FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 17-1

September 1981
Revised May 2003
Page 1 of 21

NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 2

1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 2
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 2
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 4
3.1 Loss History and Illustrative Losses ................................................................................................. 4
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 4
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 4
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 4
APPENDIX C NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION METHODS ................................................................ 4
C.1 Radiographic Testing ....................................................................................................................... 4
C.2 Ultrasonic Testing ............................................................................................................................ 7
C.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing ............................................................................................................... 10
C.4 Magnetic Particle Testing .............................................................................................................. 17
C.5 Eddy Current Testing .................................................................................................................... 19
C.6 Acoustic Emissions Testing ........................................................................................................... 19
APPENDIX D BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 21

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Electromagnetic spectrum. ................................................................................................................. 5
Fig. 2. Production of x-radiation. .................................................................................................................... 5
Fig. 3. Typical radiographic set up. ............................................................................................................... 6
Fig. 4a. ASME Hole-type IQI. ....................................................................................................................... 8
Fig. 4b. ASME Wire-type IQI. ....................................................................................................................... 9
Fig. 5. Basic ultrasonic system. .................................................................................................................. 10
Fig. 6. Steps involved in penetrant test. (1) Applying precleaner. .............................................................. 11
Fig. 6. (2) Applying penetrant. .................................................................................................................... 12
Fig. 6. (3) Applying cleaner. ........................................................................................................................ 12
Fig. 6. (4) Applying developer. .................................................................................................................... 13
Fig. 6. (5) Examination. ............................................................................................................................... 14
Fig. 7. Visible dye system. .......................................................................................................................... 15
Fig. 8. Fluorescent penetrant system. ........................................................................................................ 16
Fig. 9. Magnetic particle examination. ........................................................................................................ 18
Fig. 10. Simplified block diagram of acoustic emission system. ................................................................ 20

List of Tables
Table 1. NDE Matrix ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Table 2. Typical Discontinuities Suitable for Liquid Penetrant Examination. ............................................... 17

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1.0 SCOPE
This document addresses nondestructive examination (NDE) in general terms. For additional technical
requirements refer to Section V of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Recommendations for NDE
of specific machinery, boilers, pressure vessels and piping are not provided in this document; they are
contained in object-specific data sheets.
This text describes, in general, the principles that make NDE methods effective loss prevention tools. The
intent of this document is to aid field personnel in understanding how to select and apply NDE methods and
how to interpret the results of such examinations.
Described are: radiographic testing (RT); ultrasonic testing (UT); liquid penetrant testing (PT); magnetic
particle testing (MT); eddy current testing (ET); and acoustic emissions testing (AE). Brief reference also is
made to visual examination/testing (VT).
Note: Many jurisdictions have NDE requirements which may vary somewhat from the information contained
in this document. These requirements may be mandatory.

1.1 Changes
May 2003. Revised section 3.0 ‘‘Support for Recommendations.’’ Also minor editorial changes were made
for this revision.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Introduction
Most machinery component or structure failures occur from the initiation and growth of a crack. The crack
may already be present, or may initiate due to nonmetallic inclusions, hydrogen embrittlement, stress relief
heat treatment, stress corrosion, or fatigue at a point of stress concentration. In other cases failure may be
due to accidental overload or overloading at working stresses due to thinning of material from its working
environment.
NDE is a major predictive maintenance tool when used as a part of a condition monitoring program for any
piece of equipment or process, from imperfections in weldments, to engine parts, to power presses the size
of a large building.
The techniques used in NDE find telltale signs such as tiny subsurface cracks in hard-to-reach areas; if left
undetected, such cracks can widen and propagate until failure of a machine or structural component occurs.

2.2 Operation and Maintenance

2.2.1 Use the proper NDE method(s) as described in Table 1, to locate and evaluate flaws in components
under fabrication, monitor components of operational machinery, vessels and piping systems, and detect a
variety of problems from corrosion, erosion, etc., before failure occurs.
Refer to the appropriate Data Sheet for equipment-specific NDE recommendations to make NDE an integral
part of a plant’s maintenance program.

