Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243

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Geoderma
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Changes in composition and functional soil properties in long-term no-till T

integrated crop-livestock system
⁎
Jordano Vaz Ambusa, José Miguel Reicherta, , Paulo Ivonir Gubiania,
Paulo César de Faccio Carvalhob
a
Soils Department, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
b
Department of Animal Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 91540-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Integrated Crop-Livestock Systems (ICLS) are an important alternative to winter fallow and increase the sus-
Soil structural strength tainability of production systems, by combining agricultural with livestock production. The hypothesis of this
Permeability study was that load applied by animals in moderate grazing does not promote further soil structural degradation.
Dynamic loading The objective of this study was to demonstrate changes in soil structure, mechanical behavior, and water and air
Surface compaction
permeability caused by different intensities of grazing in ICLS. The experiment consisted of a 15-years old ICLS,
Crops-pasture
managed with soybean Glycine max in the summer and black oat Avena strigosa + ryegrass Lolium multiflorum in
winter with continuous grazing by beef cattle. The treatments consisted of different grazing intensities de-
termined by sward height, namely 0.10 m (heavy grazing) and 0.30 m (moderate grazing), and a control
(without grazing), in an experimental design of randomized blocks with three replications. Undisturbed soil
samples were collected in core samplers in the 0–0.05, 0.05–0.10, and 0.10–0.20 m soil layers, in two evaluation
times: (i) post soybean (immediately after soybean harvest, and before pasture sowing or animal grazing), and
(ii) after grazing (immediately after withdrawing the animals from the area and before soybean sowing), re-
spectively in April and November 2015. Soil bulk density, macroporosity, microporosity, air permeability, sa-
turated hydraulic conductivity, precompression stress, compressibility coefficient, decompression coefficient,
and cyclic compressibility index were determined. The results indicate grazing increases the compaction state of
the soil surface mainly in the post grazing period by the direct effect of animal treading. However, there is a
mitigation effect during the soybean cycle, evidencing the soil's regeneration capacity in ICLS, provided by
intense biological activity, wetting-drying cycles, and decomposition of pasture roots that regenerate soil
structure. Moderate grazing is a better option than intense grazing, but without soil improvements when
compared to the non-grazed system.

1. Introduction
Integrated Crop-Livestock Systems (ICLS) in the Brazilian subtropics
are generally characterized by summer crops consisting of grains such
as soybeans (Glycine max), corn (Zea mays) and rice (Oryza sativa),
followed by the establishment of pastures with cold-season grasses,
such as black oats (Avena strigosa) and ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum)
intended for animal grazing (Moraes et al., 2014).
The ICLS are on the rise in recent years to diversify (Ternoski,
2014), intensify production (FAO, 2015), substitute winter fallow
(Denardin et al., 2001), conserve soil and land (Albuquerque et al.,
2002; Cardozo et al., 2012), and improve soil quality (Hebb et al.,
2017). When properly managed, this system generates improvements in
soil chemical, physical and microbiological properties (Carvalho et al.,
2015).
Root growth in ICLS is stimulated by the presence of animals, by
cutting and inducing new meristems (Anghinoni et al., 2013; Embrapa,
2014), with greater root density and biomass in grazing areas (Larreguy
et al., 2014), where the grass rooting system acts directly on soil
structuring. Conte et al. (2011) observed that increased grass root
density in ICLS improves soil aggregation. Rotating pasture with soy-
bean increased soil aggregation compared to annual crops, due to
carbon input to the soil, especially by roots (Wohlenberg et al., 2004;
Salton et al., 2008) that can exceed the contribution of the aerial part by
1.5 times (Balesdent and Balabane, 1996), and also because of more
recalcitrant organic compounds in roots compared to canopy (de
Neergaard et al., 2002).
Low-intensity grazing systems may have soil physical properties

