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 Frazier, Nancy
The Penguin concise dictionary
of art history. New York: Penguin
2000.
N5300 .F64 2000 REF i

Frazier, Nancy
The Penguin concise dictionary
of art history. New York: Penguin,
2000. N5300 .F64 2000 REF

Mmt Coihge of Califorma

humanities Library
777 Vatancia Straat
San Francisco, CA 94110
DATE DUE
 TTie
PENGUIN
CONCISE
DICTIONA
ART
HISTORY
NANCY FRAZIER

N9W Coll9gB of California

Humanitias Library
777 Valancia Straat
San Francisco, CA 94110

PENGUIN REFERENCE
 ,

PENGUIN REFERENCE
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Published by the Penguin
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Frazier, Nancy.
The Penguin concise dictionary of art history / Nancy Frazier.

p. cm.
t. *^. IS^?^o-670-iooi5-5 ^ ^^.^
I . Art —History—Dictionaries. . t. Title.

N5300.F64 1999 .

, , 79i^De2t _ 98-<6o89
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Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of

this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval
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For Jack, Leslie, and David
Board of Editors

Richard Brilliant,
Columbia University

Craig Harbison,
University of Massachusetts at Amherst

Mark Roskill,
University of Massachusetts at Amherst

Helen Searing,
Smith College

Marilyn Stokstad,
University of Kansas, Lawrence
 — —

Preface

Art history was challenged and defied dryly; and to use current scholarship
during the early postmodern era, and it and, sometimes, to cite controversial
has flourished as a result. When the ideas, noting them as such, because the
rumblings of deconstruction unsettled only thing we know to be true is that
the ground beneath it, the discipline de- nothing is certain.

voted to understanding artistic creativ- Even things that should be certain

ity shook, then realigned itself. As a dates and spellings, for example — are
result, the tired litany of style, influence, occasionally impossible to nail down.
academic pedigree, and connoisseur- When there are contradictions, I use
ship that used to drive art historical the most recent of the authoritative
scholarship no longer satisfies. These sources. Style is also slippery; neither
discussions do not what we really
tell us logic nor hard-and-fast rules exist, so I

want to know: Whyf Today we are in- have followed the most frequent Amer-
clined to go beyond the old formalism ican textbook conventions, alphabetiz-
and "read" pictures contextually, look- ing Willem de Kooning under de
ing for their interactions with the pow- Kooning, Theo van Doesburg under
ers of culture, politics, philosophy, Doesburg, and Leonardo da Vinci
psychology, technology, and the econ- under Leonardo, for example. Apart
omy. To accomplish this, our studies from magazine, newspaper, and schol-
have become interdisciplinary, and are arly journal articles, along with highly
increasingly exciting. specialized books and monographs, my
My career in journalism had taught sources are listed in the bibliography.
me to ask why things happen, and to Cross-references from one entry to
tease out answers, so in beginning my another are indicated by capital let-
studies of art history, I was enthusiastic ters. But not all cross-references are al-
about the widening horizon. When it ways noted. There are extensive entries
came time to prepare for exams, how- on COLOR, BRONZE, and exhibit, for ex-
ever, I was dismayed because I could ample, that delve into details that are
find no useful reference source that in- entirely unnecessary when those words
cluded the new perspectives. As there are used in passing and common knowl-
was none, I undertook to write one edge is implied.
for myself, for other students, and for While I have discontinued the old-
all curious people who are interested in fashioned custom of listing locations
art. My goals have been to present in- for each work of art discussed in the
formation clearly and concisely, but not text, I have retained the traditional
VIU PREFACE

practice of locating artists according to addition to being a wonderful, stimulat-

the artistic movement of their time. ing teacher and a fine writer, Craig Har-
Though recently contested, such peri- bison agreed to oversee a large portion
odization is still required knowledge for of this book, as did Mark Roskill,
most students of art history. (I suggest whose own texts are foundational in the
readers consult the entry for periodiza- field of art history. Kim Southern, who
tion as well as that for each discrete pe- earned the highest commendations
riod.) from her professors, assisted me with
Artists are often resolutely taciturn, fact-checking and the final organization
especially when asked to explain them- of the book.
selves or particular works. But nothing When the light I thought I was begin-
is as enlightening as their own words ning to see at the end of an almost four-
when they do speak. Who but Francis year-long tunnel seemed to vanish,
Bacon might have said, "You can't be Doris Troy brought it back into focus.
more horrific than life itself"? That Her friendship and humor are a beacon.
thought echoes in his otherwise in- Others have helped many ways: in

explicable paintings, as does Frida Helen Searing, whom I have known and
Khalo's comment "I paint my own real- admired for many years, is a prominent
ity." Such quotations, as well as clauses architectural historian and specialist in

in the contracts they signed, their boasts eighteenth-century art, and was on the
and complaints, the assessments of their board of editors for this book; art histo-
patrons, biographers, and contempo- rians Sonia Sofield and Charlene James
raries, as well as later critical judgments generously shared their resources, as
begin each biographical entry and, I be- did the painter Edith Byron, and my
lieve, illuminate and enliven the individ- friend John Bowman, an editor and
uals profiled. When the source of the writer on many subjects, especially
quotation is other than the subject of Greece. Ed Knappman, at New England
the entry, a name and date are pro- Publishing Associates, provided the ex-
vided. pertise to turn an idea into a book, and
was fortunate to be in the art his-
I Hugh Rawson at Penguin made the
tory program at the University of Mass- book come true. My husband. Jack, re-

achusetts at Amherst and study with mains my anchor and moral support, as
talented and supportive teachers. I am he has been for more than forty years.
indebted to Iris Cheney, whose un- It is unusual to find an index in a

timely death took away a warmth and dictionary like this, but if you should
generosity that we all basked in. I am es- wonder about Botticelli's varied influ-

pecially grateful to William Oedel, ences, for example, or where, outside of

whose insights and intellectual chal- Praxiteles' own entry, to find the nu-
lenges shaped the direction of my acad- merous references to him, I think you
emic career: My interest in American will understand and appreciate this
art, history, and culture was sparked by innovation.
his teaching. I am indebted to the acu- Most reference books in this field,
men of Ann Mochon, for my under- and of this scope, are compiled from the
standing of contemporary art. In writings of numerous contributors. The
 PREFACE IX

Penguin Concise Dictionary of Art His- His contributions to scholarship in art

tory has a single author. If this text has history are vast. Best known are What
but one voice, it benefits from the ex- Is Art History f (1976 and 1989) and
perience of several authorities. I am The Interpretation of Pictures (1989),
proud and honored to acknowledge and texts devoted to nineteenth-century
the scholars who formed the Board of a.rt—Klee, Kandinsky, and the Thought
Editors and who agreed to read por- of Their Time (1992), for example. Pro-
tions of the manuscript appropriate to fessor Roskill teaches art history in the
their specialties. Department of Art at the University of

Massachusetts at Amherst.
Helen Searing is Alice Pratt Brown
Board of Editors
Professor of Art at Smith College. She
has curated, and written the catalogues
Richard Brilliant, formerly editor for, three important architectural ex-
in chief of The Art Bulletin, is Garbe- hibitions: Speaking a New Classicism:
dian Professor in the humanities, and American Architecture Now (1981),
Professor of Art History and Archaeol- New American Art Museums (1982),
ogy in the Department of Art History and Equal Partners: Men and Women
and Archaeology Columbia Univer-
at Principals in Contemporary Architec-
sity. He is the author of several books tural Practice (1998). In 1982 she edited
and many articles on ancient Greek and In Search of Modern Architecture for
Roman art, and in 1992 published the the Architectural History Foundation,
groundbreaking study Portraiture. in honor of Henry-Russell Hitchcock.
Craig Harbison is the author oijan Marilyn Stokstad has served as
Van Eyck: The Play of Realism (1991) president of the College Art Association
and The Mirror of the Artist: Northern and of the International Center of Me-
Renaissance Art in Its Historical Con- dieval Art. She is Judith Harris Murphy
text {199^), which has been adopted for Professor of Art at the University of
courses in numerous colleges and uni- Kansas, Lawrence, and Consultative
versities around the United States and Curator of Medieval Art at the Nelson-
has appeared in several foreign lan- Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City.
guages, including French and German. Her book Medieval Art (1986) is a stan-
Professor Harbison teaches art history dard text, and her major new work. Art
in the Department of Art at the Univer- History (1995; rev. ed., 1998-99), for
sity of Massachusetts at Amherst. which she gathered a distinguished
Mark Roskill's most recent book is group of scholars, is an accessible, en-
The Languages of Landscape (1997). gaging, and beautiful survey text.
 A
Aalto, Alvar (Hugo Henrik) Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1898-1976 • Finnish • architect/ in Cambridge, Massachusetts, might be
designer/sculptor • Modern rationalized in terms of giving every in-
habitant a view of the Charles River. Its
/ was nine years old when I first saw
effect, however, is to humanize the large
the work ofEliel Saarinen [a picture
institutional building. One of Aalto's
in a magazine]. It was quite an
. . .

important projects is the Town Hall

ordinary winter morning; I can
complex 1949-52) at Saynatsalo, a
(c.
remember nothing else unusual about
small island some 186 miles north of
But because of the impression made
it.
Helsinki. The buildings have redbrick
upon me by those architectural
exterior surfaces, and the compound is
drawings I can say truly that another
constructed on two levels. It is domi-
architect was born.
nated by a Council Chamber with a
Majestically curving forms in nature mono-pitched roof (one of Aalto's de-
and the great forests of his native Fin- sign signatures); the other roofs are flat.

land inspired the designs of Aalto. Fie Aalto's furniture design produced as el-

was also influenced by the work of his egant a chair as any made in the zoth
compatriot Eliel saarinen, as ex- century; its curved plywood frame takes
pressed in the quotation above. Aalto advantage of the resilient strength of

combined wood with modern building laminated wood and the golden tones of
techniques using iron and concrete. He polished birch, a type of wood tradi-
was fond of incorporating undulating tionally used for making skis. Aalto also
surfaces in his designs; a spectacular ex- worked as a sculptor in bronze, marble,
ample is the wood ceiling in the Viipuri and other mediums. 1924 Aalto mar- In
Library (1927, 1930-35), which the ried another architect, Ainu Marsio
historian giedion compares with "the ( 1 894-1949), who became his profes-

serpentine lines of a Miro painting." sional as well as his domestic partner.

Aalto was determined to free architec-
ture from the rigid straight lines and
right angles of De stijl and the
Abakanowicz, Magdalena
BAUHAUS; he meant to socialize the ma-
born 1930 • Polish • sculptor •
chine aesthetic. If, besides their expres-
Modern
siveness, his ceiling curves can be
explained in terms of acoustical effi- They are mysterious. They are charged
ciency, the curved brick facade of Baker with energy. At the same time, they
. . .

House (1947-49), a dormitory at the are extremely powerful shapes.

 —

2 ABC

The works which Abakanowicz

to erence to the visible world of objects
refers in the comment above are what and natural forms. Thus, the cubist ex-
she called Ahakans, strange, large ob- periments of BRAQUE and picasso,
jects usually between lo and 13 feet tall while abstract forms, are not purely Ab-
and some 5 feet wide. Sometimes they stract, as they manipulate recognizable,
hang from the ceiling as irregular perceived objects and the human figure.

shapes that may be walked around, With a lowercase a abstract art is a syn-

even entered; many rise from the floor. thesis, summarization, or concentra-
First exhibited in the 1960s, the Aba- tion —works that make no effort to

kans were boldly unlike anything seen record specifically what the eye sees. In
before, and exerted a strong influence this sense, abstract art ranges from the
on contemporary artists. These and ancient kouros to recent minimalist
other of Abakanowicz's sculptures, like painting and sculpture. Pure abstrac-
the burlap Backs begun in the 1970s tion is NONOBjECTivE. (See also cercle
repetitive, headless curved forms seated ET CARRE and abstraction-creation)
in rows that might suggest prisoners to
some and worshipers to others — have Abstract Expressionism (AE)
led to Abakanowicz's being called a The first American-born art movement.
fiber artist. But she also uses stone, and Abstract Expressionism emerged after
she works with huge trees found in the World War II inNew York (it is also
forest where they had been cut down known as the New York School) and
but left because they were unsuitable lasted into the late 1950s. In turning
for lumber. The trees are part of a sculp- away from representation and the con-
ture series called War Games. temporary world, AE is said to have
been a reaction to the horrors of the
ABC just-ended war. Several of its artists

The term derives from an important (e.g., Jackson pollock and still), as-

essay by critic Barbara Rose entitled sociating their state of mind, especially
"ABC Art," published in the journal the fear of nuclear cataclysm, with the
Art in America in 1965. In the essay fear of the unknown experienced by
Rose describes "an art whose blank, prehistoric people, studied cave paint-
neutral, mechanical impersonality con- ing as well as American Indian art.
trasts so violently with the romantic, bi- Stream of consciousness and the sub-
ographical abstract expressionist style conscious, rather than theories about
which preceded it that spectators are color or composition, played a large
chilled by its apparent lack of feeling or role in AE discourse, as it had for the
content." The newly emerging ap- surrealists beforeand bythem,
proach Rose outlines came to be widely whom they were influenced. But where
known as minimal art. probing the subconscious was an indi-
vidualized exploration for Surrealists, it

Abstract art was universalized among Abstract Ex-

As movement. Abstract art, like that
a pressionists. "Many Surrealists criti-
of kandinsky, malevich, and mon- cized contemporary Western bourgeois
DRiAN, its pioneers (c. 1910), rejects ref- culture; Abstract Expressionism reca-
 ACADEMIE JULIAN 3

pitulated the history of man's inner Hfe Academic artists are conservative rather
and his search for meaning, purpose, than avant-garde, traditional rather
change and transformation. Surreahsts than experimental.They usually
sought the expression of the universal in learned to draw from antique casts be-
the particular; the Abstract Expression- fore making studies from real people,
ists found the personal in the univer- and they chose themes according to the
sal," writes the historian Stephen steadfast practices of the academy, giv-
Polcari. Subcategories of AE include ing priority to religious and history
COLOR FIELD painters such as rein- painting over scenes of contemporary
HARDT, ROTHKO, and NEWMAN (and life. Challenges to academic training
later post-painterly abstraction — were formulated at the end of the i8th
e.g.,frankenthaler, Frank stella, century with romanticism's insistence
KELLY, LOUIS, and noland) and action on giving emotion precedence over
PAINTING like that of Jackson Pollock, rules and regulations based primarily
DE KOONING, and KLINE. The move, on the IDEAL. The academic system re-
during the 1960s, from AE to pop art mained important despite successive at-
paralleled the transition in critical the- tacks, and was taught by gerome,
ory from EXISTENTIALISM tO STRUC- DELAROCHE, and GLEYRE, among oth-
TURALISM. This, in turn, reflected a ers, even as anti-academicists promoted

change in focus from post-World War realism^ and later 19th-century ap-
II alienation to a concern with con- proaches.
sumerism. The European variant of Ab-
stract Expressionism was named Art Academie Julian
Informel and called tachisme by the The most successful and important pri-

French critic Michel Tapie in his book vate art school in Paris, theAcademie
Un Art autre (Another Art; 1952). was founded by Rodolphe Julian
(1 839-1907). He had supported him-

Abstraction-Creation self as a wrestler and circus manager

Group organized in Paris in 193 1 to suc- while he studied art; one of his teachers

ceed CERCLE ET CARRE, and with the was CABANEL. He established the
same combat surrealism
intentions: to Academie Julian in 1868 as a place
and promote abstract art. The or- where students could work from living
ganizers were the Belgian sculptor/ models, especially in preparation
painter/architect Georges Vantongerloo for the ECOLE des beaux-arts. In
(1886-1965) and the French painter Au- time Julian hired successful academic
guste Herbin (i 882-1960). Through its painters, many of them winners of the
exhibitionsand publications, Abstrac- PRIX DE ROME, to scrve as critics.
tion-Creation was an important influ- Women, unable to study at the Ecole
ence. When GABO left Germany for Paris des Beaux-Arts, were admitted to the
in 1932, he became active in the group. Academie Julian beginning in 1873;
theAMERICAN IMPRESSIONIST Cecilia
Academic art/artists BEAUX was among the numerous Amer-
This term refers to art produced accord- icans to enroll (dewing and henri were
ing to the teachings of the academy. others). At first women students
 ACADEMY

worked with men, but in 1877 a sep- arate the artist from the category of
arate women's studio was opened. craftsman and to endow him (and later
Women also paid more than male stu- her) with higher social and intellectual

dents (60 francs per month versus 25 status.

for men), probably because Julian had During the reign of Louis XIV, in

to compete with the Ecole des Beaux-
Arts for men, but not for women. Julian
did not provide classes in anatomy, per-
spective, art history, or aesthetics, as
1648 the French Academie Royale de
Peinture et de Sculpture was founded
for the instruction of painters, sculp-
and music
tors, architects, engravers,

did the Ecole des Beaux- Arts.
Academy
The academy was so called because
first
the land on which it arose, about a mile
northwest of Athens, was reputedly
composers. Here French classicism
was launched, stressing the past for pro-
totype and using plaster casts from the
ANTIQUE for models. As alberti had
done during the 15th century, French
Academicians established a subject hi-

once owned by a legendary hero named erarchy: At the bottom were still life
Academus. This plot was later walled (e.g., shells, fruits, flowers); on ascend-
in, landscaped with walks, groves, and came landscapes, animals,
ing levels
fountains, and bequeathed to the pub- genre scenes, portraits, history
was here that, c. 400 bce, plato,
lic. It paintings; at the pinnacle were the
who had a small estate nearby, taught Sacraments of the Roman Catholic
until his death (347 bce). The "olive Church. The authority of tradition, the
grove of Academe" flourished until it "academic style" expressed by rational-
was closed in 529 ce by Justinian's de- ity of "line" (e.g., poussin), was soon
cree outlawing pagan education. In challenged by "moderns," whose con-
1462, during the Italian renaissance, cern was with color rather than line (see
Marsilio ficino revived the classical line vs. color) and direct observation
idea with the Platonic Academy of Flo- of life instead of ancient statues (e.g.,

rence, under the patronage of the rubens). The ecole des beaux-arts
MEDicis. Here scholars met informally succeeded the Academie Royale after
for readings, lectures, and discussion of the 1795 Revolution. Until 1848 salon
Greek letters. The teaching of art specif- juries were government appointed; after

ically was not institutionalized until that academy members made up the ju-

1563, when VASARi, supported by ries. Soon rival salons were held for re-

Cosimo I de' Medici, founded the Ac-
cademia del Disegno (the Latin de +
signum means "representations by
signs").Laymen joined artists to study
at Rome's Accademia de San Luca
(Academy of Saint Luke), established
in 1593 under Zuccaro and named for
jected or dissenting artists. Women
were admitted to study at the Ecole in
1897. (See also prix de rome)
The Royal Academy of Arts in Lon-
don was formed in 1768, with the
American expatriate artist west among
its founders. Reynolds was the first

the patron saint of painters. A strong president, kauffman and Mary Moser
motivation of these schools was to sep- were also founding members; however,
 ACROPOLIS

the records indicate no other women at lowing Piece (1969), in which he kept a
the school until the i86os, at which careful record of his activities of ran-
time they were admitted to study. domly choosing and then trailing an in-

In the United States, the American dividual until he or she went into a
Academy of Fine Arts in New York private place. Telling Secrets (i 971), an
(1801-40) and the Pennsylvania Acad- example of the second stage in the quo-
emy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia tation, involved no written documenta-
(founded 1805) were organized, the tion; rather, it was more akin to
former superseded in i8z6 by the Na- PERFORMANCE ART: Acconci stood at
tional Academy of Design, with morse the end of a pier in New York City be-
as its first president. The first woman to tween I and 2 A.M. telling people in-

enter the National Academy was Anne criminating secrets about himself. In
Hall, who became a full member, or other experiments Acconci practiced
Academician, in 1833, after six years as self-mutilating body art (e.g.. Trade-
an Associate, cassatt, though some- marks, 1970) by, as he explains, "Biting
times so listed, was never a member of myself: biting as much of my body as I

the National Academy. Records that can reach. Applying printer's ink to the
distinguish race were not and are not bites; stamping bite-prints on various
kept, but it is thought that tanner was surfaces." His seemingly outrageous
the first African-American member of and attention-getting acts are efforts to

the National Academy —he became an engage in psychological investigation of

Associate in 1909 and an Academician ideas about the relationship of an artist

in 1927. to an audience.

Acconci, Vito Acropolis

born 1940 • American • written/ The Greek word acropolis means "high
body/performance artist • Conceptual or upper city," often fortified, like the
Acropolis of Athens. A limestone
/ think that when I started doing
plateau that rises 230 feet above the
pieces, the initial attempts were very
city, the Athenian Acropolis was a nat-
much oriented towards defining my
ural fortress as early as mycenaean
body in a space. . . . Then there was a
times. According to legend, the found-
shift from me as say, margin, to me as
ing king of Athens was Erechthonius,
center point, as focal point . . . but it
born of Mother Earth when she was fer-
seems that since then I am in a
tilized by the scattered semen of Vulcan,
marginal situation again.
who had tried to rape Minerva. As in

The CONCEPTUAL artist will not neces- other primitive fertility myths (see

sarily produce an object of any kind, "capitoline" wolf), the child was
and certainly not an object of art in con- meant to be banished but was saved in-
ventional terms. The burden of any stead. The site on the Acropolis where
Conceptual work is the idea it commu- the building called the Erechtheion
nicates. One of the works Acconci (421-405 bce) now stands is the most
refers to in the quotation above is Fol- sacred: It was here that one of the
 ACRYLIC PAINT

women to whom the baby was en- paint to take many forms, from trans-
trustedwent mad and threw herself into parent to opaque, frankenthaler
the water when she saw that Erechtho- used greatly diluted acrylics for her
nius had snakes for legs. Here, also, the "stain" paintings, at one end of the
childgod guarded the Acropolis in ser- spectrum; hard edge painters like
pent form, and here Athena contested Ellsworth KELLY and noland, and
with Poseidon for control of Athens. PHOTOREALiSTs such as ESTES and
On this spot the miraculous olive tree of FLACK, achieve brilliant, unmodulated
Athena grew and the tombs of Athens' effects at the other.

early kings were located. The Erech-

theion was built after the death of peri- Action painting
CLES. It is a complex building, best The critic Harold Rosenberg coined this

known for its Porch of the Maidens (see term 1952 to describe
in a form of ab-
caryatid). Before going through the stract EXPRESSIONISM in which the
gate to the Acropolis — called the Propy- movement, touch, or process of
artist's

laia (c. 437-432 bce), designed by making the work is integral to, and em-
Mnesicles and fronted with six massive bodied in, the meaning of the work it-

Doric columns —one climbs steps that self. Jackson pollock's "drip" or
pass by a small Temple to Athena Nike "poured" paintings are material
(427-424 bce). Built under the direc- records of the physical motions, or ac-
tion of Callicrates (see ictinos), it is an tions, that created them, as are kline's
entirely Ionic building (see column or- forceful marks on canvas. (See also ges-
ders). On the parapet built around that tural)
temple 410 BCE is the renowned
c.

stone RELIEF Nike Fastening Her San- Adam, Robert

dal, in which the fabric of Nike's robes 1728-1792 • British •

is carved so expertly and elegantly as to architect/designer • Neoclassicist

make it look transparent, and to reveal
. . . to transfuse the beautiful spirit of
sensuously the human form beneath.
antiquity with novelty and variety.
The PARTHENON is the signature monu-
ment of the Acropolis. Adam was born in Scotland. After mak-
ing the European grand tour, he set-

acrylic paint tled in London, where his practice was a

Acrylic paints, made up of pigment dis- great success. His exposure to Roman
solved in a synthetic medium, were first antiquities under piranesi's tutelage
developed during the 1880s to substi- had the most enduring effect on his sub-

tute for OIL PAINT. Acrylics, as they are sequent work in terms of composition
known, have steadily improved since and motifs, which he synthesized within
then and were introduced into general a rococo sensibility into "the Adam
use during the 1950s. Their advantages style." This style swept over England in
are the relative speed with which they the 1760S and spread to France and
dry; ease of application; and the clarity, America. Adam's designs included inte-

stability, and durability of color. Vari- riors, furniture, metalwork, and car-
ous synthetic mediums enable acrylic pets, as well as buildings. For Kenwood
 aestheticism/aesthetic movement 7

House (1767-69) in London, his library cient times, he is best known for one of
has GROTESQUE decorations inspired by art history's most provocative works.
wall paintings that had come to light Meat Still Life (i 551), an oil about 6V2
with the excavations of pompeii and feetwide by 4 feet high, locates the
herculaneum in the 1730s and 1740s. viewer uncomfortably close to a meat
Adam designed a cylindrical tomb for a stall. One of the larger objects on dis-
friend, the philosopher David Hume. play is a cow's head, half-skinned, look-
Adam's buildings influenced the Ameri- ing us directly in the eye. Meat, pretzels,
can BULFiNCH, among other architects. sausages, pigs' feet, dead fowl, and
other produce are for sale in this out-
Aegean art door setting. Lest 16th-century viewers
Art from areas around the Aegean Sea doubt (perhaps moralizing) references
produced during the Bronze Age is stud- to excess, scattered shells of mussels
ied under the umbrella term "Aegean." and oysters, considered aphrodisiacs,
This includes cycladic, minoan, and could remind them. The multitude of al-
MYCENAEAN art. legorical signs (e.g., two dead fish lying

in the form of a cross allude to Christ) is

Aertsen, Pieter complemented by a small scene in the

1 507/8-1 575 • Netherlandish • distant landscape, presumably Mary

painter • Northern Renaissance and Joseph on their flight to Egypt.
(This kind of composition, with the bib-
An example of how glossy fish, tin,
lical narrative in the background rather
and copper reflect each other is found
than the foreground, is known as an in-
in the paintings of [Aertsen], This man
version; see also van leyden.) It is sig-
admirably rendered stalks with color,
nificant that the painting is dated
and in this regard everything seemed
mid-March 15 5 1 , which is the period of
alive, both the leaves and the
Lent, when eating meat was tradition-
fruits. . . . In sum, he was superior in
ally prohibited among Catholics. Art
the art of clever treatment of
historians offer nearly as many inter-
reflections; indeed, he was a great,
pretations as the painting offers food.
able, and cunning deceiver of human
Does it downplay the biblical narra-
eyes and a resourceful impostor. For
tive in order to escape the iconoclasm
one imagines seeing all sorts of things,
of the period (see icon)? Does it exem-
yet it is nothing but color which he
plify a convention of peasant satire?
was able to mix in such a way as to
Does it invoke the idea of responsibility
make the plane seem round, the flat in
to the needy? Or does it speak plainly
relief, the mute eloquent, and the dead
but vividly about the benefits of the ma-
alive. (Carel van Mander, c. 1604)
terial world to a wealthy consumer cul-
Aertsen was active in bustling, cos- ture?
mopolitan Antwerp before returning
to Amsterdam, his birthplace, in the Aestheticism/Aesthetic movement
1 5 50s (for Antwerp, see patinir). A A movement evolved from the theory of
STILL LIFE painter, and the first to have art first formulated by kant. Known by
created full-fledged still lifes since an- the phrase — or rallying cry
— "art for
8 AESTHETICS

art's sake," Aestheticism disassociates historical) theory of art, to define such

art from the ideas and values of its time, terms as 'beauty,' 'aesthetic value,'
It was advanced by a group of Euro- 'truth,' and 'significance.' " While
pean Romantics that included Gustave Kleinbauer correctly adds that "The
Flaubert and Baudelaire, and became modern art historian avoids all such
an almost religious conviction in Britain metaphysical speculation," it is no
during the 19th century. Aestheticism longer true that "in much of the West-
was championed by the critic pater, ern world ... art history is non-
who has been called "the high priest of philosophical." Baumgarten and
Victorian aestheticism." Pater pro- winckelmann, who combined the
moted the concept of art for art's sake words "art" and "history" for the first
to uphold the idea of art's purity, sane- time, were contemporaries. (See also
tity, and idealism and the artists' indif- art history)
ference to issues of truth to nature,
accuracy of representation, and social
consciousness. The argument reached Agesander
the courts in the 1870s after whistler ist century bce-ce • Greek •

had exhibited his work at the new sculptor • Hellenistic

Grosvenor Gallery in London, where _ . 11 1 r 11 jj.i
,
Out Of one block of marble did the
the art-for-art's-sake position was pro- .,, . 4 j n ; j
, ,
.
illustrious artists Agesander, Folydoros,
moted. RUSKiN wrote that the price tag ... rr,, n , ,

and Athenodoros of Rhodes, after

on Whistler's painting Nocturne in , .
, ,

, ^ , r^/ i;-
, r, I , r^ ;
taking counsel together, carve
Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket
.
^
Laocoon,
# •

his children
# u and
; .;
the
(1875) was "for flinging a pot or paint , ., , , , ,„,.
, ,, ^ ,r w^ • 1 1 r
wondrous coils of the snakes, (vhny
in the public s race. Whistler sued tor , t-, , v

the Elder, century ce)

,,
libel
,

and won
,

in principle
,

—the ,

princi-
I St

ple that the painter could alter objective The laocoon in the Vatican Museum,
truth to fit subjective aesthetic stan- long believed to be the original work of

dards — if not in financial victory. In Agesander (also known as Hage-

France, the writings of Mme. de Stael sander), Polydoros, and Athenodoros,
and the art of the symbolists upheld as described by pliny the Elder above,

the Aestheticist position. isnow considered a Roman copy (see

ROMAN art). However, the names of
aesthetics the same three artists are inscribed on
The German philosopher Alexander sculpture fragments found in 1957 in a
Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762) grotto near a Roman imperial villa of
coined this term in Meditationes the ist century ce. The grotto at Sper-

(1735); he also wrote Aesthetica in
1750-58. Baumgarten identified aes-
thetics —the theory of the beautiful—as
an independent philosophical
pline. According to
bauer, "The aesthetician tries to learn
the nature of art, to evolve a (non-
longa was probably used for fanciful
dinner parties, and the sculptures are
thought to have shown scenes from
disci- Homer's Odyssey: A head identified as
W. Eugene Klein- Odysseus bears a strong resemblance to
the head of the suffering priest Lao-
coon.
 ALBANI, CARDINAL ALESSANDRO 9

AIDS the airbrushwas man ray. He was fol-

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the lowed by POP ARTISTS and photoreal-
AIDS epidemic ravaged the population ISTS.

of artists, claiming countless lives (e.g.,

MAPPLETHORPE, HARING, and WOJ- Albani, Cardinal Alessandro

NAROWicz). The disease became the 1692-1779 • Italian •

subject of much of the art of those ecclesiastic/collector/patron

decades, both by the artists it struck and

Cardinal Albani is in our days the
by their friends. One of the first exhibi-
restorer-in-chief of Antiquity. The most
tions devoted to art about AIDS was
mutilated, disfigured, incurable pieces
Witnesses: Against Our Vanishing, cu-
are, through him, given back the
rated by the photographer Nan Golden
flower of their youth . .
.
; the fragment
and held in 1989 at the Artists' Space in
of a bust which, even if it were whole,
New York City . In June 1 987 a group in
would have been una testa
San Francisco gathered to found the
incognitissima to all the antiquarians
Names Project AIDS Memorial Quilt.
from him both a new
receives life and
Each panel of the quilt has the name of
a name which indelibly settles its
someone who died of AIDS. In ten
destiny. (Pierre-Jean Grosley, c. 1759)
years, more than 41,000 individual 3-
by-6-foot panels had been assembled From churchmen and pa-
a family of
from throughout the world, and the trons. Cardinal Albani is renowned as
quilt, which is regularly on exhibit, has the sponsor of winckelmann, who
raised $1.7 million for AIDS service or- lived, wrote, and served as librarian at
ganizations; it is the largest example of the cardinal's home, and was also cura-

a community art project in the world, tor for the collection of antiquities the
and it has, in effect, redefined the tradi- cardinal assembled. Albani was respon-
tion of quiltmaking. In December 1991, sible for the first careful excavations of
when a bell tolled every 10 minutes in Rome. Sculptures of
the Palatine Hill in
art galleries and museums around the ANTINOUS found at Emperor Hadrian's
world to mark the rate at which people villa at Tivoli were among the treasures
were dying of AIDS, a Day Without Art collected with his support and exhibited
was initiated. It was just that: Galleries at his Roman villa, in the gallery where
and museums were closed to the public MENGS later painted the ceiling fresco
during their ordinary hours, though Parnassus with Apollo and the Muses
often they sponsored events related to (1760-61). This painting is an exem-
the AIDS epidemic. plar of the "noble simplicity and calm
grandeur" identified by Winckelmann
airbrush as the primary attributes of classical
Initially used only commercially, the art. In 1733, Pope Clement XII bought
airbrush is a small machine that sprays much of Albani's collection, including
paint to achieve a smooth, evenly the statues of Antinous, and made it the
shaded finish. The spray can be ad- core of a new museum on the Capito-
justed from pencil thin to a broad mist. line Hill. Albani's enthusiasm for art
The first noncommercial artist to use was not in doubt, but his profiteering
lO ALBERS, JOSEF

and scruples were, even in his own day, disciplines of science, but also in their
as the cynical quotation above suggests, quiet beauty.