Table 1. NDE Matrix

Inspection Type Equipment or Procedure
Visual (VT) Borescope or fiberscope
(camera) to focus on hard-to-
reach areas. Can be enhanced
by use of a magnifier. Can
also be performed in
conjunction with TV systems.
Surface preparation can range
from a simple wiping to blast
cleaning and/or chemical
treatment.
What it Does
Detects obvious wear, bulging,
cracking, surface defects,
leakage, corrosion, loose
parts. It can identify where a
failure is most likely to occur
and when a failure has begun.
Strengths or Limitations
VT is easily carried out and
usually doesn’t require special
equipment.
Limitations: access, lighting,
will not detect subsurface or
minute surface defects.

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Nondestructive Examination
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Inspection Type Equipment or Procedure
Radiography (RT) The radiation source is placed
close to the material to be
checked. Radiation passes
through the object to the
opposite side where images
are captured on film. The film
is then processed and an
image obtained as a series of
gray shades.
Ultrasonic (UT) Ultra-high frequency sound
waves are passed through
materials to detect flaws or
measure material thickness.
The signals are then converted
to electrical signals and
displayed on a monitor.
Liquid Penetrant Colored or fluorescent
(PT) penetrant dye spread on a
surface, cleaned and followed
by a developer reveals surface
breaking discontinuities such
as cracks by bleed out of the
dye under ordinary or
ultraviolet light, depending on
the type of dye used.
Magnetic Electric current sets up a
Particle(MT) magnetic field where fine
magnetic particles are applied
and magnetized to reveal
discontinuities (flux leakage).
Eddy Current (ET) Eddy current testing is an
electromagnetic technique.
When an energized coil is
brought close to the surface of
a metal component, eddy
currents are induced into the
part. These set up a magnetic
field around the coil, producing
an eddy current near the
object surface. Flaws are
indicated by a distorted current
on a meter, scope, or video
monitor.
Acoustic Emission1 Defects in materials under
(AE) stress release high-frequency
sound waves that propagate
through the material.
Transducers mounted on the
surface detect these waves
and transmit them as electrical
signals.
Notes: 1. Where continuous AE monitoring is not done, perform AE examination at intervals appropriate for the equipment being monitored
or at upset conditions. The application of continuous AE methodology is described in ASME Code, Section V, Article 13.
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What it Does
Detects cracking in welds,
flaws in castings, forgings,
plates, bars, boiler and
pressure vessels, hydraulic
cylinders.
Tests quality of weldments,
internal flaws of castings,
forgings, billets or finished
parts. Measures thickness of
materials.
Detects defects in ferrous and
non-ferrous metals;
discontinuities in cast, forged,
ground, etc. products; fatigue
cracks; stress corrosion.
Test ferromagnetic materials
for surface and near surface
flaws.
- Quality control tool during
production of welded pipe and
tubing.
- Can be used to determine
thickness, hardness and
degree of heat treat of a
material.
Can be used to continuously
monitor equipment under load
to detect an incipient flaw and
determine its location and
growth rate.
17-1
Page 3
Strengths or Limitations
Good for a wide variety of
materials and for maintenance
inspections.
Can be used during fabrication
as a quality control tool as well
as during the operating life of
a piece of equipment.
Limitations: X-rays and gamma
rays are very hazardous.
Good for finding
flaws deep inside materials;
can be used with a wide
variety of materials; can be
used where radiography is not
practical; flaw size, distance
and reflectivity can be
interpreted.
Limitations: Complex operation
requiring technical training.
Easy to use, it is a highly
sensitive way to detect surface
defects in a wide variety of
nonporous materials including
metals, ceramics and plastics.
Material to be examined must
be cleaned prior to application
of the dye.
Wide range of uses on
ferromagnetic materials. May
be applied dry or wet.
Limited ability to detect
subsurface flaws, and surface
irregularities can give
misleading indications.
Sensitive procedure for
detecting slightly subsurface
flaws in electrically conductive
materials.
Signal must be triangulated to
get a positive location for the
growing flaw.
AE is well suited where
failures occur due to the
growth of cracks at gross
stresses well within the design
limits of the component or
structure (characterized by
slow growth of a crack to a
critical size).
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3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Loss History and Illustrative Losses