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: reichert@ufsm.br (J.M. Reichert), paulocfc@ufrgs.br (P.C. de Faccio Carvalho).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.06.005
Received 5 December 2017; Received in revised form 15 March 2018; Accepted 8 June 2018
Available online 18 June 2018
0016-7061/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.V. Ambus et al.
similar to non-grazed areas (Veiga et al., 2012), but without affecting
the productivity of summer crops (Cecagno et al., 2016). Root growth
alters soil structure and, after decomposition of the roots, the pre-
viously-occupied pores are unrestricted, improving soil permeability to
water and air (Zúñiga et al., 2015). The ICLS provide permanent cov-
erage and active rooting system compared to winter fallow, with high
rates of organic material addition to the soil, contributing to reduce soil
compression since surface residues attenuate the effect of surface-ap-
plied stresses (Braida et al., 2006; Reichert et al., 2016a, 2016b).
Excessive animal trampling deforms soil structure because of the
pressure applied by animal hooves, potentially increasing soil bulk
density and causing impediment to root growth mainly in surface soil
layers (Moreira et al., 2012). Furthermore, soil compaction caused by
cattle trampling in ICLS may result in negative changes in soil flow
properties, such as hydraulic conductivity and air permeability
(Krümmelbein et al., 2008; Collares et al., 2011).
Soil susceptibility to deformation under integrated systems depends
on several factors, such as soil type, initial compression state, and water
content (An et al., 2015). Soil deformation process in the field consists
of rapid loading and unloading cycles, whether by farm machine traffic
or animal treading, making the load-deformation relationship a very-
dynamic process (Mordhorst et al., 2012). Increased animal stocking
causes less pasture availability, and thus animals must move more
within the field during grazing (Baggio et al., 2009). One strategy of
obtaining results closer to field conditions is evaluating soil deforma-
tion by dynamic compressibility tests, where deformation cycles are
tested and soil elasticity index is determined (Peth et al., 2010). Al-
though recent studies highlighted that elasticity indexes (Gubiani et al.,
2018) and precompression stress (Keller et al., 2011; Dastjerdi and
Hemmat, 2015; Somavilla et al., 2017; Gubiani et al., 2018) fail to
access soil elasticity and soil bearing capacity, respectively, the de-
termination of both allow verifying their utility as a mathematical index
for evaluating soil physical quality in ICLS.
The hypothesis of this study was: load applied by animals in mod-
erate grazing does not promote further soil structural degradation. The
objective of this study was to demonstrate changes in soil structure,
mechanical behavior, and water and air permeability caused by dif-
ferent intensities of grazing in ICLS.
2. Methodology
2.1. Experiment conditions and soil sampling
The experimental area is located in the physiographic region of the
“Planalto Central” of Rio Grande do Sul state, southern Brazil
(29°03′10″ S, 53°50′44″ W). Altitude of the site is 465 m, and climate is
characterized as mesothermal humid with mild summers, type Cfb ac-
cording to the Köppen classification (Kottek et al., 2006), with average
annual temperature of 19 °C and average annual precipitation of
1.850 mm (Cemetrs, 2015). The soil is classified as Rhodic Hapludox
with a very-clayey texture (540, 190 and 270 g kg−1 of clay, silt and
sand, respectively). Since 2001, the site has been managed under ICLS,
with black oats Avena strigosa + ryegrass Lolium multiflorum in the fall/
winter period, and soybean Glycine max in the spring/summer period.
The treatments consisted of different grazing intensities character-
ized by pasture height management, arranged in a randomized com-
plete block design with three replicates, namely intense grazing (0.10 m
of pasture height), moderate grazing (0.30 m pasture height), and non-
grazed (control).
The adopted grazing method was the continuous variable stocking,
with neutered male steers (crossbred Angus, Hereford and Nellore)
about 12-months old, approximately 200 kg (minimum of three steers
per area, with one more test steers if needed to keep pasture height).
That is, the number of animals normally does not vary, but the areas are
of different sizes: the smaller the area, the greater the animal stocking
per unit area. Over the experimental period of 15 years, the steers
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Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243
started grazing in the first half of July when the forage height reached
approximately 20 cm (1.5 mg of dry matter ha−1). Grazing extended
until the first half of November, totaling 120 grazing days on average.
Pasture height was controlled every 14 days by the sward stick method
(Barthram, 1986). After the animals are removed from the field, the
pasture is desiccated with herbicide to sow soybeans in no-tillage
system in November/December, and this crop is harvested in April/May
next year, constituting a pasture-soybean succession system.
For this study, undisturbed soil samples were collected in the center
of the 0–0.05, 0.05–0.10 and 0.10–0.20 m soil layers, in two evaluation
times: (i) post soybean (immediately after soybean harvest, and before
pasture sowing or animal grazing), and (ii) after grazing (immediately
after withdrawing the animals from the area and before soybean
sowing), respectively in April and November 2015. Since the system is a
pasture-soybean succession, time (i) was 5 months apart from the last
grazing cycle in November 2014, and time (ii) was 7 months after the
last soybean harvest in April 2015.
Furthermore, cylindrical samples of 0.057 m of diameter and 0.04 m
of height were used for the determination of soil bulk density (Bd),
microporosity (Mi), macroporosity (Ma), air permeability (Ka), and
saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks); and cylindrical samples of 0.10 m
of diameter and 0.03 m of height were collected for the precompression
stress (σp), compressibility coefficient (Cc), decompression coefficient
(Dc), and cyclic compressibility index (Cn) analyses.
Soil properties were classified into two categories: composition and
functional soil properties (Reichert et al., 2016a, 2016b, 2017, 2018;
Holthusen et al., 2018), where the former are related to the composition
of a soil volume, disregarding the internal organization, and the latter
express the internal organization and soil functionality with greater
variation in time and space.