Albers, Josef Alberti, Leon Battista

1 888-1976 • German/American • 1404-1472 • Italian •

painter/designer • Concrete Art/Op architect/sculptor/painter/writer •

Art Renaissance

. . . how do we see the third dimension His genius was so very versatile that
when created as an illusion by the you might almost judge all the fine arts

artist in terms of lines, flat shapes and to be his.

colors on a two-dimensional field?
The epitome of a "Renaissance man,"
Albers apprenticed in a stained glass Alberti played so many significant roles
workshop prior to joining the bauhaus that any effort to describe his impor-
in was founded.
1920, the year after it tance risks both under- and overstate-
He was quickly advanced from student ment. The comment quoted above,
to teacher, heading the school's glass which seems to represent the latter,
workshop there until 1933. After Jo- was, in fact, written by Alberti himself;
hannes Itten left the Bauhaus in 1925, he used the third person without false
Albers shared responsibility with mo- modesty, for he made no bones about
HOLY-NAGY for the school's founda- his quest for fame. The glory of fame
tional course. Albers immigrated to the was a forthright pursuit of the classi-
United States in 1933, and taught at cal revival, with its grounding in hu-
BLACK MOUNTAIN COLLEGE and major manism and its belief in the centrality
American universities. In 1950 he be- of man and his ability to understand
came head of the Department of Archi- and even fashion his world. Italian re-
tecture and Design at Yale University, naissance thinkers valued theory, and
continuing his role as a powerful influ- Alberti was a theoretician of the first
ence in training artists, architects, and order. It is he who codified and refined
designers. Early in his career, Albers BRUNELLESCHi's description of per-
made a series of glass pictures with bits spective. The preface of Alberti's tract
of bottles and scraps salvaged from a On Fainting {De pictura, 1435)was
town dump. Set above lighted boxes, dedicated to Brunelleschi, the book it-
these ABSTRACT designs glow, rich with self to Gianfrancesco gonzaga. Mar-

varieties of color and texture. Albers's quis of Mantua. Alberti wrote the tract
most renowned work is the series of first in Latin, then translated it into Ital-
paintings he began in 1950 entitled ian (Delia pittura, 1436). The practice
Homage to the Square. With seemingly of architecture had not been his primary
infinite variation, he juxtaposed one interest, but after Brunelleschi's death
square of color against the background Alberti took it up seriously. His de-
of another. These studies of visual per- signs — for San Francesco at Rimini (c.

ception are extraordinary not only in 1450) and for Sant' Andrea, Mantua (c.

their manifold contributions to several 1470), for example — reveal that where
 ALGAROTTI, FRANCESCO II

Brunelleschi adapted the Classical vo- Changes in the power structure of

cabulary piecemeal, Alberti had a much Rome had a profound effect on artists.
deeper, holistic understanding of it. Al- The death of Pope Urban VII, and the
berti's writings include literature and (temporary) exile of his barberini sup-
embrace architecture (on which his porters, was bad for bernini but good
artistic reputation is based), sculpture, for Algardi. When Innocent X became
and even a moralistic dissertation, The pope September 1644, Algardi, who
in

Family (1433). Alberti was the illegiti- had been in Rome for some zo years,
mate son of a merchant who was exiled was able to move from the shadow into
from Florence, his mother died when he the limelight, displacing Bernini as the
was two years old, and his father, who most favored sculptor of the day. Al-
adopted him, died when he was 16. De- gardi and Bernini both sculpted busts of
prived of his inheritance by relatives Innocent; Algardi's (c. 1646) is more
while he was at the universities of subdued and idealized than that of
Bologna and Padua, he was poor and Bernini. Algardi was a member of the
frequently ill. Alberti first went to Flo- "classicist" group in Rome, seeking to
rence, the center of Italian Renaissance portray the eternal and ideal rather than
culture, in 1428. His given name, Bat- the transient and emotive, although he
tista, is that of the patron saint of Flo- tended to combine the two in what the
rence. He chose to adopt the name historian wittkower calls "a compro-
Leon, signifying lion and carrying the mise." This difference in approach had
astrological sign of Leo, symbol of the already been apparent when, following
sun. For his personal emblem he devised the idea but not the spirit of Bernini's
a winged eye, which he incorporated Tomb of Urban VIII (1627-47), Al-
into a self-portrait plaque. The portrait, gardi's Tomb of Leo XI (mid-i630s) re-
in profile, is of the Classical Roman jected its drama. Algardi designed one
type. of the most magnificent of all Roman
villas for Prince Pamfili. When Cardinal
Mazarin rose to power in France in the

mid- 1 7th century, he tried to lure Al-

Alexandrian School
gardi to Paris. He was nearly successful
See PERGAMENE SCHOOL
in 1648, but as the quotation above
from Algardi's friend Passeri indicates,
Algardi, Alessandro
the pope was even more persuasive.
1 598-1654 • Italian • sculptor/

architect • Baroque
Algarotti, Francesco
[Pope Innocent] made him so many of- 17 1 2-1764 • Italian • patron/critic

fers, many promises, plied him with

so
/ go again and again to look at the
so much flattery and aroused in him so
divine works of Palladio without ever
many hopes that they made him
growing tired of them.
change his mind, and cancel all his

contracts. (Giovanni Battista Passeri, In 1732 Algarotti wrote a letter to a

17th century) friend from his student days about his
12 ALLA PRIMA

admiration for palladio, an excerpt izes the work of manet and of van
from which is quoted above. Born in GOGH, as well as of the impressionists.
VENICE and educated in Rome and
Bologna, Algarotti influenced many Allston, Washington
leading artists, but especially the two 1779-1843 • American • painter •
with whom he had the closest contacts Romantic
and who were the most important of
Trust your own genius, listen to the
their era, tiepolo and canaletto.
voice within you, and sooner or later
Handsome and charming, Algarotti
she will make herself understood not
took advantage of both traits, enjoying
only to you, but she will enable you to
the friendship of princes and philoso-
translate her language to the world,
phers, Frederick the Great and Voltaire
and this it is which forms the only
among them. He wrote a series of books
merit of any work of art.
and articles, and though he championed
Venetian artists, he spent little time at Allston introduced romanticism to
home in Venice. In commissioning America, though Americans at that
works from painters, Algarotti fol- time were still more interested in buying
lowed the conventional practice of as- their own portraits rather than the ex-
signing them the subjects and details to pressive history paintings Allston
be included as well as the literary con- wanted to sell. From a well-to-do South
nections. But he went beyond that in Carolina family, Allston first studied at
recognizing and making special accom- Harvard College, then made way to
his

modation to individual artists' styles Europe. He learned the grand manner

and strengths. "Indeed, this openness to from WEST, then from 1803 to 1808
experience is one of his most attractive made the grand tour, with long stays
characteristics, but it makes it difficult in Paris and Rome. That he saw himself
to gauge the strength of his influence on as a gentleman/intellectual/poet is clear
individual painters," writes the histo- from his Byronic Self-Portrait (1805).
rian Francis Haskell in a study of art His dark curly hair and sensuous lips

and society of the baroque period. are set against an ambiguous architec-
tural background evocative of both a
aliaprima dungeon and Roman ruins. Elijah in the

From Italian, meaning "at first," alia Desert {x%T%), from the biblical story of
prima refers to painting directly onto a the prophet who survived by being fed
surface without preliminary drawing or by ravens, is a sublime landscape, with
underpainting. Occasionally used (e.g., the very small figure of Elijah hardly
by HALS, CARAVAGGio, and velAzquez) noticeable. But the desolate terrain and
before the 19th century, alia prima be- tortuously gnarled tree against a turbu-
came popular then because of both lent sky communicate a sense of awe.
technical advances in paint manufac- Allston made another trip abroad in
ture and the temperamental preferences 18 1 1 and returned to America in 181 8,
of ROMANTIC artists (e.g., delacroix). but did not flourish as he had hoped. A
Alia prima painting expresses fluent, major project that he had started in

spontaneous brushwork. It character- London, Belshazzar's Feast, a visionary

 3

ALTARPIECE 1

prophecy of disaster, became his per- benches, besides the suggestion of bas-
sonal albatross, a project he could nei- reliefs (see relief), are beautiful
ther finish nor leave alone, much as the women wearing filmy pastel dresses.
Ancient Mariner carried his wretched- The title may have been taken from a
ness in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's phrase in a letter Shelley wrote in 1820:
poem. Coleridge was, as it happens, All- "We watched the ocean and sky to-
ston's friend and constant companion gether, under the roof of blue Italian
while they were in Rome, exploring the weather." Alma-Tadema was well re-

COLOSSEUM by moonlight and contem- warded for his work, and in 1899 was
plating the strange and supernatural, knighted. At the banquet celebrating
AUston called Belshazzar's Feast "the the event, the art critic Comyns
tormentor of my life." The voice of Carr wrote the doggerel quoted above,
which he spoke, in his advice to another the chorus of a longer composition
painter, quoted above, apparently thatwas set to music. While Alma-
would not allow him to finish translat- Tadema, Leighton, and, in Amer-
ing his vision into paint. ica, Thomas dewing were creating
their decorative, somnolent upper-class
Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence women, cezanne painted lumpy, nude
1 83 6-19 1 2 • Dutch/English • female bathers; gauguin first painted
painter • Academic Breton peasants in native costume,
,„,, .
II ; / ,7 then Polynesian women in Tahiti:
who knows him , ,
well he best can tell I
,
. ,

„,
1 hat a stouter friend hath no man,
/-•/;/ ,
I
and TOULOUSE-LAUTREC documented
,

_, , . ,

i han this lusty knight who for our

I .
I I /•

,
r
women as performers m everythmg • 1

, .

J ,. , , , ,
„ , ,
from the circus to the whorehouse.
delight hath painted Greek and
Roman. (Comyns Carr, 1899) ,

airaroiece
Alma-Tadema settled in London in The altarpiece first appeared during the
1870. Like his friend and contemporary early 13th when Catholic
century
LEIGHTON, Alma-Tadema created a he- priests began celebrating Mass with
donistic fantasy world of languorous, their backs to the congregation. Reli-
sensual women in luxuriant settings, gious images placed on, above, or be-
These settings were likely to include fur hind an altar were painted on one
rugs and marble fountains, benches, panel or several hinged panels: A dip-
and columns, the latter archaeologically tych is two panels, triptych is three, and
correct antiquities — Alma-Tadema polyptych means "many panels." The
went to POMPEII to inspect the newly outside panels, or wings, are opened or
excavated ruins in 1863. If his paintings closed according to prescribed ritual.
insulated their viewers from the prob- Small, supplementary paintings at the
lems of contemporary life, they also base of an altarpiece form the predella.
provided strong undercurrents of eroti- While convention usually dictated the
cism.Under the Roof of Blue Ionian content and form of the main panel, at
Weather (1901) is an oblong canvas times an artist would use the predella
filled by a semicircular marble wall for experimental or unconventional im-
tiered with benches. Decorating the ages. For The Adoration of the Magi
 —

14 ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT

(1423), for example, gentile da Fabri- luxury for which the Church was com-
ano's predella picture The Nativity was ing under attack, and it may also be a
an unusual night scene. Smaller altar- reaction to news that explorers of the
pieces for private chapels were made for New World were ruining the as yet "un-
individual patrons, especially during civilized" lands across the ocean.
the Late gothic period as private devo- Working in a lush region surrounding
tion became increasingly mystical. the Danube River, Altdorfer seems to
Paintings of Christ and the saints both imagine a world of beginnings, of prim-
inspired visions and recorded them itive, untamed forces, a pantheistic sort

portraits of patrons, presumably en- of religious experience. Saint George

joying the mystic apparitions depicted Slaying the Dragon (1510) is a small
in the painting, were often included in painting, less than a foot high, in which
the altarpiece, usually on the side pan- Saint George and his horse as well as the

els. Besides their primary liturgical in-
tention, form, and content, as the art
historian Michael Baxandall writes,
altarpieces were also emblems of civic
pride. They fulfilled the desire for
dragon are overwhelmed by dense,
nearly anthropomorphic foliage. Simul-
taneously magnetic and frightening,
such landscapes are powerfully mysti-
pomp cal. Mysticism takes a different turn in

and splendor as well as "the propa- connection with a subject Altdorfer

ganda endeavors of the urban religious began to paint about a decade later.

orders, competition between patrons, Known as the Schone Maria (c. 1520),
and rivalry among artists." this is a picture of the Virgin and Child
based on a famous image from Santa
Altdorfer, Albrecht Maria Maggiore in Rome. Altdorfer
c. 1480-1538 • German • painter • was commissioned to produce it for a
Northern Renaissance church in Regensburg, Germany, which
was erected on a site where, with anti-
The need to reproduce [Altdorfer's
Semitic fervor, a synagogue and Jewish
image of the Schone Maria/
cemetery had been destroyed. The
popularly . . . could not be more
church became a Christian pilgrimage
apparent, and it seems a fairly
destination,and Altdorfer's painting
compulsive need. The Schone
gained renown for working miracles.
Maria becomes a momentary
He and his workshop made numerous
obsession . . . fetishized in its splendors
copies of the Madonna, as did many
and in its ordinariness (depending on
other artists, leading the historian
which visual context one considers).
Freedberg, quoted above, to also write,
(David Freedberg, 1989)
"... every image became a vehicle for
Some of Altdorfer's paintings sweep a thanks, an intimate mediation with
viewer into the forest or along a steep, God, and the focus of the anxieties
descending road bordered by high trees against which only the Virgin, acting
and thick bushes. His landscapes are through and as her representation as the
overpowering rather than friendly; his Schone Maria of Regensburg could pro-
woods seem primeval. This may repre- tect." In another vein, Altdorfer's Battle
sent, in part, rejection of the excesses of of Issus (1529) is an imaginary, bird's-
 —

ANCIENT 15

eye view of Alexander the Great's tri- from the 1880s through the 1920s.
umph over Darius; we see the hero and Charles mckim (of mckim, mead, and
his troops dwarfed Hke ants in a vast, white), Cass Gilbert (1859-1934),
spectacular Alpine vista. Daniel H. Burnham (1846-1912),
Ernest Flagg (1857-1947), and John
American Impressionism Russell Pope (1874-193 7) are among
In the 1890s a group called Ten Ameri- American Renaissance architects.

can Painters was formed by Americans

working in an impressionist style. American Scene
Among them were hassam, weir, Whether American Scene painting was
TWACHTMAN, Frank Benson (1862- a subset of regionalism or vice versa,

1951), Willard Metcalf (1853-1925), both were Depression-era efforts to iso-

and Edmund Tarbell (1862-1938). late, validate, and recognize that which
Others who painted in an Impressionist was particularly American, from tradi-

style but were not members of the tional values to the new cultures of of-
group were chase, cassatt, Lilla Cabot fice work, industrialization, and even
Perry (1848-193 3), beaux, and Theo- unemployment. Among artists so cate-

dore Robinson (1852-1896). Most of gorized (although sometimes against

these artists had studied in Paris; in their wishes) were bishop, marsh, and
the hands of Americans, however. Im- HOPPER.
pressionism was somewhat different.
They seem less interested in, or less will- amphora
ing to dissolve, form as, for example, A Greek vase with two handles used for
MONET did. The historian John Wil- storing and shipping liquids such as
merding writes, "American artists gen- wine, oil, and honey. (See also pot-
erally were too deeply ingrained with a tery)
national aesthetic tradition of realism
and narrative to be able to perceive or Analytic Cubism
accept fully the intellectual and formal See cubism
implications of the French theories. . . .

In sum, American artists on the whole anamorphosis

gave priority to the substance of their See perspective
subject matter, over its perception (reti-

nally or optically), rather than the re- Anastaise

verse." This unwillingness to abandon See miniature
the real world is sometimes attributed
to a pervasive, underlying materialism ancient
of Americans, especially during the In ART history this term, which has its

period of unprecedented economic roots in the Latin ante for "before,"

growth and capitalism. generally refers to the historical period
that predates Christianity. "Ancient" is

American Renaissance , primarily used to modify greek and

This term refers to the classical eclec- ROMAN art —that is the traditional im-
ticism of American art and architecture plication of the phrase "ancient art"
l6 ANDERSON, LAURIE

and secondarily Egyptian art, as well as "You can read the signs." An accretion
that of the Ancient Near East. Increas- of confusion, frustration, and impo-
ingly the arts of African lands south of tence seems the inevitable consequence
Egypt are studied under the heading of of such a work. Anderson has per-
Ancient Africa, and the early arts of formed in places as diverse as the Whit-
China, Japan, and Cambodia are also ney Museum of American Art and a
called "ancient," though the prefix BENEDICTINE convent in the Midwest in

"ante," in the Western time frame, ob- which 3,000 nuns reside.

viously has no relevance.

Andokides Painter/Potter
Anderson, Laurie active c. 525 bce • Greek • Archaic
born 1947 • American •
The painter of the red-figure pictures is
performance • Contemporary
known as the Andokides Painter
7 dreamedhad to take a test in a
I because four [now some twenty] vases
Dairy Queen on another planet. of the group bear the signature
"Andokides epoisen," made by
For a series of performances, Ander-
Andokides. (J. P. Beazley, 1928)
son recorded the phrase quoted above
and attached the tape to the bow of a vi- Andokides is the potter's name, and the
olin, an instrument she has played since anonymous painter identified with his
childhood. By moving the bow across production is named after him. Believed

the head of her tape player, which was to be the inventor of the red-figure
attached to the body of the violin, she TECHNIQUE of painting pottery, the
manipulated the sound of the phrase. Andokides Painter first used the tech-
The sentence itself evokes a variety of nique on "bilingual" pots, that is, those
images, from sleeping, to ice cream, to with the earlier black-figure pictures
space travel, and just as many ques- on one side and red-figure images on
tions: "What kind of test?" "Why in a the other.
Dairy Queen?" for example. Such mul-
tiple layers and evocations characterize Andre, Carl
Anderson's work. Her four-part United born 1935 • American • sculptor •
States, of which the first part was per- Minimalist
formed in 1980, is a complex multime-
I think art is expressive but it is
dia stage presentation recorded on
expressive of that which can be
videotape. In it her voice, and some-
expressed in no other way.
times her persona, is oddly disguised
and distorted. The "story" she tells is In addition to the comment above, from
unconstrained by either chronology or an interview in 1970, Andre said, "I am
coherence, but, again, it raises perplex- certainly no kind of conceptual artist

ing questions, as when a woman repeat- because the physical existence of my

edly asks, "Hello, excuse me, can you work cannot be separated from the
tell me where I am?" The repeated an- idea. . . . My art springs from my desire
swer from a gas station attendant is to have things in the world which
 7

ANDREA DEL SARTO 1

would Otherwise never be there." Those dead. His infamy aside, Andrea was
things include eight lengths of square among the Florentine avant-garde,
wood beams stacked two by two in al- exploring perspective and creating
ternate directions to form Pyre (Ele- characters with an intensity, if not a tru-
ment Series constructed 1971 from a culence, that he, personally, probably
i960 plan). This might seem to resem- shared. His fresco The Last Supper (c.

ble one of lewitt's conceptual sculp- 1447) is painted on a wall of a convent's

tures were it not for Andre's interest in refectory, or dining hall. His David (c.

details like the texture, grain, and de- 1449-50), painted on a leather shield, is

sign of the materials. Stone Field Sculp- a forceful, energetic rendering of the

ture (1977) is an assembly of 36 huge lithe young giant-slayer in motion. This

glacial boulders transported to a grassy style is less like MASACCio's solid fig-

site in front of a building in downtown ures, and those of Andrea's own The
Hartford, Connecticut, and lined up in Last Supper, and more in the animated,
an improbable regular, rational order. muscular style that characterizes the

last half of the century.

Andrea del Castagno

before 1419-1457 • Italian •
Andrea del Sarto
painter • Renaissance
1486-1530 • Italian pamter
Andrea del Castagno was a great Renaissance
disegnatore and of great rilievo; he
But one day, as he was doing a St.
was a lover of the difficulties of the art
Jerome in penitence for the king's
and of foreshortenings, lively and very
mother, some letters arrived from his
prompto, and very facile in working.
wife at Florence. . . . He asked the
(Cristoforo Landino, 1480)
king's permission to go, saying that he
Despite the high opinion of him ex- would return when he had arranged
pressed by the Latin scholar and some affairs, and that he would bring
philosopher Landino, quoted above, back his wife, to enable him to live
Andrea's reputation suffered badly for there more comfortably, and that he
300 years on the basis of gossip spread would bring with him valuable
by VASARi. The scandal Vasari perpe- paintings and sculptures. The king
trated was that Andrea, a coarse and vi- trusted him, and gave him money,
olent man, killed domenico in a rage while Andrea swore on the Gospels to
of jealousy over his rival's skill in paint- return in a few months. . . . When the
ing with oil in the Venetian manner. time for his return to France had
The story was discounted in the 19th passed . . . he had spent all his money
century when Andrea's records were and the king's also. But though he
discovered and showed that, in fact, he wished to return, the tears and
had died before Domenico. Moreover, entreaties of his wife prevailed more
OIL paintings were not widely pro- than his own needs and his promise to
duced in VENICE until 1475 (see an- the king. [King] Francis became so
TONELLo), after both protagonists were angry at his faithlessness that he for a
I 8 ANGELICO, FRA (gUIDO DI PIERO)

long time looked askance at Florentine and rests content with his choice and his
painters, and he swore that if Andrea lot. PONTORMO, ROSSO, and Vasari
ever fell into his hands he would have himself were among Andrea's students.
more pain than pleasure, in spite of all
his ability. Thus Andrea remained in Angelico, Fra (Guide di Piero)
Florence, fallen very low from hts high c. 1395/1400-1455 • Italian •

station, and maintaining himself as painter • Renaissance

best he could. (Vasari, mid- 1 6th
[Fra Angelico] was a simple and most
century)
holy man . . . most gentle and
temperate, living chastely, removed
Andrea's paintings reflect substantial
from the cares of the world . . . humble
borrowing from and influence of oth-
and modest in all his works. (Vasari,
ers. He trained under piero di Cosimo,
mid- 1 6th century)
and came under the authority of Leo-
nardo, MICHELANGELO, RAPHAEL, and A Dominican monk and a painter for
BARTOLOMMEO. He shared the artistic the order, Angelico created works that
reins of Florence with Bartolommeo were conservative rather than experi-
after Raphael left. Andrea was espe- mental; his interest was in presenting
cially interested in enlivening Leo- Christian teachings, and not in trying
nardo's PALETTE while still using his new ideas. While he might incorporate
methods of modeling, and was much linear perspective in his picture, he

admired for his coloring, which vasari would not hesitate to place a figure
called "divine." However, as the ex- in a space with a ceiling too low to
cerpt quoted above shows, Vasari was stand up in, as is true of his well-known
also responsible for the gossip that An- Annunciation fresco of c. 1440-45.
drea's wife dominated him when he re- Generally modest and direct in his com-

turned home from France, where he had positions, Angelico was attentive to
been called to work for francis I (also some decorative details, a patch of lawn
a PATRON of Leonardo). Be that as it covered with wildflowers, for example,
may, Andrea painted numerous beauti- and the angel's wings he painted in
ful Madonnas, especially the Madonna bands of mellow color. Rejecting the
of the Harpies (1517), for which his massive forms and expressiveness of
wifewas the model. What to Vasari was MASACCio, Angelico painted figures
scandal was romanticized by Robert with serene, doll-like faces. His spare
Browning in the 19th century, in a but still tangible and real-appearing
poem he entitled Andrea del Sarto. frescoes Monastery of San
for the
Browning constructed a lengthy mon- Marco (where the Annunciation de-
ologue through which the artist, scribed above is located) were spiritual
speaking to his wife, explains his renun- images that impressed van der weyden,
ciation of riches in favor of her love. He who stopped in Florence during his pil-

contrasts his role as husband with that grimage to Rome in 1450. Through van
of his three unmarried contemporaries, der Weyden, Angelico's ideas rein-
Leonardo, Raphael, and Michelangelo, forced the northern renaissance
 9

ANIMAL STYLE 1

artists' interest in making images that pline of ART HISTORY — at least until the

are appropriate to their particular envi- 1970s. Since then examples of her work
ronment in both subject and style. have slowly been coming to light. These
are primarily portraits, some self-

Anguissola, Sofonisba portraits, and many of her own family.

1532-1625 • Italian • painter • As CASSATT would do some 300 years
Mannerist later, Anguissola reveals a sensitive
understanding of women and children
If it were possible to demonstrate with
as people, not merely props, and paints
a brush before the eyes of Your
the independence and dignity she finds
Holiness the beauty of the soul of this
in their character. One curious work of
illustrious queen. Your Holiness could
hers is a picture of a picture being
not see anything more wonderful. But
painted; dated about 1550, it is entitled
with those aspects that art is able to
Bernardino Campi Painting Sofonisba
render I have not neglected to the best
Anguissola.
of my ability to show Your Holiness
the truth.
Animal style
Besides living for 93 years, Anguissola Refers to the use of animals, birds, and
challenged other i6th- and 17th- fantastic beasts as the basis for usually
century norms as well as expectations intricate designs. Scythians —nomadic
of a woman: She was well educated, she people from the steppes north of the
studied under the artist Bernardino Black Sea who made their way to As-
Campi in her hometown of Cremona, syria at the end of the 7th century bce —
and she became so successful a painter created some of the earliest Animal style
that in1559 she was called to the court designs and carried them west. Animal
of King Philip II in Madrid, where she style was also used by the Germanic

painted for 20 years. A friend and tribes that settled Western Europe (see

painting instructor to Philip's third migration). They created enameled

wife, Isabel of valois, Anguissola and jeweled metalwork of extraordi-
wrote the comments quoted above to nary craftsmanship. By the 5th century
Pope Pius IV in a letter that accompa- CE, the Animal style was widespread,
nied her portrait of Isabel. Anguissola is used sometimes in cloisonne, or in
the first known woman artist to achieve precious stones, and for objects like
international fame. Little is certain decorated fibulae (fasteners, usually for
about her career, though much is specu- clothing) of bronze, silver, and gold. A
lated: for example, that she knew purse cover from the Sutton Hoo Ship
MICHELANGELO and CARAVAGGIO and Burial 65 5 has gold and enamel dec-
(c. )

influenced van dyck (who drew her orations that include animals and men
when she was quite old), and that she as well as geometric patterns. From a
influenced and encouraged other Viking ship ritually buried (c. 825) in
women artists. She was, however, un- Oseberg, Norway, comes an intricately
able to break one enduring tradition, carved wooden post in the form of a
the neglect of women artists in the disci- snake or dragon head, decorated with
20 ANSHUTZ, THOMAS

complex geometric and curvilinear one of the signature works of the fam-
INTERLACE designs. The Animal style ily's American art collection, and a key

even influenced the monastic scripto- example of American realism, henri

rium; it appears, for example, in the and SLOAN, who went on to form the
Lindesfarne Gospels (c. 698) and the ASHCAN SCHOOL, were two of An-
BOOK OF KELLS (early 9th century). shutz's students.

Anshutz, Thomas Antal, Frederick

1851-191Z • American • painter • 1 887-1954 • Hungarian • art

Realist historian

. . . a truly admirable genre painting, [Hogarth was] evoking sympathy for

Steelworkers' Noontime by Thomas the poor, unlicensed strolling
Anshutz, may come on the market. I companies put out of business by the
recommended it years ago to a . . . Licensing Act.
Detroit collector. I hope that you
. . .

Antal's studies of art were based on

will think about it. . . . It is unique to
their social context, and he applied his
my knowledge, as an industrial subject
philosophical commitment to marxism
in American nineteenth-century genre.
to understanding the works of artists of
(Edgar P. Richardson, 1965)
various periods. In Florentine Painting
A student of eakins at the Pennsylvania and Its Social Background (1948),
Academy of the Fine Arts, Anshutz also Antal described giotto's personifica-
taught there, and took over the direc- tion /M5?/ce 1305-06) in the Arena
(c.

torship after Eakins was dismissed. An- Chapel of Padua as representing the
shutz is best known for one painting, bourgeois outlook of the time. Simi-
Steelworkers — Noontime (1880), a larly, writing about an engraving by
composition that appears to arrest the HOGARTH, Strolling Actresses Dressing
activity of workers at a factory during in a Barn (1737-38), Antal gave his
their lunch break, as in a snapshot. It is opinion of the artist's intention, as ex-

a strange work that also seems to cap- pressed in the passage quoted above.
ture an undercurrent of hostility and Antal's were the first major art histori-

tension. A pioneering scholar in Ameri- cal writings with a theoretical basis in

can art, Edgar P. Richardson (i90z- Marxism.

1985) appreciated the merits of this

painting and, in the 1965 letter quoted Anthemius of Tralles

from above, recommended its purchase 6th century • Greek •
to John D. Rockefeller. The Rocke- mathematician/theorist
fellers did not acquire it, however, until
[Architecture is] the application of
1973. Retrospectively, John D. Rocke-
geometry to solid matter.
feller explained that he bought it, fi-

nally, "seemed to us to
because it The dates of his birth and death are un-
present an aspect of the American story certain, but it is known that Anthemius
through art that was intriguing and sig- was a Greek mathematician whose spe-
nificant to have." In fact, it has become cialty was geometry and optics. In 532
 antique/antiquity 21

he and Isidorus of Miletus were selected the great classic types given to the world

by Emperor Justinian to design hagia by the antique, so also is it among the

SOPHIA. Isidorus was a professor of most powerful and majestic. ... In An-
physics at universities in Alexandria and tinous all the cults of declining Pagan-
Constantinople, and his expertise was in ism seem to meet." Ancient texts as well
mechanical engineering; he also wrote a as images describe a beautiful, wistful
scholarly treatise on vaulting. (See arch) youth with inward-looking eyes, thick
brows, soft cheeks, full mouth, and
Antinous straight nose; his face was probably as

About 123 CE, the Roman emperor well if not better known than that of the

Hadrian (ruled 17-138 ce) took a

1 emperor himself. As a god, Antinous
Greek boy named Antinous as his com- was both Dionysian and Apollonian,
panion. Part of Hadrian's attraction to and in statues he appears in the tradi-

Antinous reflected his devotion to tional poses of Apollo, Hermes, and

Greek culture —love between man and Dionysus. He was believed to pro-
boy, called Greek love, characterized nounce oracles, perform miracles, and
the civilization of ancient Greece. Anti- heal the sick. Pilgrims journeyed to his
nous drowned in the Nile at the age of shrines, and his passion was reenacted,
19 and one speculation is that he took as were those of Christ, Sebastian, and
his own life as a ritual sacrifice on other saints years later. The Antinous
Hadrian's behalf. Early death also ful- type is believed to have influenced ital-
filled the Greek ideal that it is better to ian renaissance artists including do-
die young, at the peak of one's power natello and antonello. Later,
and beauty, than to suffer the inevitable bernini said he "turned to the Anti-
reversals of age. After the boy's death, nous as to the oracle."
Hadrian deified Antinous and estab-
lished cults devoted to the new god. antique/antiquity
These spread quickly and widely, reach- Derived from the Latin antiquus, mean-
ing the farthest borders of the Greco- ing "old," the term is loosely used to
Roman world. More than 28 temples designate something old-fashioned, or
were dedicated to Antinous, although that has value due to its age. In art his-
none remains. Multitudes of talismans, tory, "antique" refers primarily to ob-
coins, and cult statues, monumental jects,and fragments of objects, of
and miniature, of Antinous do survive ancient greek and roman art, pro-
of the thousands that must have been duced in periods referred to as antiq-

created. They have been found in places uity. Romans themselves began the
as distant from one another as the practice of copying Greek antique
foothills of the Caucasus Mountains sculpture by reproducing it, which is

along the Black Sea, the western shores why we have few
today, although
of the British Isles, the mouth of the Greek originals, we know Greek statues
Rhine, the North African coast, and largely through Roman copies. Romans
even oases deep in the Sahara. Eugenie also adapted Greek style to suit their

Strong wrote in Roman Sculpture own needs: For example, the Augustus
(1907), "As the Antinous is the last of of Primaporta (20 bce) shows the
22 ANTONELLO DA MESSINA

Roman emperor Augustus in a pose like to refute theorists who like to relate

POLYKLEiTOs's Doryphoros (c. 450 history in terms of necessary

bce), but with adjustments —where the developments from stage to stage.
figure of Doryphoros is nude, the em- (Frederick Hartt, 1969)
peror is clothed, his right arm is raised

as though to address his troops, and the Antonello lived in Venice for only some
mythological figures decorating his 18 months, beginning in 1475, but he
breastplate have contemporary, politi- had a revolutionary effect on painting
cal significance. Of all Roman emper- there: The unprecedented use of oil
ors, Hadrian (76-138 ce) was the most paint to create atmosphere, light, and
ardent Grecophile; compan- when his color was taken up in Italy after An-
ion, ANTINOUS, died and was deified, tonello's example. He was not the first

Hadrian commissioned cult images to use oils in Venice, but he was the
that imitated classical Greek nudes, most influential. Born in the Sicilian city

By the beginning of the ITALIAN RENAis- of Messina, Antonello may have

sance, both Greek and Roman an- learned to paint in oils from nether-
tiquities were avidly pursued in archae- LANDiSH-trained Spanish masters who
ological campaigns, collected, studied, traveled through Sicily. One of An-
and copied, though for the most part tonello's earliest and most elegant oil

Roman copies and Greek originals were paintings, Saint Jerome in His Study
undifferentiated. Sometimes Renais- (c. 1460-65), shows the Netherlandish
sance artists used textual descriptions influence: indoor setting, a meticulous
of great works (e.g., see apelles), but attention to detail, rich color, and con-
usually they drew from the antiquities trolled illumination. The work of van
themselves. The pattern of looking back eyck is brought to mind. Still, Saint
to ancient Greece and Rome for exem- Jerome is quite Italian in its attention to
plars continued, spawning many Classi- perspective and the rolling hills be-
cal revivals (see neoclassicism and yond the window frames. Also one of
winckelmann), especially in the acad- the greatest portraitists in history, An-
EMY, where the phrase "drawing from tonello probed his subject's character
the antique" refers to using plaster casts and state of mind. Portrait of a Man in a
of antiquities as models. As was true of Red Cap (c. 1473-74), a three-quarter
the Romans, every era that looks to an- head and shoulders against a dark back-
tiquity for inspiration, including post- ground, is thought to be a self-portrait.