In a recent 15 year period 117 losses occurred in the FM system that were attributed to equipment failures
due to cracking or corrosion. Periodic NDE would have detected many of these deteriorating sites prior to out-
right failure.

4.0 REFERENCES
There are no references for this document.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

The following terms are common to all types of NDE. Terms specific to a particular NDE method are provided
under the respective section for each method in Appendix C.
Defect: one or more flaws whose aggregate size, shape, orientation, location, or properties do not meet
specified acceptance criteria and are grounds for rejection.
Flaw: an imperfection or discontinuity that may be detectable by nondestructive testing and may not
necessarily be rejected.
Imperfection: a departure of a quality characteristic from its intended condition.
Indication: evidence of a discontinuity that requires interpretation to determine its significance.
Nondestructive Examination (NDE): the development and application of technical methods to examine mate-
rials or components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in order to detect, locate,
measure, and evaluate flaws; to assess integrity, properties, and composition; and to measure geometrical
characteristics.
Nondestructive Evaluation: see Nondestructive Examination

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

September 2001. This document was reformatted to provide a consistent format. In addition, it was revised
to incorporate Acoustic Emissions Testing.
May 1998, reformatted.
July 1978, revised.
October 1976, first issued.

APPENDIX C NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION METHODS

C.1 Radiographic Testing

Radiographic Testing (RT) is the most widely used ASME Code nondestructive examination method, although
advances in ultrasonics is making that method a suitable alternative. It is the primary examination require-
ment used in the construction of fired and unfired pressure vessels designed in accordance with the ASME
Code. However, there are many inspection applications outside of the ‘‘Code’’. In radiography, short wave-
length electromagnetic radiation, specifically x-ray or gamma ray, is used to penetrate objects that are opaque
to longer wave-length visible light. Gamma rays and x-rays have about the same energy range (103/107 eV)
and wave-length range (10-3/101 A) (Fig. 1). The only difference between the two types of waves is their
source of production.
X-rays are generated by impinging a stream of fast-moving electrons upon a high density target or decelera-
tor in an x-ray tube (Fig. 2). The slowing down of these fast moving electrons is responsible for the release
of some energy in the form of x-rays. These are generally referred to as continuous x-radiation waves, and
cover a wide band of wavelengths. The high speed electrons also dislodge electrons of the target atom. When
this excited atom returns to its stable state, it emits energy in the form of narrow band x-radiation. The
wavelength of this radiation is determined by the target material and the orbital location of the dislodged
electron.

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Fig. 1. Electromagnetic spectrum.

Fig. 2. Production of x-radiation.

Gamma rays are produced by the disintegration of a radioactive atom. When the nucleus of this atom emits
an alpha or beta particle, the daughter nucleus is left in a high energy or excited state. The excess energy
is emitted as gamma radiation. Thus, gamma radiation originates in the nucleus of the atom.
In industrial radiography, the penetrating radiation source (x-ray machine or radioactive isotope) is posi-
tioned on one side of the object to be radiographed, such as rolled plate or a weld (Fig. 3). A fixed film in a
light tight, protective cassette is placed on the opposite side of the object in close contact with it. The object
is then bombarded by a beam of radiation. The object absorbs some of this radiation. Radiation that is not
absorbed by the object exposes the film emulsion in the same way that light exposes photographic film.
Development of the film produces a two-dimensional shadow image of the object.

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Fig. 3. Typical radiographic set up.