2.2. Soil composition properties
The undisturbed soil samples were capillary-saturated for 48 h, and
then water retention was determined at −6 and −10 kPa tension (Wt)
in a sand column (Reinert and Reichert, 2006), whereas soil Wt at
−100 kPa was determined in a pressure chamber (Klute, 1986). Finally,
the samples were oven-dried at 105 °C for 48 h for density and porosity
calculations.
Soil bulk density (Bd) (g cm−3) was calculated by the ratio of dry
soil mass to total sample volume, whereas microposity (Mi) (cm3 cm−3)
was determined as the volumetric content of water at −6 kPa Wt. Total
porosity (Tp) (cm3 cm−3) is relationship between and Bd and particle
density (Pd) (g cm−3) determined by the volumetric flask method
(Embrapa, 1997). Soil macroporosity (Ma) (cm3 cm−3) was calculated
by the difference between Tp and Mi.
2.3. Soil functional properties
Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) (mm h−1) was de-
termined using a falling-head permeameter (Hartge and Horn, 2009;
Gubiani et al., 2010).
Soil air permeability (Ka) (μm2) was determined with a constant-
head permeameter at −6, −10 and −100 kPa Wt. The method quan-
tifies air flowing through the soil sample, while maintaining a constant
and low-pressure gradient (0.1 kPa) to avoid turbulent flow. The
methodology and equipment were adapted from Vossbrink (2005).
From air conductivity, Ka was calculated using the equation:
Ka = Kl ( η / ρl g )
where Kl is air conductivity (cm s−1), η is viscosity of air (g s−1 cm−1), ρl
is air density at the moment of measurement (kg m−3), and g is accel-
eration of gravity (9.81 m s−2).
For precompression stress (σp), compressibility coefficient (Cc),
decompression coefficient (Dc), and cyclic compressibility index (Cn)
determinations, the soil samples were saturated and then equilibrated
J.V. Ambus et al.
Fig. 1. Applied pressure on the soil sample during the compression test.
at −10 kPa Wt, which corresponds to water content near field capacity
for this soil. The samples were then submitted to uniaxial compression
at 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 kPa loads in an automatic
consolidometer. The test was performed in three sequential stages
(Fig. 1):
(i) loads from 12.5 to 100 kPa followed static loading, maintaining
each load for 0.17 h (10 min);
(ii) in an attempt to simulate animal trampling, which is in the range
of 130 to 250 kPa (Scholefield and Hall, 1986), using 200-kPa load,
fifty cycles of dynamic loading (compression/decompression) were
done, each cycle consisting of a loading duration of 0.01 h (36 s)
and unloading of 0.01 h (36 s);
(iii) static loading with loads of 400 and 800 kPa, each for a duration of
0.17 h (10 min).
We chose to use only one set of samples for the static and cyclic
tests, aiming to optimize the analysis time and the number of samples
used. However, the loading time in relation to the sample deformation
follows a different pattern; that is, for the same load (kPa) when the
sample is compressed in cycles, a longer time is needed to reach the
maximum deformation and may affect σp values (Krümmelbein et al.,
2008). In order for the sample to reach maximum deformation, we
defined a minimum number of 50 loading/unloading cycles, allowing
for σp determination with the deformation value at 200 kPa in the 50th
cycle.
Data of load, deformation, and soil matric potential (Ψm) as a
function of time were automatically stored during the laboratory trials.
At the end of the compressibility test, the soil samples were oven-dried
to 105 °C for 48 h to obtain the dry-soil mass.
The σp was calculated according to Casagrande (1936), mathema-
tically operationalized with the equation of van Genuchten (1980), as
proposed by Baumgartl and Köck (2004) (Eq. (1)).
ε = ε0 + (ε0 −εf )[1 + (ασ )n]m
(1)
−3
where ε0 (m m ) is the void rate of the sample without load appli-
3
cation; εf (m3 m−3) is the final void rate of the sample, for which
Baumgartl and Köck (2004) suggested the value of 0.27, but in this
study the εf was not fixed and was estimated as an adjustment para-
meter; α (kPa−1); n and m are parameters of adjustment, imposing the
restriction m = 1–1/n.
The Soil Compression Curve (SCC) Excel® Add-in developed by
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Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243
Gubiani et al. (2017) was used for fitting (Eq. (1)) and calculating σp. In
the fitting routine, SCC also converts the ε-σ relationship to the ε-log10σ
relationship, which is the classic CC shape (ε-log10σ CC). From the
log10σ, precompression stress (σp) was determined as the σ of the in-
tersection point of the VCL (defined as the tangent line at the inflexion
point) and the bisector between the horizontal and tangent lines
through the point of maximum curvature. The point of maximum cur-
vature was defined as the σ corresponding to the root of the third de-
rivate of the CC ε-log10σ, numerically determined using the bisection
root-finding method.
Soil elasticity was expressed by the decompression coefficient (Dc),
which corresponds to the slope of the unloading/loading line. For each
cycle of unloading/loading, a Dc value was generated and the mean of
these values was used for the comparison test. Soil Cn was expressed as
the slope of the line formed between the final void ratio of each cycle as
a function of the logarithm of the number of cycles (Peth and Horn,
2006).
2.4. Statistical analysis
The resulting data were initially submitted to normal distribution
analysis (Shapiro-Wilk test) and analysis of homogeneity of variance
(Bartlett test). The effect of different levels of grazing and of the sam-
pling times on soil composition and functional properties was evaluated
by analysis of variance and, when the F test was significant, the means
were compared by the Tukey test at 5% of probability error, by using
the statistical environment R.
3. Results
3.1. Composition properties
Soil bulk density (Bd) for the post soybean and after grazing con-
ditions differed only in the surface layer (0–0.05 m), where intense
grazing (0.10 m) had the highest Bd, followed by moderate grazing
(0.30 m) and non-grazed (ng), whereas no difference between the eva-
luation times was observed (Fig. 2A and B).
Soil macroporosity (Ma) differed between the grazing intensities for
both evaluation times, only in the surface layer, where the treatment ng
had higher Ma than the others, and the post soybean cycle had higher
Ma than after grazing, in the 0.0–0.05 and 0.05–0.10 m soil layers
(Fig. 3A and B). Soil microporosity (Mi) differed in the first two layers
J.V. Ambus et al. Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243