MODERN America, adapts the Classical The man's expression is questioning,

example for its own purpose. (See also both deferential and proud, and very in-

classicism) telligent. In c.1478 Antonello painted

Saint Sebastian, believed to be a wing of
an ALTARPiECE Commissioned for a
Antonello da Messina
church in Venice. Sebastian is one of the
c. 1430-1479 • Italian • pamter • .
n
j- •
n j c
saints traditionally called upon tor pro-
Renaissance
tection against the plague; between
One of those
those extraordinary geniuses 1456 and 1528, a series of plagues

who turn up every now and then as if killed one quarter of the population of
 APHRODITE (VENUS) OF CNIDOS (KNIDOS) 23

Venice. The sexual ambiguity of An- plar, then goes on to note that in one
tonello's Sebastian— the gentle contour area of his technique, nobody else could
of his body and the wistful, submissive compete: "... he coated his finished
expression on his face — is an affect re- works with a black varnish so thin that
peated frequently during the ITALIAN while it accentuated the reflection of the
RENAISSANCE. Little is known about brightness of all the colors and pro-
Antonello personally. Among those he tected the painting from dust and dirt,

influenced is Giovanni bellini. the varnish was visible only to one in-

specting it close at hand; but this also

involved considerable theoretical calcu-
Apelles lation, lest the brightness of the colors

active before 336-c. 300 bce Greek offend the eye, as in the case of those
• painter • Late Classical who look through a transparent col-
ored stone, and also so that, from a dis-
The painter who surpassed all those
tance, the same device might, though
who were born before him and all
hidden, give somberness to the colors
those who came later was Apelles of
which were too bright." Apelles' Aph-
Cos, who was active in the 112th
rodite Anadyomene [Aphrodite Rising
Olympiad [332 bce]. He alone
from the Sea) became legendary. Per-
contributed almost more to the art of
haps BOTTICELLI had the idea, if not the
painting than all other painters
form, of this precedent in mind when he
combined and also produced volumes,
worked on the Birth of Venus more
which contain his doctrine. (Pliny the
than 1,000 years later; he was certainly
Elder, ist century ce)
thinking of Apelles when, in 1497, he
The work of Apelles is known to us only followed the suggestion of alberti that
by reputation, for neither painting nor artists should re-create a vanished
writing by his hand survives. Using and painting of Apelles as described by
blending only the four traditional col- the Greek author Lucian. Botticelli's
ors— white, black, yellow, and red/ Calumny of Apelles, showing Hatred,
ocher — he achieved the superlative ef- Deceit, Fraud, Calumny, Penitence, and
fects extolled by pliny the Elder in the Truth, is as agitated and tormented a
quotation above. The most renowned work as his Birth of Venus is serene.
Greek painter of his time, Apelles was
the counterpart of his contemporary,
the sculptor praxiteles; works of both Aphrodite (Venus) of Cnidos
artists were characterized by the sensu- (Knidos)
ous, lithe grace (Greek: xapis or charis) PRAXITELES sculpted Several nude fig-

of their slender, elegant figures. In his ures of the goddess Aphrodite, but his c.

treatise on painting, Apelles is reported 340 BCE statue, in beautiful Parian

to have commented that his great suc- MARBLE, was the most renowned, influ-
cess came from knowing when a work ential, and notorious in ancient texts.
was finished. In his opinion, other This may be the first time the nude fe-
artists lacked his restraint. Pliny speaks male body was portrayed sensuously,
of the usefulness of Apelles as an exem- and as a figure to be seen and appreci-
24 APHRODITE (VENUS) OF MELOS (mILO)

ated equally from every angle. When Aphrodite (Venus) of Melos

Praxiteles finished this Aphrodite, he (Milo)
offered to sell it to the people of Cos, Found by a peasant on the island of
but they demurred in favor of a rela- Melos in 1820, this larger-than-life (6'

The more venture-

tively discreet statue. 10") Parian marble sculpture, bought
some Cnidians took it and stood it in a on the spot by the French ambassador,
small sanctuary surrounded by quickly made its way to France and the
columns. There, according to ancient Louvre. In i8zi an influential French
accounts, it so aroused the lust of young scholar, Antoine Quatremere de
men that they copulated with it. Later, Quincy (1755-1849), wrote, "I feel

as PLINY the Elder records, the Cnidians that this statue can give us an idea of the
refused an offer from the king of Bithy- art of the Greeks perhaps superior to
nia to absolve them of their debt in ex- that which previous statues of this na-

change for the statue, which had ture have given us with respect to the
become a major tourist attraction for type of ideal beauty belonging to the
them. Nothing from Praxiteles' own imitation of feminine." Yet he also rec-
hand survives, and the Roman copies ognized problems: "The question of
we do have fall well short of fulfilling its originality (taking the word in an ab-
literary reputation. As the apologia for solute sense) will probably long and
Aphrodite's nudity, we are supposed to perhaps forever remain unsolved with
have surprised her as she bathed, and regard to the most beautiful art

she has reacted with spontaneous mod- antiques." Quatremere's speculation

esty, bending forward and shielding her was prophetic; currently the statue is

pubic area with her hand. In contrast to thought to date from 1 50 to 100 bce,
the frank nudity of Greek males, the im- and to be in a long line of replicas and
plication is that the female body is still versions of a 4th-century bce type,
meant to be hidden (see nude). The Speaking for himself, Quatremere
Cnidian Aphrodite is Late classical, wrote, "I will limit myself to saying
and in the following, Hellenistic, era that ... in relation to the qualities

itand other versions of the goddess which artists usually define by the
were frequently portrayed. During the words grandeur of style, amplitude of
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE (and SubsC- FORM, IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS, PURITY OF
quently the northern), her reputation, design, accuracy, life and movement,
perhaps a few early reproductions, and and also in respect to handsome execu-
succeeding Aphrodites prompted nu- tion, I will not hesitate to give it the
merous interpretations and copies in first place among all those lantique stat-
bronze, marble, and paint. None is ues of Aphroditel which I have seen."
more famous or exquisite than botti- The statue's missing arms have never
CELLi's Birth of Venus, albeit his is a been restored, as their proper position
free, almost airborne interpretation of has not been agreed upon. And despite
the pose. (See also apelles for Botti- the great fame that has always sur-
The most
celli's literary inspiration.) rounded it, reviews of the statue itself

notable American derivative is pow- have ranged from awe to ennui, the lat-

ERs's Greek Slave (1843). ter expressed by a zoth-century writer

 APOLLODOROS 25

who called it the "rather chill giantess is actually named for the court in which
in the Louvre." both it and Laocoon stood a walled —
garden with orange trees, fountains,

Apollinaire, Guillaume and niches for sculpture, built as part of

1 880-19 1 8 • French • poet/critic the pope's villa c. 1500. References to
this Apollo occur in the 15th century,
The aim of the young painters of
secret
but the time and place of its discovery
the extremist schools is to produce
are a mystery. was long believed to be
It
pure painting. Theirs is an entirely new
a Greek original, and although today it
plastic art. . . . A man like Picasso
is generally thought a copy, no one is
studies an object as a surgeon dissects
sure if the original was a 4th-century
a cadaver.
BCE bronze by praxiteles or by
Apollinaire has been called the "literary leochares; a ist-century bce work; or
apostle" of CUBISM. He lived in the a much altered Roman copy from
famous tenement Montmartre (the in Hadrian's time, that is, the 2nd century
"laundry boat") with picasso and his CE. Whatever its origin, this Apollo was
circle. Apollinaire was well known extolled with hyperbolic appreciation,
among Symbolist poets, and his insights especially by winckelmann and by
into contemporary painting are GOETHE. They were hardly alone. When
recorded in The Cubist Painters (19 13), the 18th-century American painter
originally entitled Aesthetic Medita- WEST was taken to the Belvedere court-
tions, which became its subtitle instead. yard, he was carefully watched by his
In it he spoke about the "New Paint- hosts, who were probably not disap-
ing" more often than about "Cubism" "My God! How like it is to a
pointed:
specifically. He made perceptive obser- young Mohawk warrior," exclaimed
vations regarding the use of techniques the callow West, satisfying the Euro-
like COLLAGE, painted letters, and peans' anticipation of his New World
found materials, and discussed artists' naivete. Throughout history, from
intentions, as quoted above. Apollinaire durer's engraving Adam to stuart's
was also a great supporter of Henri portraits of George Washington, the
ROUSSEAU, FUTURISTS, and the surre- pose of the Apollo Belvedere has been a
alists. model for artists.

ApoUodoros
Apollo Belvedere
5th century bce Greek • painter
During the 1 6th century, and long after-
Late Classical
ward, the most renowned statues from
the ancient world were the laocoon ApoUodoros of Athens was the first

and the Apollo Belvedere. The Apollo, to give his figures the appearance of
slim and lithe, is naked except for the reality. (Pliny the Elder, ist century ce)
cape draped over his outstretched arm
and a diagonal shoulder strap that must As none of his paintings survives, Apol-
have held his quiver. Belvedere means lodoros is known through literary
"beautiful view" in Italian, and al- works only. These was the
tell us that he
though it was certainly that, the statue first to use shading or modeling, thus
 —

26 apotropaic/apotropaia

his reputation for inventing realistic or or some part of either, that has already
"illusionistic" (that is, the illusion of re- appeared (usually) under the signature
ality) painting. Whereas his predeces- of another artist or in another context.
sors had painted flat WASHes of color The appropriated image may be used
inside their outlines, Apollodoros was alone or as part of a collage. Whereas
known as skiagraphos, painter of borrowing or copying in earlier times
shadow. PLINY the Elder, quoted above, was mainly for the purpose of educa-
also suggests that zeuxis followed in tion and artistic or cultural association,
the footsteps of Apollodoros. appropriation in the postmodern era
is an end in itself, and has several impli-
apotropaic/apotropaia cations. For one, it denies the exclusive
Apotropaic images were meant to ward "aura" of a work of art (see benjamin)
off evil, to forewarn and frighten would- and the notion of the artistic genius of
be wrongdoers. They are often attached its creator. This kind of defiance char-
to buildings (e.g., the Medusa sculpted acterizes the rephotographing by Sher-
for the west pediment of the Temple of rie Levine (born 1947) of photographs
Artemis at Corfu, or ancient Corcyra, c. by WESTON. When a borrowed image is

600-580 bce), or to city gates (e.g., the combined with other images, that ap-
Lion Gate at Mycenae, c. 1 300-1 250 propriation also mocks the notion of
BCE, which has two carved lions meant, artistic "integrity," whether of period,
perhaps, to invoke divine power in de- style, material, or whatever goes into
fense of the citadel beyond). Imaginary the mix (see Michael graves). Often
beasts like the griffin —a lion's body there is irony and parody in appropria-
with the head and wings of an eagle tion, that is, showing up the preceding
and Greek Gorgons —three monstrous work for some conceptual flaw, or find-
sisters with glaring eyes and snakes for ing in it some matter for derision. Al-
hair — are apotropaic. The Etruscan though chronologically modern rather
bronze Chimera of the 5th to 4th cen- than Postmodern, a prime example is

tury BCE, which has a lion head, a snake duchamp's L.H.O.O.Q. (1920), in

tail, and a goat head on its back, is an which he drew a beard and mustache on
example (see "capitoline" wolf and a photograph of Leonardo's Mona
ETRUSCAN art). A wider application of Lisa and added the acronym of the title.

the term includes images, amulets, and Phonetically, in French L.H.O.O.Q. is

talismans believed to work magic spells an obscenity. In sum, appropriation has

or to protect the bearer, owner, or become an act of defiance of the canon
wearer (e.g., a mezuzah or a cross). and of rebellion in general.

Appel, Karel aquarelle

See cobra See watercolor

appropriation aquatint
In 20th-century art, appropriation The term is used for both the printing
refers to the reuse of an image or design, process and the end product, or print.
 arcadia/arcadian 27

Aquatints are tonal rather than Arbus, Diane

LINEAR, and their name, from the Latin 1923-1971 • American •

aqua, for "water," is derived from photographer • Modern

their visual similarity to watercolors
Freaks were born with their trauma.
rather than from means of production.
They've already passed it. They're
The method of producing aquatints
aristocrats.
was refined by Jean-Baptiste le Prince
(1734-178 1 ). A copper or zinc plate is After working in fashion photography,
coated with an acid-resistant rosin that in the 1960s Arbus began taking pic-

is granulated so that the acid will pene- tures of people on the fringes of society.
trate its minute interstices, creating a The comment quoted above was one
grainy printed surface. Areas that are she made to Newsweek magazine when
meant to remain white (or whatever she was interviewed in connection with
color the paper is) are "stopped out" an exhibition of her work at the Mu-
with an acid-resistant varnish. Tradi- seum of Modern Art in New York, in
tional methods of etching are used for 1967. The offensive connotations of the
objects, figures, and details. The term "freaks" are obvious today, but it

aquatint may be colored after print- was not Arbus's wish to poke fun at or
ing, with watercolor, for example, or ridicule her subjects. Her pictures of
during the printing process by super- dwarfs, female impersonators, and even
imposing one or more plates, each for children have an unsettling edge that
a different colored ink, over the initial both repels and fascinates a viewer.
print.GOYA made numerous aquatints; Arbus came from financially privileged
one of his best known, a combination circumstances, and she seemed deter-
of etching and aquatint, is The Sleep mined to unburden herself of them.

of Reason Produces Monsters (plate There has been much psycho/biograph-

43 from the series Los Caprichos, ical speculation about her motives,
1799)- especially because she committed
suicide, but whatever her conscious or
subconscious intentions, her photo-
arabesque graphs remain powerful, disturbing,
Used in the belief that arabesque deco- and challenging.
ration originated with the Arabian
people, the term describes intricate pat- Arcadia/ Arcadian
terns of scrolls, interlacing foliage, and Originally the place in the Peloponnese
nonfigurative ornamental designs. where Pan, god of woods, fields, flocks,

Spectacular examples of arabesque, and herds, was worshiped, Arcadia be-

often based on geometry and related to came synonymous with an idyllic, pas-
calligraphy, are found in islamic art. toral setting. The Arcadian theme,
The influence of the arabesque on West- sometimes in the guise of Virgil's
ern art extends to the designs of Golden Age and the Bible's Garden of
William morris in the 19th century Eden, has a rich history in poetry and
and Frank stella in the 20th. art. A Roman wall painting of 70 ce
 —

28 ARCH

(possibly adapted from a pergamene Watteau (1936). Panofsky sees "a basic
work of c. 200 bce) personified Arcadia change in interpretation" between
as a statuesque woman with a knobby Poussin's and second renderings of
first

staff in her hand and a leafy wreath on c. 1628/29 and c. 1655. In the latter,

her head. However, most Roman pic- "The Arcadians are not so much
tures of Arcadia were pastoral land- warned of an implacable future as they
scapes, consistent with a city dweller's are immersed in mellow meditation on
desire to escape to the country: In both a beautiful past," Panofsky writes, and
city and suburban villas, well-to-do Ro- suggests that one historical explanation
mans had Arcadian scenes painted on may be the relative calm after the
their walls. Pan's association with "spasms of the Counter-Reformation."
Dionysus and his retinue of nymphs and In the mid- 1 9th century, American
shepherds as well as satyrs and mae- artists painted and photographed ideal-
nads, and with music, introduces an un- ized Arcadian landscapes, and the first

dercurrent of romance, eroticism, and art journal in New York was named
intoxication to much Arcadian im- The Arcadian (1872-78). During the
agery. That is evident in the Italian re- 1 8 80s, eakins made photographs, oil

naissance, especially in Venetian paintings, and sculpture exploring the

paintings such as giorgione's Pastoral theme of Arcadia.
Symphony (also known Cham-
as Fete
petre, c. 15 10), which includes two arch
nude Greek Aphrodite figures of a type An arch spans an opening, like a door-
popularized by Praxiteles in the 4th way, by distributing the thrust of its

century bce and reintroduced by Venet- own weight laterally as well as verti-

ian painters. The lyric bent of Gior- cally onto supporting piers. By way of
gione's art was developed in association contrast, in trabeated (or post-and-
with a group of poets of the "Arcadian lintel) construction, a horizontal beam
movement." In 1690 an Academy of the rests on columns or posts. Greek archi-
Arcadians (Accademia degli Arcadi) tecture was largely trabeated, whereas
was founded in Rome with princes, Roman builders, using concrete, made
along with cardinals and other ecclesi- great advances by improving arcuate
astics, who came to its meetings dressed construction. The spanning members
like Arcadian shepherds and masked in are made of wedge-shaped blocks
order to avoid disputes related to status. voussoirs — that hold each other in

Explanation of Arcadian themes usu- place. To increase load-bearing capac-

ally proves elusive, but never more so ity, distance spanned, and height, Ro-
than in regard to poussin's two ver- mans employed a series of arches
sions of The Arcadian Shepherds (in- arcades. Other Roman elaborations on
spired by GUERCiNO's painting of c. arches are barrel, groin, and sequential
1621-23, Et in Arcadia ego). They are groin vaults — a vault being a construc-

discussed in a famous essay by panof- tion where the top of the arch becomes
SKY, Et in Arcadia Ego: On the Con- a ceiling rather than just a passageway.
ception of Transience in Poussin and A beautiful example of the structural
 ARCHIPENKO, ALEXANDER 29

use of arches in Roman engineering Archaic

is the Pont-du-Garde aqueduct at The root word is Greek for "beginning"
Nimes (c. i6 bce). Originally tempo- and in general archaic refers to that
rary constructions, probably of wood, which belongs to an earlier time. Specif-

triumphal arches were set up for cele- ically, Archaic designates a period in
brations of military heroes. By the end Greek from roughly 650 to c. 480
art
of the I St century bce, they became per- BCE. This art was heavily influenced by
manent propagandistic monuments, 2,000-year-old Egyptian and Near
like the arch of titus (c. 90 ce). The Eastern prototypes that rely on geomet-
persistence of the arch form over time ric conventions for representing the
is accompanied by a multiplicity of human figure rather than on observa-
shapes, from the round Roman to the tion of the natural world. Archaic
lancelike Gothic to the multilobed and Greek statues were forward-facing
keyhole shapes of islamic architecture. (frontal), rigid, symmetrical, and life-

less — more a symbol than a copy of the

Arch of Titus human body (see kouros/kore). Ar-
The triumphal arch became a staple of chaic painting is known primarily from
Roman propagandistic display, the vases decorated first in black- and later

symbol of an emperor's victorious re- red-figure techniques. Transition

turn home from conquest abroad. from the Archaic to the classical pe-
Among those still standing is the Arch riod parallels the Athenian experience
of Titus (c. 90 ce) commemorating of political and social revolution. In 5 1o

Roman victory in the Jewish Wars BCE the autocratic government that had
(66-70 ce), ending with the sack of controlled Athens for 50 years was
Jerusalem and the destruction of the overthrown, and a series of succeeding
Second temple. (It was actually con- constitutional reforms led to the new,
structed by the emperor Domitian after democratic system of government and,
Titus died.) One image sculpted in high eventually, the classical period.
RELIEF inside the arch shows Titus in

his chariot and a procession of Romans archaic smile

carrying off sacred artifacts from the See KOUROS
Temple: a table of shewbread ( i z loaves
of blessed, unleavened bread that Archipenko, Alexander
priests placed in the sanctuary), trum- 1 887-1964 • Russian/ American •

pets, censers, and the seven-branched sculptor • Cubist

candlestick. In the front of the pro-
/ did not take from Cubism, but added
cession are representations of Jewish
to it.
prisoners who, as slave labor, were
employed to build the Roman Colos- In close contact with cubist painters
seum (c. 70-80 ce). The sculpture is after he moved to Paris in 1908,
renowned for its feeling of depth and Archipenko applied the principles of
movement, and for the way it endeavors their approach to his sculptures. With
to draw passersby into the parade. Walking Woman (19 12) he achieved the
30 ARCIMBOLDO, GIUSEPPE

effect of "reversing space": He created was praised in a long poem by Arcim-

form through shaped, volumetric voids boldo's contemporary Comanni, who
surrounded by bronze, as if the bronze is quoted above. Rudolph was well

were carved to shape the empty, open pleased, not only by the beauty and

space. One of the founders of the sec- ingenuity of the picture, but also by the

tion d'or, Archipenko extended his in- analogy: The portr Siii—Vertumnus
terest in balance and harmony of form (c. 1 591)— is named after the ancient

to color, and he revived its use in sculp- Roman god of vegetation, protector of

ture.As he comments in the quotation gardens, orchards, and the ripening of

above, Archipenko added greatly to fruit. Arcimboldo's visual puns in-

Cubism with sculpture of light, space, cluded other fantasies: He imagined a

and color. He moved to the United Trojan horse formed of writhing sol-

States in 1923, and five years later be- diers, their flaming torches becoming
came an American citizen. He taught in the horse's mane. The pun first deceives

the art departments of several American with the image of a horse, and then with
universities and opened a successful the concept of the Trojan horse itself,

school in New York City in 1939. one of history's great myths of decep-
tion (containing inside its wooden
Arcimboldo, Giuseppe structure a conquering army). Himself

1 527-1 593 • Italian • painter • Milanese, Arcimboldo's inventions

Mannerist were admired by the hapsburgs, who

made him court painter at Prague from
This extremely inventive painter knew
1562 to 1587. The eccentric Queen
not only how to find the relevant
CHRISTINA of Sweden also bought his
semitones, both small and large, in his
work. Though he left behind no docu-
colors, but also how to divide a tone
Comanni de-
mentation, his friend
into two equal parts; very gently and Pythagorean
scribed Arcimboldo's
softly he would gradually turn white
experiments with color, praising his
into black, increasing the amount of
CLASSICAL and scientific knowledge.
blackness, in the same way that one
However, Arcimboldo was generally
would start with a deep, heavy note
dismissed until the Surrealists found
and then ascend to the high and finally surrealism).
his work appealing (see
the very high ones. (Gregorio
Recent assessments of Arcimboldo's
Comanni, late i6th century)
accomplishments explore his experi-

Arcimboldo is best known for his com- mentation with a form of color counter-
positions of STILL LIFE objects —meats, point based on Pythagorean intervals of
books, fruits and vegetables — with the musical scale (see pythagoras) and
which he constructed portraits. The the notion that his paintings, long mis-

most renowned of those works is the understood as fantastic jokes, are actu-
portrait he painted of and for his pa- ally imperial allegories.

tron, Emperor Rudolph II. This is an

extraordinary example in which the Arensberg Circle
emperor's nose is a pear, eyelids pea From 1914 to 1921, Walter Conrad
pods, and mustache hazelnut husks; it Arensberg, a Shakespearean scholar
 — I

ARMORY SHOW 3

and patron of the avant-garde, acted as power in Rome's eastern territories, es-
host to numerous artists and writers, pecially, adapted Arianism (see migra-
conducting a New York City version of tion). For barbarians, the Arian point
Gertrude stein's Paris salon. He of view enabled an idea of Christ as a
backed duchamp, whose notorious heroic, glorified chieftain. The ways in
19 1 2 Nude Descending a Staircase he which these theological arguments were
bought, and welcomed Duchamp's life- translated into artistic terms remain an
long friend picabia, joining them, interesting but unresolved discussion
through his own writing, in their pro- among art historians. "The fourth cen-
motion of the dada movement. He tury ushered in a war of images," writes
also supported American modernists the historian Thomas Mathews. He
including demuth, schamberg, adds, "The images of Christ determined
SHEELER, DOVE, and Joseph stella. what people were to think of him not
Many of these artists were
members of only in the early centuries of the current
the STiEGLiTZ Circle too, but where era, but ever after." To Mathews, the
Stieglitz was the artistic majordomo,
luminous robes Christ wears are to be
Arensberg was more self-effacing, pro- seen as anti-Arian propaganda, glorify-
viding food and conversation in a pri- ing the divine nature of Christ rather
vate rather than a public setting. than, as often proposed, his imperial
stature.
Arianism
A point of view expressed by the the- Armory Show
ologian Arius of Alexandria (c. A historic and notorious event of 19 13,
256-336). Arius argued against the officially called the International Exhi-
doctrine of the Trinity and the idea that bition of Modern Art, became famil-
Christ could be equal with God and iarly known as the Armory Show after
have eternal life. Rather, Arius and his the building in which it first opened
followers, Arians, believed in the single, the Armory of the 69th National Guard
human nature of Christ, albeit the high- Regiment on Lexington Avenue in New
est possible human nature. This doc-
York City. Later, somewhat modified,
trine was opposed by the bishop the exhibition traveled to Chicago and
Athanasius (c. 296-373, also of Alex- Boston. It is estimated that as many as
andria) and his followers, who insisted half a million visitors saw the show.
that Christ was fully God, and that There were approximately 1,600
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost were equal
and composed of the same substance.
works — paintings,
sculptures, draw-
ings,and prints— and three quarters
Later, Arianism
was also countered by were by American artists. The 25-
Monophysitism, a doctrine that sup- member planning committee, headed
ported the entirely divine nature of by DAViES, was called the Association of
Christ. Arianism was declared heretical
American Painters and Sculptors. The
at the Council of Nicaea in 3 25, though intent was to exhibit "the best examples
that decisionwas reversed 10 years procurable of contemporary art, with-
The controversy continued. Ger-
later.
out relation to school, medium or
size,
manic tribes entering and gaining nationality." There was some discord
32 ARNESON, ROBERT

before the grand opening on February took a manufactured item and put it on

(e.g., Italian futurists wanted to be

display. Arneson's toilet has an added
17
seen as a group and declined to partici- commentary: Inside the bowl, as if writ-

ten with excrement, is the word "art."

pate at all when they were not able to
Arneson said, "I had finally arrived at a
do so), but it was minor compared to

accompanied the actual piece of work that stood firmly on its

the uproar that
ground. was vulgar, I was vulgar."
event, when dissenters from President
It

Teddy Roosevelt to the artist cox dis- Arneson also ventured into political
The greatest rancor satire, and he made a series of ceramic
credited the show.
was directed atEuropean modernists, TERRA-coTTA self-portrait carica-
particularly matisse (who was burned tures, usually with his tongue sticking

in effigy by art students in Chicago) and

out of the side of his mouth.

