desired products. Mechanical methods include
autoclave, spray drying, bead mills, cell homogenizers, and ultra-
sounds, or non-mechanical methods e.g. acid, base and enzyme reac-
tions, organic solvents,freezing and osmotic shock.
Extraction is one of the main commercial constraints for the pro-
duction fuels, foods, and feeds, and also to high-value products like
polysaccharides and β-carotene. It is not easy to generalize extraction,
as it is a highly specific process and strongly depends on the desired
products.
Solvent extraction is commonly employed to lyophilized biomass, as
it is a rapid and efficient extraction method that decreases the de-
gradation. A number of solvents like ethanol (96%), hexane, or a
mixture of hexane–ethanol (96%), can be used to obtain purified fatty
acids [3]. Although ethanol is considered as an effective solvent for
lipid extraction, it can also be used for the extraction of some other
cellular contaminants, for example, sugars, amino acids, salts, pigment
sand hydrophobic proteins.
3. Applications of microalgae
Microalgae are capable of producing a variety of biochemicals,
which are used for food and medical research. (Fig. 1, Table 1). Mi-
croalgae are also capable of producing many important biochemicals
which are yet to be discovered [4–10,31].
Other than biofuels production, microalgae are a potential renew-
able source which can be used for different commercial applications
such as: (1) wastewater treatment and CO2 mitigation (2) human nu-
trition (3) feed for animal and aquatic life (4) cosmetic products (5)
high-value compounds (6) pigments like astaxanthin, β-carotene, and
phycobiliproteins (7) stable isotope production (8) biofertilizer (9)f or
synthesis of antimicrobial, antiviral, antibacterial and anticancer drugs.
Some of the major microalgal species used for the production of com-
mercial products include Arthrospira(Spirulina), Chaetoceros, Chlorella,
Dunaliella, and Isochrysis [32].
3.1. Human health and nutritional products
In last few years, particularly after the probiotic supplements are
Fig. 1. Flow chart showing applications of microalgae in different fields [9,11,178].
396
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 92 (2018) 394–404
introduced, the health benefits of aquatic microorganisms such as mi-
croalgae are intensively investigated [33]. Microalgae biomass offer a
better quality of protein than the vegetables, rice, and wheat but lower
than the animal protein such as milk and meat. Microalgae produce
sterols which are used to cure cardiovascular diseases. Spirulinasp is
reported to produce clionasterol, which aid in disease prevention of
vascular cells [33]. Similarly, many antioxidant compounds (e.g. as-
taxanthin, β-carotene, dimethylsulfoniopropionate, mycosporines, and
few other carotenoids) are produced by microalgae. These antioxidant
compounds have the ability to protect from oxidative stress. Spirulina
platensis and Spirulina maxima are mostly used as human food. Spir-
ulinasp. is grown commercially as a food source as it improves the im-
mune system. It also increases the lactic acid bacteria in the gastro-
intestinal tract which result in improving body hormones. Spirulina is
also used for the treatment of other diseases like arthritis, anemia,
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer [34].
Chlorella has been reported to serve as a food source. Chlorella is rich
in proteins (51–58% dry weight), carotenoids, as well as different vi-
tamins [35]. Microalgae also contain β-glucan, which act as immune
stimulator, reduce free radicals and blood lipids [36]. Chlorella is also
used for the production of a product called ‘Chlorella Growth Factor’
which improve the growth of lactic bacteria in the body. According to
Barrow and Shahidi [127], Chlorella has many advantages in the health
sector [33]. For instance, increase in hemoglobin level, decrease blood
sugar and cholesterol level. During hunger and ethionine intoxication,
it act as hepato protective agents, protect from renal failure and also
increase the growth of intestinal bacteria [37]. The metabolic products
produced by Chlorella species can stimulate immune system which
impedes the growth of Candida albicans and Listeria monocytogenes.
Chlorella extracts are also used in mammals, for the production of
splenocytes and cytokines, and for the activation of other immune re-
sponses [33]. Japanese scientists used C. ellipsoidea for the development
of different food products e.g. bread and rolls, ice cream, soups, pow-
dered noodles, green tea, cookies, and soy sauce). Dunaliella sp. (espe-
cially D. salina) is also considered as a food source. They are rich in
lipids and protein, glycerol, β-carotene and have special capability of
growing in brackish water [33]. The carotenoids produced by Dunaliella
sp. and Spirulina sp. are more effective against cancer cells as compared
to β-carotene [14,38].
In China, Nostoc sphaeroides has been used for the production of
traditional medicine which can be used for the treatment of diarrhea,
hepatitis, and hypertension. Nostoc sphaeroides is also used as an im-
portant ingredient of medicines [39]. Similarly, Muriellopsis sp. pro-
duces a high level of carotenoids like lutein which is used for the curing
M. Rizwan et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 92 (2018) 394–404

Table 1
Microalgae their habitat, products and applications.