Fig. 2. Bulk density for post soybean cycle (A) and post grazing (B), for three soil layers, for the intensities of grazing 0.10 m (white), 0.30 m (light gray) and non-
grazed (dark gray).
Means followed by same letter (comparing grazing intensities) or by asterisk (comparing evaluation times) do not differ (Tukey α = 0.05).

in both evaluation times, 0.0–0.05 m ng had higher Mi than 0.10 m and then, continued decreasing at rates lower than in the test beginning.
the 0.30 m did not differ from the others, 0.05–0.10 m ng and 0.30 m The non-grazed field had higher Dc than grazed area for post grazing,
had higher Mi than 0.10 m, and the after grazing had higher Mi than but the reduction after the first cycles was greater in non-grazed con-
post soybean, for all soil layers (Fig. 3C and D). dition.
The variation in soil matric potential (Ψm) during loading and un-
loading cycles, for the two sampling times, is also shown in Fig. 7 for
3.2. Functional properties
the surface most soil layer. Soil Ψm increased after the first cycles and
later gradually reduced. For post grazing, soil Ψm was higher than for
Soil precompression stress (σp) in post soybean differed among
the post soybean period, being greatest in the intense grazing condi-
grazing intensities only in the topsoil, ng had higher σp than 0.30 m and
tions, followed by moderate grazing and non-grazed.
the 0.10 m did not differ from the others, and after grazing σp was si-
Soil air permeability (Ka) for post soybean cycle differed among
milar in all studied soil layers. Between the evaluation times, in general
grazing intensities in the surface most soil layer in all Wt tested (Fig. 8A,
σp for post soybean cycle was higher than for after grazing, but in the
C and E) and in the 0.05–0.10 m layer for samples of −100 kPa Wt
0.0–0.05 m layer for the 0.30 m grazing there was no difference in σp
(Fig. 8E). Non-grazed condition had higher Ka than the intense grazing,
(Fig. 4A and B).
and for −6 kPa Wt the moderate grazing is considered equal to the non-
In both evaluation times, there was a significant difference among
grazed. For the post grazing period, the differences in Ka follow the
grazing intensities for soil compressibility coefficient (Cc) only in the
same pattern as for post soybean, and the intense grazing in topsoil with
surface soil layer, where the highest grazing intensity resulted in the
value zero for all water tensions (Fig. 8B, D and F). In the 0.05–0.10 m
lowest Cc, while non-grazed has the highest Cc; between the evalua-
layer for −6 kPa and −10 kPa Wt, all grazing intensities had soil Ka
tions, post soybean had higher Cc only in the surface, and in the other
equal to zero (no air flow). The post soybean cycle had Ka higher than
layers there was no difference (Fig. 4C and D).
the post grazing period for −6 kPa and −10 kPa Wt in all layers and
Soil decompression coefficient (Dc) differed among grazing in-
treatments, and for Wt − 100 kPa in 0.10–0.20 m layer (Fig. 8A, C and
tensities in the first soil layer for post grazing. Intense and moderate
E).
grazing had reduced soil Dc, and the highest Dc was observed in non-
Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) was not affected, in any of
grazed condition (Fig. 5B). Between evaluation times, there were dif-
the evaluated soil layers, by grazing in the post soybean cycle (Fig. 9A),
ferences for intense grazing in the top layer and for all grazing in-
whereas in the post grazing conditions the increased grazing intensity
tensities at the 0.10–0.20 m layer, where the after grazing period had
decreased Ks in the surface most soil layer. The descending order in Ks
the highest Dc (Fig. 5A and B).
was non-grazed, moderate grazing, and intense grazing. In the deepest
Soil cyclic compressibility index (Cn) was not significantly affected
layer, the highest Ks corresponded to moderate grazing, and the lowest
by grazing intensity, evaluation time and soil layer (Fig. 5C and D).
to non-grazed (Fig. 9B). The post soybean had higher Ks than the post
However, not only the average Cn value should be considered, but ra-
grazing for intense grazing treatment in all soil layers, moderate grazing
ther the behavior of this variable over the cycles; therefore, the lines
in 0.05–0.10 m and non-grazing for two deeper layers (Fig. 9A). How-
describing the behavior of soil Cn along the cycles for the soil surface
ever, in topsoil for non-grazing the post grazing period showed higher
layer are shown in Fig. 6, where for similar line-slopes initial void ratios
Ks than the post soybean cycle (Fig. 9B).
(e) are different, and with decreasing e with increased grazing intensity:
ng > 0.30 m > 0.10 m.
Fig. 7 shows soil Dc with dynamic loading, in the surface most layer
where there was greater influence of trampling, in soybean cycle and
post grazing. In the first cycles, there was a marked reduction in Dc and,