DUCHAMP, whose Nude Descending a

Staircase became the subject of snide Arp, Jean (Hans)
remarks, most famously that it looked 1886-1966 • German/French •

"an explosion in a shingle fact- painter/sculptor • Dada

like

ory." Although its artists were called

Artists should not sign their works of
"cousins to the anarchists in politics" in These paintings,
Concrete art.
the press, the new prevailed, winning
sculptures, objects should remain
converts and opening eyes to revolu- anonymous and form part of nature's
tionary ways of seeing and painting. great workshop as leaves do, and
The Armory Show is probably, to this clouds, animals, and men.
day, the most influential exhibition ever
to have been mounted in America. Writing 1942, Arp used the term
in

CONCRETE art (see the quote above),

Arneson, Robert which had been proposed by van does-
American • potter • burg and KANDINSKY, as a substitute
1 930-1 992 •
for abstract art because, Arp put as
Modern
it, "... nothing is less abstract
than Ab-
thought about the ultimate
stract art." A founder of dada, Arp
I really

ceramics in western culture so I

. . .

moved his own work from painting to

made a toilet.
COLLAGE, to RELIEF, to freestanding

A student of the innovative potter Peter sculpture, or "sculpture in the round."

who did much to His Dada collages resulted, it was said,

Voulkos (born 1924),
break down distinctions between art from his having torn up a drawing and

and craft, Arneson produced work in dropped the pieces of paper on the
only to discover that their
POTTERY that is outrageous, funny, and floor,

often barbed. His series of toilets, like serendipitous arrangement pleased him,

John with Art (1964), is a colorful re- solving problems with which he had

minder of DUCHAMP's porcelain plumb- struggled Square Arranged Ac-

(e.g..

ing fixture (Fountain, 19 17), and a feat cording to the Laws of Chance, 19 16-
17). Arp's system conforms to that
of
of one-upmanship as well: Arneson
made his own glazed and painted ce- Dada poets who cut and scattered

while Duchamp simply words from newspapers to compose

ramic toilet,
 —
New College of California
Humanities Library
777 Valencia Street ART DECO 33
San Francisco, CA 94110
their poetry. Despite the supposed ran- efforts also lead to reassessing popular
dom spontaneity of Arp's art, it has cer- CULTURE, FOLK ART, CRAFTS, and Other
tain recognizable traits or "figures" endeavors conventionally outside the
for example, a viola-like form that FINE ART category, not only bringing
might be "read" as a woman. When them into the fold through cultural dis-
SURREALISM emerged in 1924, Arp par- course, but also actually including them
ticipated in that movement, and con- in new works of art through such means
tributed to the journal of De stijl. With as ASSEMBLAGE and APPROPRIATION.
LissiTZKY, Arp edited The Isms of Art
(1914-24), a survey of contemporary Art Brut
movements. During the 30 years of
last This term, used by dubuffet, trans-
his life, Arp experimented with bio- lated from the French means "raw art."
MORPHic forms that may suggest things It refers to work
unmediated by
that is

hke gnomes, snakes, and clouds, and outside influences such as schooling
also allude to the process of metamor- and tradition, or by any confining rules
phosis. An example is A^w^f/c( 1953), a and regulations regarding technique
3 -inch-high marble form that seems
1 and style. Dubuffet found images pro-
both a sea creature and a female torso, duced by children and mental patients
MiRO and CALDER are among later particularly interesting. He left his col-
artists influenced by Arp. lection of Art Brut to the city of Lau-
sanne, where it may be visited by the
art public at the Chateau de Beaulieu.
Although from the Latin word meaning
"skill," the term was originally applied Art Deco
very generally. Painting, drawing, en- Named after the Exposition Interna-
graving, and sculpture were not for- tionale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels
mally listed as arts until the late 17th Modernes (International Exhibition of
century. During the late i8th century, Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts)
distinction between and artisan
artist held in Paris in 1925, Art Deco is some-
gained currency. The artisan was one times called Jazz Modern or moderne
whose skills were manual, supposedly Where its predecessor, art
nouveau.
without intellectual, imaginative, or was handcrafted, asymmetrical, and
creative purpose. In the mid- 19th cen- tended toward flowing, sinuous lines.
tury, a new
distinction was allowed be- Art Deco was either machine made or
tween "liberal" and "fine" arts, the attuned to the machine aesthetic, bal-
latter routinely associated with creativ- anced, with shapes, both geometric and
ity and imagination. In recent years, natural, more massive and simplified.
in recognition of the extent to which In architecture, the spire of the Chrysler
capitalism and value are intertwined, Building in New York City (1928-30)
and of their influence on categorical by William Van Alen (1882-1954),
separations, efforts are made to blur with its tower of sunlike, semicircular
distmctions between, for example, forms decreasing in size as they come to
machme-made, handmade, imagina- a point, is a preeminent example of Art
tive, reproduced, and original art. Such Deco design. The style was particularly
 —

34 ART FOR art's SAKE

inventive in the field of decorative During the 19th century, hegel di-

ARTS, from lamps to tea services, and in rected thoughts about art history to
its use of wrought iron, stainless steel, the idea that each age had its own
and etched glass. Art Deco sculpture is "geist," or spirit, and that the art of any
often part of the architecture of a build- period inevitably reflects that mood,
ing. tone, and energy. Also during the 19th
century, connoisseurship —an ability

art for art's sake to discern and distinguish quality

See AESTHETIC movement came to the forefront of art studies, es-
pecially as enthusiasm forcollecting
art history grew, morelli, berenson and fried-
The effort to record, identify, under- lander are significant among connois-
stand, and explain art. Accounts of art seurs.During the 2.0th century, the
and artists by pliny the Elder in the ist approach of wolfflin, who estab-
century ce are the earliest art historical lished criteria for seeing —as opposed to
records available, and our knowledge his predecessors' criteria for judging

of greek art is heavily dependent on gained ascendancy. Wolfflin was a for-

him. Pliny mentions Xenokrates of malist in his approach, and he brought
Sikyon (3rd century bce), both a sculp- to his analysis an interest in the cultural
tor and a writer, who may have been the and psychological factors that influence
first art historian. Pliny himself de- form. The focus of male and of war-
pended heavily on Xenokrates for in- burg was on content, and led to studies
formation, pausanias, a znd-century in iconology and iconography by

CE Greek traveler, has left long and de- panofsky. Panofsky opened a field rich

tailed descriptions of the paintings, in opportunities for the interpretation

sculptures, and architecture he saw on of images. Art historical studies have,
his trips through Greece and other since World War II, taken a multitude
countries. The effort to systematize a of approaches with ideologies (e.g.,

history of art grew during the renais- marxism) and trends that both comple-
SANCE, especially in the hands of vasari ment and contest one another. Recent
and later van mander. To this point, methodological approaches are based
art history was largely (often undocu- on philosophies and theories of, for

mented) biography and ekphrasis, that example, feminist studies, semiotics,

is, vividly (sometimes imaginatively) de- and psychoanalysis, and investigate
scriptive accounts of works of art. In concepts of orientalism, struc-
the 1 8th century, winckelmann rede- turalism, deconstruction, histori-
fined the history of art. He believed that ciSM, and new historicism. These
art is the product of external forces, and interests find voice in the new art his-
that Greek art, which he valued above Tory. "One of the strongest determi-
all, was the result of favorable geo- nants in art historical writing is the
graphic, climatic, and political cir- scholar's conception of history itself,"
cumstances. Not himself an artist, writes W. Eugene Kleinbauer. He adds,
Winckelmann was important in pro- "Art history is molded by a philosophy
moting the neoclassical movement, of history — by an understanding of the
 —

ARTE POVERA 35

general divisions of history, the nature Black, Spanish and other communities.
of historical periods, and the causes of It should also encourage exhibits with
historical change." which these groups can identify," the
group proclaimed. On May 18, 1970,
Art Informel with Robert morris leading and 2,000
See TACHiSME and abstract expres- participants joining in, they staged an
sionism Artists' Strike Against Racism, Sexism,
Repression, and War after the invasion
Art Nouveau of Cambodia and the killing of four stu-
Beginning in the i88os and at its peak dents at Kent State University, andre
in the Nouveau was perhaps
1890s, Art was another active AWC member. The
as purposefully "new" as any style in AWC brought important issues to pub-
the decorative arts —
as opposed to lic attention, not the least of which was,
styles that referred to historic prece- as the critic Hilton Kramer wrote, "the
dents. That said, there were still historic artist's moral and economic status vis-

references and borrowings, from Japan- a-vis the institutions that now deter-
ese arts, for example, and from the ro- mine his place on the cultural scene, and
coco style. Artists working in Art indeed, his ability to function as a cul-
Nouveau include beardsley, the Bel- tural force ... a plea to liberate art from
gian architect horta, and the Scottish the entanglements of bureaucracy, com-
architect mackintosh. Among its sig- merce and vested critical interests

nature stylistic details were limply sinu- a plea to rescue the artistic vocation
ous tendrils, flowers, and leaves, and from the squalid politics of career-
women with long, flowing hair. The ism, commercialism, and cultural man-
name originated in a Parisian gallery darinism." conceptual art —giving
called L'Art Nouveau, opened by S. precedence to ideas rather than ob-
Bing in 1895. I" Scandinavia and Ger- jects —came to the foreground at this
many the style was named Jugendstil, time. AWC activities declined after
from a magazine in which Art Nouveau 1970.
was featured. In Spain it was Mod-
ernismo; in Italy, Floreale or Stile Lib- Arte Povera
erty. The Italian critic Germano Celant orga-
nized two exhibitions in 1967 and 1968
Art of This Century and published a book, Arte Povera (Ital-
See GUGGENHEIM ian for "poor" or "impoverished art"),
about the movement he promoted.
Art Workers' Coalition (AWC) Celant wrote, "Arte Povera expresses
A group originally formed by takis and an approach to art which is basically
some friends in protest against their anti-commercial, precarious, banal and
exclusion from the Museum of Modern anti-formal, concerned mainly with the
Art in New York. AWC's field of inter- physical qualities of the medium and
est grew to include wider social and po- the mutability of the materials. Its im-
litical demands. "IThe] Museum's portance lies in the artists' engagement
activities should be extended into the with actual materials and with total re-
36 ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT

ality and their attempt to interpret that followed, within a decade, by hundreds
reahty in a way which, ahhough hard to of organizations devoted to supporting
understand, is subtle, cerebral, elusive, and selling handmade goods. Elbert
private, intense." Without using tradi- Hubbard (1856-1915), writer and or-
tional forms, artists in this movement ganizer of the Roycrofters community
endeavor nevertheless to provoke spon- in East Aurora, New York, and the fur-
taneous reactions to their work. A fore- niture maker, designer, and theorist
most Arte Povera artist is Mario Merz Gustav Stickley (1857-1942) are two of
(born 192.5), who uses a variety of ma- the best-known promoters of Arts and
terials to make "igloos." These suggest Crafts in America.
shelter and a humble, nomadic life.

Merz incorporates stuffed iguanas and Ashcan School

alligators and neon words or letters in Members of the Ashcan School were
the presentation of his ideas. American artists who attacked social
injustice in the early 20th century, fol-

Arts and Crafts Movement lowing the example of the documentary

Inspired by the ideas of ruskin and photographer riis and in tune with
PUGiN, the Arts and Crafts Exhibition writers such as Stephen Crane and
Society was founded in England in 1888 Upton Sinclair. They painted poverty,
and gave its name to the subsequent prostitution, and drunkenness, and illu-

movement. Its reformist members minated the plight of society's castoffs

protested against industrialization, in street scenes and in scenes of domes-
which, they believed, led to the degra- tic debasement. Emblematic of their
dation of work, the working class, and themes, and naming the movement,
the environment. Passionate in their were cartoons like the one by sloan,
commitment, they preached a return to depicting homeless men rummaging
handmade craft, which they considered through garbage for a meal. Many con-
an art form. They also advocated return tributed to a Socialist magazine. The
to the MEDIEVAL systcm of workshops, Masses. Several of the members of The
and sometimes promoted Utopian com- EIGHT were Ashcan artists, but not all.

munities that would help to realize their REALISM^ was their style, but it had to
goals. William morris was an influen- do with the cold eye they cast on life
tial leader of the movement in England; more than with representational accu-
George Bernard Shaw wrote of the first racy.
Arts and Crafts exhibition in 1888,
"Perhaps the beginning of the end of the assemblage
easel-picture despotism is the appear- The three-dimensional, sculptural
ance in the New Gallery of the handi- counterpart of collage or montage,
craftsman with his pots and pans, traced back to the picasso-braque
textiles and 'fictiles' Ipottery] and collaborations of 1912 and to du-
things in general that have some other champ's "ready-mades." Assemblages
use than to hang on a nail and collect were so named by curators at the Mu-
bacteria." Nine years later the Boston seum of Modern Art in New York when
Society of Arts and Crafts was founded, they presented an exhibition entitled
 a

AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES 37

The Art of Assemblage in 1961. Dis- of 33 squares (3 across and 11 down),

carded "junk" and "found objects" are follows a character, Pierre, through an
typically used for assemblages. Their inexplicable sequence of visual clues —
variety ranges from large, nonrepresen- hand grasping a door, the chest and
tational walls constructed by nevelson part of the torso of a partially draped
to the small, glass-fronted boxes of body, parts of faces —interspersed with
CORNELL. Assemblage plays an intrigu- squares containing equally inscrutable
ing part in visionary constructions, as text. The only almost fully represented

the huge, heroic work by James Hamp- image is of a sailing ship. The effect of
ton, made entirely of salvaged materi- the story is unnerving — and sexually
als, testifies (see naive art). suggestive, as Attie notes in the quota-
tion above — but it ultimately derives its

atelier impact from the utter indeterminacy of

Meaning "workshop," the term derives mode emerged
the narrative. While this
from French and Latin words having to from CONCEPTUAL art, it bears much of
do with wood, revealing its origin in the ambiguity of postmodern thought,
carpentry. Its reference today is espe- and might best be described as an anti-

cially to an artist's studio. (See also narrative narrative style.

workshop)
attribute
Athenodoros The object that serves to identify an in-
See AGESANDER dividual, especially a mythical character
or one of the saints: In Greek art, Gor-
atlantid gons are recognized by the snakes they
See CARYATID have for hair and Hercules by his lion

skin. In Christian art, arrows are

Attie, Dotty the attribute of Saint Sebastian; Saint
born 1938 • American • Catherine's attribute is her wheel.
painter/draftswoman • Feminist Sometimes an attribute substitutes for a

person; for example, in certain con-

I do personal work couched in
texts, the image of a Hon takes the place
impersonal terms. . . . When I started
of Saint Mark.
making small drawings an internal
fantasy started coming out a taboo . . .

Audubon, John James

erotic fantasy.
1785-185 1 • American •

Attie was a founding member of the im- painter/naturalist • Romantic

portant, nonprofit A.I.R. (for artist in
7 know I am not a scholar, but
residence) Gallery in New York City,
meantime I am aware that no man
begun in 1972 to support women
living knows better than I do the
artists, (spero was also a member.) In
habits of our birds.
1970, after years of painting, Attie
began to draw, telling stories in small Audubon was born in Haiti to a cham-
boxes that contain oddly cropped im- bermaid who died a few months after
ages. Adventure at Sea (1977), a series his birth. His French father was a sea-
 —

38 AUREOLE

man, adventurer, and merchant whose was one Audubon witnessed firsthand.
commerce included slaves. The artist For the most part, his pictures are of
spent his early years in Brittany. He birds he shot — he killed thousands. He
cites Jacques-Louis david as his guide, then positioned them by tying threads
but there is no record of his having stud- or wire to various of their body parts to
ied in Paris. Audubon's monumental achieve a natural-looking pose. His pic-
four- volume The Birds of America, the tures surpassed by far earlier represen-

first folio of which appeared in 1828, tations. To show variety in behavior

was preceded by Alexander Wilson's and appearance, he frequently included
folio American Ornithology (Vol. i, several views of birds in one image.
1808), which Audubon used for pur- Nearly all the original illustrations were
poses of identification. He also referred produced by Audubon and his assis-

to the pioneering work of the 18th- tants between 18 12 and 1836. engrav-
century French naturalist the comte de ings were first made in London during
Buffon, whose 44-volume encyclopedia the 1 820s, and were published over a
of natural history was issued over a period of years. In 183 1, when
span of more than 50 years Audubon was 46 years old, the first vol-
(1749-1804). Buffon's nine volumes on ume of Ornithological Biography was
birds were published between 1770 and issued. His progress was stymied by dis-

1783. Audubon tried his hand at several asters, including a fire in 1836 that de-
businesses, with little success. In 18 19 stroyed his drawing kits and guns.
his financial mishaps landed him in Audubon's concept of presenting an an-
debtor's prison and he was forced to de- imal species in its natural environment
clare bankruptcy. Subsequently, he de- was a great advance. His work pre-
voted himself to travel and research for ceded — and
ways foreshadowed
in

the watercolors for Birds of America the observations and theories of

and the Ornithological Biography, a Charles Darwin, whose major work on
five-volume text to accompany his pic- evolution. The Origin of Species, was
tures. The detail, rich color, beauty, and not published until 1859. In 1853,
fidelity of Audubon's paintings are re- when Commander Matthew Calbraith
markable. Even more significant, artis- Perry sailed off to open Japan to the
tically and scientifically, is that his were West, among his gifts for the emperor,
the first illustrations of birds behaving in addition to a plow, scythe, grind-
in character and in their natural envi- stone,and small-scale steam engine,
ronment. Thus, his picture of two were editions of Audubon's Birds of
Chuck-will's-widows, "drawn from na- America and Quadrupeds of America,
ture," and painted on May 7, 182Z, which sold, at that time, for $1,000
shows a snake wrapped around a apiece.
branch of a tree; below it is a female
bird whose large, insect-catching beak aureole
is opened wide; and above it is the male, Refers to a radiance that emanates from
beak closed but patterned tail feathers a figure, often from the whole body, not
splayed wide in agitation. The scene just the head (see halo).
 AVIGNON 39

autodestructive art for example, shows a previously invisi-

Sometimes a form of happening, ble sketch executed rapidly in a dark
works designed to self-destruct were es- color. It provides, in essence, another
pecially popular during the 1960s and work of art by Rembrandt for scholars

'70s: for example, tinguely's construc- to study.

tion Homage to New York (i960), a

work intended to disintegrate. There is Avery, Mihon
playfulness, humor, and a certain cyni- 1 885-1965 • American • painter •
cism in the creation of such works. Modern
Among the purposes of autodestructive
Why talk when you can paint?
art (along with much art of the later
20th century) is its defiance of col- Avery used clearly outlined forms filled

lecting. However, as a form of per- with harmonious colors, usually soft

formance, it has an opportunity to and light: pale greens, pinks, and
earn money from an audience. Also, in lemony yellows. The majority of his pic-

an era of film and video, the activity of tures were of landscapes and figures.

the art, if not its material presence, is Mother and Child (1944) is an example
recorded and preserved for posterity. of his structural simplification. In 1926
Avery married Sally Michel, a painter,
autograph work who took a job as an illustrator so that

A term used regarding a work of art en- he could devote himself to painting.
tirely by a single artist's hand to distin- Their apartment became a meeting
guish it from either misattributed works place for younger artists, including
or those to which other artists may have GOTTLIEB, ROTHKO, and NEWMAN.
contributed. Avery's influence had more to do with
example than with ideology, for as the
Automatism/automatic writing quotation above suggests, Avery was
See surrealism not fond of proclamations and would
rather paint than talk about it. He, him-
autoradiography (neutron self,had found inspiration in picasso
autoradiography) and MATISSE, whose simplified and flat-
Bombarding a painting with neutrons tened shapes he adopted. During the
and measuring their half-life enables an 1950s, the popularity of abstract ex-
analysis of the chemical composition of pressionism deflected interest from
pigments. It also shows the distribu- Avery for a time, but the strength and
tion of specific pigments. Autoradiogra- subtlety of his paintings have reasserted
phy creates images on film based on his importance.

successive exposures over a period of

about a month. These photographs may Avignon
allow researchers to see how an artist Avignon is a city in southern France, the
built up a painting from the first to the capital of the Provence region. was a It

final image. The fifth autoradiograph small papal territory in 1305, when the
of Rembrandt's Self-Portrait of 1660, papacy was moved there from Rome,
40 AYCOCK, ALICE

subjecting it to French rule, petrarch Aycock, Alice

called this period, which lasted until born 1946 • American •

1377, the "Babylonian Captivity." The architectural sculptor • Neo-

papal palace was richly decorated with Expressionist
murals and tapestries in the Avignon
The spaces are psychophysical spaces.
style, one that combined the elegance of
The works are set up as exploratory
Parisian painting with English and
situations for the perceiver. They can
Flemish "realism of particulars" (see
be known only by moving one's body
nominalism) and Italian humanism.
through them.
This art became known as the Interna-
tional Style (see gothic). duccio's During the 1970s, Aycock built struc-

pupil martini moved from siena to tures like Maze (1972) and The Begin-
Avignon c. 1335, as did a number of nings of a Complex (1977), which are,
Northern European artists. Some schol- as described above, constructions and
ars speculate that animosity between situations in which the "viewer" must
Italy and France during the Avignon pa- experience the work physically in order
pacy, later aggravated by the Great to truly understand it. Complex might
Schism of 1378 to 1417 (when three seem to resemble a child's playground,
rivals claimed the papacy), may have with freestanding wood and concrete
encouraged Italians to look chauvinisti- constructions linked by underground
cally to their own classical past for in- passages. But the ladder descending
spiration, leading, subsequently, to the into the tunnel and those ascending the
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. After the popes buildings evoke the terrors of vertigo
left, Avignon remained a cosmopolitan and claustrophobia. About the Maze
city with royal residences and a medici Aycock added that she had wished to
bank. During the 15 th century, a school create "a moment of pure panic." More
of painting that combined both Italian recently, Aycock designed a painted
and northern renaissance influences steel, fiberglass, and wood construction
flourished. It was for the Carthusian 20 feet high entitled Treeof Life Fan-
monastery in Avignon that charonton tasy: Synopsis of the Book of Questions
painted the Coronation of the Virgin Concerning the World Order and/or
(1453) and perhaps the Avignon Pieta the Order of the Worlds (1990-92).
(c. 1455). Painted white, it resembles a roller
coaster, a totem pole, a tree — it suggests
multitudes of associations but is, itself,

none of them. And in contrast to her

early works, it inspires amusement
rather than feelings of anxiety.
 a

Bacon, Francis way most people discuss the weather,

1909-1992 • British • painter • but he also exudes a natural courtliness
Expressionist and grace, as if he were a good boy try-

ing to be bad," writes the critic Michael

You can't be more horrific than life
Kimmelman. Bacon's lover, and the
itself
subject of several pictures, committed
Bacon painted inexplicable violence, suicide during the course of the artist's
pain, and fear, usually on large can- long, sordid, alcoholic life. Bacon said
vases. The way he applied paint was that PICASSO and duchamp were the
consistent with the anguish he ex- only 20th-century artists he admired; he
pressed — sometimes in attenuated acknowledged the importance of
patches, rough smudges, and vaporous VELAZQUEZ in a series of paintings in-

veils —yet his colors could be luminous. spired by the 17th-century Spaniard's
To the extent that they are discernible. Pope Innocent X. While Velazquez's
Bacon's subjects, or forms, are con- pope embodies power and appears ma-
torted and sometimes amputated bod- lign and suspicious. Bacon's oddly
ies, bloody mouths emitting blurred transparent figure in Head: Study after
screams, often naked men in sado- Velazquez's Pope Innocent X (1948-49)
masochistic symbiosis. Paradoxically, floats on his throne, imprisoned inside
though not atypically. Bacon was long indefinite railings, usually called a space

acclaimed by writers who discussed his cage, his skirt cut off beneath the knees,
work with barely a nod to either his bi- his gaping mouth uttering a terrible,

ography or his homosexual preference, silent howl. (To some critics, the un-
both of which are as integral to the identifiable anxiety of Bacon's pope
paintings as is their pigment. Born of calls to mind munch's The Scream of
English parents living in Ireland (his fa- 1893, while others conclude that he is

ther trained racehorses there), Francis not necessarily screaming but could be
was whipped and sexually abused by yawning or roaring with laughter.) An
stable hands as a child, and later unusual acknowledgment of Bacon's in-

thrown out of the house by his parents. fluence appeared in a 1989 version of
He went to London at 16 and showed the movie Batman, in which the villain

some of his early work in galleries five destroys every work of art in Gotham's
years later. He had no formal training. museum except for one he liked —
"He talks about sex and alcohol the painting by Francis Bacon.
42 BAGLIONE, GIOVANNI

Baglione, Giovanni stockbroker, I believe). . . . Levushka

c. 1566-1643 • Italian • had been obliged to find the means to

painter/writer • Baroque keep not only himself but also his

mother, his grandmother, two sisters
/ know nothing about there being any
and a very young brother. (Alexandre
painter who will praise Giovanni
Benois, 1964)
Baglione as a good painter.
(Caravaggio, 1603)
Bakst was a member of the world of
Baglione's mistake was to copy the ART and of Serge Diaghilev's Ballets
work of CARAVAGGIO SO well that it was Russes, which, from 1909 to 1929,
mistaken for that of the great master. showcased talents in the fine and the
Caravaggio publicly ridiculed Baglione, performing arts. Bakst collaborated
who in turn took him to court; the with whose Memoirs are
BENOIS,
comment quoted above was made by quoted from above, and was foremost
Caravaggio during the first trial for among Ballets Russes set and costume
slander —there was a second three years designers —
others included braque
later, in 1606. Baglione's flirtation with and de chirico. Bakst used strong, rich

Caravaggesque style was brief, and de- colors and fantastic designs, much in-

spite the other's derision, Baglione's ca- spired by BEARDSLEY, for ballet subjects
reer was successful. By the time he died, he usually took from Russian folklore
in Rome (where he was born and prac- and Oriental tales. His designs for
ticed throughout his career), Baglione Scheherazade (19 10) conjured up a
had been knighted and served as presi- barbaric and voluptuous East and be-
dent of the Academy of Saint Luke, to came the most famous decor of the age.
which Caravaggio did not belong. The architecture on the backcloth was
Baglione also wrote books, including vaguely related to the mosques and
one of artists' biographies. His entry on pavilions of Shah Abbas at Isfahan,
Caravaggio is remarkably unbiased, with their blue-and-green-tiled walls
though he does comment that Caravag- and painted ceilings. (Bakst's blue-
gio "sometimes would speak badly of green combination inspired the jeweler
the painters of the past, and also of the Cartier to set emeralds and sapphires
present, no matter how distinguished together for the first time.) Golden
they were." (See also caravaggisti) lamps hung from an immense looped
curtain of apple green and sky blue,
spotted with pink roses and circles of
Bakst, Leon (Lev Rosenberg)
black and gold. A coral carpet had blue
1 866-1924 • Russian • painter/stage
and pink rugs and was piled with cush-
designer • Symbolist
ions. Scheherazade established Bakst's
Our friendly feelings for Levushka reputation and had widespread in-

Rosenberg were mixed with some fluence — on fashionable clothes and

pity. . . . He had been left without any interior decorating as well as on jew-
means of subsistence after the sudden elry — after taking its Parisian audience
death of his father, a well-to-do man (a by storm.
 BALDUNG GRIEN, HANS 43

baldacchino/baldachin its nails clipped, a horse being shod, in-

From the Italian for "canopy," refers to jured human feet — but the central pic-

a structure of columns supporting a ture of a crowd scene in a city is

cover that usually stands above an altar. perplexing. An absence of continuity

Or, as in Raphael's painting Madonna and rational explanation provokes a

del Baldacchino (c. 1508), the canopy viewer to return to the images in search
shelters the Virgin and Child. Some bal- of and to invent meaning. For another
dacchinos were portable and may have of his "works," Baldessari sang le-
covered holy relics that were carried in witt's Sentences on Conceptual Art to
a procession. The most renowned bal- a medley of popular melodies. Inter-

dacchino is Bernini's design in Saint ested in theory, Baldessari studied

Peter's, Rome (1623-34). This gigantic structuralism. The art critic Corrine

bronze work has spiral columns and Robins writes, "Reading shapes his

stands nearly 100 feet high beneath the thinking, which shapes his art, which
church's dome and over the main altar. is all about thinking — in a visual
The bronze was supplied by the bar- context."
BERiNi pope Urban VIII, who had it re-
moved from the roof of the Roman Baldung Grien, Hans
PANTHEON portico. As one observer re-
( 1484/5-1545 • German •

marked, "What the barbarians failed to painter/printmaker • Northern

do [during the sack of Rome in 1527], Renaissance
the Barberini did.")
[In 1544] Baldung created his final

and most monumental expression of

Baldessari, John
the vanquished artistic self.
born 193 1 • American • mixed
Produced . . . the year before the
media • Conceptual
artist's death, and subverting all those
/ will not make any more boring art. scenes of origin with which Albrecht
Diirer prefaced his oeuvre, Baldung's
Baldessari had studied painting and was
Bewitched Stable Groom woodcut
teaching it at the California Institute of
stands as a fitting end page to the brief
the Arts in 1968 when he changed the
moment of self-portraiture in German
name of his course to Post-Studio Art.
Renaissance art. (Joseph Koerner,
He used "studio" to mean all the stan-
1993)
dard trappings of art: paints, brushes,
and so on. During 1971 he wrote and Baldung is believed to have entered
repeated again and again the statement durer's Nuremberg workshop by
quoted above, and reproduced it as 1503. After a few years he settled in

a lithograph. Thus, making no "art Strasbourg, where he spent most of his

object," Baldessari proclaimed his anti- life. He was interested in the occult, and
MiNiMALiSM and anti-MODERN (post- there is a strong vein of perverse eroti-
modern) manifesto. In Heel (1986), cism in much of his work. It has been
most of the 11 photographic images he suggested that Baldung's intention was
assembled relate to feet —a dog getting to overthrow the ideas of Diirer. Bal-
44 BALLA, GIACOMO

dung's dark-toned woodcut (see wood- our deep-rooted disgust, our haughty
block) Witches' Sabbath (
1
5 lo) is set contempt for vulgarity, for academic
in a forest where both trees and witches and pedantic mediocrity, for the
are bare, and one witch rides backward fanatical worship of all that is old and
on a flying goat. She carries a long pole worm-eaten.
with a forked end that supports a caul-
dron of brew. This same pitchforklike Balla joined the original futurists but
instrument reappears in one of Bal- worked in Rome rather than Milan,
dung's last prints, an inexplicable where they were located. He signed the
image called The Bewitched Groom commentary quoted from above in the
(1544), about which the historian Ko- movement's Technical Manifesto of
erner writes above. The groom —a sta- April 1910. One of Balla's best-known
ble hand rather than a bridegroom — is paintings is an amusing picture called
flat on his back, radically foreshort- Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash (Leash
ened, his feet at the bottom edge of the in Motion; 19 12.). The movement of the

picture and his head at the threshold of little dog, its leash, and the feet of the

a stall where a horse looks over its human walking it are shown by multi-
shoulder at him. The groom has fallen plying them in comic-book fashion, a
on top of the double-duty hay pitch- kind of pinwheel effect. "Dynamism"
fork/witch's broom. A cackling, grin- was a rallying cry of Futurists,

ning hag peers in through a window. As

strange as any other part of the picture Balthus (Count Balthasar
is the fact that Baldung's own coat of Klossowski de Rola)
arms is on the wall, and the work is con- born 1908 • French • painter •
sidered a self-portrait, as Koerner Modern
writes. The mystery of the image is tan-
/ wish to do surrealism after Courbet.
talizing, but whatever hidden meaning

it may have, it does reflect the fascina- The comment above was made after
tion with the bizarre that permeated the Balthus saw the first exhibition of sur-
era and was especially popular among realists in Paris. Though he was never
Protestants as an alternative to conven- a member of their group, and was a
tional religious imagery. great admirer of courbet, there are ele-

ments of surreal fantasy and dreaminess

„ 11 ^. in his pictures. A recluse who lives in the
Balia, Giacomo r r i^ oil l j
South of France, Balthus was obsessed
,

1871-1958 • Italian • painter

with eroticism and adolescent girls,
Futurist
which he made a recurrent theme. It

On the 8th of March, k^io, in the is evident, for example, in The Golden
limelight of the Chiarella theater of Days (Les Beaux Jours; 1944-46): A
Turin, we launched our first Manifesto child of perhaps 12 reclines on a chaise

to a public of three thousand people— in a seductive pose, with her legs apart,
artists, men of letters, students and looking in a mirror. Behind her is a fire-
offers; it was a violent and cynical cry place with a roaring fire, and the
which displayed our sense of rebellion, cropped figure of a shirtless man appar-
 BARBERINl FAMILY 45

ently adding wood to the blaze. An Barberini family

eerie, unsavory mood is created by jux- The beginning of the baroque era in
taposing ideas of innocence and trans- Italy and the name Barberini are syn-

gression, just as the simple, neat room onymous. Born in Florence in 1568 to a
conflicts with the scene's implied, sor- wealthy family, Maffeo Barberini was
did meanings. just 55 and in excellent health when he
was elected pope in 162.3, to begin a 21-

Bamboccianti year reign as Pope Urban VIII. He had

A group of painters who were both fits of temper and dabbled in astrology,
popular and controversial in Rome dur- but was also deeply religious, hand-
ing the 17th century. They showed the some, cultivated, friendly, fond of po-
everyday working and street life of ordi- etry, and himself a poet. A volume of his
nary people — bakers, peasants, black- poems, Poemata (1631), was illustrated

smiths —rather than the well born (see by BERNINI. Bernini was the chief artist

also genre). Although the Bamboc- and architect for Urban VIII, who im-
cianti neither idealized nor romanti- mediately set about the completion of
cized their subjects, as poussin did his Rome. Besides his fa-
Saint Peter's in
shepherds, for example, they were not mous BALDACCHINO, Bernini was also
social revolutionaries. They were not commissioned to design the pope's
interested in showing poor people ex- most important monument to himself,
ploited by the rich, or in unveiling the his tomb in Saint Peter's. The Barberini

serious social unrest among the under- palace, filled with art and other trea-
classes. Their movement, precipitated sures, had a theater with seating for
by the Dutch artist van laer and given 3,000. (The first opera performed there
his nickname (which means "mal- was a story by Giulio Rospigliosi, later
formed doll or puppet"), successfully Pope Clement IX, who was a patron of
drew a clientele from the constantly poussin). Bernini was in charge of stage
changing and ever-widening new mon- sets. An account by one theatergoer de-
eyed class. One of van Laer's associates, scribes the spectacle: "When the curtain
Michelangelo Cerquozzi (i 602-1 660), rose a marvelous scene appeared show-
was so well received that he even ing the most distant buildings in per-
attracted some wealthy patrons and spective, above all St. Peter's and . . .

managed to gain admittance into the many others well-known to those who
high-minded artists' guild, the Acad- live in Rome. Nearer that part of
. . .

emy of Saint Luke in Rome. The the stage where the acting took place
popularity of the mainly Northern was real water held back by dikes which
Bamboccianti both surprised and en- had been specially placed round the
raged artists of the establishment, who scene and you saw real men rowing
deplored the success of these unconven- people from one side to the other."
tional competitors. Hostility became (This account brings to mind the sea
fierce, and denouncement — by rosa, battles staged some 1,600 years earlier
SACCHi, and reni, among others — im- at the COLOSSEUM, the ruins of which
passioned. The success of the Bamboc- were located nearby.) Among other
cianti peaked in the 1640s and '50s. artists favored by the Barberini circle of
46 BARBERINI FAUN

and friends were Pietro da

relatives was taken to Munich in October 18 19
CORTONA, SACCHI, CLAUDE LORRAIN, by a team of nine mules, and it is still

and CARAVAGGio. In a collaborative ef- there, on view at the Glyptothek mu-

fort, Cortona, along with Carlo seum.
Maderno (1556-1629), borromini,
and Bernini, designed the Barberini Barbizon, School of
Palace (begun 1628), now a museum. It By the 1860s, more than two decades
once held the barberini faun (c. 220 after a group of landscape painters

bce), but that sculpture is now at the had begun to live and paint there, the
Glyptothek in Munich. tiny village of Barbizon and neighbor-
ing hamlets Chailly and Marlotte, in
Barberini Faun and around the forest of Fontainebleau

(also known as Bacchus, Drunken (about 30 miles from Paris), had be-
Faun, Sleeping Faun/Satyr) come the most famous art colony in

Believed to be a Roman copy of a Hel- France outside of the capital itself.

lenistic original (c. 220 bce), this is a Tourists as well as artists from the rest
marble sculpture of a naked man who is of Europe and America traveled to see
apparently sleeping in a stupor of satia- firsthand the inns, views, and even indi-

tion, sexual and/or alcoholic. Because vidual boulders and trees made famous
his ears are slightly pointed and he by COROT, millet, and the leader of the
seems to have a tail, the assumption is Barbizon colony, Theodore rousseau.
that he is a satyr, or Pan (Latin Faunus), To Rousseau was arcadia, and he
it

Greek god of the woods, fields, flocks, imagined that "Homer and Virgil
and herds, a follower of Dionysus would not have minded sitting there
(Latin Bacchus). His muscular body, and contemplating their poetry," as he
spread out on an animal skin, is highly put it. Guidebooks were written, paths
erotic, intimating the vulnerability paved, and signs were placed for sight-
of a person who is watched without his seers to take their bearings. If the origi-
knowing, a voyeurism often used in nal Barbizon School painters sought to
portrayals of women but rarely of men. establish their idyllic rural art colony as
The Barberini sculpture was thought to an antidote to creeping industrializa-
have been found at Hadrian's villa. Ac- tion and urbanization, commercializa-
cording to one story, it was thrown at tion also exploited the undeveloped
Goths during the siege of Rome in 537 landscape in direct proportion to the
ce. Its first recorded reemergence was in esteem in which it was held. The gon-
1628, when it was in the possession of couRTs parodied the Barbizon aesthetic
Cardinal Francesco barberini and had in Manette Salomon (1867), a novel

probably been restored by bernini. The in which their artist is seized by "an

Marquis de Sade found it "sublime," almost religious emotion each . . .

and Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria time ... he felt he was before one of the
was obsessed by it. After competition great majesties of nature." Aside from
from others who wanted it and some sentimentality and anthropomor-
who did not want it to leave Italy, Lud- phism —giving human characteristics to
wig was finally able to own the work. It features of the scenery— the pioneering
 BARNES, ALBERT C. 47

Barbizon artists, by studying the land- bronze figure suspended above a tomb:
scape and painting outdoors before Emerging from a pyramid-shaped float-

completing their pictures in the studio ing cloak is just a head with eyes closed
(see PLEiN air), opened the path for im- and mouth at rest. This monument ex-
pressionists MONET, BAZILLE, SIS-
like presses deep spiritual peace. It is as
LEY, and RENOIR (who made painting though we are able to witness a soul de-
excursions to the region). Certainly parting its body in this unique interpre-
Barbizon — ultimately more a generic tation of a WAR MEMORIAL.
than a regional designation —was a new
approach to painting the landscape. But Barnes, Albert C.
more than that it was a new way of con- 1 872-195 1 • American • Irug
templating the landscape. It was a reac- manufacturer/collector
tionary mode: The original Barbizon
This mystic, whom we have treated as
artists glorified nature and peasant life.
a vagrant, has proved his possession of
Their concepts carried the echo of Jean-
a power to create, out of his own soul
Jacques Rousseau's social philosophy
and our own America, moving beauty
having to do with people acting in har-
of an individual character whose
mony with nature. Also of great signifi-
existence we never knew.
cance, it was the artist's own sentiments
and attitude —toward the landscape After inventing the formula for a silver
and toward —rather than
life an either nitrate, Argyrol, to treat gonorrhea,
accurate or an idealized report of what cystitis, and other diseases, Barnes be-
was seen by the eye, that counted for came a millionaire at the age of 35.
Barbizon artists and changed the core of With the help of his Philadelphia high
landscape painting. school classmate glackens, Barnes
began collecting art. By the early 1920s
Barlach, Ernst he had the greatest privately formed
1 870-193 8 • German • sculptor • collection of impressionist, post-
Expressionist IMPRESSIONIST, and early modern
paintings in America. He also bought
My mother tongue is the human body
African art. Barnes established an art
or the milieu, the object, through
school on his estate in Merion, Pennsyl-
which or in which man lives, suffers,
vania. Enthusiastic about a mural by
enjoys himself, feels, thinks.
DOUGLAS at the Club Ebony in Harlem,
A sculptor who often worked in wood, in 1928 Barnes awarded him a tuition-
Barlach sometimes created figures en- free scholarship at the school plus a
gulfed in wide, volumetric robes. Struc- stipend (see harlem renaissance).
tural details of the bodies beneath them Another black artist who excited
are not visible, but their intuited pres- Barnes's interest was pippin. The quo-
ence and mystical energy are. Barlach tation above, from a publication called
visited Russia in 1906 and was im- The New Negro, is an appreciation of
pressed by its FOLK ART. He was also in- African-American art. Though he col-
spired by MEDIEVAL German sculpture. lected little American art, he did buy the
His War Monument (1927) is a floating first painting sloan ever sold. Barnes
48 BAROCCI, FEDERICO

established a foundation for educa- canvases of Tintoretto and caravag-

tional purposes, but his collection was Gio. Barocci worked in Rome for a
not generally open to the public during time, but became ill (from an attempted
his lifetime, and access was still very poisoning, he claimed) and returned
limited for three decades after his death. home to Urbino. When he sent The Vis-
In the early 1990s, however, restric- itation to Rome c. 1583-86, the canvas
tions were eased, and the Barnes Foun- was so admired that a continuous line
dation agreed to release 80 paintings for of people waited to see it during the
worldwide exhibit while the galleries three days of its exhibition.
were renovated, lighting was improved,
and a climate-control system was in- Baroque
stalled. The exhibition tour to seven Specific delimitations and definitions of
$17 million toward the ren-
cities raised the Baroque period are not agreed on.
ovations. However, the hours at the Its beginnings in the early 17th century
museum were kept relatively limited. overlap with mannerism, and its disso-
lution during the last decades of that
Barocci, Federico century is interwoven with the emerg-
c. 1 53 5-16 1 2 • Italian • painter • ing interest in rococo (see periodiza-
Mannerist/Baroque tion). Equally uncertain is the origin of
the term. It may derive from a Por-
When a painting by Barocci, who used
tuguese word for a pearl with an irregu-
bright colors and gave agreeable looks
1855 burckhardt first
lar surface. In
to his figures, is seen for the first time,
used "baroque" in reference to style.
even by a connoisseur, it will please
(For a stylistic theory about Baroque,
him perhaps better than a painting by
see WOLFFLIN.) In reaction to the affec-
Michelangelo, which at first glance
tation, artificiality, and apparent emo-
looks so rude and unpleasant that it
tional detachment of Mannerism, art of
makes you turn your eyes away from
the Baroque era reported both the more
it. (Bernini, 1665)
natural look of the world and a sense
The Counter-Reformation called a halt of personal engagement. There is, how-
to the artificial coloring, as well as the ever, wide variety in Baroque art, from
often erotic overtone, of Mannerist the stillness and restraint of pous-
painting (see mannerism). In the mid- siN and vermeer at one end of the
dle of the 1 6th century, the tendency spectrum to the intensity of caravag-
was to darken pictures and give them a Gio and the action-packed drama of
more somber mood. However, as RUBENS on the other. These polarities
BERNINI suggests in the quotation are sometimes contrasted as, respec-
above, Barocci found a style that ac- tively, "Classic Baroque" and "Roman-
knowledged but overcame the austerity tic Baroque." They turn up in still

demanded by the Church. His use of another guise as the dispute of line
clear and luminous color was accept- VS. COLOR. Rembrandt's paintings
able as exciting spiritual rather than and Bernini's sculpture express the
erotic ardor, and his paintings have an Baroque artists' concern with psycho-
optimism that was missing in the dark logical motivation and response. The
 BARTHOLDl, FREDERIC-AUGUSTE 49

Counter-Reformation is important to responsible for the early purchases that

some but certainly not to all Baroque shaped MOMA (as the museum is

art. It did influence commissions origi- known). He was especially astute in ad-
nating in Rome around 1600, where, vising the Rockefeller family in their ac-
according to principles laid down by the quisitions of MODERN art, which also
Council of Trent, the papacy patron- formed the core of MOMA's collection.

ized art on a large scale "for the greater Barr's comment quoted above refers to

glory of God and the Church." In the Picasso's notorious painting Les
Spanish Netherlands, the Catholic Demoiselles d' Avignon (1907), which
Restoration of Antwerp in 1585 influ- the museum owns.
enced the artists' intention to draw the
audience to the heart of religious expe- Bartholdi, Frederic-Auguste
rience. In Protestant Holland, Baroque 1834-1904 • French • sculptor •
The historian John
art also flourished. Academic
Martin writes, "The problem of the
Colossal statuary does not consist
Baroque may be somewhat simplified,
simply in making an enormous statue.
if not fully resolved, by viewing the lack
It ought to produce an emotion in the
of stylistic uniformity as the result not
breast of the spectator, not because of
only of national differences, but of a
its volume, but because its size is in
process of evolution." Part of this evo-
keeping with the idea it interprets.
lution was inspired by the tremendous
advances in astronomy, optics, and was born in Alsace-Lorraine,
Bartholdi
physics during this period, as well as by which Emperor Napoleon III lost to
the philosophical writings of Descartes. Germany during the Franco-Prussian
War. The sculptor's memorial honoring
Barr, Alfred Hamilton defenders of the fallen Alsatian town of
1902-198 1 • American • art Belfort, The Lion ofBelfort (1871-80),
historian/museum director was designed with passionate devotion.
From its position on a rock ledge high
. . . a battleground of trial and
above the town, the 70-foot-long, 38-
experiment.
foot-high lion expresses the idea that
The Museum of Modern Art was while France may have lost the war, her
founded in New York City in 1929, and courage remains intact. In contrast to

Alfred Barr, at the age of 27, became its thorvaldsen's heroically dying Lion
first director (1929-1943). A Harvard- of Lucerne, sculpted some 60 years ear-
educated art historian, Barr first studied lier into live rock, Bartholdi's is twice as
paleontology, which helps to explain large, freestanding, carved of red sand-
the scrupulousness of his scholarship. stone, and fiercely protective. In his
"He brought to his job a Calvinist in- best-known and most colossal work,
tegrity . . . and a broadly imaginative the 151-foot-high Statue of Liberty
understanding of modern art as archi- (1875-84), Bartholdi looked to the
tecture, design and films as well as heroic woman in Delacroix's Liberty
painting and sculpture," wrote the jour- Leading the People (1830) for iconog-
nalist Aline Saarinen in 1958. Barr was raphy, substituting a torch for Dela-
50 BARTLETT, JENNIFER

croix's flag. Gustav Eiffel, engineer/ she had lived on. Installed, the work is a
Tower (1889), col-
designer of the Eiffel horizontal sequence of five discrete
laborated with Bartholdi on the iron- compositions containing four-over-four
and-steel skeleton beneath the statue's tiles; each of the five represents one of
copper sheeting. The presentation of the places she lived in New York and
Liberty as a gift from the people of was among a
California. Bartlett group
France to the people of America was of painters whose works the 1978 show
promoted by French libertarians deter- at the Whitney Museum of American

mined to link their country's Third Re- Art in New York called New Image
public with the democratic United Painting (see new image). During the
States of America in defiance of Napo- 1980s, Bartlett mixed painted scenes,
leon III. In June 1871, Bartholdi sailed such as a wall covered with a landscape,
for America. As his ship entered New with constructed objects set in front of

York Harbor, he saw Bedloe's Island them, like a table and chair.

and conceived of putting his great mon-

—
ument there where it still stands. Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della
Porta)
Bartlett, Jennifer 1472-15 17 • Italian • painter •

born 1 94 1 • American • painter • Renaissance

New Image
Baccio was loved in Florence for his
. . . a conversation, where you start ability; was an assiduous workman,
with a thought, bring in another idea quiet, good-natured, and God-fearing.
to explain it, then drop it. He preferred a quiet life and avoided
vicious pleasures, was very fond of
With the comment quoted above,
sermons, and always sought the society
Bartlett describes her composition enti-
of learned and staid people. It is rare
tled Rhapsody (1975-76), made up of
when Nature creates a man of genius
987 painted metal plates. Bartlett's in-
and a clever artist that she does not
novation was to fill the gallery wall
prove his worth. (Vasari, mid- 1 6th
with even rows of i-foot-square steel
century)
plates that were commercially coated
with white enamel before she painted Spiritually shaken by the death of
them. Some of the squares were de- SAVONAROLA, Bartolommeo put aside
signed to represent recognizable forms painting for several years and entered a
when assembled — a house, a moun- Dominican order. Then, in Venice in
tain — while others were geometric. 1508, he studied the work of Giovanni
Some tiles compo-
were part of a larger BELLINI. Bartolommeo's impressive
sition; some contained scenes on a sin- Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine of
gle square. Bartlett worked both in Siena 1 5 1 1 was influenced by one of
( )

freehand and with mechanical imple- Bellini's altarpieces. It is more than 8

ments. Falcon Avenue, Seaside Walk, feet high and as imposing in affect as it

Dwight Street, Jarvis Street, Greene is in size, yet it seems stilted in expres-

Street (1976) is named after five streets sion. Working in Florence, Bartolom-
 BASELITZ, GEORG (HANS GEORG KORN) 5I

meo used the pyramidal compositions brought rave reviews from the critic

of LEONARDO and in turn influenced Janin, who is quoted above. A bronze

RAPHAEL, to an extent. After Leonardo, cast of Lion Crushing a Serpent (1832)
Raphael, and Michelangelo left Flo- was ordered for the Tuileries Gardens.
rence, Bartolommeo and andrea del It was understood as a metaphor for the

Sarto inherited the mantle. Yet it must July Revolution, with the lion (zodiacal
be confessed that Florentine painting sign for July) representing the power of
remained unexciting under their leader- the people and the snake serving as a
ship until the style of mannerism took symbol of the evil of the Bourbon dy-
hold. nasty.

Barye, Antoine-Louis bas-relief

1796-1875 • French • sculptor • See RELIEF
Romantic
Baselitz, Georg (Hans Georg
Just look: here is a huge lion defending
Korn)
itself against a serpent. What strength
born 1938 • German • painter •
and naturalness in the pose! How
Neo-Expressionist
graceful and facile is the carving of the
curve extending from the animal's Itwas not a matter of taking a form
head to The Expression of the
its tail. from the man and sticking it on the
head is simultaneously frightened and canvas. It was a matter of inventing
angry. (Jules G. Janin, 1833) the man.

Emotional extremes, terror to ecstasy, Baselitz name from Korn,

changed his

were hallmarks of romanticism. In dropping Hans, when he was 23. En-

sculpture as in painting, animals served rolled in the Academy of Arts and
to express or provoke fear. Barye cre- Crafts in East Berlin in 1956, before the
ated a new category as "animalier," Berlin Wall had been built, he was sus-
showing the unbridled ferocity, pended for "social andimma-
political

strength, musculature, and predatory turity." Baselitz began showing his

behavior of animals. He studied ani- paintings in the early 1960s in West
mals at the zoo, the Jardin des Plantes Berlin and by 1969 he had become
hvonzes— Jaguar
in Paris. Titles of his known worldwide for very large pic-
Devouring a Hare (c. 1830) and Tiger tures with their subject matter turned
Devouring a Gavial (1831), for exam- upside down. His intention is that view-
ple— describe his themes. They com- ers look first at the painted surface as
bined the era's fascination with people such, then begin to consider the image.
and animals from distant lands with its Black, blue, and flesh-colored paint
taste for violence. That may explain is applied in thick lines and swirls in
why some of Barye's sculptures were re- Late Dinner in Dresden (February 18,
fused by salon juries after the July 1983), and the faces —once they materi-
1830 Revolutionary outbreak. How- alize (one man has two heads) —evoke
ever, his entry in the 1833 Salon fear and horror. Citing the precedent of
 — —
a

52 BASILICA

Picasso's Ambroise Vollard (1910), tons and unfriendly dogs: Boy and Dog
Baselitz said that the artist "estabhshed in a Johnnypump (1982) is an example.
Vollard as a painting, and not vice Catapulted to fame before his death at
versa." In that context he added the 27 from a drug overdose, Basquiat has
comment quoted above. been mythologized, especially in a
movie about his life. Controversy sur-
basilica rounds him: One challenge is that he is

From the Greek basilikos, meaning not a true graffiti artist to the extent

"royal." In roman architecture the that graffiti is considered a vernacular

term referred to the building's func- expression with high standards of
tion —public halls that accommodated craftsmanship in its calligraphic inter-
numerous businesses, the stock ex- lacing of letters. Basquiat merely scrib-
change, law courts, offices, and admin- bled his personal signatures —the crown
istrative (including civic) services and SAMO —short for "same old shit"

rather than its form. It was, however, on marketable canvases more than on
often an oblong building with side and walls.The most serious doubts have to
center aisles and clerestory windows do with the promoting and marketing
(that is, windows above the roof that of Basquiat, son of an upper-middle-
covers the side aisles, but below the roof class Haitian and Hispanic family (not
over the center aisle). The form and impoverished, in other words, as most
term were adopted for the Early Christ- true graffiti artists are presumed to be).
ian churches. Old Saint Peter's in Rome Once discovered, he was coddled, feted,

(begun c. 3 19, no longer extant), which and, it is said, fed cocaine. In another
Emperor Constantine ordered con- camp are critics who consider him a
structed at the place where Christians natural genius and believe that his
believed Saint Peter to be buried, was a paintings "poetically evoke the vicious
basilica. greed, racism, and inhumanity of the
society he was struggling to learn to live
Basquiat, Jean-Michel within," as the director of the Whitney
1960-198 8 • American • painter • Museum of American Art wrote in an
Graffiti exhibition catalogue surveying
Basquiat's work. Both camps find ways
Royalty, heroism, and the streets.
of charging the other with racism.
With the comment above, Basquiat de-
scribed the subject matter of his art. The Bassano, Jacopo (dal Ponte)
royalty and heroism to which he refers c. 15 10-1592 • Italian • painter •

is that of his black heroes, like the jazz Italian Renaissance

saxophonist Charlie Parker, who is cel-
You must know, Oh!, Domenico, that
ebrated in a work called Charles the
during my journey I saw a miracle—
First (i^Sz). Basquiat also used a crown
piece of black drapery that looked like
as one of his own "tags," or signatures.
white. (Giovanni Battista Tiepolo)
His style is primal, using stick figures

such as children draw —disturbed chil- Jacopo's father and brothers were also
dren with nightmares of grinning skele- artists, but his work was the most inno-
 BAUHAUS 53

vative and enduring. Named after the ture The 1854-55) and
Painter's Studio,

small town in which he was born and the sculptor Medardo rosso. In his
spent most of his life, Jacopo was salon reviews Baudelaire formulated
trained in and kept current of styles and ideas that serve as signposts to the di-
trends in nearby Venice. In fact, a por- rections art would take. He was never
trait of Jacopo in the role of musician reticent, believing that a critic should be
appears in one of Veronese's great "partial, passionate and political." A
Venetian feast paintings, Marriage at great promoter of urban life, in 1845 he
Cana (1563). However, Jacopo re- directed artists toward the epic, heroic

mained faithful to what is called his qualities of the present, a theme he

"rustic" manner, exemplified by his would expand on The Painter of in
Pastoral Landscape of the 1560s, in Modern Life (1863). The man he
which women and children are involved named as most closely realizing his
in farm duties —milking a cow and feed- idea, Constantin Guys (i 802-1 892),
ing sheep —while a man carries home a now little studied, was a journalist-
heavy load. The road he travels leads to artist who had covered the Crimean
a landscape of hills and trees, painted War. Guys was adept at rapid sketches
with an energetic brush, beneath a sky and watercolors of second empire
full of scudding clouds. For works like Paris, scenes that would soon interest
this, Jacopo is known as a developer of manet, degas, and other impression-
genre paintings. He was admired by ists. Indeed, before Impressionism
TiEPOLO, who wrote the words quoted made its debut, Baudelaire defined its

above in a letter to his son. The painting concerns—the con- transitive, fugitive,
to which Tiepolo refers is Saint Lucille tingent— quoted above. He also
as dis-

Baptized by Saint Valentine, one of Ja- cussed a subject that absorbed the
copo's finest works, in which the thin Italian macchiaioli as well as mem-
strokes of color on Saint Lucille's cloth- bers of the barbizon school, writing,
ing look almost black close up, and at a "There is a great difference between a
distance become a shiny white. work that is complete [which may be
left rough, spontaneous, and open-
Baudelaire, Charles textured], and a work that is finished
1821-1867 • French • poet/critic [that worked up in detail, smoothed
is,

,.,..,the
Modernity is transitive, the
,
out]; in general what is com/7 /efe is not
r 1 1 1 1 • 1 • 1
1 1

r . , finished, and ... a thmg that is highly

fugitive, the contingent. r , , . , , ,, ,,
finished need not be complete at all.

In chronology and in preference. This important idea became fundamen-

Baudelaire reached across the great rev- tal to modernism.
olutionary periods of French life and
art, finding himself in tune with manet Bauhaus
as well asdelacroix. His poetry in- Bauhaus means "house for building."
spired symbolists; his discussions of The name was given to a school of de-
art were important to practitioners as sign founded in Germany by the archi-
various as courbet (who included tect gropius in 1919, and it refers to a
Baudelaire in his autobiographical pic- new teaching method rather than to a
54 BAYEAUX TAPESTRY

particular style. The school began in the throne, this zo-inch-high, almost-
Weimar, where it first manifested a 230-foot-long narrative is a pictorial

short-lived expressionist phase that record of William's conquest of Eng-

was replaced in 1923 by a commitment land. was commissioned by his half
It

to "functionalism," the idea of the pri- brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeaux. It is

macy of purpose or function over all named a tapestry incorrectly, as it is
else. The Bauhaus moved to Dessau in embroidered (not woven) in wool on
1924, and from there to Berlin in 1932, linen. Besides its political intent, the ta-

but it was closed by the Nazis in 1933. pestry provides us with a rich historical
Its faculty wished to break down the document of everything from arms,
barriers separating painters, sculptors, armor, materiel, and techniques of war-
architects, craftspeople, and industrial fare, to castle design and contemporary
designers. While the principles of crafts- costume. As a cultural record, the
manship and the moral responsibility of Bayeaux tapestry is comparable to the
the designer were adapted from the narrative in the column of trajan.
ARTS and crafts MOVEMENT, Bauhaus Stylistically, some scenes show an in-
teachers chose to embrace, rather than fluence of the new Romanesque style,
reject, possibilities offered by industri- but for the most part, the quest to pre-
alization and technological advance, sent information takes precedence over
From ART NOUVEAU, Bauhaus theorists style,

and designers took the idea of the or-

ganic development in design and the in- Bazille, Frederic
volvement of the artist in all fields of 1 841-1870 • French • painter •
visual expression. The core of Bauhaus Impressionist circle
teaching was a foundation course devel-
, , „
oped by Swiss pamter and theorist
. .
, ,
,
1
^,
am 1,11
completely alone in the country.

^ , ^ ^ , ^
My cousins and my
; ; ;
brother are at the
;

Johannes Itten 1888-1967). It was . , ...

^ ,
. , resort;my father and mother are liumg , ,

meant to free the student from past ^, . ,. ,

... in town. I his solitude pleases me

experiences and prejudices initially
.
rr .
wr
,
,

I
— . .
,,

enormously; it makes me work a lot,

, 1 1 ,

the curriculum offered non-western , , ,

... , .
,
. , ... and read a lot.
philosophies and mystical religions.
Bauhaus teachers included kandinsky. The comment above was written in a

ALBERS, KLEE, and FEiNiNGER. The IN- letter to a friend shortly before Bazille
ternational style of architecture left to join a French infantry unit, the
evolved at the Bauhaus. mies van der Third Regiment of Zouaves, on August
ROHE said of the school 20 years after it 16,1 870. While enjoying his solitude at

had closed, "The Bauhaus was not an that time, he was by no means a solitary

institution with a clear program — it type. On the contrary, he was a great

was an idea." and generous friend of first monet,
then RENOIR, both of whom he helped
Bayeaux tapestry with money and lodgings. Bazille stud-
Produced 1070-80 to record, com-
c. ied medicine and art, and it was in his

memorate, and justify the victory of drawing class in Paris (under gleyre)
William the Conqueror and his claim to that he met Monet. In 1864 he failed
 —

BEARDEN, ROMARE 55

to pass the medical examinations and Among abstract expres-

the earliest
devoted himself to painting. He not sionists, Baziotes was one of the first
only shared his studio with his friends, to absorb surrealism and its use of au-
but he also painted and them: The
it, tomatism and BiOMORPHiSM, in the
Studio in the rue la Condamine (1870). early 1940s. Cyclops (1947), with a
MANET, Renoir, sisley, and a figure large eye in its center, is such a biomor-
who may be Monet are in the picture. phic form, floating in an amorphous
Renoir, in turn, painted Bazille painting space. It was inspired by a rhinoceros
dead birds — Le Heron (1867). (Sisley Baziotes fed peanuts to at the zoo. "He
painted the same dead birds in a still was playful and cute and toy-like, but at
LIFE.) With a more conservative style the same time, he chilled me. He seemed
than that of his friends, Bazille's range prehistoric and his eyes were cold and
was wide, from great bowls of flowers deadly," Baziotes later wrote.
to erotically charged scenes of men
sporting around a pool of water, stand- BCE
ing, reclining, and wrestling in dappled An alternative to bc for purposes of
light: Summer Scene, Bathers (1869). dating, bce stands for "Before the Com-
He has captured the tension of how mon Era." (See also ce)
men interact without looking at one
another, in the same terms, and result- Bearden, Romare
ing in the same mood, as Thomas 19 1 2-1 98 8 • American pamter
EAKiNs's famous Swimming (1885). Modern
When Bazille wrote the letter quoted
Of great importance has been the fact
from above, he was working on a large
that the African would distort his
painting, more than 6V1 feet long:
figures if by doing so he could achieve
Landscape (1870) is a picture of sparse
a more expressive form. This is one of
trees and dry ground. There has been
the cardinal principles of the modern
speculation that Bazille planned to fill
artist.
this landscape with figures, yet that
seems unlikely, for each tree is individu- Using techniques of modern art col-
alized, almost anthropomorphized, as lage and cubism — Bearden explored
if to take the roles played by the men in his African heritage as well as the con-
Summer Scene. Bazille's final intention temporary life of his people. She-Ba
in Landscape remains unknown; he (1970), for example, is a boldly colored
died in combat in the Franco-Prussian collage with deep and lighter greens,
War on November 28, 1870. bright red, yellow, and orange sur-
rounding the figure of a woman cut
from black paper. The comes from
title
Baziotes, William
the name of an ancient kingdom whose
1912-1963 • American • painter •
people settled Ethiopia. The woman
Abstract Expressionist
holds a scepter of the kind made famil-
The subject matter in [an artist's] work iar in ancient Egyptian art. Bearden es-

can be the tremors of an unstable tablished certain recurrent symbols, like

world. the train, to symbolize white civiliza-
56 BEARDSLEY, AUBREY

tion and its encroachment on that of and it synthesizes both a fascination

blacks. A photo image of a train ap- with and a fear of female sexuality.
pears in the collage The Prevalence of The FEMME fatale, so popular among
Ritual: Baptism (1964), along with PRE-RAPHAELITE artists, was nowhere
faces provided by West African masks as destructive a figure as in the hands of
and other objects both painted and Symbolists like Beardsley and Moreau.
pasted on the paperboard surface. "I Beardsley's limply swaying, curving
seek connections so that my paintings lines, flowers, leaves, and tendrils are
can't be only what they appear to repre- allied to the Art Nouveau style that

sent," Bearden explained. flourished in the decorative arts.

Beardsley, Aubrey Beaux, Cecilia

1 872-1 898 • English • illustrator • 185 5-1942 • American • painter •
Art Nouveau/Symbolist American Impressionism

/ seldom or never advise anyone to More than all, the knowledge to which
take up art as a profession, but in your Ihad been so accidentally admitted (or
case I can do nothing else. (Edward was it a momentary access of
Burne-Jones, 1891) generosity from the stars?)
accompanied all the years (and
Beardsley worked in an art nouveau
accounted for much) of my
style, but he epitomized the decadence
predilection for portraiture, and the
of the SYMBOLIST era and the sexuality
manifestations of human individuality.
that so fascinated it — keep in mind
I always saw the structure under the
that Richard von Krafft-Ebing's trea-
surface, and its capacities and
tise, Psychopathia Sexualis, was pub-
proportions.
lished in 1886 and translated into
English in 1892. burne-jones, who ap- Beaux earned success as a portraitist
preciated Beardsley's talent, as the quo- whose clients included the French pre-
tation above makes clear, introduced mier Georges Clemenceau and the wife
him to the playwright Oscar Wilde, and and daughter of American president
Beardsley did pen-and-ink illustrations Theodore Roosevelt. (She also made a
for Wilde's drama Salome (1894). I" drawing of Roosevelt himself, who sat

the drawing Salome with the Head of for about two hours "talking and read-
John the Baptist, Beardsley embodies ing Kipling, reciting the same, also
the eroticism that moreau only implied Browning," as she reported.) Beaux
in his renderings of the theme. As began her studies of art in Philadelphia,

Beardsley's demonic Salome holds and returned there to teach at the Penn-
John's severed head to kiss it, they gaze sylvaniaAcademy of the Fine Arts after
into each other's eyes. Her expression is attending the acad^mie julian and
predatory, his apprehensive. Tendrils, traveling in Europe from 1888 to 1890.
peacock feathers, and one lascivious When she was elected to be an associate
flower heighten the tension. This of the National Academy of Design in
moment is the climax of Wilde's play. May 1 894, contingent on submission of
 —

BECKMANN, MAX 57

a self-portrait for the academy's perma- whole material must be restudied from
nent collection, she showed herself in a the point of view of the potters; and
three-quarters view with an earnest, de- this time we must be prepared to hold
termined gaze. Her palette had light- the painters at arm's length. . . . Then
ened after her studies in France, and she it will be possible not only to write the
painted with a looser, freer hand. Be- history of Attic vases front the point of
sides important men. Beaux portrayed view of the potters, but, in the long
women with sensitivity, showing their run, to shed fresh light on the painters
character and strengths, whether beau- with whom they collaborated.
tifulyoung women lost in their own
world, such as in The Dreamer (1894), John Beazley, quoted above, was an
or a sketch of the writer and reformer early student of Greek vase painting.
Ida Tarbell, who was her friend. She Using the same methodology as
also gave biweekly critiques, in New —
morelli identifying idiosyncratic de-
York, for a painting class organized by tails like the treatment of anatomy and

the feminist and social reformer Eliza- clothing — Beazley distinguished the
beth Cady Stanton. work of one artist from that of another,
and gave numerous anonymous Greek
Beaux-Arts style vase painters an identity and personal-
An eclectic style of the 19th and 20th ity. The BERLIN PAINTER is One of the
centuries, Beaux-Arts borrows from the important talents Beazley singled out,
various earlier academic styles prac- studied, and named, in 191 1. (See also
ticed at the ECOLE des beaux-arts. In pottery)
architecture. Beaux- Arts style combines
new industrial materials with the earlier Beckmann, Max
design approaches, as in the Biblio- 1884-1950 • German pamter •

theque Sainte Genevieve in Paris New Objectivity

(183 8-1850) of LABROUSTE, and in San
My heart beats tnore for a raw, average
Francisco, the Palace of Fine Arts
vulgar art which doesn't live between
(19 1 5), designed by Bernard Maybeck
sleepy fairy-tale moods and poetry but
(1862-1957). In sculpture, carpeaux's
rather concedes a direct entrance to the
work is an example.
fearful, commonplace, splendid and
the average grotesque banality of life.
Beazley, Sir John P.
Hemmed in between two world wars,
1885-1970 • English • art historian
Beckmann served as a German medical
In trying to ascertain the authorship of orderly in the first and was a refugee
the paintings on vases, it was in Holland and later in the United
necessary, if one may so say, to keep States — during the second. His work
potter at arm's length. . . . Now that moves between those shocks to the sys-
the painters of nearly all important tem he describes above: fearful, com-
Attic vases, and most of the less monplace, splendid, average, and
important, have been determined, the grotesque banality. Like the scenes he
58 BELL, CLIVE

painted, each value individually seems admired, wondering how a mortal

bearable, but combined they are intol- man could possibly possess such divine
some images, such as The
erable. In talent as to be able to express natural

Dream (1921), Beckmann jams a per- things so vividly. Gentile had not long
verse cast of unseeing, unfeeling charac- been there before he painted the
ters into tight spaces, translating the emperor himself so well that it was
MEDIEVAL crowded design, or horror considered a miracle. (Vasari, mid-
VACUi, into 20th-century suffocation. i6th century)
Beckmann was dismissed by the Nazis
from his teaching post in Frankfurt. According to vasari. Gentile was sent
During the last 20 years of his life, his to Turkey about 1479 in place of his
in

years of exile, Beckmann often used the brother, Giovanni (see below), where
Medieval triptych, a three-panel al- he carried out several commissions.
TARPiECE format, together with the Most of that work is lost but two splen-
heavy outlines and strong color of did marbles do survive, one a dignified
STAINED glass. A triptych he com- but relaxed bust. Sultan Mohammed II,
pleted just before he left Germany in with his long, sharp, thin nose and
1933, Departure (one of a series), has white turban, the other a picture enti-
depictions of dreadful, inexplicable tled Turkish Boy (c. 1479-80). The boy,
horror on the two outside wings, and in dressed in the most exquisite and deli-
the center, an ambiguous scene in which cately embroidered robe, works intently
people ride in a boat on an infinite ex- on One of the stories
his writing tablet.