Microalgae Fresh/Marine Product Application Reference

Spirulina platensis fresh Phycocyanin, biomass Health food and cosmetics [142]
Chlorella vulgaris fresh and marine Biomass, Ascorbic acid Health food and food supplement [44]
Dunaliellasalina marine powders β-carotene Human nutrition [45]
Aphanizomenonflosaquae fresh capsules, crystals powder Human nutrition [37]
Nostocpunctiforme fresh Scytonemin UV-Screening [175,178]
Dunaliellatertiolecta marine Mycosporine like Amino Acids UV-Screening [33,45]
Spirulinaplatensis marine Phycocyanin Health foods [142]
Haematococcuspluvialis fresh astaxanthin Nutraceutical, cosmetics, food and feed industries [15,25]
Parietochloris incise fresh Arachidonic acid (AA) Food additive and nutraceutics [131,132]
Spirulinasp. marine γ -Linolenic acid (GLA) Infant formulas and Nutritional supplements [48]
Protothecamoriformis fresh/marine ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Human nutrition [44]
Chlorella sp. fresh/marine ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Human nutrition [44]
Cylindrospermum sp. marine Vitamin B12 Growth promoting [53]
Tolypothrixtenuis fresh Vitamin B12 Growth promoting
Nostocmuscorum fresh/marine Vitamin B12 Growth promoting [39]
Hapalosiphonfontinalis fresh Vitamin B12 Growth promoting
Hapalosiphonsp. fresh Auxin like Indole-3-acetic acid Growth promoting
Porphyridiumcruentum fresh Polysaccharides Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and nutrition [132]
Isochrysisgalbana marine Fatty acids Animal Nutrition [32]

of degenerative diseases [14]. Another microalgae used as a food source is a cyanobacterium

Microalgae biomass is composed of protein, carbohydrates, fiber
contents, and enzymes. Microalgae are also capable of producing vita-
mins (A, B1, B2, B6 and C) and minerals such as iodine, iron, niacin,
potassium, calcium and magnesium. Due to the presence of all essential
nutrients in microalgae, they are among the primary food source in
Asian countries especially China, Korea, and Japan. They are also used
in other parts of the world due to their nutritional value. The major
focus in microalgal biotechnology is the supplements of nutrition which
are produced by microalgae.
Only a few microalgal species are used as food for humans because
of strict food safety regulations, market demand and commercial factors
[40]. Microalgae as human nutrition are marketed in the form of ta-
blets, capsules, and liquids. Similarly, they are also added to snack
foods, candy bars or gums, pastas, and beverages [37,41]. As micro-
algae possess various chemical properties, due to which they are used as
nutritional supplement as well as natural food colorants [42–44]. The
most common species of microalgae which are used as human food are:
Chlorella, Spirulina, Dunaliella, Aphanizomenon,and Nostoc. The cell ex-
tracts or dried biomass ofChlorella [32,37], Dunaliella [45], and Spir-
ulina [46] are mostly used to synthesize commercial products. These
microalgal products are either used as nutraceutical or food and are
capable of generating hundreds of million dollars [44]. Microalgae are
also used as a source of vitamins and vitamin precursors, such as α- β-
and γ-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, and riboflavin.
In Spirulina (Arthrospira),the protein content makes 55–70% of total
dry biomass,so these microalgae have a high nutritional value. Due to
its high nutritional value, it is used as a food source in Asia and South
America [33]. In Israel and Australia, Spirulina sp. and Dunaliella sp. are
cultivated by a number of companies, as a source of dietary supple-
ments and powders, rich in vitamins A and C [47]. Spirulina platensisis
famous worldwide as the most nutritious food known to mankind. It is
one of the rich sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids [48], protein [49],
vitamins and phenolics [49,50] and pigments [51,52].
Chlorellais also a potential food source. Chlorella is mostly sold as a
fish food and as a healthy food. The by-products of Chlorella are used as
fruit and vegetable preservative [53]. Similarly, Dunaliella salina is also
vital microalgae. It is mainly used for the production of photosynthetic
pigment and beta-carotene. Beta-carotene is mainly used in the manu-
facturing of vitamin C supplement and orange dye. Scenedesmus sp. is
also an important nutritional food source. However, they are not pro-
duced at commercial level. Generally, their extracts can be added to
some common foods,for instance, desserts, ravioli, noodles, soups, and
fruit puddings [33].
Nostoc. In China, it is as a food source since 2000 years ago [54]. These
algae contain high protein and pigment contents due to which it is
considered as a healthy food.
3.2. Cosmetics
Arthrospira and Chlorella are utilized for the production of skin care
products [9]. Companies like LVMH and Daniel Jouvance are having
there own microalgal production system. Microalgal extracts are mostly
used in face and skin care products. They are also used in the produc-
tion of hair care and sun protection products. Arthrospira and Chlorella
are used in the manufacturing of sun protection, skin care, and hair care
products [9]. Some of the major species of microalgae which are used in
the production of cosmetics products include Ascophyllumnodosum,
Chlorella vulgaris, Alaria esculenta, Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stel-
latus, Spirulina platensis, Dunaliella salina, and Nannochloropsis oculata.