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Fig. 3. Macroporosity for post soybean cycle (A) and post grazing (B), and microporosity for post soybean cycle (C) and post grazing (D), for three soil layers, for the
intensities of grazing 0.10 m (white), 0.30 m (light gray) and non-grazed (dark gray).
Means followed by same letter (comparing grazing intensities) or by asterisk (comparing evaluation times) do not differ (Tukey α = 0.05).
4. Discussion
4.1. Composition properties
Composition soil properties indicate there were negative effects of
grazing with high stocking in the post grazing period, with augmented
compaction from animal trampling. The pressure applied by animal
trampling caused increased soil bulk density and reduced porous space,
especially macroporosity, in a study by Moreira et al. (2014). However,
these negative effects were evident only near the soil surface, the layer
where the greatest changes in soil physical properties usually occur in
ICLS (Bell et al., 2011).
For similar conditions of soil resistance, stresses due to animal
trampling are transmitted less deeply in the soil, possibly because of the
small diameter and width of the animal's hooves, since for a given
pressure the smaller the contact area, the lower the load transmission in
depth (Lamande and Schjønning, 2011). The contact pressure of the
animal hooves varies within 112 e 165 kPa (Watkin and Clements,
1978) or 130 to 250 kPa (Scholefield and Hall, 1986) depending on
animal weight, which is higher compared to farm machinery
(Carpenedo, 1994) where a 4.5ton-tractot of 75 cv applies about 55 kPa
averaging front and rear axles (Cortez et al., 2014), i.e., about three
times greater contact pressures by cattle than by small tractors. Mulch
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Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243
and root biomass, furthermore, form a barrier that dampens the impact
of animal trampling, thus confining structural changes only to the
topsoil (Franzluebbers and Stuedemann, 2008).
In the post soybean cycle, soil physical conditions improvement,
mainly in porosity, indicates the negative effect on soil composition
properties in ICLS is of low persistence; that is, negative effects do not
remain from one cropping cycle to another, as observed elsewhere (e.g.
Fernández et al., 2015; Veiga et al., 2016), where the soil tends to
naturally regenerate even after only one period without presence of
animals (Drewry, 2006).
Evaluating the evolution of soil physical properties in ICLS over
several years, Conte et al. (2011) observed no negative effect of grazing
on soil composition properties, demonstrating that the soil is capable of
restoration. Regeneration of the soil system depends on several factors,
such as type of soil, anthropic (management) and biological conditions.
Clay soils, such as in our study area, have greater self-regulatory ca-
pacity (Vezzani and Mielniczuk, 2011), with greater sensitivity to
wetting and drying cycles and greater capacity to increase soil organic
carbon (Taboada et al., 2004), improving the ability to withstand and
recover from the negative effects of grazing.
Soil under ICLS, besides the factors already mentioned, regenerates
both by the mechanical action of roots and by addition of biomass and
root exudation, which positively stimulate rhizosphere organisms and
J.V. Ambus et al. Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243