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Variations in density, thickness and composition of the object affect the degree of darkening, or density of
the film image. The degree of darkening must be within specific limits when performing radiography to the
ASME Code.
One factor that makes radiography an effective tool is its sensitivity.
Sensitivity is the ability to detect a small discontinuity. It is expressed as the percent ratio of the thickness
of the smallest detectable defect to the thickness of the specimen being examined. An image quality indica-
tor (IQI), representing a percentage of the thickness of the specimen being examined is placed on the radio-
graphic film. IQIs are essential to determining the quality of a radiographic image. Figure 4a and 4b illustrate
several of the IQIs specified in the ASME Code.
Radiography as an inspection tool, when conducted according to ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code sec-
tions, is typically used to reveal internal discontinuities in welded joints. Some of the more commonly encoun-
tered discontinuities within the weld include the following:
1. Porosity: gas pockets or voids, free of solid material. Porosity appears on the radiograph as dark spots
with an essentially circular shape.
2. Slag inclusions: oxides and nonmetallic solids that are entrapped in weld metal, or between weld metal
and base metal. Slag appears on the radiograph as irregular, dark, elongated areas or lines.
3. Tungsten inclusions: metallic particles of tungsten transferred to the weld deposit by the tungsten elec-
trode used in the gas-tungsten arc welding process. Tungsten appears on the radiograph as light irregu-
lar spots.
4. Incomplete fusion: failure to fuse together adjacent layers of weld metal, or weld metal and base metal.
Incomplete fusion appears on the radiograph as regular dark lines, generally straight and often paralleling
each other.
5. Inadequate joint penetration: failure of the filler metal and the base metal, or base metal alone if no filler
is used, to fuse at the root of the weld. It generally appears on the radiograph as a straight, dark line run-
ning longitudinally through the center of the weld.
In addition to the above, cracks, undercutting and surface irregularities are also observed. The appropriate
ASME Code section should be consulted regarding acceptability criteria for the above named discontinuities.

C.2 Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is often used for the inspection of welds that are difficult to examine radiographi-
cally. UT is also very effective at examining components from one side and determining the remaining thick-
ness. However, UT usage is not limited to ‘‘Code’’ work. UT is often used to inspect machinery components
such as power press tie rods, frames, cylinders and cross heads and is widely used to inspect electric gen-
erator retaining rings. Thickness measurements of materials can also be performed accurately using ultra-
sonic techniques.
UT requires a great deal of operator training and experience to achieve accurate test results. It is not used
as widely in examination of ASME Code construction as radiography, although it is argued that the results
of UT are more revealing than those of RT when the test is performed properly.
Continuing research into the science of ultrasonic testing has produced numerous equipment models. All,
however, operate on the same basic principle of ultra-high frequency sound wave propagation through a
medium of known sound velocity. Most ultrasonic systems include the basic equipment shown in Figure 5:
1. Transducer: an electroacoustical device for converting electrical energy into acoustical energy and vice
versa.
2. Couplant: a substance used between the search unit and test surface to permit or improve transmis-
sion of ultrasonic energy.
The ultrasonic sound wave can be introduced into the test piece in any of three modes: shear/angle or
longitudinal/straight beam for surface and subsurface flaws, and surface or Raleigh waves for surface breaks
or cracks.

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Fig. 4a. ASME Hole-type IQI.

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Fig. 4b. ASME Wire-type IQI.

Shear or angle ultrasonic waves are commonly used for flaw detection in welded joints of plate or piping, but
may have other equally valuable applications. Longitudinal waves are widely used for the examination of cast-
ings, billets, shafting journals, crankshafts, and pipe-to-flange weldments where the flange faces can be
used as a contact surface, as well as for the detection of laminations. Surface or Raleigh waves are more sen-
sitive to surface cracks and surface cuts or breaks. They are valuable for detecting defects that may other-
wise be overlooked by visual examination. These waves will pass rounded corners and reflect from a sharp
edge or break in the surface even at a location hidden from view. The reflection or oscilloscope pattern
obtained from good welds or sound material are the only means of appraising quality.
There are several ultrasonic thickness measuring instruments that are also useful in detecting unfused areas
of forge welds and laminations in plates and tubes.