Microalgal components are commonly used in cosmetics products as an
antioxidant, thickening, and water-binding agents.
Some examples of commercial products and their properties claimed
by their manufacturers. A protein-rich extract is produced by
Arthrospira, which is used as anti-aging agent (Protulines, Exsymol
S.A.M., Monaco). Similarly, the extract of C. vulgaris stimulates the
production of collagen in the skin which results in regeneration of tis-
sues and reduction of wrinkle formation (Dermochlorella, Codif, St.
Malo, France). In recent times, Pentapharm launched two new products
(Basel, Switzerland): in one of the product called Pepha-Tight,
Nannochloropsis oculata was used this product has exceptional skin-
tightening properties. In other product named Pepha-Ctive, the extract
from D. salina was used which has the capability to significantly pro-
mote cell growth and also enhance the energy metabolism of skin [55].
3.3. Microalgae bio-refinery
Bio-refinery is the production of biofuels as well as high value co-
products from microalgal biomasses by integrating bioprocessing and
chemical technologies which have low environmental impacts [11].
Microalgal biorefinery is relatively new as compared to the energy-crop
and petroleum technologies and industries. However, with the help of
genetic modification [56], addition of new solvent combination [57],
use of nano-technologies [58], exploitation of several valuable bio-
products of microalgae [59] and by adapting and spreading the un-
derstanding of cell biology [60], the efficiency and commercialization
of microalgal biorefinery process is possible. Microalgae are capable of

397
M. Rizwan et al.
producing a wide variety of high-value bioactive compounds which can
be used in the manufacturing of health foods, pharmaceutical products,
and natural pigments [13]. Some of the major examples are: agars,
alginates, agarose, carrageenans [16], β-carotene, acetylic acids
[14,15], vitamin B [18], polyunsaturated fatty acids [17], lutein
[14,20], and ketocarotenoid astaxanthin [19]. Algal biofuel production
can become economical by using high-value co-product strategy. Using
biorefinery technique, microalgae is first cultivated in algal farming
facility (waste water treatment and CO2 mitigation), then bioreactive
compounds are extracted from the harvested microalgae,the harvested
microalgae is then thermally processed using gasification, liquefaction
or pyrolysis, high-value chemicals are extracted from the subsequent
solid, liquid,or vapor phases.
Microalgal pigments which are present in photosynthetic systems of
microalgae are used for the commercial purpose [61]. Phycobiliproteins
is the most commonly used pigment. Algal pigments can be used as
natural colorants in cosmetics, food, and pharmaceuticals [59].
Microalgae biomass also contain fair amount of protein. Some of the
major high value co-products are astaxanthin,C-phycocyanin (C-PC)
and β-carotene. The β-carotene has several applications. They are used
for food coloring, as a pro-vitamin A source, and also used as an ad-
ditive in cosmetic products [11]. D. salina is the major source of β-
carotene, as 14% of its biomass consists of β-carotene [20]. More than
90% of β-carotene available in the market is synthetic,while the price of
natural β-carotene is between €215 to €2150/kg [20].
Astaxanthin, another recombinant protein, is used commercially in
cosmetics, nutraceuticals, food, and feed industries [59]. It also pos-
sesses antioxidant properties [62], protects from UV-light, boosts im-
mune system, a hormone precursor, the source of pro-vitamin A, and
act as anti-inflammation agent [63]. It also acts as a strong coloring
agent and can be used for coloring fish muscles [40]. H. pluvialis is a
major source of astaxanthin [64], as 1–8% of its biomass is astaxanthin
[65]. Natural astaxanthin has advantages over synthetic astaxanthin
due to enhanced deposition of natural pigments, consumer demand,
and regulatory requirements [9]. The cost for natural astaxanthin is
€7150/kg [66].
The new transformation techniques which have been developed for
Chlorella [67] and diatoms [68,69] can increase their commercial ap-
plications. Microalgae produces PUFAs which play an important role in
human health and nutrition [70]. Until now, there is no direct role of
recombinant techniques in the production of commercial products.
However, due to public and government interest in recombinant tech-
nology and ongoing progress in the development of technologies for
algal systems, the role of recombinant technology will be enhanced.
Microalgae are an ideal source of stable isotopically labeled com-
pounds. During photosynthesis, they absorb stable isotopes (13C, 15N,
and 2H) from a cheap source of inorganic molecules (13 CO2, 15NO3,
2H2O) and convert them into high-value organic compounds such as
amino acids, lipids,carbohydrates, and nucleic acids [11]. Biochemi-
cally stable isotopes are used for two purposes i.e. incorporation into
carbohydrates, nucleic acids and proteins, and also in the assistance of
their structural determination at the atomic level [44].