Fig. 4. Precompression stress for post soybean cycle (A) and post grazing (B), and compressibility coefficient for post soybean cycle (C) and post grazing (D), for three
soil layers, for the intensities of grazing: 0.10 m (white), 0.30 m (light gray) and non-grazed (dark gray).
Means followed by same letter (comparing grazing intensities) or by asterisk (comparing evaluation times) do not differ (Tukey α = 0.05).

affects residue decomposition dynamics (Yu et al., 2017). Furthermore,
grazing stimulates plant root development resulting from the induction
of new tillers (Anghinoni et al., 2013).
Soil recovery is not complete since differences among grazing in-
tensities persist. However, the values found in moderately grazed sites,
being intermediate or even equal to the non-grazed condition, indicate
moderate grazing intensity has little effect on composition properties,
different from the effect of intense grazing.
4.2. Functional properties
Soil precompression stress, compression index, and elasticity are
mechanical properties that represent soil behavior under external loads,
such as agricultural machinery traffic and animal treading (Suzuki
et al., 2008; Braida et al., 2010; Reichert et al., 2018). Soil pre-
compression stress (σp) is a parameter that expresses the soil's ability to
withstand applied loads without irreversibly deforming, and varies with
the state of compaction, structural strength, and water content of the
soil (Silva et al., 2002; Braga et al., 2015; Reichert et al., 2018).
For topsoil in post grazing period, similar σp for all grazing in-
tensities for different Bd indicate the state of compaction is not the
same. In non-grazing condition, equal σp expresses similar soil struc-
tural resistance in all grazing intensities, although Bd was lower in non-
grazing condition. This fact results from the high addition of organic
material in these sites, improving soil structure in layers closer to the
surface and reducing the impact of applied loads (Braida et al., 2006;
Reichert et al., 2016a, 2016b, 2018). Thus, even soil without grazing
with lower Bd has a resistant soil structure and high σp indicates good
soil physical quality.
For sites under grazing, by contrast, soil e is lower, which results
from animal trampling that reduces the soil porous space, and this
higher state of compaction causes greater cohesion between soil parti-
cles and soil σp be greater and similar among grazing intensities (Neiva
Júnior et al., 2015); that is, soil under grazing is increasingly com-
pressed by frequent trampling. In this case, the higher soil σp in post
soybean cycle indicates poor soil physical quality. Moderate grazing did
not change σp between the seasons, indicating soil structural stability
over time.
If soil σp can be high in both good and poor soil structural condition,
then the σp is a confusing mathematical index for evaluating soil phy-
sical quality. This finding add another problem on σp, which already
faces serious doubts regarding its correspondence to the soil load
bearing capacity (Keller et al., 2011; Dastjerdi and Hemmat, 2015;
Somavilla et al., 2017).
Soil compression index (Cc) indicates the intensity with which the
soil deforms after surpassing the σp value, and usually varies with the

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Fig. 5. Decompression coefficient average 50 loading/unloading cycles, for post soybean cycle (A) and post grazing (B), and cyclic compressibility index for post
soybean cycle (C) and post grazing (D), for three soil layers, for the intensities of grazing 0.10 m (White), 0.30 m (light gray) and non-grazed (dark gray).
Means followed by same letter (comparing grazing intensities) or by asterisk (comparing evaluation times) do not differ (Tukey α = 0.05).

Fig. 6. Void ratio as a function of the log of the number of loading/unloading cycles, for post soybean cycle (A) and post grazing (B).