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Fig. 5. Basic ultrasonic system.

C.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing

The basis for liquid penetrant examination (PT) dates back to the 1920s with the ‘‘kerosene and whiting’’
method. A low viscosity liquid with good wetting ability (kerosene being the most readily available) was applied
to the surface of the part to be tested and allowed to seep into surface openings. The application of a white-
wash provided a contrasting background for detection of subsequent kerosene seepage from surface
openings.

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The principles used in today’s liquid penetrant inspection are similar; however, the materials used are con-
siderably more sophisticated than the early kerosene and whitewash. These more advanced materials make
liquid penetrant testing a highly sensitive nondestructive method for locating surface discontinuities in today’s
manufactured products.
Liquid penetrant examination depends on the ability of the liquid to wet the surface of a specimen, to flow
evenly over its surface, and then to migrate into tiny cavities on the specimen’s surface. These cavities could
be the result of pores, cracks, or voids, either inherent or manufactured in the part. The ability of a liquid
to migrate into these tiny cavities is the phenomenon of capillarity. Wetting ability and capillarity illustrate the
basic principles by which a penetrant enters cavities in the surface of a test piece.
Several steps are involved in performing an accurate liquid penetrant examination (Fig. 6):

Fig. 6. Steps involved in penetrant test. (1) Applying precleaner.

1. Preclean the part to remove contaminants such as oil, water or dirt from any cavities open to the sur-
face. Vapor degreasing and solvent cleaning are acceptable methods. Shot blasting or peening should not be
used, as these methods may result in forcing shut any surface discontinuities.
2. Apply the penetrant by dipping, spraying, or other means to ensure complete coverage. The total time dur-
ing which the penetrant is allowed to remain on the part (dwell time) is dependent on the test piece mate-
rial and the type of discontinuity sought.

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Fig. 6. (2) Applying penetrant.

Fig. 6. (3) Applying cleaner.

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Fig. 6. (4) Applying developer.

3. Remove excess penetrant from the surface of the part. This leaves behind only the penetrant that has
seeped into the discontinuity. Different removal methods are used on post-emulsification, solvent-removable,
and water-washable penetrants as follows:
a) Post-emulsification penetrants require the addition of an emulsifier. This renders the penetrant water
washable. It is then removed with a water spray. The time during which the emulsifier is left on the
penetrant-covered part is critical. If left too long, the emulsifier might mix with penetrant in shallow dis-
continuities and subsequently be washed away. If not left long enough, discontinuities might be obscured
by excessive background.
b) Solvent-removable penetrants are wiped from the part’s surface with a solvent-dampened lint cloth.
The solvent is never applied directly to the part as this might remove penetrant from discontinuities. These
are less sensitive types of penetrants; however, they are the most portable. Penetrant and solvent are sup-
plied in aerosol spray cans for use in field applications.
c) Water-washable penetrants have the emulsifier built in. These types avoid the intermediate step of
emulsification time and can be water-washed immediately after the dwell time. Sensitivity is decreased,
however. The penetrant in wide, shallow discontinuities can be more easily washed out.
4. Development takes place after the excess penetrant is removed and the part is completely dried. (Hot
air dryers are used with washing techniques.) The developer has two functions: first, it acts as a blotter to help
the penetrant bleed out of a discontinuity; second, it provides a contrasting background for the color con-
trast penetrants. Dry developers are supplied as fluffy, white powder to be sprinkled over the surface or in
aerosol cans to be sprayed onto the surface.
Wet developers are supplied as particles dispersed in a liquid medium. The part is dipped in the liquid prior
to drying. After drying, only the powdery developer remains.

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Fig. 6. (5) Examination.