Other than glycerol and glucose, algae are also capable of producing
stable isotopically-labeled compounds which are used for under-
standing macromolecular interactions and the revelation of metabolic
pathways [44]. For instance, the addition of 13 C glucose in algal
growth medium can result in the production of 13C-DHA-containing
triglyceride [71]. 13C-galactose is used in measuring liver function
[72–74] and is preferred over liver biopsy due to its non-invasive
nature. Another stable isotopically labeled compounds is13C-xylose
produced by Chlamydomonas, 25% of its biomass is xylose.13C-xylose is
commercially used for the identification of bacterial overgrowth in the
small intestine [75]. Microalgae-based stable isotopically labeled pro-
ducts are also used in breath tests and for diagnosing medical disease
and dysfunction. Similarly, 13C-labeled mixed triglycerides,also called
Hiolein,are produced by Neochloris which is used in the diagnosis of fat
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malabsorption [76].
3.4. Industrial applications
3.4.1. Pharmaceuticals
Microalgae have received importance as a natural source of bioac-
tive molecules, since they can produce bioactive compounds thgrough
biological process, which are otherwise not easily synthesized by using
chemical methods. Microalgae could produce bioactive compounds
including algicides, antibiotics, toxins, plant growth regulators, and
pharmaceutically active compounds [77,78]. Several microalgae are
capable of producing chemically diverse type of antibiotics (alcohols,
bromophenols, fatty acids, polysaccharides, tannins, and terpenoids).
Similarly, microalgae also produce several hepatotoxic and neurotoxic
compounds. These compounds also have the potential applications in
pharmaceutical industry [79]. Ochromonassp, Prymnesiumparvum, and
many bluegreen algae are capable of producing toxins which can be
used in pharmaceutical industry [80]. The major microalgal species
used as human supplements are:Chlorella, Spirulina,and Scenedesmus.
Microalgae improve immune response, improve fertility, control
weight, improve skin and a lustrous coat [40]. However, extended
usage at high concentrations could be harmful [9] especially when
cyanobacteria are used.
3.4.2. Microalgae for aquaculture
Food chain is a major source of nutrients for aquaculture animals.
Microalgae are the primary producer in the food chain. Microalgae
have the nutrients which are essential for the growth and survival for
larva and adult animals. Microalgae play a vital role in the physiolo-
gical growth and external appearance of aquatic animals [81]. The most
widely used species for aquatic animal feed are Chlorella, Tetraselmis,
Isochrysis, Pavlova, Phaeodactylum, Chaetoceros, Nannochloropsis, Skele-
tonema, and Thalassiosira [37,44,82,83].
Until now, microalgae are successfully used as a food source and
feed additive for both freshwater and marine aquatic animals. In
aquaculture, microalgae are used for the coloring of farmed salmonids
[82], as fish feed [47], for stabilization, improvement of culture
medium quality [84], and inducing important biological activities in
red aquatic species [82], and for improving immune systems of fish
[40]. Microalgae are also utilized in culturing different types of zoo-
plankton such as brine shrimp, cladocerans, and rotifers which are used
as a food source in crustacean and finfish farming [27,47,83]. For larval
bivalves, Isochrysisgalbana and Tetraselmis suecica are the major source
of food. Drum fried Scenedesmus is used as a food source for Artemia
food and Chlorella species are used for the cultivation of rotifer Bra-
chionus plicatilis [27]. Similarly, Dunaliella salina, Spirulina,and Haema-
tococcus pluvialis are used as a source of natural pigments for culturing
salmonid fish, prawns,and ornamental fish. Substantial efforts have
been made to encourage the use of microalgae as a food source. How-
ever, high manufacturing costs and risk of toxicological contamination
became a hurdle in using microalgae for production of food products.
3.4.3. Animal feed (pets and farming)
Several studies have shown that microalgae can be used as a feed
supplement [35]. Arthrospira is used as a feed for a variety of animals,
for example, aquarium fish, breeding bulls, cows, cats, dogs, horses, and
ornamental birds. Algae have a positive impact on animals physiology
[81].
In poultry feed, 5–10% of microalgae can be used as a protein
source. However, feeding microalgae for a long time and at higher
concentrations will have adverse effects on poultry. The adverse effects
of microalgae are mostly on the color of broiler skin and shanks and egg
yolk [35]. Some microalgal species are specifically used as animal feed
supplements. Worldwide, 30% of the current algal production is used
for the production of animal feed [35] and more than 50% of Ar-
throspira is grown for the production of feed supplement [37].
M. Rizwan et al.
3.4.4. The role of microalgae as a biofertilizer
The biomass of microalgae can be converted to syngas, bio-oil, and
charcoal through pyrolysis at 350–700 °C in the absence of air [85].
Biochar is formed as a result of this process. The biochar can be used as
a biofertilizer and as a source of carbon sequestration [86]. It is also a
source of process fuel which can be used for bioenergy conversion. By
using biochar for carbon sequestration process, it can reduce carbon
dioxide emissions by 84%. This sequestration can result in the pro-
duction of carbon-negative biofuel [87].
Microalgae are used in agriculture as soil conditioners and as a
biofertilizer source. Blue-green algae can increase biomass yield, reduce
the use of fertilizer nitrogen, and improve soil physico-chemical prop-
erties. Similarly, microalgae can increase residual soil nitrogen and
carbon, improve pH and electrical conductivity of the soil.