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J.V. Ambus et al.
Fig. 7. Variation in decompression coefficient and in soil matrix potential in the center of the samples in function of loading/unloading cycles, in the layer of
0–0.05 m for post soybeans period (A, C) and after grazing (B, D) for the intensities of grazing 0.10 m, 0.30 m, and non-grazed.
soil state of compaction and structural strength (Vogelmann et al.,
2012). In our study, areas without grazing had higher Cc resulting from
higher porosity, which directly influences the ability of the soil to de-
form when loaded. If there is free pore space for deformation, the re-
sponse to loads tends to be more intense. The trampled sites have less
pore space and consequently lower Cc, whereas the higher Cc found in
post soybean cycle corroborates with porosity recovery previously
discussed.
The grazing intensities predominantly did not affect soil decom-
pression coefficient (Dc) in any of the evaluated periods, which allows
assuming grazing does not affect soil elasticity. However, Dc is affected
by changes in properties affected by soil and crop management, as soil
organic matter, compaction state, and water content (Braida et al.,
2008; Reichert et al., 2018). As the compaction state was different for
the grazing intensities, Dc also should be different, because a compacted
soil tends to deform less and rebound less, and a well-structured soil to
deform more and rebound more, making Dc greater (the slop of re-
compression and rebound line) in the well-structured soil. These results
are not surprising in light of Gubiani et al. (2018) stating soil Dc is not a
trustworthy index to indicate the soil's ability to recover after a com-
pression/decompression event. Nonetheless, as a mathematic index Dc
can be related to some properties that affect the semi-log shape of the
recompression and rebound line.
For post grazing period, the increase in Dc for non-grazed sites
239
Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243
results from the high amount of decomposing surface biomass, and
improved soil structuring by living organisms, since there is no dis-
turbance to the system in these areas (Souza et al., 2010). Although the
soil was in a higher compaction state in post grazing period, which
could decrease soil Dc, the similarity in Dc in grazed sites in the two
evaluation times is because the soil has more winter-grasses root bio-
mass in the post grazing than in the post soybean condition (Souza
et al., 2008). This greater root biomass precludes soil elasticity from
decreasing, and may even increase elasticity because of the greater
organic material (Capurro et al., 2014). The effect of roots can be
perceived in the post grazing in the deepest layer, where this season
was superior to post soybean in all grazing intensities, and in the sur-
face layer for intense grazing where roots concentrate in upper soil
layers.
When the soil is compressed, Dc decreases and Ψm increases. This
behavior is caused by the rapid water exclusion and redistribution in
soil pores and by the reduction in soil volume, increasing the volu-
metric water content and reducing Dc because of the lower friction
between soil particles. However, as the cycles progress, the relationship
between these variables becomes direct, that is, both decrease. In a
loading/unloading cycle, water that was previously expelled starts to
redistribute within the soil pore space. At each cycle the sample de-
forms by reducing pore diameter, increases the energy with which
water is retained in soil, and this reduces the soil Ψm. At this point, the
J.V. Ambus et al. Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243

Fig. 8. Soil air permeability in samples with −6 kPa water tension (Wt), for post soybean cycle (A) and post grazing (B); in samples with −10 kPa Wt, for post
soybean cycle (C) and post grazing (D); in samples with −100 kPa Wt, for post soybeans cycle (E) and post grazing (F); in three soil layers, for the intensities of
grazing 0.10 m (white), 0.30 m (light gray) and non-grazed (dark gray).
Means followed by same letter (comparing grazing intensities) or by asterisk (comparing evaluation times) do not differ (Tukey α = 0.05).

smaller Ψm does not represent lower water content, but higher energy
with which water is retained. Thus, soil Dc continues to reduce at a less
abrupt rate than at the beginning of cycles.
By considering the fast, dynamic loading cycles as an approximation
of the animal trampling process, the main damage to soil structure
occurs in the first cycles, and then the soil continues to deform but at
much lower rates. Nonetheless, field deformation follows much a more
dynamic pattern than the laboratory simulations.
Soil Cn indicates the soil susceptibility to deformation with loading/
unloading cycles, thus making inferences about the soil's capacity to
resist the repeated trampling by grazing animals (Peth and Horn, 2006).
Our results indicated Cn decreases with soil depth, especially in non-
grazed and moderate grazing, which is linked to the decrease in e with
depth, a factor that has a direct relation with soil deformation capacity;