5. Examination is performed under white light or black light conditions, depending on whether visible dye or
fluorescent penetrants are used. Liquid penetrant examination includes both fluorescent and visible dye
(color contrast) penetrant methods. The only true difference between the two is the means by which the ulti-
mate examination of the part is made. In the fluorescent penetrant system, examination is made using a
black light operating at near-ultraviolet frequencies averaging 3650 A. In the visible dye system, the dye (usu-
ally red) is provided with a contrasting background (usually white) and the inspection is made using white
light.
The six methods, then, in order of decreasing sensitivity, are (Figs. 7 and 8):
1. Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
2. Solvent-removable fluorescent
3. Water-washable fluorescent
4. Post-emulsifiable visible dye
5. Solvent-removable visible dye
6. Water-washable visible dye

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Fig. 7. Visible dye system.

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Fig. 8. Fluorescent penetrant system.

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Liquid penetrant examination methods can provide indication of surface discontinuities in metals (magnetic
or nonmagnetic) and other nonporous materials. These discontinuities must be open to the surface. Some
typical discontinuities and the manufacturing process associated with them are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Typical Discontinuities Suitable for Liquid Penetrant Examination.

Process Discontinuity
Casting Shrinkage
Hot tears
Cold shuts
Porosity
Forging Bursts (open to surface)
Laps
Seams
Laminations
Welding Lack of penetration (where backside of weld is visible)
Surface shrink cracks (also called toe cracks)
Crater cracks
Gas porosity
Other processes Grinding cracks
Heat treat cracks
Thread cracks (in bolts)
Service related Fatigue cracks
Stress corrosion

C.4 Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle inspection (wet or dry) provides for the detection of discontinuities such as surface or slightly
subsurface cracks, and other linear discontinuities in welds, plates, forgings and castings of ferromagnetic
materials. This method consists of magnetizing an area to be examined and then applying magnetic par-
ticles to the surface. The particles are retained on the surface at cracks and discontinuities due to leak-
age in the magnetic field (Fig. 9).
Any suitable means of establishing the necessary magnetic flux may be used, such as passing a current
through the material, providing a magnetic yoke, or wrapping the part with a coil through which a current is
passed.
Dry powders (gray, black, and red) are available where contrast is needed. Black and red pastes and paints
are available for the wet method. Fluorescent paste is also available where parts are to be examined under
near ultraviolet or black light conditions.
Direct, alternating or rectified current is used for magnetizing the parts to be examined. High amperage and
low voltage are usually used. With alternating current, only the surface of the metal is magnetized; there-
fore, this method is more effective in locating discontinuities located at the surface, such as fatigue or ser-
vice cracks. Direct current produces a field that penetrates deeper into the part and is therefore more sensitive
than alternating current for the detection of slightly subsurface defects. Full-wave, three-phase rectified cur-
rent produces results similar to direct current obtained through batteries. Half-wave, single-phase rectified
current provides maximum sensitivity. The pulsating field increases particle mobility and enables the par-
ticles to line up more readily in weak leakage fields. The pulse peaks also produce a higher magnetizing force.
The dry powder method is easier to use on rough surfaces and it has maximum portability. The indicating par-
ticles for the wet method are smaller and are suspended in a liquid bath of liquid petroleum distillate or water.
Because of the fine particle size, the wet method is more sensitive to fine surface defects, but it is not as sen-
sitive as the dry method for the detection of subsurface discontinuities.
The liquid fluorescent magnetic particle method is particularly valuable in locating flaws in ferromagnetic mate-
rials at corners, keyways, splines, deep holes, and similar locations. This procedure should not be con-
fused with liquid penetrant examination.
Demagnetization is usually necessary for engine and machine parts; however, it is not always necessary
for weldments, etc., unless the residual field interferes with subsequent machining, arc-welding processes
or operations of sensitive electrical instruments and compasses. Demagnetizing is accomplished by insert-
ing the part into a magnetic field produced by an alternating current and withdrawing it slowly.