Furthermore, microalgae can improve grain quality in terms of protein
content. Microalgae of following genera Aulosira, Anabaena, Nostoc, and
Tolypothrix can fix atmospheric nitrogen and are used for the growth of
paddy crop in upland and lowl and conditions. According to different
Algologists, the technology used for the production of microalgae is
quite simple in operation and easily adaptable. The technology gen-
erates additional income from the sale of algal biofertilizer.
Generally,four methods are used for algal production (a) pit method (b)
tank or trough method (c) nursery cum (d) field method. The former
two are mostly used for individual farming while latter two are used for
bulk production on a commercial scale.
3.5. Environmental applications
Microalgae are used in environmental biotechnology, for environ-
mental toxicants monitoring,bioremediation, and bioassay. The release
of contaminants in wastewater without sufficient treatment is a major
health issue. The use of high rate algae pond (HRAP) is considered to be
an efficient way to treat wastewater [88,89]. Furthermore, the biomass
that is generated in HRAP can be used as animal feed as well as for
biofuel production.
Spirulina platensis, grown in HRAP, eliminated 99% of phosphate
from the wastewater of anaerobically digested starch factory [90].
Chlorella vulgaris was successful in final polishing of textile wastewater
in HRAP [91]. Some studies have considered the use of mixed micro-
algae species for treating wastewater. A consortium of five microalgal
species in HRAP has shown the successful treatment of landfill leachate
[92]. The removal efficiency of environmental toxicants can be further
enhanced if immobilized microalgae are utilized [93]. It has been re-
ported that Chlorella vulgaris immobilized in alginate beads can be used
for the removal of color from textile dyes [94]. It was found that im-
mobilized Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus had shown effec-
tiveness in the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from domestic
wastewater operated in a semi-continuous mode [95]. Co-immobilized
microalgae and bacteria achieved more removal of ammonium, nitrate,
and phosphate from wastewater as compared to immobilized micro-
algae alone [96].
Microalgae are regularly used for the bioassays of environmental
pollutants. For example, Pseudo kirchneriella subcapitata, Dunailella ter-
tiolecta, Isochrysis galbana, Chlorela sp. are known microalgae for this
purpose [97,98]. Microalgae are also suitable to evaluate the presence
of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in freshwater ecosystems. In this
respect, three tropical microalgae Ankistrodemsus convolutes,Chlorella
vulgaris, and Scenedesmus quadricauda are the best examples [99].
3.5.1. Bio-mitigation of CO2 emission in algal cultivation
CO2 (a greenhouse gas) emission into the atmosphere due to com-
bustion of fossil fuels is a serious environmental issue. In this regard,
different techniques (such as filtration or other mechanical/chemical
methods) have been developed to sequester CO2. However, biological
method is considered as an alternative to diminish CO2 emission be-
cause. Microalgae are capable of fixing CO2 photosynthetically
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[28,100–104]. The use of microalgae to absorb CO2 as the exhaust gas
of power plants seems an effective strategy to avoid the release of
greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. If microalgae are used for biofuel
production, the generation of CO2 from the power plants could be ba-
lanced with the fixation of CO2 through photosynthetic process,
thereby, the net release of CO2 would be zero. However, it will depend
on the process being used in converting biomass to biofuel. Normally,
the higher the process is energy intensive, the greater amounts of CO2
would be generated over the fuel life cycle (fossil fuel combustion).
The capability of microalgae to tolerate high CO2 concentration in
feeding air streams is a major benefit of using microalgae for biofuel
production [105]. It allows an efficient capturing of CO2 content
(5–15%) from the flue and flaring gasses [106] than the terrestrial
plants which normally absorb 0.03–0.06% of CO2 only from the at-
mosphere. Therefore, the advantage of using microalgae is evident for
CO2 mitigation [107]. Microalgae are usually capable of assimilating
CO2 from the atmosphere, power plants, and soluble carbonates.
Many species of microalgae can absorb CO2 from soluble carbonates
(Na2CO3 and NaHCO3) [108]. It has been reported that algae Mono-
ruphidium minutum could produce a significant amount of biomass by
efficiently utilizing flue gas comprising high content of CO2 along with
sulfur and nitrogen oxides [109]. Chlorophyta, the green algae, have
shown 10–50 times better solar energy absorbing efficiency in addition
to CO2 fixation compared to that of terrestrial plants [108]. A marine
alga Chlorococcum littorale displayed a notable tolerance to high CO2
content of up to 40% [110]. There are also Chlorella strains from hot
springs which are tolerant to high CO2 concentration ( 40%) and a
temperature of 42 °C [111].