240
J.V. Ambus et al.
Fig. 9. Saturated hydraulic conductivity for post soybean cycle (A) and post grazing (B), in three soil layers, for the intensities of grazing 0.10 m (white), 0.30 m (light
gray) and non-grazed (dark gray).
Means followed by same letter (comparing grazing intensities) or by asterisk (comparing evaluation times) do not differ (Tukey α = 0.05).
the larger the e, the greater the free pore space for deformation
(Holthusen et al., 2018).
There were no differences among the grazing intensities for any of
the evaluations and soil depths, which show grazing did not influence
soil deformation susceptibility, that is, regardless of the intensity of
grazing, the soil maintains its capacity to withstand structural damages
generated by trampling. However, the data show, after 15 years of
continuous ICLS, trampling does not cause additional compaction,
where the soil under grazing already has a higher degree-of-compact-
ness compared to non-grazed sites. Soil being trampled is more com-
pacted, but further compression does not increase compaction, de-
monstrating a quasi steady-state soil structure condition.
Dynamic loading allows inferring about soil structural strength,
since the test closely mimics field conditions. Both the Cn and Dc sug-
gest animal trampling increased soil compaction, but the system
reached a level of stability without major structural damages. However,
the impact of compaction on crop/forage productivity and sustain-
ability is not fully established.
Soil functional properties related to flow dynamics are even more
responsive to soil management, because they are not only related to
pore volume, but also to pore distribution, continuity, and tortuosity.
All these parameters indicate structural soil quality (Silveira Jr et al.,
2012; Mentges et al., 2016), and thus are interesting to evaluate man-
agement of complex systems like ICLS.
Soil Ka is a property sensitive to compression caused by animal
trampling because this property is dependent mainly on soil macro-
porosity, which in turn is most affected by increasing soil bulk density
in the grazing sites, especially for clay soils as in our study.
Furthermore, soil Ka is related to soil water content or degree of sa-
turation, because moisture determines the porous space occupied by
water and free space for the transmission of gases (Rodrigues et al.,
2011; Mentges et al., 2016).
The effect of water tension (Wt) can be observed more clearly in the
post soybean cycle. With the decrease in Wt, soil Ka increases gradually,
because soil pores previously occupied by water give way to air flow. In
the post grazing period, the response to Wt is less intense, because there
is less space available to flow since roots fill soil voids, and this response
is only perceived at −100 kPa Wt (drier soil).
241
Geoderma 330 (2018) 232–243
The main effect of increasing grazing intensity is the sudden re-
duction in Ks and Ka in the surface most layer, with Ka reaching zero in
the intense grazing in all evaluated Wt, which is an effect of animal hoof
pressure reducing porous space (Flores et al., 2007) and of shearing and
kneading caused by the dynamics of trampling, factors capable of in-
terrupting pore continuity in the soil surface (Berisso et al., 2013).
Furthermore, the porous space is filled by grass roots, where high
grazing intensities raises roots concentration in the soil surface (Souza
et al., 2008). Roots in the subsurface soil layer are responsible for lower
Ks and zero Ka in −6 and − 10 kPa Wt for all grazing intensities.
However, this effect is not observed in the post soybean cycle, since
soybean root system is less aggressive than grass roots, occupying a
smaller portion of the porous system, and the evaluation was done after
the end of the soybean cycle, when roots were already decomposing.
With root decomposition and wetting-drying cycles and biological ac-
tion, soil pore space is unobstructed for air movement.
Highest soil Ka in the post soybean cycle in non-grazed sites in-
dicates soil without additional compaction is benefited by emptied
porous-space after root decomposition, increasing soil Ma. By contrast,
in grazed conditions, the contribution of root decomposition to void
space was not as significant, since the effect of animal trampling pre-
vails as cause for the reduction in large-diameter pores.
Soil Ks was not affected by grazing in the post soybean cycle in any
of the layers probably because of the increased continuity of pores
created after root decomposition. Even though Bd was not fully re-
covered, Ks was the same among grazing intensities; thus, this behavior
is an evidence of porous system recovery in open systems and complex
management under natural regeneration (Drewry, 2006).
The very high value of Ks in the surface layer of the non-grazed
condition in the post-grazing period is associated to the greater amount
of decomposing organic matter and the high occurrence of biopores
(Abreu et al., 2004; Portilho et al., 2011) and also lower compaction
state since the last loading occurred when pasture was sown. High soil
Ks in the deeper layer (0.10–0.20 m) in moderate grazing indicate
deeper-soil structuring, since roots have a more homogeneous dis-
tribution in the soil profile at this intensity of animal stocking (Carvalho
et al., 2015).
The response of flow properties to intensities of grazing intensity is
J.V. Ambus et al.
dynamic, being altered by many factors that go beyond the direct effect
of trampling, such as Ψm, and soil structure affected by root develop-
ment and decomposition and action of soil organisms (Mentges et al.,
2016).
5. Conclusions
Moderate grazing in long-term integrated crop-livestock system
does not improve composition and functional properties when com-
pared to non-grazed condition, and the changes in soil composition and
functional properties are small when compared to intense grazing.
Soil under grazing is capable of partial physical regeneration after
one crop cycle, but the soil still has higher state of compaction, nega-
tively affecting functional soil properties.
The study suggests a quasi-stable system, where animal trampling is
unable to cause more impacts to soil structure than already caused by
previous loadings and trampling.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank CAPES (Brazilian Federal Agency
for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education) and CNPq (National
Council of Scientific and Technological Development) for funding this
study.
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