panse of ocean. Beckmann was high on Gentile brought home to Venice is

the list whose work was ma-
of artists about how the sultan, dismissing a
ligned as DEGENERATE ART by Hitler in European picture of John the Baptist's
1937. In a lecture delivered in 1938, severed head, ordered his swordsmen to
Beckmann spoke of art as "the quest of behead a slave in show how a
order to
our self that drives us along the eternal fresh decapitation should look. The
and never-ending journey we must all punch line of the story is that Gentile
make." then decided it was time to leave for
Italy. On his return he painted Proces-
Bell, Clive sion of the Relic of the True Cross
See FRY (1496), which depicts one of the many
elaborate parades in Venice. The figures

seem to line up along the grid formed by

Bellini, Gentile
the stonework of the Piazza San Marco
c. 1429-1507 • Italian • painter •
in this 14-foot-long painting, which is a
Renaissance
splendid record of the pomp and cere-
Gentile was safely taken in [Turkishj mony of contemporary Venetian life.

galleys to Constantinople . . . he was Gentile's reputation eclipsed that of

received graciously and highly his brother, Giovanni, in their day, but
favoured as being something novel, because he was more conventional in

especially as he presented the prince style and expression, that changed over
with a lovely picture, which he greatly time.
 BELLINI, GIOVANNI 59

Bellini, Giovanni which to set him. The scene is desert-

c. 1431/36-1516 • Italian • painter like, with ominous details like a broken
• Renaissance fence of spiky wood, a reminder of the
Crown of Thorns. Moreover, the land-
. . . the Grand Turk happened to see
scape is carved up by curving topologi-
some portraits brought by an
cal details that make it even more
ambassador, which him with filled
unsettling. This subject was also treated
wonder and amazement, and although
by Giovanni's brother-in-law, man-
paintings are prohibited by the
TEGNA, same time, both
at roughly the
Mahommedan laws he gladly accepted
artists having taken it from their
them, ceaselessly praising the artist and
teacher, Giovanni's Jacopo
father,
his work and, what is more, requesting
BELLINI (see below). Mantegna's and
that the master should be sent for. The
Giovanni's paintings are often con-
[Venetian] senate, reflecting that
trasted to reveal the hard rockiness of
Giovanni was of an age at which he
Mantegna, the sharpness of his focus,
could ill support hardships, and
the solidity of his presentation, the dis-
unwilling to deprive their city of such
tress of his figures, and the elaboration
a great man, especially as he was at the
of the buildings in the background. Gio-
time employed upon the hall of the
vanni's subtlety and his sensitivity to
great council, decided to send his
climate and illumination gain promi-
brother Gentile, who would, they
nence by the comparison. Giovanni pio-
thought, do as well. (Vasari, mid- 1 6th
neered in the exploration of light and its
century)
effect on the landscape during different

VASARi's account, quoted from above, seasons, atmospheric conditions, and

may reflect his personal preference for times of day. The ability to do this on
the work of Giovanni over that of Gen- canvas owed much to his mastery of oil
tile more than that of the Venetians, PAINTING. Until recently it was believed
who actually appreciated Gentile well that Giovanni learned the techniques of
enough. Giovanni's birth date, and the oil painting from antonello, but stud-
dates of most of his paintings, which ies now indicate that painters in Venice,
went unsigned, as well as the scant including Giovanni, were using oil be-
knowledge of his biography, all make fore Antonello arrived. Yet Antonello
his life seem as mysterious as his pic- did seem to influence Giovanni, who
tures. Part of their uncertainty may be took up techniques similar to those of
due to the hazy, cloudy atmosphere of van EYCK, which Antonello had learned.
VENICE. As shapes become softened in Giovanni's Saint Francis in Ecstasy (c.

such an ambience, so does sensibility. 1485) is predominantly oil. His arms

Agony in the Garden (c. 1465) presents open wide, Francis faces the light, per-
the dawning of the day on which Christ haps praying to the rising sun. This ec-

will be arrested, and he awaits the sol- static scene, with a fertile valley and a
diers while his apostles sleep. Bellini iso- castle beyond the cave in which Francis
lates Christ visually by showing us only lives, is crowded with symbols (e.g., a

his back and spatially by contriving a grape arbor signifying Communion)

mound, away from his companions, on and a close observation of nature: More
6o BELLINI, JACOPO

than 20 different species of plants and earlier been assigned to pisanello,

animals have been identified. In 1506, with whom Jacopo competed. Jacopo is
DiJRER wrote an interesting assessment believed to have been an assistant to
of Giovanni and of other Italians: GENTILE da Fabriano (for whom he may
"Among the Italians I have many good have named his son, as vasari says
friends who warn me not to eat and above) in painting the Strozzi Altar-
drink with their painters . . . they copy piece (1423). He was certainly an influ-
my work . . . and then they revile it and ence on his son-in-law, but in that case
say that it was not in the antique man- the influence worked both ways. The
ner and therefore not good. But Gio- new information Eisler provides is con-
vanni Bellini has highly praised me. . . . troversial. While Jacopo's Madonna
All men tell me what a God-fearing man and Child with Donor (c. 1441) breaks
he is.. He is very old, but is still the
. . no new ground, his lovely and ambi-
best painter of them all." tious landscape setting, with tiny farms,
castles, no fewer than four cities, and a
Bellini, Jacopo mountain range, reveals his knowledge
c. 1400-1470/71 • Italian • painter of PERSPECTIVE and an interest in the
• Renaissance unique atmospheric coloring of Venet-
ian light. Jacopo's two books of draw-
. . . he became so excellent that he was
ings, one now at the Louvre and the
the most famous in his profession. To
other at the British Museum, are dated
preserve this renown in his house, and
c. 1450. They contain a great variety of
to augment it, he had two sons,
subjects, exquisitely drawn, and were
devoted to the arts and possessing
used as models for many Venetian
great ability, the one Giovanni, the
artists. One perspective study. Flagella-
other Gentile, named after Gentile da
tion, is an elaborately detailed architec-
Fabriano, his dear master, who had
tural rendering of a large palace. Only
been like a loving father to him.
on looking very closely does one see the
(Vasari, mid- 1 6th century)
distant figure of Christ tied to a column
Only some 50 of his paintings survive, in the long covered walkway.
but about 310 drawings by Jacopo re-
main, the largest collection of drawings Bellori, Gian Pietro
by any Italian renaissance artist. c. 161 3-1 696 • Italian • writer/artist

Colin Eisler's 1989 study of Jacopo's

. . . some people . . . in their schools
role in the dazzling world of 15th-
and their books teach that Raphael is
century VENICE describes him as the
dry and hard, that his manner is statue
founder of the early Venetian Renais-
like, and claim that he has no fire or
sance and its most famous painter. This
spirit.
changes earlier assessments that spoke
of him largely as the father-in-law of Bellori became the most important
mantegna and the father of Gentile critic and chronicler of baroque art in

and Giovanni bellini (see above). A Rome during the second half of the
number of the works Eisler discusses 17th century. The son of a poor farmer,
are newly attributed to Jacopo, having he grew up among art and artists in the
 —

BENEDICTINE 6l

home of Francesco Angeloni, a rich col- Bellows assimilated stylistic character-

lector, antiquarian, and writer. Bellori istics of the MUNICH SCHOOL and of
took from domenichino.
art lessons HALS — a dark palette against which
He studied the art of antiquity and white becomes luminous, bold "slash-
prepared a catalogue of some leading ing" brushstrokes, and a coarseness
Roman collections, as well as his book. that both reflected and created the
Lives of the Modern Artists (first pub- subjects he painted. Bellows joined the
lished in 1672). He broke with vasari's ASHCAN painters and shared their com-
tradition (subsequently followed by mitment to experiencing and record-
baglione), by skimming over gossip ing the unvarnished urban scene. His
and even thoroughness in order to — painting of street life on the Lower East
concentrate on what he considered shows the
Side, Cliff Dwellers (19 13),
most significant in contemporary art: crowded, buzzing energy of tenement
the concept of the ideal. Bellori's he- life in summer, when everyone lives out-

roes were Domenichino, poussin (his doors. An ENGRAVING of this picture,

friend), algardi, and, above all, published in the Socialist journal The
MARATTA. He worshiped at the "altar" Masses, carried the ironic quip "Why
of RAPHAEL, and in the commentary Don't They All Go to the Country for
quoted from above disparaged those Vacation?" As did eakins before him,
who diminished his hero's work. For Bellows painted boxing pictures, but
him the enemies were primarily car- Bellows makes his predecessor's tough-
AVAGGio, BERNINI (whom he barely minded seem dainty by com-
pictures
mentioned), cortona, and borro- parison. Yet using the same dark palette
MiNi. Bellori's influence was great. In and bold stroke, Bellows could also sen-
1 67 1 he was named secretary of the as- sitively portray his blond-haired daugh-
Rome, the Ac-
sociation for artists in ter, as he did in Anne in Black Velvet
cademia de San Luca (see academy), (1917)-
and became librarian and antiquarian
to Queen Christina of Sweden (who Ben Day (benday)
settled in Rome in 1655) in the 1680s. A pattern, most often dots, that first ap-
Bellori's — which favored the
creed peared in printing, usually in newspa-
CLASSICAL influence — had over effect pers and comic books, benday serves as
the next century. a simplified means of giving tone to
portions of a picture. The process was
Bellows, George Wesley invented by a New York printer, Ben-
1882-1925 • American • painter • jamin Day (1838-1916), and was
Realist adopted in painting by lichtenstein.

You can learn more in painting one

Benedictine
street scene than in six months' work
A monastic community was founded in
in an atelier.
the 6th century by Benedict of Nursia
Bellows was an athlete at Ohio State (c. 480-543). His guidelines for monas-
University before he went to New York tic life became the standard for what is

City, where he studied art with henri. known as the Benedictine order. During
 —

62 BENJAMIN, ASHER

the 9th century, a functional plan for a of his books were sold. Originally from
Benedictine monastery was drawn up Connecticut, Benjamin moved his prac-

and widely adopted. The prototype is tice to Boston, where it flourished in the
for the Abbey of Saint Gall (c. 817) in early 19th century.
Switzerland, originally rendered in red
ink on five pieces of parchment sewn Benjamin, Walter
together. The central building is the 1 892-1940 • German • literary

BASiLiCAn church, and in surrounding critic/essayist

structures were the scriptorium, refec-

. . . that which withers in the age of
tory (dining hall), school, and hostel
mechanical reproduction is the aura of
Benedict required that hospitality be
the work of art. This is a symptomatic
extended to all visitors.
process whose significance points
beyond the realm of art. One might
Benjamin, Asher
generalize by saying: the technique of
1773-1845 • American • architect
reproduction detaches the reproduced
Federal
object from the domain of tradition.
Columns, when well disposed . . . are
The quotation above is from Ben-
very ornamental, and in some cases, of
jamin's essay The Work of Art in the
real use; but care ought to be taken,
Age of Mechanical Reproduction, first
that they be properly placed in such
published in 1936. It is "perhaps, the
situations as they will appear to
single most discussed and influential
advantage; and in such numbers, and
cultural essay of the century," writes
of such size, as will best suit the
the historian Michael Camille, an opin-
building on which they are placed.
ion so frequently repeated that "per-
A working carpenter, Benjamin pub- haps" ought by now to be deleted. The
lished seven handbooks, or builder's disintegrating "aura" of which Ben-
guides, among them the first original jamin speaks above is the ineffable, the
architectural design book in America— mystical, the spiritual, the transcenden-
Country Builder's Assistant: Contain- tal in a work of art, and, concurrently,
ing a Collection of New Designs of the genius and authority of the artist.
Carpentry and Architecture (1797) — Benjamin's discussion evolves from the
from which the quotation above is presence of photography and film as
excerpted. (An earlier volume, pub- mass media, but it reflects backward to
lished in Philadelphia in 1775, Abra- print and forward to television, and
ham Swan's British Architect: or the even to virtual reality. With his ideas in

Builder's Treasury of Staircases, was Mechanical Reproduction, Benjamin

originally published in England.) Ben- lays the groundwork for the postmod-
jamin's The American Builder's Com- ern. He describes how photography
panion followed in 1806. With his has altered the elitist nature of art
publications, Benjamin spread the ideas works by providing reproductions
introduced in New England by bul- available to the middle and lower
finch throughout the expanding na- classes. This has important influence on

tion. It is estimated that 35,000 copies "the reaction of the masses" to art, and
 BENOIST, MARIE-GUILLEMINE 63

on the politics of artistic reproduction, signer BAKST, he brought the Ballets

reception, and perception. Benjamin ef- Russes to life and took it to Paris.
fectively eliminates the authority of Benois wrote extensively, recording his
both the art object and its maker, and memoirs as well as the two-volume His-
detaches the art image from its ritual tory of Russian Painting in the i^th
function
— "the location of its original Century (1901-02). He and his compa-
The relation of "original" to
use value." triots were absorbed with Russian his-

SIMULACRUM, and the notion that to be tory and culture. After the Revolution
original something must be repro- of 19 17, Benois became curator of
ducible, adds to the widening discus- paintings at the Hermitage in Saint Pe-
sions Benjamin sparked. Born a Jew in tersburg, Russia's great museum.
Germany, Benjamin was in France dur-
ing World War II, awaiting notification Benoist, Marie-Guillemine
that he would be able to leave, when he 1768-1826 • French • painter •
was mistakenly led to believe that his Neoclassicist
freedom would be denied, and he killed
Let's not talk about it again or the
himself.
wound will open up once more.

Benois, Alexandre The works of 30 women were exhibited

1870-1960 • Russian • painter/stage at the Paris salon of 1793, Benoist's
designer/art historian • Symbolist among them. (Her full name was
Marie-Guillemine Leroulx-Delaville,
It is impossible to describe the
comtesse Benoist.) She had been a stu-
excitement which took possession of
dent of viGEE-LEBRUN and was then
me. The performance I had intended
studying under Jacques-Louis david.
and dreamed of was unfolding itself to
Her masterpiece, which brought her
the music which had, so to say, been
fame in the Salon of 1800, is Portrait of
made to order for it, and had been
a Negress, a three-quarter portrayal of a
composed in accordance with my
seated woman whose head is wrapped
wishes and been actually sanctioned by
in a turban. She sits with one breast
me. On this memorable day I
. . .

bared and gazes directly out at the

experienced that very rare feeling— not
viewer, who is placed slightly be-
unmixed, somehow, with pain — that
low her. The woman has dignity and
occurs only when something long
beauty, though her eyes are sad. The
wished for has at last been
painting was made six years after the
accomplished.
abolition of slavery in France, and
The rehearsal Benois describes above might be considered a manifesto of
was one for which the ballet master was emancipation of both women and
Michel Fokine, with the young Nijinsky slaves. Benoist received commissions
in the troupe. Benois was an entrepre- from Napoleon and a stipend from the
neur, artist, theater designer, critic, government. When monarchy was
the
and leader of the world of
scholar, restored, her husband. Count Benoist,
ART movement. Along with the great was appointed to a position of state,
impresario Serge Diaghilev and the de- which meant she could no longer ex-
64 BENSON, FRANK

hibit her work. Her distress over the his intentions, his writhing style resem-
prohibition prompted the words quoted bles nothing so much as a 20th-century
above from a letter she wrote to her El GRECO.
husband.
Berard, Christian
Benson, Frank See NEO-ROMANTICISM
See AMERICAN IMPRESSIONISM
Berenson, Bernard
Benton, Thomas Hart 1865-1959 • American • art

1 889-1975 • American • painter • historian

Regionalist
Whatever comes, I shall always
/ wallowed in every cockeyed ism that worship you without exception as the
came along and it took me ten years to most life-enhancing, the most utterly

get all that modernist dirt out of my enviable person I have ever had the
system. good fortune to know.

Born and raised in Missouri, Benton Born a Jew in Lithuania, his father an
studied briefly at the Art Institute of immigrant peddler, Berenson converted
He was influenced by the cu-
Chicago. to the Episcopalian religion. He was
bism and SYNCHROMiSM that were sponsored by wealthy Bostonians who
flourishing in Paris early in the zoth financed his education at Harvard and
century, as well as by the international in Europe, where he studied under
aestheticism of the stieglitz Circle. MORELLi. Berenson wrote the words
Then, as the tirade above reveals, Ben- quoted above to his first major client,

ton rejected all that. He became the Isabella Stewart Gardner, whose home
leader and spokesman for the American is today a museum in Boston that still

REGiONALisTs of the 1920S and 1930s. has the major paintings Berenson ac-
Known as hard-nosed, reactionary, and quired for her. Foremost among them is

xenophobic, he also celebrated the Titian'sRape of Eur op a (1559), long

heroic, busy, gritty life of the American considered one of the most excellent
working class. Benton traveled through paintings (if not the most excellent) of
the South and Midwest to absorb the the ITALIANRENAISSANCE in America.
mood and rhythms of the country. In Berenson was brilliant and charming
murals likeAmerica Today (1930-31), and renowned as a connoisseur. In
Benton monumentalized the every- 1895 he discredited a painting attrib-
day — subway riders and moviegoers, uted to giorgione, a Lady Professor
for instance — while, in the late 1930s, of Bologna, saying it was "neither a
he gave mythic stories like those he lady, nor a professor, not of Bologna,
painted in Susannah and the Elders and and least of all by Giorgione." Berenson
Persephone an earthy, American flavor. teamed up with the art dealer duveen,
Benton's figures seem to burst the seams and ethical questions have been raised
of their clothing and his scenes explode about their partnership. Their corre-
with energy, yet with all the jingoism of spondence, embargoed until the year
 BERLIN PAINTER 65

Z005, should shed new light on their that ofsome of his contemporaries (e.g.,
dealings. Berenson bequeathed his villa Eduard Cuypers, 1859-1927), who
near Florence, I Tatti, with its art and stressed architecture as art and a means
book collection, to Harvard University, of self-expression. Among the promi-
and it is used as a study center for Ital- nent architects who formulated a mod-
ian art. (See also sassetta) ern architectural idiom, Berlage played
an important role in implementing the
Berlage, H. P. (Hendrik Petrus) Dutch Housing Act of 1901, the first
1856-1934 • Dutch • architect • municipal legislation to mandate that
Modern when town reaches a population of
a
100,000, it must draw up a master plan
Imitation architecture is a lie. Lying is
for future development.
the rule, truth the exception. And thus
in architecture, decoration and
Berlin Painter
ornament are quite inessential while
6th-5th century bce • Greek • vase
space-creation and the relationships of
painter • Late Archaic
masses are its true essentials.
One of the best Greek vases we
In 1929, HITCHCOCK wrote, ". . . in
possess is theamphora No. 2160 in
Holland, the New Tradition is almost
the Berlin Museum. There is something
entirely dependent upon [Berlage] and
specially charming about these graceful
has brilliantly developed the many ten-
woodland people. . . . The question,
dencies inherent in his personalmanner
however, who painted the piece has
into a general national style." That
been variously answered . . . the
style, identified with Nieuwe Kunst, the
present writer . . . now proposes to
sober Dutch version of art nouveau,
examine the work of this anonymous
was expressed by Berlage with smooth
painter, who may be called the Master
redbrick facades and simple detailing in
of the Berlin Amphora. (J. P. Beazley,
light stone at rooflines and windows.
1911)
He used a variety of materials, but each
according to its own properties, not BEAZLEY introduced the "Berlin
frivolously or as substitute for or pre- Painter," and named him for an out-
tense of something else. His comments standing vase, owned by the Berlin Mu-
quoted above state his philosophy, as seum, on which are depicted Hermes
does his 1906 competition entry for the and satyrs. This artist, who specialized
Palace of Peace in The Hague, spon- in large vases, often with single figures,
sored by the American industrialist An- is now recognized as a preeminent
drew Carnegie. Berlage's unadorned painter in the early period of the red-
building with brick and stone walls lost figure TECHNIQUE. His Specialty was a
to a heavily ornamented design with tall, elegant figure rather than a scene,
multiple towers and spires reminiscent set against a black background, and
of a high GOTHIC church. The words executed with precise detail and im-
"sturdy," "rational," and "functional" pressive drawing skill. That detail and
describe Berlage's work, in contrast to skill were so pronounced, in fact, that
 —

66 BERLINGHIERI, BONAVENTURA

Beazley privately described the Berlin tains. Berlinghieri's painting is an ex-

Master to a colleague as "a model of ample of the MANIERA GRECA.
conciseness carried ad absurdum." (See
also pottery) Berman, Eugene, and Leonid
Berman
Berlinghieri, Bonaventura See neo-romanticism
active c. 1 228-1 274 • Italian •

painter • Late Gothic Bernard, Emile

1868-1941 • French • painter/writer
If thou wilt be perfect, go sell what
• Symbolist
thou has and give to the poor.
Anything that overloads a spectacle [of
Bonaventura Berlinghieri was from a
nature] covers it with reality and
family of painters who worked in
occupies our eyes to the detriment of
Lucca, not far from Pisa. His father,
our minds. We must simplify in order
Berlinghiero Berlinghieri (died before
to disclose its meaning.
1236), is one of the earliest Italian
artists identified by name; other than Bernard and gauguin together devised
that there is little information about a new approach to painting that re-
Bonaventura. The words from the jected the tenets of impressionism and
Gospel of Saint Matthew quoted above sought a simplified, almost "naive" ap-
are on his work, the first known pictor- proach —they even talked of imitating
ial representation of the legend of Saint the art of children. Between 1886 and
Francis. It was painted for an altar- 1887, with Louis Anquetin (1861-
piece dated 1235, only nine years after 1932) and TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, Ber-
Francis died. Francis holds a book in his nard developed the style of flattened,
left hand and his right palm is forward, outlined figures called (in February
showing his stigmata, but most of his 1888) CLOisoNNiSM because it was
body —so elongated that the ratio of his reminiscent of cloisonne. Bernard de-
head to the rest of him is almost 1:10 fined his style as "a simplified hand-
is swallowed up in his long, dark robe. writing which endeavored to catch the
Such robes are worn by monks of the symbolism inherent in nature." Breton
mendicant order he founded in 1209, Women in the Fields (1888), painted the
the Franciscans. Stiff, forward-facing same year as Gauguin's The Vision
(frontal), with sunken cheeks and After the Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with
piercing eyes, in Bonaventura's Saint the Angel), is an example of the two
Francis the saint is both powerful and artists' similar stylistic approach. They

ethereal — he seems to be floating on tip- also used the term synthetism, intro-
toe. Themes taken from the story of his duced by Gauguin. There is little agree-
life surround him, and in one of them he ment about whether Gauguin was the
preaches to the birds who perch, in rapt leader or the follower in the stylistic
attention, on what looks like a hill of breakthrough they achieved; however,
cascading cake frosting. These conical it is certain that Bernard was the more
shapes are stylized medieval moun- intellectual of the two. A breach be-
 BERNINI, GIAN LORENZO 67

tween them occurred when they ex- nobles. His talents were prodigious, not
hibited with the Impressionist and Syn- only as a sculptor and architect, but as
thetist Group at the Cafe des Arts, painter, playwright, and stage designer
outside the grounds of the Exposition too. Bernini was a Barberini protege
Universelle, or World's Fair, of 1889. under Urban VIII (for whom he de-
The eight artists who exhibited were se- signed the BALDACCHINO over the high
lected by Gauguin, and the deference altar of Saint Peter's). He was occasion-

paid to Gauguin alienated Bernard. In ally supplanted, as when Innocent X be-

1 89 1 Bernard published the first came pope and, as new administrators

lengthy article about cezanne, whom conventionally do, replaced his prede-
he had not yet met but whose work he cessor's favorites: Innocent gave pride
greatly admired. Bernard spent several of place to algardi and borromini.
years in Cairo, and on his return visited Still, Bernini's fame was so great that,
Cezanne. Later they corresponded. It despite papal disregard, he received
was to Bernard that Cezanne made his major private commissions. Then, even
famous comment about treating nature Innocent, of whom Bernini made a por-
"by the cylinder, the sphere, the cone." trait bust in marble, could not resist and
In his writings Bernard promoted the called him back. When Bernini was to
work of both Cezanne and redon. sculpt Saint Lawrence, according to one
story he put his own leg into a fire in
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo order to understand his subject's pain.
1598-1680 • Italian • This search for truth in expression
sculptor/architect • Baroque echoes the quest of his baroque con-
temporary CARAVAGGio. There is little
Better a poor Catholic than a good
correspondence in their characters,
heretic.
however. Bernini was profoundly de-
In the period that followed the Counter- vout: During the last40 years of his life,
Reformation, Bernini avidly champi- at least, he went to church every day
oned Catholicism. The son and student and took Communion twice a week.
of a Florentine sculptor who moved to His most renowned sculpture is based
Rome, Bernini was a child prodigy. upon the life of Saint Teresa and her de-
Cardinal barberini warned the father scription of the extreme but sweet pain
that his son would soon outstrip him. she experienced after an angel plunged
The father replied, "It doesn't bother an arrow of fire into her heart. Bernini's
me, for as you know, in that case the portrayal of this mystical experience.
loser wins." Cardinal Barberini became The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1645-52),
Pope Paul V, on whose payroll Bernini's is in the Cornaro Chapel of Santa Maria

father was listed. Gian Lorenzo report- della Vittoria inRome. An angel stands
edly spent every day, for three years of above Teresa, whose head is thrown
his youth, sketching ancient marble back, mouth open, eyes closed in a
sculptures in the Vatican. He worked trance of both spiritual and sexual
for eight popes and several monarchs, transport. The figures are enclosed in an
as well as an array of lesser prelates and elaborate architectural structure. Light
68 BERNWARD, ARCHBISHOP OF HILDESHEIM

from a window above them illuminates bled for the papal benediction on Easter
a shower of bronze rays, yet the radi- Sunday, but Bernini's parade of
ance seems to pour down from the ceil- COLUMNS, which he likened to out-
ing, high overhead, which is painted stretched arms, was designed to wel-
with angelic forms, clouds, and light. come the faithful.
On either side of Teresa, as if they were
in box seats at a theater, are sculpted Bernward, Archbishop of
portraits of the Cornaro family, who in- Hildesheim
teract with each other. Are they creating appointed bishop 993, died loiz •

the vision before them? Or are they German • patron

playgoers watching it unfold? How
In the year of our lord loij Bishop
does the audience fit into the scheme?
Bernward installed the doors.
The fervor of Bernini's figures vitalizes
marble, whether it is a horse bearing the During the nth century, the city of
emperor — Constantine (1654-70) —or Hildesheim was the art capital of
the bust of a king— Lom/5 XIV {166^) — Northern Europe, and Bernward, him-
who bears only his massive curls, a lacy self an accomplished goldsmith, was a
cravat, and extravagant drapery. foremost patron of the arts. Inspired

Bernini transcends the constraints of by monuments he saw during time he

stone, as he put it, "to render marble spent in Rome with the emperor Otto
flexible, so to speak, and to know how III, Bernward returned to Germany and
to combine painting and sculpture." commissioned doors for the ottonian
But there was humor in his repertoire, church of Saint Michael in Hildesheim
too, and that is expressed with a won- (built under Bernward's direction
derful baby elephant, outfitted majesti- 1001-31). This bronze portal of 1015,
cally, carrying an obelisk on its back i6y2 feet high, is surmounted by a
(1666-67) on the Piazza Santa Maria band containing the inscription quoted
sopra Minerva in Rome. As Bernini cre- above. was made by the lost wax
It

ated an entire dramatic experience in- casting process, and was the first truly
side the Cornaro Chapel, he also shaped monumental sculpture cast in the north
religious experience in his architectural (see bronze). The decorative program

designs. When his son came upon him pairs scenes from Genesis with illustra-

in the small church of Sant' Andrea al tions of the New Testament. "The intel-

Quirinale (1658-70) and asked what he lectual content of the doors matches the
was doing there, Bernini replied, "I feel audacity of their physical creation,"
a special satisfaction at the bottom of Marilyn Stokstad writes. "St. Bernward
my heart for this one work of architec- [canonized in the nth centuryl must
ture, and I often come here as a relief have designed the iconographical pro-
from my duties to console myself with gram himself, for only a scholar thor-
my work." Entirely different in scale, oughly familiar with both art and
but similarly all embracing in its effect, theology would have conceived of com-
is the vast Piazza of Saint Peter's begun bining this clear narrative history with
in 1656. The main function of the space such subtle interrelationships." Juxta-
was to contain the crowds that assem- positions of Eve and the Virgin, known
 BEUYS, JOSEPH 69

as the New Eve, imply that through baby will survive. Bestiaries were often
Mary paradise may be regained (see ty- heavily infused with Christian symbol-
pology). While it is an intellectually ism and morality, and one of their func-
sophisticated narrative, the scenes are tions may have been for spiritual

expressed in simple, direct, and highly instruction. The prototype was written
emotional style, with features in the by an anonymous author now called
background shown in low relief and Physiologus, the name also given to
animated figures in high relief. Bern- his book of animal lore. The actual date
ward was also responsible for a bronze and place of origin for the Physiologus
column that was inspired by triumphal are unknown, though 200 ce and Egypt
monuments like the column oftrajan (Alexandria) are strong candidates. Nu-
in Rome. Bernward's column narrates merous bestiaries were compiled, tran-
the life of Christ, and in this work scribed, and illustrated, content was
the style is intense, compressed, even updated, new animals (real and imag-
brutal. It is not known when, where, or ined) added, emphasis changed, and al-

to whom
Bernward was born, and though all sorts of beasts, birds, and
the tomb installed for him in Saint fish were included, these books always
Michael's is empty. began with the lion. (See also illumi-
nated manuscript)
bestiary
A book about animals, real and mythi- Beuys, Joseph
cal, the bestiary goes back to prehistoric 1921-1986 • German •

lore. Accounts of animal life were sculptor/activist/performer Modern

recorded by Herodotus (5th century
We must continue along the road of
bce), Aristotle (6th century bce),
interrelating socio-ecologically all the
Plutarch (c. 46-120 ce), and the Roman
forces present in our society until we
author Aelian in his De natura animal-
perform an intellectual action which
ium {On the Nature of Animals; c. 220
extends to the fields of culture,
ce). Bestiaries in Latin became popular
economy, and democratic rights.
in MEDIEVAL art and flourished in Eng-
land, especially during the 12th and An almost mythic performance artist

13th centuries. For example, an English whose persona was indistinguishable

manuscript in the Pierpont Morgan Li- from his work, Beuys was a distinctive
brary, perhaps made in Lincoln and figure in his fishing vest and soft-brim
given to Worksop Priory in 1 187, has a hat. Art and political activism were syn-
page illustrated with a hunter who is onymous for Beuys. He was a co-
taking aim at a mother monkey. She founder and an unsuccessful political
holds one infant in her arms while an- candidate of the German Green Party.
other clings to her back. According to In one of his political demonstrations,
the accompanying text, a mother mon- organized in 1971 to protest deforesta-
key loves one baby and neglects the tion, Beuys staged Overcome Party Dic-
other. When hunted, she will carry her tatorship Now, in which volunteers
favorite in her arms, but when she tires swept the forest floor and painted white
she will drop it, and only the unloved crosses and rings on trees designated to
yO BIEDERMEIER

be harvested for lumber. He created the covered with honey and gold leaf, spoke
idea of "social sculpture," in which to Coyofe (1974), Beuys spent day
it. In

everyone involved is both artist and per- and night during an entire week en-
former. During the 1980s, Beuys came closed in a room of a New York City
to think and talk of art as a means of re- gallery with a coyote and a number of
constructing the entire social organism, props that included a flashlight (repre-

"Only from art can a new concept of senting energy) and The Wall Street
economics be formed, in terms of Journal (representing capital and com-
human needs, not in the sense of waste merce). Beuys associated the coyote
and consumption," he said. He found with Native American spirituality, and
support in the writings of the Austrian one motive of this "Action" was to
social philosopher Rudolf Steiner point up the importance of that con-
( 861-1925), especially The Philoso-
1 sciousness. Beuys's personal history
phy of Spiritual Activity. Reaching back was as memorable as his presence. He
to premodern, pre-Socratic times, when was a pilot in the German Luftwaffe
science and art were unified, Beuys saw during World War II; in 1943 his plane
the making of art as a religious, tran- was shot down over the Crimea. He
scendent activity connecting artist and claimed to have been rescued by no-
community. He talked of restoring to madic Tartars who saved his life and re-
his audience the lost "primitive wisdom stored him to health by wrapping him
of being." Dismissing clear, logical, lin- in fat and felt, both materials that he

ear thought, which alienates people later used frequently in his art. The idea

from the entire natural environment, he of art's beneficent power is a thread and
substituted a consciously intuitive mode theme in all of Beuys's work,
of thinking. Beuys used fat as a sculp-
tural medium because it quickly and di- Biedermeier
rectly responds to heat and cold. This style, used mainly for furniture,
analogous to spiritual warmth versus reflects the relatively unpretentious
cool rationality. He used animals in- values of the German and Austrian
eluding a horse, stag, elk, fox, swan, bourgeoisie of the period 1815-48. The
and moose in his
goat, coyote, hare, origin of Biedermeier furniture was
drawings, performances, and sculp- aristocratic, but compared to furniture

tures. In performance he made animal of the Directoire (c. 1793-1804) and

sounds to give voice to animals who Empire (c. 1800-15) periods, it was
could not speak for themselves. "I see more comfortable and simpler. The
it as a way of coming into contact term is applied to other decorative
with other forms of existence, beyond arts as well, and painting to a limited
the human one," he explained. In How degree. For example, the painting enti-
to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare tied FirstOuting of the Emperor [Franz
(1965), which he described as a com- I] and Empress after the Emperor's Seri-

plex tableau about problems of Ian- ous Illness, 9th April i8z6 (18x8-32),
guage, thought, and human and animal by Johann Peter Krafft (1780-1856), is

consciousness, he carried a dead hare wrapped up in the lively middle-class

around a picture gallery while he, face crowd rather than in the royal subject
 1

BINGHAM, GEORGE CALEB 7

for whom work is named. The term

the With his great success, Bierstadt chal-

"Biedermeier" was based on a satirical, lenged the preeminence of church in

fictional character named Gottlieb Bie- the field of landscape painting. On his

dermeier who was meant to typify mid- second trip West in 1863, Bierstadt
dle-class vulgarity. It was applied to the went all the way to California, record-
style in the 1850s, somewhat after the ing the Yosemite Valley and the Sierra
fact. Nevada. His romantic canvases, exag-
gerated for dramatic effect (as the con-
Bierstadt, Albert temporary commentator quoted above
1830-1902 American • painter • points out), were stirring. In addition to
Romantic the gold rush and the idea of Manifest
Destiny (see cole), Bierstadt's paint-
His style is demonstrative and infused
ings fanned the flames of westward mi-
with emotion . . . [Bierstadt] doubtless
gration. His patrons were the country's
holds that art from beginning to end is
wealthy new industrialists who enjoyed
nothing more nor less than imitation —
the conspicuous consumption his large-
imitation inspired (if not controlled)
scale pictures provided, as well as their
by veracity, refined by taste, and, we
image of America's seemingly limitless
may add, assisted by artifice; he likes a
natural resources.
subject that is noble in itself, and
disdains to illumine common things.
Bingham, George Caleb
(G.W.Sheldon, 1881)
1811-1879 • American • painter •
Brought from Germany to America Romantic/Genre
when he was two years old, Bierstadt
. . . in dress, habit, costume,
returned to dusseldorf to study in
association, mind, and every other
1853. He worked with whittredge
particular, [the boatmen] are an
there, and the two went to Rome before
anomaly. . . . Mr. Bingham has struck
Bierstadt returned to the United States
out for himself an entire new field of
in 1855. Then, in 1859, Bierstadt went
historic painting, if we may so term it.
with Col. Frederick Lander's army ex-
He has taken our western rivers, our
pedition, on horseback, to explore the
boats and boatmen, and the banks of
West. He photographed and painted
the streams for his subject. The field is
sketches of scenery that no white people
as interesting as it is novel. {Missouri
had ever seen. Back East in his studio
Republican, Nov. zj, 1847)
he used large canvases to paint the
magnificent views he had seen —the Twenty years before Mark Twain
6-foot-high by lo-foot-wide Rocky wrote famous stories, Bingham
his
Mountains, Lander's Peak (1863), for chronicled life on the Mississippi and
example. This not only portrays the Missouri Rivers. In luminous color and
sweeping, majestic mountains but also lively scenes, Bingham portrayed the fur

carefully records a Native encampment. traders and bargemen who transported

The people are going about their daily raw materials and produce to market. It
lives in this fascinating combination of was, as the reviewer quoted above re-
grandiose landscape and genre scene. marked, a new subject. That was also
 —

72 BIOMORPHIC

true of The Country Election (1851- shoeshine men, bums, and especially
52), a crowded scene of activity where the new culture of women office work-
men (there are no women, as they did ers in New York City (e.g.. Encounter, a
not yet vote) jostle one another, drink painting, 1940; and Office Girls, an
alcohol, electioneer, and carry on as a ETCHING, 1938). Her unique style

cross section of the population is wont with energetically moving figures and
to do in a carnival-like atmosphere. often highly contrasting lustrous light
"Whether Bingham meant the painting and vaporous shadow — sometimes in-

as an accolade, a caricature, or an ob- cluded pencil drawing on top of the

jective look at democracy in operation lightly painted surface. The author
is left to the viewer to decide. Helen Yglesias writes: "Motion, depth,
possibility, dignity, communion and au-
biomorphic tonomy combine with superb technique
Used to describe abstract forms that in Bishop's paintings and etchings of

seem organic or protoplasmic rather women in pairs, freeing them from the
than discrete or firm. Examples of bio- stultifying confines of pictorial object,
morphic forms are found in the sculp- allowing them to transcend the bound-
ture of ARP, MOORE, and HEPWORTH, aries of canvas and frame, and to
and in tanguy's, miro's, and gorky's emerge as total persons, the aim of all

painting. great art."