It has been observed that certain Chlorella species could grow in an
environment with CO2 up to 40% (v/v) [105]. According to Doucha
et al. [112], Chlorella sp. eliminated 10–50% CO2 level from flue gas,
and the efficiency of absorbing CO2 was decreased by more injection of
flue gas into microalgae culture. Spirulina sp. fixed 53.3% of CO2 for 6%
CO2 (v/v) and 45.6% for 12% CO2 (v/v) from the injected flue gas on
daily basis, showing the maximum average biofixation rate of 37.9% for
6% CO2(v/v) [113]. The two microalgae species, C. kessleri and S. ob-
liquus, can grow in the medium having up to 18% CO2 (v/v), and S.
obliquus showed 28.1% and 13.6% fixation rates for 6% and 12% CO2
(v/v), respectively [113]. Through co-firing coal and microalgae, the
potential advantages of recycling CO2 for microalgae biomass produc-
tion have been reported by Kadam [114] to diminish the environmental
impacts of power generation such as reductions in CO2, methane, SOx
and NOx particulates.
3.5.2. Combining wastewater treatment and microalgal growth
Microalgae can be used for domestic wastewater treatment. Small-
to-medium scale municipal wastewater treatment systems or matura-
tion ponds can be used for this purpose. One of the example of such
system is Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems (AIWPS)
Technology (Oswald and Green, LLC) [115].
Microalgae can be used for recycling of livestock wastes, as micro-
algal wastewater treatment is used after an initial treatment of high-
strength organic wastewater in anaerobic condition [116,117]. Gen-
erally, microbial composition of wastewater treatment ponds is not
specific. However, by using specific species which are capable of sedi-
mentation, flotation or flocculation can increase harvesting process,
which is one of the expensive steps.
Using microalgae for aquaculture systems and wastewater treatment
can be best option not only for bioremediation but also for microalgal
growth. Microalgae can use organic compounds such as nitrogen and
phosphorous which are usually present in manufactures wastewater. In
addition, microalgae can reduce the negative impact of sewage and
industrial wastewater containing nitrogenous waste which originates
from water treatment or fish aquaculture. Microalgae can also solve the
problem of eutrophication by removing nitrogen and phosphorus from
wastewater. Microalgae can be grown heterotrophically for treating
M. Rizwan et al.
wastewater of food industry which is a very promising way of growing
microalgae and for environmental cleaning [118]. The use of nutrients-
rich wastewater for microalgal growth and treatment of wastewater has
a great potential. This can result in the removal of organic con-
taminants, chemicals, heavy metals, and pathogens from the waste-
water and biofuel production [119].
Chlorella [120,121], Scenedesmus [122], and Spirulina species [123]
are most widely used microalgal species for nutrient removal. Similarly,
Nannochloris [124], Botryococcus braunii [125], and cyanobacterium
Phormidium bohneri [126,127] are also used for wastewater treatment.
According to Aslan and Kapdan, Chlorella vulgaris has an average re-
moval efficiency of 72% for nitrogen and 28% for phosphorus [128].
Microalgae can successfully remove heavy metals and pollutants
from the wastewater. Organic pollutants from paper and pulp industries
and olive oil industries can be treated by using Chlorella, Ankistrodesmus
or Scendesmus species [119]. However, during heterotrophic cultivation
of microalgae, bacteria can overgrow due to their high growth rate. In
order to overcome this issue, algae and bacteria can be combined to
form consortia which can be used for wastewaters. Microalgae can
produce photosynthetic oxygen which can reduce the need for external
aeration of the wastewater; this oxygen is used during anaerobic bio-
degradation of volatile contaminants must be biodegraded aero-
bically,but these volatile contaminants could not be evaporated as a
result of mechanical aeration [117,119]. The oxygen produced by mi-
croalgae can help bacteria during the degradation of hazardous organic
pollutants. Microalgal biomass which is produced during wastewater is
not used as human food or animal feed. However, it can be used for the
production of high-value chemicals. Most importantly, algal-bacterial
consortia can also be used for CO2 mitigation as well as biomethane
production.
Microalgae are used as an economical substance for heavy metal
bioremidiation. Brown algae are the most promising substrate for the
removal of heavy metal toxicity as they contain alginate and fucoidan.
Microalgae are also used for the removal of heavy metals from waste-
water [129,130].
3.5.3. Value-added by-products
Microalgae are also capable of producing various high-value che-
mical compounds, for example, antioxidants, pigments, fatty acids, β-
carotenes, polysaccharides, triglycerides, which are used in the pro-
duction of different industrial products such as biofuel, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and functional food industries.
Microalgae also produce agar, algal hydrocolloids alginate, and carra-
geenan which are generally used as a viscosity-modifying agent in
pharmaceutical and food industry [33]. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, for
example, arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), linolenic
acid, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are produced by marine mi-
croalgae [131,132]. These essential fatty acids are used for the treat-
ment of various diseases and as a source for human nutrition [133,134].