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Fig. 9. Magnetic particle examination.

Some commonly used terms relating to magnetic particle testing are listed below:
Continuous method: a method wherein the indicating medium is applied while the magnetizing force is
present.
Curie point: the temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can no longer be magnetized by outside forces,
and at which they lose their residual magnetism (approximately 1200 to 1600°F [635 to 857°C] for many mag-
netic metals).
Electromagnet: a magnet created by inserting a suitable metal core within or near an electric field which is usu-
ally formed by passing electric current through a coil of insulated wire.
Ferromagnetic: a term applied to materials that can be magnetized or strongly attracted by a magnetic field.
Flux density, magnetic: the strength of a magnetic field, expressed in flux lines per unit area.
Magnetic writing: a form of non-relevant indication, sometimes caused when the surface of a magnetized
part comes in contact with another piece of ferromagnetic material.
Permeability: the ratio of flux density produced to magnetizing force (the ease with which a material can
become magnetized).
Prods: hand-held electrodes.
Residual field, magnetic: the field that remains in a piece of magnetizable material after the magnetizing
force has been removed.
Retentivity: the ability of a material to retain a portion of the magnetic field after the magnetizing force has
been removed.
Yoke: a magnet that induces a magnetic field in the area of a part that lies between its poles. Yokes may
be permanent magnets or either alternating-current or direct-current electromagnets.

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The above definitions and others relating to magnetic particle inspection can be found in ASTM E269-68.

C.5 Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing (ET) makes use of electromagnetic energy to detect flaws and metallurgical variations
in metal. It is used to check welds in ferrous and nonferrous materials and is particularly useful in testing
welded pipe and tubes; it also has been successful in detecting cracks in electric generator retaining rings.
It employs one or more coils energized with alternating current. The frequency may vary from 50 hertz to
1 hertz, depending on the type and thickness of material. The part to be examined may be passed through
an encircling coil, or the weld may be scanned by a probe type coil. Discontinuities in the weld will pro-
duce changes in the coil impedance which is sensed by the associated electronic instrumentation. Signals
are indicated by meters, recorders, or oscilloscopes. This method is fast, simple in operation, and requires no
auxiliary processing. It is particularly suited to automatic inspection. It is very sensitive to certain surface
and subsurface flaws and conditions, but loses sensitivity with depth of penetration.
Some commonly used terms relating to eddy current or electromagnetic testing are listed below:
Absolute coil: a coil (or coils) that respond(s) to the total detected electric or magnetic properties, or both,
of one section of a part undergoing electromagnetic test without comparison to another section of the part,
or to another part.
Depth of penetration: in electromagnetic testing, the depth at which the magnetic field strength or intensity
of induced eddy currents has decreased to 37 percent of its surface value. The depth of penetration is an expo-
nential function of the frequency of the signal and the conductivity and permeability of the material. Synony-
mous terms are standard depth of penetration and skin depth.
Differential coils: two or more coils electrically connected in series opposition such that any electric or mag-
netic condition, or both, that is not common to the areas of a specimen being electromagnetically tested,
will produce an unbalance in the system and thereby yield an indication.
Eddy current: an electrical current caused to flow in a conductor by the time on space variation, or both, of
an applied magnetic field.
Eddy current testing: a nondestructive testing method in which eddy current flow is induced in the test object.
Changes in the flow caused by variations in the specimen are reflected into a nearby coil, coils, or Hall effect
device for subsequent analysis by suitable instrumentation and techniques.
Encircling coil: in electromagnetic testing, coil(s) or coil assembly that surround(s) the part to be tested. Coils
of this type are also referred to as annular, circumferential, or feed-through coils.
Frequency, optimum: that frequency which provides the highest signal-to-noise ratio obtainable for the detec-
tion of an individual property, such as conductivity, crack, or inclusion of the test specimen. Each type of
defect in a given material may have its own optimum frequency.
ID coil: a coil or coil assembly used for electromagnetic testing by insertion into the test piece as in the case
of an inside probe for tubing. Coils of this type are also referred to as inside coils, inserted coils, or bobbin
coils.
Lift-off effect: the effect observed in the test system output due to a change in magnetic coupling between
a test specimen and a probe coil whenever the distance between them is varied.
Wobulation: an effect that produces variations in an output signal of a test system. This results from varia-
tions of coil spacing due to lateral motion of the test specimen while passing through an encircling coil.
The above definitions, and others relating to eddy current and electromagnetic testing, can be found in ASTM
E 268 68.