Bishop, Isabel bistre

1902-1988 • American • A French word brown
for a transparent

painter/printmaker • American Scene PIGMENT derived from burned wood.

REMBRANDT used dilute bistre for many
/ try to limit content in order to get
of his brush drawings.
down to something in my work. . . . I

want to show that these young women

bitumen
can move, not just physically, but also
Bitumen is a substance widely known in
in their own lives.
ancient times; the word is the Roman
Bishop was born in the Midwest and ar- name for the hydrocarbons that occur
rived in New York City at 16. She stud- naturally or are distilled from coal, pe-
ied at the Art Students League, and was troleum, and asphalt. Bitumen as a
only 22 when she rented her first apart- brown pigment yields a glossy, dark
ment/studio at Union Square and 14th medium. However, it never thoroughly
Street, an area then thickly populated dries, and it virtually self-destructs over

with With colleague Kenneth

artists. time, as paintings by ryder testify.

Hayes Miller, who was also her teacher,

and other artists, she went to Europe to black-figure technique
study the renaissance and baroque A 7th- and 6th-century bce style of ar-
masters. Interested in contemporary chaic Greek pottery decoration, this

urban culture. Bishop spent more than technique developed in Corinth: Black
50 years painting and making prints of silhouette designs were drawn against
everyday people —shoppers, shop girls, the natural, red-orange clay. The black
 BLAKE, WILLIAM 73

was not actually paint but, rather, a clay the Englishman himself. (Paul Staiti,
solution that turned black in a three- 1995)
stage firing process. For emphasis, out-
lines and details were incised, and Blackburn settled in Boston in 1755,
sometimes color (red, white, purple) bringing with him from England the
was added. A Corinthian masterpiece new Georgian rococo style and its
is the Chigi Vase (mid-yth century), pastel colors. He also introduced the
named for the 17th-century Italian fam- English CONVERSATION PIECE. His most
ily who owned it. It is also an important renowned picture is Isaac Winslow and
historic document in that it shows con- His Family (1755), in which the high-
temporary military practice: Troops as- fashion velvet, satin, and lace clothing
sembled in tight formation, advancing of his sitters is rendered in luscious

to the notes of a musician playing a dou- color. As is true of feke, smibert, and
ble flute, carry shields in their left hands his other predecessors in the colony,

and swords in their right —they are Blackburn shows little sense of charac-
the mercenaries called hoplites. The ter or personality. However, unlike the
FRANgois VASE is an Athenian black- others, he shows the prosperous mer-
figure masterwork from
570 bce. c. (See chant and his wife with the hint of a
also red-figure technique) smile, which is actually a real smile
on the face of one of the children.
Black Mountain College Although the most advanced artist in
A progressive school in western North New England at that time, Blackburn
Carolina where many avant-garde was soon overtaken by copley, as
artists taught after World War II. These the historian Staiti remarks in the com-
included the composer cage, the dancer ment quoted above. (See Reynolds
Merce Cunningham, and the painters for Blackburn's portrait of Sir Jeffery
ALBERS, DE KOONING, MOTHERWELL, Amherst.)
and RAUSCHENBERG.

Blake, William
Blackburn, Joseph 175 7-1 827 • English •
active mid- 1 8th century • American painter/printmaker • Romantic
• painter • Rococo Classicist/Symbolist

. . . the English Rococo portraitist The taste of English amateurs has been
Joseph Blackburn established himself too much formed upon pictures
in Boston and ruled the city's market imported from Flanders and Holland;
in the late 1750s, in effect setting consequently our countrymen are
standards for taste and price . . . it easilybrow-beat on the subject of
became incumbent upon American painting; and hence it is so common to
artisans to meet the challenge he hear a man say: "I am no judge of
posed. Copley did this in the case of 'pictures.' " But O Englishmen! I
Blackburn, first by imitating him and know that every man is so who has
then, by 1760, by surpassing him, so not been connoisseured out of his
that there was no longer any need for senses.
 .

74 BLAKELOCK, RALPH

Blake was a mystic, seer, poet, and inspiration. In contrast to the violence
painter. He came under fuseli's influ- implicit in Fuseli's work, Blake's world
ence and was in thrall to romanti- of dreams and visions is mystically ec-
CISm's Sturm und Drang — storm and static instead of threatening.

stress —as Fuseli had been. Blake was

energetic in his defense of Fuseli when Blakelock, Ralph
the latter's work was demeaned, and 1847-19 19 • American • painter •
was equally ardent in his attacks on Visionary
REYNOLDS, whose ACADEMIC tradition „ , .
x , , , ,

, r^ 1 1 1
•
I
'"or a long time 1 thought that he was
he resented and on whose Discourses he ,
. , ,

, . , . . ,
T T
merely worrying because he was so
wrote highly
°
,

critical annotations. He , .

^r- r unfortunate. No one would buy

1 , , ,

his
of my
, ,

began. Having spent the Vigour

^,
Youth
,

oC
o ^
Genius
11^
under the Oppression
pictures
,
and he was very downcast. I
-r r r
, , ,
.

oi-^
, t 1 ,

f ^. r^ thought if fortune would only favor us

or Sir Joshua
r I

& his Gang of Gunning , ,r , , ,

he would be himself again, but at last
, 1 1
... „
^^.
Hired Knaves Without Employment oc
--,,.

,
,

.,
,

W7-
^
,,11
^^ were obliged to have him taken
, ,

as much ,

as could possibly be
, , ,

Without
1

,-. , t^i 1 1 1

„ „
, ,
„ , r. 1
away. (Marian Blakelock, 1908)
Bread, the Reader must Expect to Read
in all my Remarks . . . Nothing but In- The commentary above by Blakelock's
dignation & Resentment." Blake was wife is even sharper with the knowledge
not, in fact, recognized during his life- that once her husband was institution-

time, nor for long afterward. He had alized due to a mental breakdown, his

begun to draw from casts of antique paintings started selling for great sums
sculpture at the age of 10, spent a brief, of money. She was living in such dire
unsatisfactory period at the Royal poverty that she could not even afford
ACADEMY, and with greater rewards to visit him. Blakelock and ryder, an-
studied prints of Michelangelo's other American visionary painter, are
work. As a visionary he thought he often associated with one another. Both
spoke directly with God, and he ex- painted moonlit scenes in thick paint,
pressed his personal, religious senti- impasto. Blakelock was largely self-

ments in books he wrote and illustrated taught, and he did not go abroad for his
using the linear mode of neoclassi- rite of passage, as most ambitious
cism, combined with the oddly elon- American artists did. Rather, he went
gated and muscular figures of Fuseli. West to Colorado, Wyoming, Utah,
Blake devised a complex technique of Nevada, and California. Moonlight, In-

ETCHiNG in an effort to approximate dian Encampment (1885-89) has the

the look of illuminated manuscripts mysterious mood that characterizes all
of the MEDIEVAL period. The Ancient of of Blakelock's pictures.
Days, frontispiece of Europe: A Proph-
esy (1794), is one of his best-known Blaue Reiter, Der (The Blue
prints: The bearded, windswept old Rider)
prophet leans out from a fiery orb, rays Both the movement and the "Almanac"
of light emanating from his hand. Blake in which its philosophy was expressed
believed that Nature's forms are sym- were named after a cover illustration of
bols to be understood through divine horse and rider by kandinsky. He,
 BLUNT, ANTHONY 75

MUNTER, and MARC were founding incidental and the scenery is given
members of Der Blaue Reiter, which precedence —a compositional style

held its inaugural exhibition in Munich called inversion. Thus, met de Bles's
in December 191 1 and January 1912 Road to Calvary 1535) takes place
(c.

(later traveling to Berlin, Cologne, on a hill outside the imagined city of

Hagen, and Frankfurt). Besides Miin- Jerusalem, which provides a beautiful
ter. Marc, Kandinsky, and August and inviting microcosmic panorama,
Macke (1887-19 14), other painters in- wrapped in atmospheric perspective.
cluded the French artists delaunay and This "normalization" of an incident
Henri rousseau. An offshoot of Ger- from Christ's Passion, while reversing
man EXPRESSIONISM, members of Der the emphasis previously on the story,
Blaue Reiter had no common style; they may have other sources or references. It

did share, though, a penchant for spiri- could, for example, represent one of the
tuality and expressive color. Kandinsky Passion plays that were popularly
was the group's leading theorist and staged at that time. Nevertheless, the
spokesman. Der Blaue Reiter did not landscape was still his preoccupation,
survive the First World War (in which as his preliminary sketches, which leave
Marc and Macke died). out people entirely, demonstrate. Met
de Bles was greatly influenced by his
Bles, Herri met de uncle, Joachim patinir.
c. 1510-C. 1 551 • Netherlands •

painter • Northern Renaissance Bleyl, Fritz

See Die brucke
. . . it has been suggested that Met de
Bles later settled in Italy, where he tvas
Blunt, Anthony
called Civetta, or little owl, because it
1 907-198 3 • English • art historian
was said that he always hid an owl
somewhere in his landscapes as a It is fair to conclude not only that
secret signature. (James Snyder, 1985) [Poussin] was well versed in their ideas

but that he regarded Stoicism as a

Antwerp was the home of Flerri met de
guide to the conduct of his life.
Bles (whose name refers to a forelock
of white hair), probably for his entire A specialist in French art and the 17th
career. (For Antwerp, see patinir.) century. Blunt ranked high in British
Taking advantage of the appetite for cultural life: Director of the Courtauld
landscape painting among the new mer- Institute of Art (1947-74), Surveyor of
chant class, met de Bles made that his the King's/Queen's Pictures (1945-72),
specialty, often, if not always, tucking he was knighted in 1956. Blunt's studies
an owl somewhere in the scene, as the of poussin are authoritative. Dismiss-
historian James Snyder reports above. ing fry's assessment that Poussin's
Where earlier artists concentrated their compositions were cool, formalist ex-
landscapes in small, incidental views ercises. Blunt investigated their mean-
seen, for example, through a window or ing. Through the artist's letters, in
in the background of a biblical scene, addition to the paintings themselves.
now the biblical aspect seems almost Blunt focused on the role of Stoicism,
76 BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI

especially as it had been synthesized by part of the nascent humanism of the

early Christian theologians, both on Italian renaissance that would blos-
Poussin's life, as in the comment quoted som over the next century. Boccaccio
above, and on his paintings. Taking was a friend and follower of petrarch,
Blunt's approach a step further, the his- and, as the quotation above suggests, an
torian Mark Roskill uses it to demon- admirer of giotto, whom he consid-
strate how Blunt's studies of Poussin ered "the Petrarch of painting."
may in turn mirror Blunt's own per-
sonal, moral, and philosophical preoc- Boccioni, Umberto
cupations. That indifference and the 1882-1916 • Italian •

"cool detachment" characteristic of painter/sculptor • Futurist

Stoicism, and the use of allegory to , , ,,.,.. .
.
11 1 T^i ,
J^ ^"^ monuments and exhibitions of
mask events, are seen to parallel Blunt s „ i /-/
„ w. W7 every European city, sculpture otters a
own
_,
masquerade:
11,^
,

Durmg World War

.
1 1

,
TT
II , \.
spectacle of such pitiable barbarism,
,..,,,,.
Blunt, who had Communist sympathies , .
,

,, , 1-
and had studied with antal, was a mil-
. .
1

r
• 1

r. W71
.1
....
clumsiness,
imitation, that
and monotonous
my ^ ;
tuturist eye recoils
itary informant tor the Russians, while
1 1

, / i- ,
i-
. . . . .
rr •• 1 1 r I r from It with profound diseust!
he carried on his official life, these facts

were hidden from the public, similar to Boccioni jointly signed the futurist
the artifice behind which Poussin hid manifestos with his colleagues. He also
his lack of sympathy for the Catholi- wrote his own Technical Manifesto of
cism current in Rome. Futurist Sculpture (19 12), which begins
with the comment quoted above. His
Boccaccio, Giovanni paintings fully realize Futurist dy-
13 13-1375 • Italian • writer namism, which he also expressed in
_, ^ sculpted works. With the Futurist's dis-

II
, .
I I I >
i here IS nothing which ijiotto could , r , ,., „ ,
,- •

dain for the boring nude, and insist-

,
not have portrayed in such a manner
, . , /- •
,
ing on
.11
absolute and
1

complete
1

as to deceive the sense of sight. . i- r 1 r- •

i- 1 . 1

abolition of definite lines and closed

Boccaccio wrote courtly romances, pas- sculpture," Boccioni wrote, "We break
toral poems, and learned treatises, but open the figure and enclose it in en-

he is most remembered for the De- vironment." His best-known work,

Cameron (1348-51), the earliest impor- Unique Forms of Continuity in Space
tant work of vernacular, colloquial (1913), is a striding bronze figure
literature ever written in narrative prose whose clothing moves in energy-
in Western Europe. The text is made up whipped, curving surfaces. It is interest-

of 100 stories about love, sex, adven- ingly compared with the nike of
ture, and trickery. The setting is a coun- samothrace 190 bce), a statue (c.

try villa outside Florence to which seven whose robes and wings also define its
women and three men have gone to es- movement. Both might be said to exem-
cape the bubonic plague (Black Death) pHfy a figure enclosed in its environ-
of 1348. The literary naturalism with ment, so to speak. Boccioni died in
which Boccaccio treats his characters is 19 16 in a fall from a horse.
 BOCKLIN, ARNOLD 77

Bochner, Mel picture. . . . Up to now I have kept the

born 1940 • American installation work carefully hidden, in order not to
• Conceptual be led astray by premature comments.
At a later stage, however, an expert
Everything that exists is three-
opinion becomes indispensable,
dimensional and "takes up" space
because the eye can grow accustomed
(space considered as the medium in
even to mistakes.
which the observer lives and moves).
Art objects are qualitatively different
Bocklin lived in Italy after mid-century,
from natural life yet are co-extensive
and the comments quoted above were
with it. This results in the
written in Rome, in 1865, to a patron
unnaturalness of all art (a factor of its
for whom he was painting a picture.
intrusion).
Back in Basel, his birthplace, during the
Bochner majored in philosophy at col- Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71,
lege, and in New York during the 1960s Bocklin contemplated human brutality
contributed important critical writings as he heard and saw the fighting across
about MINIMAL and process art, and the Swiss border. This he expressed in
participated in the formulation of ideas The Battle of the Centaurs, of which he
concerning conceptual art. He based painted different versions in 1872-73.
his own work on mathematical theory As ancient Greeks had used conflict be-

— for example, Three Ideas and Seven tween those mythological half-human,
Procedures, ostensibly concerned with half-horse creatures as metaphors for
describing seven methods, beginning, contemporary events, so too did Bock-
adding, repeating, exhausting, revers- lin, who painted them throwing boul-
ing, canceling and stopping, which was ders and pulling hair. His centaurs
shown at the Museum of Modern Art in struggle grotesquely on a perversely un-
197 1. This INSTALLATION was, in part, Greek, snow-covered landscape. Cen-
written on a length of masking tape that taurs is Bocklin's most renowned work,
connected spaces and was made up but he also painted strange, moody
of counting sequences recorded in landscapes like Island of the Dead
black and red, with a counter sequence (1880, first version). Synthetic, as sym-
in red. bolist art intended, Island draws
together elements from different land-
scapes in an imaginary, subjective pic-
ture of a haunting, lonely place. The
Bocklin, Arnold
titlewas assigned later; Bocklin himself
1 8 27-1 90 1 • Swiss/German •
called the work "a picture for dreaming
painter • Symbolist
over." Bocklin inspired a series of Ger-
Your remark that an easel picture man followers, was much ad-
and later

should not be treated like a decoration, mired by SURREALISTS, de CHIRICO

but carried out as the expression of a especially. In his later years Bocklin was

definite practical mood, precisely preoccupied with designs for an air-

reflects my view concerning this plane.

 ,

j8 BODY ART

body art Rembrandt during the 1630s, then

As CONCEPTUAL artists reject the goal of went on to make up hisown successful
creating objects as the artist's goal, and career; one of the first known paintings
as EARTH AND SITE artists change the with his signature is c. 1635. A later

landscape instead of painting it, a group work, Jacob's Dream (c. 1645), has
of artists, during the late 1960s and some of the master's spirituality, but
early 1970s, began to use their own also an affectation of elegance not to be
bodies as their "canvas" or sculptural found in Rembrandt. While Bol's early
medium. Body art sometimes involves paintings bear strong resemblance to
self-mutilation, as when the American Rembrandt's, they became more bland
BURDEN dragged himself, bare-chested, in time. In 1655, along with flinck and
through broken glass. Some body art is lievens, Bol received a commission to
made not in public, but through docu- paint the new town hall in Amster-
mentation (e.g., photographs and film) dam — the contract is quoted from
is made for the public. A good deal of above. When he married a wealthy mer-
FEMiNiST body art is confrontational, chant's widow in 1669, Bol stopped
challenging beliefs about propriety: painting.
Annie Sprinkle sat naked onstage and
offered viewers a speculum with which
to examine what most had never seen: a Bondol, Jean
female's internal organs. Embarrass- active c. 1368-81 • Flemish •

ment aside, at least some viewers must painter • Late Gothic/International

have questioned the cultural conven- Style
tions that made such an act of seeing
In the year of the Lord i^ji, this
seem sinful.
work was illuminated by order and in
n r J-
\ J honor of the illustrious prince Charles,
Bol, Ferdinand ... ,'
,. ^,
1616-1680
King of trance, m ,
the thirty-pfth year
• Dutch • painter/etcher
of his life and the eighth of his reign;
• Baroque
and John of Bruges, painter of said
In the burgomasters room, above the ' King, has made this picture with his
mantelpiece, towards their chamber, own hand.
done by Ferdinand Bol, I') 00 guilders. „, . . .
, , ,

,„ ^ . The mscription quoted above empha-

(Contract, 1655) •
u u n • .

sizes that the illustration next to it is by

According to guild regulations, stu- thehand of Jean of Bruges, as Bondol
dents were not permitted to sign their was known, and no one else. This infor-
works as long as they worked for a mas- mation appeared in large gold letters in

ter. Bol was a pupil of rembrandt, and was presented to Charles V,

a Bible that

there is a memo on the back of a draw- Bondol's patron and an ardent biblio-
ing in whichRembrandt notes that he phile. In fact, opposite the claim is a
had sold two of Bol's paintings. This miniature showing the presentation of
was a usual practice. Bol worked for the book to Charles by the courtier who
 —

BONHEUR, ROSA 79

paid for it. As far as its placement, size, Bonheur, Rosa

and content are concerned, the inscrip- 1822-1899 • French pamter
tion was unprecedented. Bondol's Romantic
paintings followed the path set earlier
Why wouldn't I be proud of being a
by PUCELLE, giving weight and sub-
woman? My father, that enthusiastic
stance to figures and placing them in de-
apostle of humanity, repeated to me
fined spaces. In addition, Bondol was
many times that woman's mission was
fascinated with repetitive decorative
to uplift the human race, that she was
patterns, like the fleur-de-lis, which he
the Messiah of future centuries. I owe
used in the manner of all-over wall-
to his doctrines the great and proud
paper design. His best-known work,
ambition . . . for the sex .whose
. .

the Angers Apocalypse Tapestries

independence I will uphold until my
(c. 1373-82), was executed for
last day. Moreover, I am persuaded
Charles's brother, Duke Louis of An-
that the future belongs to us.
jou. At that time the tapestry was the
most expensive art form. In Northern Bonheur's father was associated with
Europe it took the place of the fresco the Saint-Simonian Socialists whose
and additionally served for insulation, programs included equality for women.
covering cold stone walls with blankets Bonheur herself became internationally
of woven plants and fantastic animals renowned as a painter of animals. She
in rich colors. Bondol prepared car- rejected the ferocious, exotic, and often
toons for the tapestries that were exe- bloody subjects of other romantic
cuted under the supervision of Charles's delacroix and barye) to
artists (e.g.,

weaver, Nicolas Bataille. Each of the six paint working animals like the oxen in
individual pieces was almost 15 feet Plowing in the Nivernais (1849). This
high, and the suite was more than 470 painting may have been inspired by a
feet long in total. Their source was the passage about rural life in one of
Book of Revelation, Saint John's vision George Sand's novels. Horse Fair
of the end of the world. Of almost 90 (1853) bursts with the energy of mag-
original scenes, about 70 survive. nificent, barely restrainable horses. For

PANOFSKY wrote of Bondol's work, 50 years it was among the most widely
"With honest, straightforward veracity admired paintings in the West. For her
biblical events, legends of the saints — or research Bonheur went not just to coun-
for that matter from Roman history try fairs, but also to slaughterhouses.
are staged in a bourgeois or rustic envi- For the latter, she had to get permission
ronment portrayed with a keen, from the prefect of police to dress in the
observant eye for landscape features appropriate attire, which was men's
and such homely details as casually clothing. She explains this in her Remi-
draped curtains, seats and couches with niscences (published posthumously,
wooden overhangs shaped like diminu- 1910), which is quoted from above. In
tive barrel vaults, and crumpled bed- 1894 Bonheur became the first woman
spreads." officer of the French Legion of Honor.
8o BONNARD, PIERRE

Queen Victoria and Cornelius Vander- being a modern artist. Dining Room
bilt were among her admirers and on the Garden 1933) is a scene in
(c.

clients. bright color that compresses the table

and wall, trapping a female figure be-
Bonnard, Pierre tween them and isolating her, off to the
1867-1947 French • painter side, from the window that looks out-

Nabi side to the garden. This picture contains

echoes of matisse, especially a work
/ of no school. I am looking only
am
like his Red Room {Harmony in Red),
to do something personal.
of 1908-09, to which it is similar in
For several years Bonnard shared a stu- subject and sensation though not in
dio with vuiLLARD and denis. Like color, for Bonnard's palette is lumi-
them, he was a member of the nabis cir- nous rather than bold. He used geome-
cle, and later of the fauves, and as his try inventively to structure and stabilize

comment above hints, he tried and in- a canvas, and sometimes his complex,
corporated many stylistic approaches, busy patterns hide figures that emerge
including art nouveau. "Intimate" is only after concentrated study of the
the word used to describe the mood of canvas, or else quite by surprise. In
both Bonnard's and Vuillard's small 1945 Bonnard commented, "There is a

paintings of everyday, middle-class life. formula that perfectly fits painting: lots

Bonnard is the more complacent of the of little lies for the sake of one big
two, with images like those of a girl at a truth."
writing desk and children leaving
school. Even when he painted outdoor Bonnat, Leon
scenes, he gave them an indoors inti- 1833-1922 • French • painter •
macy. An example is the small painting Academic
on wood, more than a foot high
slightly
/was brought up in the cult of
and 10 inches wide. Two Dogs on a De-
Velazquez. As a youngster I was in
serted Street (c. 1894). Set on a city
Madrid. On the brilliant days that one
street, the space nevertheless feels pri-
sees only in Spain, my father
vate and confined, as there is no sky and
sometimes brought me to the Prado
the buildings press the animals toward
where we lingered in the Spanish
the front of the picture plane. Tacking
rooms. I always left with a feeling of
his canvas on a wall rather than using
profound admiration for Velazquez.
an easel, Bonnard usually painted from
memory and from quick sketches in pen Born in France near the Spanish border,
and ink and in pencil. He worked in his Bonnat was raised and studied art in

dining room or in a hotel room, but Spain before he continued his schooling
rarely in a studio because he was so in- first in Paris and then Italy. He worked
tent on preserving the immediacy and in the history painting mode, as did
spontaneity of inspiration. It is Bon- his friend and traveling companion —to
nard's later landscapes, interiors, and Egypt (for the opening of the Suez
nude figures that represent his claim to Canal), the Sinai, Palestine, Turkey,
 — 1

BOOK OF KELLS 8

and Greece gerome. Bonnat's paint- piety. The most Books ofbeautiful
ings, while also in the academic mode, Hours belonged to wealthy Medieval
probe more deeply into emotional aristocrats, as indicated in this verse of

states than do those of Gerome. Job Eustache Deschamps, written at the end
(1880) shows with a disturbing degree of the 14th century: "A Book of Hours,
of exactitude the emaciated body of an too, must be mine / Where subtle work-
old man. For his painting The Cruci- manship will shine, / Of gold and azure,
fixion (1874), as a student (who bribed rich and smart / Arranged and painted
a guard to let him see the model) wrote with great art, / Covered with fine bro-

home, "... standing up against the wall cade of gold. ..." Though Deschamps
was the large cross with the subject chides the social pretensions of wealthy
[corpse] crucified on it, a horrid sight; buyers, thousands of plain versions
but it shows how these French artists were owned by ordinary people, and
believe in truth." The student was weir, theBook of Hours is as much a part of
one of more than 60 Americans who POPULAR CULTURE aS it is of HIGH ART.
studied with Bonnat. eakins was an- Although most books were made by
other, and it was probably Bonnat who monks before iioo (see scriptorium),
encouraged Eakins to visit Spain. Bon- after izoo they were produced by pro-
nat was renowned for history and reli- fessional scribes, often in commercial
gious subjects, and as a portraitist. studios. The text, perhaps highlighted
Though he first taught independently, with initials of burnished gold, could
he was later given a position at the take less than a week, miniatures
ECOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS. could be painted at the rate of two or
three per day, depending on size and
Book of Hours complexity. While paper was used for
A selection of psalms and prayers for some books, those that were meant to
daily use at the canonical hours. In the be luxurious and to last a long time, as
latter Middle Ages, Books of Hours were the Books of Hours, were on
were usually preceded by a calendar PARCHMENT. Paris was the great center
and specific prayers like the Penitential for production during the 14th century,
Psalms. Small, usually prettily illus- and it was there that the best-known,
trated, these Books of Hours were in- and to many the most beautiful, Book
tended to be held and admired and to be of Hours in the world was made: Tres
used for private devotion. They re- Riches Heures, painted by the lim-
flected the increase and popularity of BOURG brothers (1413-16) for their pa-
private piety during the late medieval tron, Duke Jean de Berry. (See also
period, in part a rebellion against the fi- illuminated manuscript)
nancial excesses (the selling of indul-
gences, for example) and political Book of Kells
upheaval (see avignon) in the official The largest (13 x <^Vi inches) and rich-

church. Popular reform movements of est illuminated manuscript in

the late 14th and 15th centuries stressed Ireland, theBook of Kells is an early-
the power and importance of personal 9th-century gospel and was called the
82 BORCH, GERARD TER

"chief relic of the Western World" as is lecturing his daughter. Later research
early as the nth century. It and the Lin- concludes he is not her father at all but,

desfarne Gospels, another hiberno rather, a client at a brothel with a coin

SAXON manuscript, produced a century in his fingers. Brothels were one of sev-
earlier, are two of the world's greatest eral popular GENRE scenes of 17th-
works of art. Lavish, intricate, and ex- century Dutch art. Whatever the cause
traordinary in its imaginative design, emo-
of her distress, the expression of
the Book ofKells is probably the manu- tion and the contrast of light and
script described in the izth century as shadow characterize it as baroque art.
"the work of angels." In fact, its date More anachronistic, but, ironically ab-
and place of origin are uncertain. The was ter Borch's Swear-
solutely timely,
most famous page, densely decorated ing of the Oath of Ratification of the
and known as a "carpet page" (a term Treaty of Miinster (1648). This treaty
coined because of a resemblance to Per- ended the Eighty Years War between
sian rugs), is that with Christ's mono- Holland and Spain and gave the
gram, the CHI RHO. Such gospel books Netherlands its independence. The
were used by missionaries to show the picture renders a contemporary event
word of God, and they were believed to almost as though it were a news photo-
—
embody that is, to be, not merely to graph. In addition to recording por-
represent— that word. traits of more than 50 participants, ter
Borch included his own self-portrait.
Borch, Gerard ter Not only was such a documentary pic-
(also Terborch) 1 617-168 1 • Dutch ture extremely unusual, but it was also
• painter • Baroque apparently unpopular: The artist was

Terborch has prudence, worldly

unable to sell it — he could not get the
reportedly very high price that he put
experience, taste and tact. Taste is
on it.
nothing but tact in the realm of
aesthetics. Max J. Friedlander, 1949
Borghese family
Distinguishing features of ter Borch's Pope Paul V (elected 1605), formerly
pictures, in addition to the qualities Camillo Borghese 552-1621), pre- (i

mentioned above by friedlander, are ceded the reign of the barberini pope
the amazing texture of his fabrics, espe- (Urban VIII). Paul V spent lavishly on
cially shiny satin, and his inclination to palaces, churches, chapels, fountains,
paint the backs of figures, using body and paintings. Though extravagant, he
language to express feeling. He does lacked the taste and style his successor
both in The Parental Admonition (c. would display. Paul's nephew. Cardinal
1654), in which the neck of the standing Scipione Borghese (i576.''-i633), was
young woman, the set of her shoulders, an avid collector and patron of art who
and the tilt of her head seem to bespeak bought works by caravaggio and
chastened modesty — thus, the title RUBENS as well as old masters. Scipione
given in the i8th century. Writing was Bernini's first important patron;
about the picture, Goethe imagined that Bernini sculpted David (1623) for him
the man, seated, with one hand raised, and it remains to this day at the Villa
 BORROMINI, FRANCESCO 83

Borghese, now
museum. David was
a numbered sequentially as part of Borof-
also the last work executed under sky's recording, or cataloguing, of his
Borghese patronage, for Urban VIII's own work. This unifies what is often a
reign soon began. chaotic environment.