Several microalgal species can produce huge quantities of oils and fats
containing long-chain omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (LC-PUFA)
[135]. LC-PUFA are necessary to human health and nutrition and sev-
eral LC-PUFA are required for mental, physical,and visual development
in infants [136]. Presently, DHA is the only algal PUFA that is produced
at commercial scale; however, microalgal extracts can not be used for
commercial production of g-linolenic acid (GLA), EPA and AA against
other primary sources [9]. Microalgae can produce more than 40 types
of carotenoids and xanthophylls [137]. β-carotene is the most simple
carotenoid produced by all microalgal species and plants. Astaxanthin
is another type of carotenoid which is derived from microalgae. It is
used in agriculture, as animal nutrition, in cosmetic, pharmaceutical,
and nutraceuticals industries [138–141]. In microalgae like rhodo-
phytes (red algae),cyanobacteria, cryptophytes, and glaucophytes,
phycobiliproteins are present which are water-soluble photosynthetic
pigments. They are complex, water soluble, red or blue in color, and
proteinaceous in nature. They are used mainly as natural colorants for
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food, and also, in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. In mi-
croalgae, phycobiliproteins trap light energy in the range of 495–650
nm and transfer it to chla of the photosynthetic reaction centers. Allo-
phycocyanin, phycocyanin, and phycoerythrin are three main types of
phycobiliproteins. Environmental conditions like quality and intensity
of light can effect the contents of phycobiliproteins. For example, in
Spirulina platensis, phycocyanin contents may range from 0.11% to
12.7% dry weight depending on the light intensities [142]. Microalgae
also produce various types of sterols, for instance, clionasterolis pro-
duced by Spirulina sp. This sterol enhances the production of a plas-
minogen-activating factor in vascular endothelial cells and it also pro-
tects from cardiovascular diseases [33]. Several antioxidants such as
mycosporines or mycosporine-like amino acids and dimethylsulfonio-
propionate are also produced by microalgae. These antioxidants can
protect against various diseases, aging, and oxidative stress [118].
3.6. Use of microalgae for drug screening
Microalgae are one of the diverse groups of the microorganisms
which are present in a wide range of ecological environments. They are
the major source of bioactive compounds. Microalgae possess antiviral,
anticancer, anti-HIV, several neurological and antimicrobial activities
[143–147]. Microalgal species such as dinoflagellates and blue green
algae produce highly potent toxins [145]. Microcystins is an example of
these toxin. Blue-green algae produces a group of circular peptides
which have LD50 of 50 µg/kg [148]. Similarly, brevetoxins and sax-
itoxin are produced by dinoflagellates. These toxins have major effect
on humans and fish [149].
Microalgae are capable of producing many other bioactive com-
pounds [143,144,146]. An example is algal-sulfolipids which possess
anti-HIV activities in vitro [150]. A bioactive compound called cyano-
virin is also produced by blue-green alga Nostoc ellipsosporum [151]. It
is a low-molecular-weight protein which is produced by E. coli. It can
also deactivate HIV, without damaging the host cells [44].
The extracts of the growth media and cell extracts of many uni-
cellular microalgae Chlamydomonas pyrenoidosa and Chlorella vulgaris
possess antibacterial activity against both gram-negative and gram-
positive bacteria. Similarly, extracts of diatoms, green algae, and di-
noflagellates have antifungal activities. Experimental conditions like
pH, temperature incubation period, constituents of the medium,and
light intensity are the major factors which influence the production of
antimicrobial agent [152].
3.6.1. Antimicrobial agents
Several microalgal extracts and/or extracellular products possess
antimicrobial activities as they produce chemicals which are antifungal,
antibacterial, antiprotozoal, and antialgal in nature [153]. These anti-
microbial compounds can not only be used for the synthesis of new
antibiotics but can also be used in agriculture. For example, Tolypothrix
tjipanensis produces tjipanazoles, which are indole(2,3-a) carbazoles;
these are similar to those produced by actinomycetes and slime molds,
but they are lacking pyrrole (3,4-c) ring [154]. Although, tjipanazole is
less cytotoxicity against Candida albicans; however, t jipanazole Al and
A2 are antifungal in nature as they are used in case of rice blast and
wheat leaf rust infections.
Microalgal toxins can be used in environmental management. For
instance, Scytonemahofmanni produce sy-lactone which is an algacides
[155], similarly, fischerellinis produced by Fischerella muscicola [156]
and Oscillatoria sp. produce an unidentified extracellular product
[157,158] all of these can be used for controlling algal blooms. Simi-
larly, Cyanobacteria possess herbicidal activities [155].
As mentioned earlier, the microalgal cell possess a antibacterial
activity against both gram-positive as well as gram-negative bacteria.
Green algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates also have antifungal activ-
ities. Microalgal toxins are produced by blue-green algae, Ochromonas
sp., and Prymnesium parvum which are used in pharmaceutical products
M. Rizwan et al.
[80,159]. Similarly, different strains of cyanobacteria produce intra and
extracellular metabolites which are antifungal, antialgal, antiviral,and
antibacterial in nature. The production of antimicrobial agents is af-
fected by incubation temperature, pH of the culture medium, time of
incubation, the composition of medium and light intensity [152].
3.6.2. Antiviral activity of microalgae
The potential of microalgae as anantiviral agent is not yet fully
discovered. However, few studies had shown the antiviral potential of
microalgae. For example, cyanobacteria had inhibited antirespiratory
syncytia virus, HSV-2, and HIV-1 infection [160]. Cyanobacteria also
produced a novel compound called cyanovirin-N which is a potential
virucidal agent against HIV, as it blocked the interaction between viral
glycoprotein gp120 and CD4 [161].