C.6 Acoustic Emissions Testing

Acoustic emission (AE) is described as the random elastic energy released from a source in a material under
stress. Stress is applied to a monitored component during its normal operation in the form of temperature,
torque, pressure, tension, compression, bending, etc. As defects (cracks, tears, etc.) grow in the part, they can
generate detectable bursts of energy in quantities proportional to the size of the defect and the applied stress.

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AE testing involves listening to the sounds (usually inaudible to the human ear) made by a material, struc-
ture or machine in use or under load and drawing conclusions about its condition from what was heard. The
sounds may arise from friction (such as bearing wear), crack growth, turbulence (including from leakage)
and material changes such as corrosion.
Application of the method involves placing one or more AE sensors on the surface of a stressed compo-
nent to detect high frequency sound from the material anomalies. Once sound is detected by the sensor it
is converted into an electric signal (Fig. 10) and then statistically categorized by the AE system.
Objects deform in many different ways depending primarily on the object (component), material, and applied
stress. Some of the test conditions that change the AE signal response are: material characteristics, rate
and type of stress applied, and temperature. The AE system statistical summary of the signal characteris-
tics provides insight into material deformation mechanisms and their origin. Success of AE examinations
depends on the examiner’s experience with the materials being checked, the procedure being used and
follow-up NDE.
The advantages of AE are that a whole structure may be monitored from a few locations, the structure can
be continuously monitored and alarmed while in use (without removing it from service). Microscopic changes
can be detected if sufficient energy is released and source location determination is possible using multiple
sensors.
Applications include testing pipelines and storage tanks (both above and below ground), fiberglass structures,
rotating machinery, weld monitoring, highly stressed press components and biological and chemical changes.
Figure 10 illustrates a typical AE system.

Fig. 10. Simplified block diagram of acoustic emission system.

In addition to the methods discussed here, there are other nondestructive examination methods that have a
great potential for loss prevention applications. Two common ones are leak testing and visual examination-
,both of which are discussed in detail in Section V of the ASME Code. Other less conventional methods
include infrared thermography, neutron radiography, optical holography, acoustic holography, and micro-
wave inspection. For a thorough discussion of these methods, the American Society for Metals (ASM) Met-
als Handbook, Volume 11, Eighth Edition, should be consulted.
Some commonly used terms relating to acoustic emission testing are listed below:
Acoustic emission (AE): the class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are generated by the rapid
release of energy from localized sources within a material, or the transient waves so generated. Acoustic
emission is the recommended term for general use. Other terms that have been used in AE literature include:
1) stress wave emission, 2) micro seismic activity; and 3) emission or acoustic emission with other qualify-
ing modifiers.

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Nondestructive Examination 17-1
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Acoustic emission sensor: a detection device, generally piezoelectric, that transforms the particle motion pro-
duced by an elastic wave into an electrical signal.
Location accuracy: a value determined by comparison of the actual position of an AE source (or simulated
AE source) to the computed location.
Location source: any of several methods of evaluating AE data to determine the position on the structure
from which the AE originated. Several approaches to source location are used, including zone location, com-
puted location, and continuous location.

APPENDIX D BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Nondestructive Examination, 1998 Edition with the 2000
addenda.
American Society for Metals (ASM) Metals Handbook, Volume 11, Eighth Edition.

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