According to Rinehart et al. [162], over 5% extracts of cyano-
bacteria have antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus type II,-
while less than 5% of the extract has activity against respiratory syn-
cytial virus. Similarly, Lau et al. [163] had shown that cyanobacteria
inhibited human immune deficiency virus type 1 and reverse tran-
scription in avian myeloblastosis virus. Anti-AIDS sulfolipidactive
compounds are not yet identified [164].
Spirulina platensis produces sulfated polysaccharide calcium spirulan
which has antiviral activity. They inhibit the entry of enveloped viruses
for example measles virus, Herpes simplex, and human cytomegalo
viruses into the cell [165,166]. Similarly, red algae like Porphyridium
also produce sulfated polysaccharide which inhibits the adsorption of
HSV-1, HSV-2, and Varicella zoster viruses [167].
3.6.3. Anticancer activity of microalgae
Microalgal bioactive compounds possess anticancer activities.
According to Patterson et al., cyanobacteria isolated from several en-
vironments possess antineoplastic activities [164]. For instance, Poter-
iochromonas malhamensis produces chlorosulfo lipid which inhibits the
activity of tyrosine kinase. Similarly, cyanobacteria produce bioactive
compounds which have anti-cancer activities these compounds induces
apoptotic death, or they affect cell signaling by activating signaling
enzymes of protein kinase C family [168].
Scytonema pseudo hofmanni produce polyketide-derived macrolides
scytophycins which inhibit various mammalian cells, including the
epidermoid carcinoma cells [169]. These compounds can protect from
lung carcinoma as well as intraperitoneally implanted lymphocytic
leukaemia [170]. Scytonemapseudo hofmanni also produced anticancer
compounds such as toyocamycin, tubericidin [169,171] and scyto-
phycin B. Another microalgae is Nostoc ATCC 53789, which produced a
metabolite called cryptophycin, which is effective against cancer cells
[143]. Similarly, Stigonema produced a protein called scytonemin which
is antiproliferative, antiinflammatory as well as serine/threonine kinase
inhibitor [172]. Tolypothrix conglutinate var. colorata and S. mirabile
produced scytophycin, tolytoxin [173,174] while Nostoc produce din-
docarbazoles [175]. Oscillatoria acutissima produced a macrolides called
acutiphycins which had activity against murine and Lewis lung carci-
noma [176]. Amphidinium sp. also produced macrolides called amphi-
dinolide-A which is antitumourin nature [177].
4. Future perspective
Microalgal biofuel production can become economical by supple-
menting it with high-value co-product strategy. Future development in
production technologies and market conditions of microalgal biofuel
can make biofuel production economically feasible [179]. Microalgal
lipids can be potentially converted into biofuel while microalgal bio-
mass can be used for the production of valuable products such as car-
bohydrates, pigments,polyunsaturated fatty acid, and proteins, all these
products can be refined for several applications [180]. Therefore, mi-
croalgae are an important source of biofuels and bio-based chemicals.
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4.1. Challenges
Efforts are required to solve the problems facing microalgae-based
biorefinery technologies. Some of the most important challenges are:
• High installation and operation costs.
• Controlling the culture conditions.
• Microbial contamination of medium.
• Unbalanced supply of light and weather conditions.
4.2. Possible solutions
Different strategies can help incoping with current challenges.
• Isolation and selection of microalgae/cyanobacteria strains based on
the desired products, which can tolerate temperature stress, and can
grow easily in the culture medium.
• Selection of favorable culture conditions can improve the pro-
ductivity of desired product and use of efficient and economically
feasible microalgae cultivation system can improve biomass pro-
ductivity [181].
• Development of highly efficient and low-cost downstream process
which can reduce the operational cost significantly.
• Microalgal farming facility should be designed capable of CO2 mi-
tigation and wastewater treatment.
• Separation of bioreactive compounds from harvested microalgal
biomass.
• Use of thermal processes such as gasification or liquefaction and
pyrolysis for the extraction of high-value chemicals from the re-
sulting vapor, solid or liquid phase and refining biofuels for different
applications.
5. Conclusions
Large scale applications of microalgae can not be deemed unless
improving their biomass yield or coupling with other technologies.
Microalgae offer interesting features to qualify them as alternative
feedstocks for various bio-refinery applications. Microalgae have un-
ique abilities to utilize them for environmental and industrial applica-
tions. Microalgae can be used as feed for animal and aquaculture, fer-
tilizers, medicine, cosmetic products. However, it demands researchers
to focus on to co-processing of microalgae. A consolidated bio-refinery
approach may be adopted to improve the utility of microalgae biomass.
This paradigm shift of research interest demands to provide logistics,
establishing new research facilities, and develop required infra-
structure. Systematic research should be carried to assess microalgae
potential as a promising biotechnology feedstock. Techno-economic
analysis and life cycle assessment studies should be performed to vali-
date economic viability and environmental sustainability of co-pro-
cessing models.
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