Borgianni, Orazio Borromini, Francesco

1575-1616 • Italian • painter • 1 599-1 667 • Italian • architect •

Baroque Baroque
Borgianni came under the influence of
Meissonier had as a principle, he said,
CARAVAGGio. Baglione discusscs in de-
to create something new. Like
tail a David and Goliath (after 1604)
Borromini, he enjoyed being singular
painted by Borgianni, describing Go-
in his compositions. (Jacques-Francois
liath as "an enraged mastiff." (See also
Blondel, 1772)
CARAVAGGISTi)
The son of a mason, born on the banks
Borofsky, Jonathan of Lake Lugarno, Borromini started out
born 1942 • American installation as a stonecutterand went to Rome at
• New Image the age of 20. He worked under ber-
NiNi, whom he grew to resent, espe-
The images I create . . . come from, two
cially because of Bernini's technical
sources:an inner world of dreams and
shortcomings. As did the painter al-
other subconscious "scribbles "... and
GARDi, Borromini profited from Ber-
an outer world of newspaper
nini's misfortune: When Pope Innocent
photographs and intense visual
X (1644-55) replaced his predecessor.
moments remembered.
Urban VIII (see barberini family),
Larger than life, and distorted in one Bernini's loss of status also benefited
way or another, Borofsky's figures defy Borromini. Bernini's sculpture was pure
the constraints of ordinary gallery BAROQUE, but his architecture was
space. For example. Installation, of De- more restrained. Borromini, on the
cember 1980, included a drawing of a other hand, was adventurous, even rev-
person that was continuous from — olutionary, in his architectural design.
floor and side walls up to the ceiling. In His walls curve as though sculpted or
another Installation (1984-85), the molded, and building facades are
haunches of the figure, which is bent deeply concave and boldly convex. As
over double, reach nearly to the ceiling. Baroque artists of the other mediums
Such gallery installations usually used light to dramatic effect, so too did
contain a mix of drawing, painting, Borromini. His style reached its peak in

sculpture, written words, and audio, all the Chapel of Saint Ivo for the Univer-
in the service of a theme with political sity of Rome (begun 1642). This is a
or social connotations: A Ping-Pong spectacular, complex design with a
table has the national defense budgets floor plan that includes the shape of a
of the United States and Soviet Union six-pointed star, and an exterior facade
stenciled on different sides. While ob- that layers two concave stages below an
jects and figures are diverse, each is undulating convex stage that is topped
 —

84 BOSCH, HIERONYMUS

by a high but narrow dome. Borromini artist's death. Sigiienza goes into elabo-
was the architectural genius of the rate detail describing Bosch's best-
Baroque era, but he was also a lonely, known work, called today (a modern
unhappy man who ended his life by sui- invention) the Garden of Earthly De-
cide. Jacques-Frangois Blondel (1705- lights (c. 1504). Sigiienza believed that

1774), whose assessment is quoted the "basic theme" is that man's evil
above, was an architect, teacher, and ways are shown by "many allegories or

prolific writer who work of linked the metaphors that present them in the

MEissoNiER and Borromini with some guise of tame, wild, fierce, lazy, saga-
reservations about the innovations of cious, cruel, and bloodthirsty beasts of
both. Writers who disdained the Ba- burden and riding animals." That is all

roque, like the sculptor falconet, certainly true, but still leaves unex-
could take advantage of Borromini's plained how or why Bosch, who seems
sad end and equate his "disorders" with to have led a fairly conventional life as
the style he practiced. Falconet wrote, an upstanding citizen in the provincial
"If through an error of judgment — of town of 's-Hertogenbosch, came up
which, fortunately, there are but few in- with some of the most bizarre creatures
stances — a sculptor were to mistake the of all times — ears that form the wheels
irrational impetuousness which carried of a cannon, a belly with a mouth in it

off Borromini . . . for the divine enthusi- and mixed them up with pornographic
asm of genius, let him be convinced exotica as well as imported animals
that ... far from beautifying the objects such as a giraffe and an elephant. Some
they portray, [it] remove[s] them from of his sources are derived from alchemy,
the truth and only serve[s] to represent and some of his motivation must cer-
the disorders of the imagination." tainly have been wrapped up in the

apocalyptic turn-of-the-century mental-

ity, increased by political and religious
Bosch, Hieronymus disorder of the kind that would, by
c. 1450-15 16 • Netherlandish • 1 5 17, lead to the Protestant Reforma-
painter • Northern Renaissance tion. It is known that an early owner of
the painting, if not the was also
first,
The difference that, to my mind, exists
noble, so it was an important work
between the pictures of this man and
from the outset. Historians believe that
those of all others is that the others try
Bosch traveled to Italy around 1505,
to paint man as he appears on the
and his maniacal inventions found their
outside, while [Bosch] alone had the
way work of Italian as well as
into the
audacity to paint him as he is on the
other Northern European artists. It
inside. (Fray Jose de Sigiienza;
should be noted that he was also a land-
i544?-i6o6)
scapist who could create vast, airy
Sigiienza, quoted above, was librarian views of great beauty, and a caricaturist
to the Spanish king Philip II (reigned whose faces, though very occasionally
1556-98), who collected works by beautiful and serene (e.g., the Virgin in
Bosch during the century after the Adoration of the Magi, c. 15 10), were
 BOTTICELLI, SANDRO 85

as Ugly, contorted, and expressive as such obese individuals — For?ra/Y of a

any in history. Family (1974), for example, with
mother, father, and two babies standing
Bossche, Agnes van den in front of an apple tree. On a ladder
active late 15 th century • Flemish • resting against the tree is one large leg,

painter • Northern Renaissance its foot at a level with the mother's

head, the rest of the "body" invisible,
The flag is the only Netherlandish
presumably above the picture frame.
painting in any technique that can be
Among Boteromorphs are also
his
assigned with assurance to a female
Latin-American dictators, figures from
painter. (Diane Wolfthal, 1985)
old-master paintings, and nudes pic-
Van den Bossche is the first woman nicking on the grass. The sensuality of
artist of the northern renaissance form, to which Botero refers in the quo-
whose painting is securely documented. tation above, is shown in his careful at-

As works on canvas, flags held lower tention to shapes and details, which he
status than did panel paintings of the renders with rich color and meticulous
time, which probably explains why a detail.

woman received commissions to paint

them. Her c. 1481-82 flag for the city of bottega
Ghent, a triangle some 9 feet long and See workshop
^Vi feet high, is decorated with the
Maid of Ghent, who has hip-length hair
Botticelli, Sandro
and a brocaded dress trimmed with er-
c. 1444/5-1510 Italian • painter •
mine, and is accompanied by a heraldic
Renaissance
lion. This lion, whose paws are larger
than the woman's head, has an extrava- In these same days of Lorenzo de'
gant, ornamental tail that curls with Medici the Magnificent, which was a
flamelike tendrils. Wolfthal, who is veritable golden age for men of genius,
quoted above, also reports that this is flourished Alessandro, called Sandro
the only flag that can be assigned to the according to our custom, and di
Early Netherlandish school. Botticelli, for reasons which I shall
give presently. He was the son of
Botero, Fernando Mariano Filipepi, a citizen of Florence,
born 1932 • Colombian • painter • who brought him up with care,
New Realist teaching him everything which
children are usually set to learn. . . .

. . . exaltations of life communicated

Although Sandro quickly mastered
by the sensuality of form.
anything that he liked, he was always
Botero has invented a cast of unique restless and could not settle down at
characters, "Boteromorphs," who look school to reading, writing and
a lot like inflated balloons. He presents arithmetic. Accordingly his father, in
them with a mix of irony and affection. despair at his waywardness, put him
He painted numerous family groups of with a goldsmith who was known to
 —

86 BOTTICELLI, SANDRO

him called Botticelli, a very reputable yellows. Botticelli's paintings of pagan

master of the craft. Very close and myths, so favored by the Neoplatonist
friendly relations then existed between circle of Lorenzo de' medici that
the goldsmiths and the painters, so VASARI mentions in the passage quoted
that Sandro, ivho was an ingenious lad above, are read as complex political al-

and devoted to drawing, became legories, and sometimes as personal,

attracted to painting, and resolved to
take it up. (Vasari, mid- 1 6th century)
Botticelli rebelled against the doctri-
naire intellectualism of alberti and
MASACCio's Florentine followers, and
he eschewed their modeling
amorous allegories in the life of his
Medici patron. Probably inspired by
the fiery monk Savonarola, who de-
nounced the "pagan excess" of Flo-
rence and decreed the famous Bonfires
of the Vanities, Botticelli's later works
tech- displayed a fervid emotionalism. It is

niques, atmospheric perspective, and thought that Botticelli even burned a

deference to the supremacy of observa- number of his own "pagan" pictures
tion; instead he painted imaginary, (though, fortunately, not the master-
often idealized people neoplatonic works Birth of Venus and Frimavera (c.
visions — and developed a linear style 1482). His moralistic fervor and high
resembling that of his teacher, lippi. anxiety show in the Calumny of Apelles
But Botticelli endowed line —whether (1490s), which actually followed a rec-
defining a figure or in billowing drap- ommendation of ALBERTI to re-create
eries —with incomparable beauty and the work of the Greek artist apelles
delicacy of expression. He loved the from written descriptions, as none of
rich surface patterning that charac- the art itself survived. Botticelli also
terized the International Style (see painted a scene that he himself called
GOTHIC) and was reactionary enough to Apocalypse, Mystical Nativity (1501),
use gold on the robes of a Madonna, but while its overwrought emotional
and even on Venus's hair in his best- content is clear, interpretation of it has
known work. Birth of Venus (c. 1484). never been successful. In the far right
Such gilding had not been seen in sev- foreground of the earlier Adoration,
eral generations (see golden house of Botticelli painted an ambiguous self-

nero). Moreover, this painting had the portrait: Wearing a gold cloak, he gazes
first important nude woman, based on a out of the picture at its audience, his
Greek model, since antiquity. Botti- mouth soft and sensuous, but his large,

celli also pioneered in the use of color, heavy-lidded eyes are both challenging
building up rich effects by coating a and questioning. According to an often
tempera surface with layers of tinted repeated though undocumented story,
Adoration of the Magi (c.
oil glaze. In Botticelli once woke up from a dream in

1475-76) he achieved better than 20 which he was married, and then spent
reds or pinks, using only the standard the night wandering Florence for fear
three or four pigments, by manipulat- that the dream would return were he to
ing underpaint and the sequence of lay- sleep again. Court records do document
ers. He did the same with blues and that he threatened his neighbor, a
 BOUCICAUT MASTER 87

weaver, with violence because the man enlightenment intellectual, was dis-

made too much noise at his loom. appointed with the painter he had ear-
lier thought so promising. In 1765, the
Boucher, Francois same year the artist became director of
1703-1770 • French • painter • the academy, Diderot wrote about
Rococo Boucher, "Depravity of morals has
been followed step by step by the de-
Boucher was earning j 0,000 livres per
basement of taste and the decline in
year for his steady output of loves of
color and composition as well as in the
the gods, amorous shepherds, and
character and then expression, and fi-
fantasy landscapes. (By comparison,
nally by the deterioration of draftsman-
an average comfortable bourgeois,
ship." Nevertheless, Boucher had great
living on revenues from bonds or real
financial success, as described in the
estate, earned ^,000-4,000 livres; the
quotation above.
salary of a professor at the Sor bonne
was about 1,900.) (Thomas Crow,
Boucicaut Master
1985)
active c. 1390-1430 • Flemish •

As a youth, Boucher worked on en- painter • Late Gothic/International

gravings for the Recueil Julienne, a
compilation of watteau's work assem-
bled after Watteau died. Watteau had
been an independent, private painter,
but as his artistic heir, Boucher became
court painter to Mme. de Pompadour
(who commissioned from him at least
eight portraits of her) and head of the
French Academy in 1765. Boucher's
masterpiece, the tapestry cartoons
The Rising of the Sun (he also painted
The Setting of the Sun; both 1753 ), may
symbolize the stable and enduring rela-
tionship of Louis XV with Pompadour,
his lover. The subject is the god Apollo
leaving Thetis at dawn to begin the
day's labors. At dusk, Apollo returns to
Thetis. In Boucher's hands the insinu-
Style
With a little imagination one can
visualize the bookseller's apprentice
hurrying across the street with several
gatherings [folded sections that will be
bound together] for the Boucicaut
Master to paint, and dropping off a
few further up the road. (Christopher
de Hamel, 1994)
for
In 14 1 5 the English invaded and de-
feated the French in the Battle of Agin-
court and took prisoner the reputedly
chivalrous, heroic, kindly, and just
Marechal de Boucicaut. At that time
Boucicaut owned one of the most mag-
nificent of all BOOKS OF hours. The
artist of this illuminated manuscript

ated eroticism of Watteau's arcadian is anonymous —

work in the style of this
outings become outspoken in the form book is thus attributed to the "Bouci-
of pink and plump nudes and cupids. caut Master" — but circumstantial evi-
Boucher's paintings were primarily dec- dence points to a man named Jacques
orative, graceful allegories filled with Coene. Coene is documented as an im-
nymphs, shepherds, and goddesses in portant illuminator of the time. He was
lush garden settings, diderot, the great a Flemish painter who lived in Paris in
88 BOUDIN, (LOUIS-) EUGENE

1398, then went to Milan. Signs of the
courtly International Style of
art are apparent in the elegance of his
work (for example, the illuminated
page entitled The Visitation,
backs to us, looking across the ocean.
gothic Above them large clouds move briskly,
and along the shore workhorses wait,
ready to haul off the two tall boxes
c. 14 10). in which people changed into their

But forward-looking in the Bouci- bathing costumes. Boudin's style seems

caut/Coene style is an interest in as brisk and breezy wind that as the
panoramic landscapes and a certain whisks clouds, skirts, scarves, and
lightness at the horizon suggesting at- whitecaps into a froth. The recreational
mospheric PERSPECTIVE (some 100 seashore became a popular theme, also
years before Leonardo). A number of painted by monet, whom Boudin "dis-
books dating from the early years of the covered" and encouraged to paint seri-
15th century are credited to the work- ously, and by the American homer,
shop of the Boucicaut Master, who who visited France in 1866. The tradi-
may have overseen something like a tion of outdoor painting to which
production line for Books of Hours, as Boudin belongs is called Naturalism to
de Hamel, a paleographer, envisions distinguish it from the movement
him in the passage quoted above (see known as realism,^ and sometimes
paleography). The Boucicaut Master "pre-Impressionism," as it preceded the
had many followers; his greatest rivals true IMPRESSIONIST movement.
were the limbourg brothers.
Bouguereau, William- Adolphe
Boudin, (Louis-) Eugene 1825-1905 • French • painter •
1 824-1 898 • French • painter • Academic
Naturalist
As long as he was in the room, there
Your letter arrived at the moment was absolute silence. It usually . . .

when I was showing [three men] my took three hours to criticize the entire

little studies of fashionable beach class during which time the models
resorts. These gentlemen congratulated shifted their positions only as the
me precisely for having dared to put master moved from one student to
into paint the things and people of our another. . . . Endlessly, from one easel
time. to another the little man shifted or
glided and spoke words of criticism or
With the beach scenes mentioned
praise. Always gentle, always fair, never
above, Boudin explored a new subject
saying thiftgs he did not really mean, it
and carved out his niche in out-of-doors
was a pleasure as well as a privilege to
painting:modern life at the seashore. As
listen to him. (Edmund Wuerpel)
the railroads expanded in the 1850s,
beaches became increasingly popular Bouguereau upheld the classical tra-

middle-class resort destinations. During dition in the face of one avant-garde

the 1 860s, Boudin recorded scenes like movement after another. His subjects
that in The Beach at Trouville (1865), in were primarily women and children in a
which a line of fully dressed, windswept number of roles. When he painted peas-
visitors to the seashore stand, their ant women, they were beautiful, bare-
 BOULLEE, ETIENNE-LOUIS 89

foot, and nubile; his Destitute Family should be to some extent poems. . . . It

(1865) has the pyramidal composition is to you who cultivate the arts that I

of a RENAISSANCE picture. The underly- dedicate the fruits of my long

ing eroticism of his females becomes vigils . . . we must not presume that all
overpowering, literally, in his riotous we have left is to imitate the ancients!
picture Nymphs and Satyr (1873): Four
voluptuous nudes dance around and Boulleewas an architect for whom sym-
tug at an inexplicably recalcitrant satyr metry was the "premier beauty" and
in a lush green glade. The historian the sphere was the most majestic and
William Gerdts wrote about how this magnificent form, not only because of
painting, transported from Paris, where the grace of its outline, but also for the

it was a salon picture, to America, regularity of its shading from light to

where it became a saloon painting, was dark. He believed that the art of orga-
installed "next to a stag's head, no nizing masses, especially simple geo-
less," over the bar of a popular New metric forms of large dimensions,
York watering hole. A prix de rome constituted the genius of architecture.
winner, Bouguereau lived in Rome Through such shapes and their arrange-
1850-54, then returned to Paris and ments, Boullee achieved what he called
great success. From 1883 he was a an "architecture of shadows," or shad-
teacher at the academie julian Ed- — ings. The most renowned of BouUee's
mund Wuerpel was an American stu- designs is the Project for a Memorial to
dent who recorded Bouguereau's studio Isaac Newton (1784) — the great en-
practices, as quoted above. Bouguereau lightenment scientist and philosopher
married one of his first students, Eliza- had died in 1727. The memorial is a gi-
beth Jane Gardner (1837-1922), also gantic sphere that alludes not only to
an American, and one of the first Amer- the universe but also, perhaps, to the
ican women to pursue formal art classes apple, thus symbolizing Newton's theo-
in Paris. (Women were not allowed to ries of gravity and of terrestrial mechan-
study at the ecole des beaux- arts, but ics. "The unique advantage of this form
were admitted at the Academie Julian is that from whichever side we look at it
and at independent studios run by (as in nature) we see only a continuous
artists like bonnat.) Gardner always surface which has neither beginning nor
worked in the style of her teacher, but end, and the more we look at it, the
two of Bouguereau's other American larger it appears," Boullee wrote. The
students, beaux and henri, went in interior of the hollow globe is occupied
very different directions, not only from only by an empty sarcophagus, but the
their teacher, but also from each other. shell is pierced by small holes through
which the light of day would shine like

the planets and stars that, Boullee said,

Boullee, Etienne-Louis
"decorate the vault of the sky." As did
1728-1799 • French • architect •
his contemporary ledoux, Boullee be-
Neoclassicist
lieved that architecture should express
This is my belief. Our buildings— and character— architecture parlant (archi-
our public buildings in particular— tecture that speaks) — a point of view
90 BOURGEOIS, LOUISE

that anticipates romanticism's empha- A painter in the city of Louvain, Bouts

sis on feeUng over rationaHty. may have been driven from his Haarlem
home by peasant wars that erupted
Bourgeois, Louise there around 1444. His series of four

born 19 1 1 • French/American • pictures painted for the equivalent of a

sculptor • Modern courtroom in the Louvain town hall,

justice of Emperor Otto III (c. 1471-

It is a very murderous piece, an
73), illustrates the meting out of sen-
impulse that comes when one is under
tences described in part by the quota-
too much stress and one turns against
tion above, taken from a 17th-century
those one loves the most.
document based on the original con-
The comment quoted above refers to a tract. Contracted for by a group of men
work called The Destruction of the Fa- who administered justice in the room
ther (1974), a group of lumpy, breast- to be decorated, the cautionary, moral-
like shapes inside a cave that are tinged izing purpose of the Bouts commission
by red light. There is a table, and also is certainly site-specific. Bouts's earlier
forms that seem to be animal limbs. Holy Sacrament Altarpiece (1464-68,
Bourgeois's sculptures, which resist for Saint Peter's Church at Louvain) is
categorization either as figurative, the first known documented work of
ABSTRACT, or NONOBjECTiVE, are simul- importance in Early Netherlandish
taneously all and none of the above. art. The contract includes stipulations

They are, however, sexually suggestive regarding subject matter and specific
in their allusions, and the materials, details. The central panel of this altar-

often latex over plaster, have a disagree- piece, a Last Supper, is notable for
able, clammy Male and female
effect. its use of perspective. Van mander
organs— or shapes that bring them to wrote that Albert van Cutwater was co-
mind — are equally unpleasant. founder with Bouts of the Haarlem
School. Only one of van Cutwater's
works has been securely attributed, but
Bouts, Dire (Dieric)
descriptions of his treatment of land-
c. 141 5-1475 • Netherlandish •
scape have an affinity with those of
painter • Northern Renaissance
Bouts. Bouts's delicately rolling hills

In one [painting by Bouts] the emperor and toylike towns, seen as backgrounds
has judgment passed on a count, a and through windows, bring the paint-
member of the court, because the ings of van der weyden (e.g.. Saint
empress had accused him of having Luke Portraying the Virgin, c. 143 5-40)
made attempts on her honor; in the and van eyck (e.g.. Virgin and Child
other, the emperor sentences his with Nicolas Rolin, c. 1435) to mind,
empress to be burnt, after the although Bouts was more of a story-
aforementioned accusation has teller than they were.
been proved false. This was
estimated at 2^0 crowns of jz bozzetto
placques each. (From Contract, Italian for "sketch," this term refers to

c. 1471) either a model for a sculpture or a

 1

BRAMANTE, DONATO 9

The equestrian statue

painted sketch. LEONARDO sketched his ideas of cen-
of Louis XIV that was never cast, for trally planned, domed churches, and

example, is known to us by the highly they were taken up by Bramante while

finished bozzetto bernini made of his he was in the Milanese court of Lu-
design. dovico SFORZA. However, Bramante's
first masterpiece was in Rome: a small,
Brady, Mathew B. circular, two-tiered shrine surrounded
c. 18x3-1896 • American • by COLUMNS and capped by a dome.
photographer • ReaHst The Tempietto (Little Temple, 1502),
as it is known, was built on the site then
Let him who wishes to know what
believed to be where Saint Peter was
war is, look at of
this series
martyred. It has been an extremely
illustrations. (Ohver Wendell Holmes,
influential monument, and not just
1863)
for succeeding architects: There is an
Brady studied painting and then, at allusion to it in the background of
about 20, learned the daguerreotype Raphael's painting Marriage of the Vir-

process from morse. He became a suc- gin (1504). The papacy of Julius II, who
cessful portrait photographer; among was, like Bramante, from Urbino,
his portraits are Samuel F. B. Morse (c. brought about such a vast rebuilding
1845) and Abraham Lincoln (c. 1863). program that, Rome's foremost
as

He is best known for his Civil War pho- architect, Bramante was nicknamed
tographs — he was one of 300 camera- "Ruinante." In a contemporary satire,

men who had passes to enter the Bramante is at the pearly gates outlining

battlefields. Since photography was still to Saint Peter his building program
in its early stages and exposure time rel- for heaven. It included replacement of
atively long, they could not shoot live the "straight and narrow path" with a
skirmishes. The photographs that made "spacious spiral ramp staircase by
Brady famous — On the Antietam Bat- which the souls of the old and weak
tlefield (1862), for example show the — could ascend on horseback." Bramante
terrible aftermath of battle, with only was called on to design a new Saint
dead, twisted bodies strewn on the Peter's church; his ambitious plan for it,

landscapes. It was about these pictures of 1506, is described in his comment

that Holmes made the comment quoted quoted above. known to us from a
It is

above. medal commemorating the start of

building: It shows a multitiered build-

Bragaglia, Antonio Giulio ing with temple fronts and domes

See MUYBRIDGE flanked by high towers. He planned to
revive the use of concrete, a familiar
material in ancient Rome but used
Bramante, Donato
rarely since then. When Bramante died,
1443/4-1514 • Italian • architect •
the project had hardly progressed; An-
Renaissance
tonio da Sangallo the younger (see san-
I shall place the Pantheon on top of GALLo) became chief architect in 1520
the Basilica of Constantine. and retained the position until his
92. BRANCUSI, CONSTANTIN

death, at which time, in 1546, MICHEL- smooth, elegant, ovoid form with mere
ANGELO took over and changed the de- traces of features, like those on a cy-

sign. CLADic figure. The Beginning of the

World (c. 19Z0), which he also called
Brancusi, Constantin Sculpture for the Blind, has the same
1876-1957 • Romanian • sculptor oval form in marble with a smooth, un-
• Modern marked surface. It rests on a polished
metal plate placed, in turn, on an un-
Don't look for mysteries. I give you
polished stone stand. Thus, a trio of
pure joy. Look at the sculptures until
textures as well as a trio of forms are
you see them. Those nearest to God
understood to make up the origin of life
have seen them.
as we know it. The bases for his sculp-

Brancusi's journey by foot from Roma- tures, which Brancusi constructed him-
nia to Paris is part of the legend that self as an integral part of the work, are
surrounds him. It is certain that he ar- made sometimes with harmonizing ma-
rived in Paris in 1904. He worked for terials, textures, and lines, and some-
RODIN, whose studio he left saying, times with contrasting: for example, a
"Nothing grows under the shade of coarse base with a polished sculpture,
great trees." Moving away from the By this means he creates a dichotomy
tree, but no doubt never quite out of its or dialectic, complicating the mean-
shadow, Brancusi developed his style as ing of each work. In one of his best-
an antithesis of Rodin's. In answer to known sculptures, the bronze Bird in
Rodin's sensuous, life-size couple in an Space (1928), Brancusi epitomizes the
erotic embrace, The Kiss (1886-98), ecstasy of soaring. It is the realization of
Brancusi sculpted his own versions of a quest Brancusi himself described: "All
the same subject. One, T/je K/5S (1912), my life I have sought the essence of
is a not-quite-2-foot-high cube, a block flight."

of limestone. By comparison, Brancusi's

couple is paradoxically both antierotic Braque, Georges
and doubly so: With its rough-textured, 18 82-1963 • French • painter •
affectionate, naive simplicity, it seems Cubist
more instinctual than Rodin's pair. Ab-
In art, progress does not consist in
sorbed with themes of creation, birth,
extension, but in the knowledge of
life, and death, Brancusi sometimes fin-
limits. . . . The senses deform, the mind
ished and polished his forms to a degree
forms. Work to perfect the mind. There
that gives the material — marble and
no certitude but in what the mind
metal — a mirrorlike surface. He often is

conceives.
experimented with the egg shape, and
an evolution can be traced from a head, Braque was greatly influenced by the
embedded in rough-hewn
Sleep (1908), geometry of shapes in cezanne's paint-
marble (bringing to mind michel- ings, and that led him toward the
angelo's sculptures emerging from planes of cubism, which he developed
stone), to Sleeping Muse (1910), a in 1908. He and picasso began work-
 BRETON, JULES 93

ing together in 1909, after Braque had places. Birds that have been laid down
seen Picasso's Demoiselles d' Avignon on individual canvases take off on their

(1907), which, Braque said, made him own. (One of them looks like an over-
feel "as if someone were drinking gas- weight goose)," the John Russell
critic

oline and spitting fire." Though for writes, adding, "These are huge, com-
decades it has been a litany that Picasso plex and difficult paintings."
and Braque developed Cubism to-
gether, more credit in pre-Cubist contri- Breton, Andre
butions, from 1906 to 1908, is now See surrealism
given to Braque. In late 1909 the two
were exchanging ideas and techniques Breton, Jules
to the extent that, for certain periods, 18 27-1 906 • French • painter •
their work cannot be told apart; they Realist
were, Braque commented, like moun- _ 1 , , ntn
. ,. ,
, , T
Stop right there, imitators! Millet
tarn climbers roped together. In 1910 , ,

,,, ,n,,Ti I 1
created masterpieces, even when
(Violin and Palette) Braque mtroduced . , # ; #
humans brought down by i

"wntmg onto the canvas m the form

.

...
interpreting
,
deprivation to the bottom of their
, r 1

of musical symbols on sheet music. , .

,
.
, , ,
. . . . . being; you have no right to deny his
Having taken that step, he would move
" ,. ... ,

, . great, his divine beauty.

on, in September 19 12, to
,

work in col-
lage (papier coUe) with Fruit Dish and In 1853 Breton dedicated himself to de-
Glass. The work is ironic as well as in- pictions of peasant life. The histo-
ventive; the paper pasted onto the can- rian Robert Rosenblum calls him "Mil-
vas is wallpaper that was preprinted to let's milder-mannered understudy
simulate wood. At each step of Cu- who could present France's vast agri-
bism's development, Braque and Pi- cultural population not as an image of
casso worked in tandem, pushing one raw, threatening power, but as a simple
another in new directions. The coUabo- society of archaic harmony dominated
ration ended in 1 9 14 with the outbreak by the serene, recurrent rhythms of
of World War I. Braque went into daily labor and church ritual." Where
the French army and was seriously millet's "ragged scarecrows" bent
wounded; a bullet lodged in his head, over in the fields (e.g., The Calling of
nearly blinding him. After the war he the Gleaners, 1857) were jeered at the
continued painting in a Cubist style, salon, Breton's colorful, attractive
and then returned to figure painting as women ending their day's work with
well, becoming increasingly introspec- heads held high (e.g.. Recall of the
tive. From 1947 until 1956, he painted Gleaners, 1859) got rave reviews. Bre-
a series of Studio (Atelier) pictures, the ton honored Millet, as the comment
interior of his own working spaces, quoted above makes clear, but he differ-
which are "like re-imagined encyclope- entiated his own peasants as biblical
dias in which one object swaps identi- people compared to Millet's, who were
ties with another, visual plots are from a "strange, almost prehistoric
thickened, and front and back change dream."
94 BREUER, MARCEL

Breuer, Marcel has been preserved— is Melchior

1902-1981 • Hungarian • Broederlam of Ypres, mentioned in the
architect/designer • accounts of Philip the Bold as "peintre
Modern/International Style monseigneur" from 1^91 and as
"varlet de chambre" from i^Sy.
To build ...is not to play a role, not to take
(Erwin Panofsky, 1953)
a vote, not to give an opinion. It is a
passion, basic as the bread we eat.
Broederlam was in the valois court of
Born in Hungary, Breuer studied at the Philip the Bold, where he was asked to
BAUHAUS, where in 1928 he designed paint everything from banners to chairs
the cantilever chair for which he is well and even to prepare layouts for tiled
known. He used newly developed re- floors. Along with sluter, he designed

silient steel tubing to support its seat furnishings for the Chartreuse de
and back, which were of woven straw Champmol monastery complex in

caning framed by bentwood. "I consid- Dijon, though he did not have to aban-
ered such polished and curved lines don his own WORKSHOP at Ypres to ful-

not only symbolic of our modern tech- fill his commissions. Broederlam's
nology, but actually technology itself," prestige was great, as the quotation
Breuer commented. With gropius, from PANOFSKY above suggests, and his
Breuer fled Nazi Germany. He went influence wide. Broederlam's most im-
first to London and then the United portant surviving works are the painted
States, where, beginning in 1937, he wings, or shutters, for a large carved al-
taught at Harvard and worked in part- TARPIECE (c. 1393-99). On each single
nership with Gropius. In 1963-66 he shutter Broederlam painted two sepa-
designed the Whitney Museum of Amer- rate NARRATIVE scenes: the Annuncia-
ican Art with a facade of large, rough- tion and Visitation on one pair, the

surfaced masonry blocks in overhanging Presentation and Flight into Egypt for
tiers and irregular, and irregularly the other. While traits of Late gothic
spaced, windows. About this contro- International Style predominate (e.g.,

versial building the critic Ada Louise cubical-like structures, swaying drap-
Huxtable wrote that appreciation had to ery, and gold background), Broeder-
be acquired, as with "olives and warm lam's scenes show a sense of depth,
beer." Ultimately, she declared, "it re- contrasting architecture and landscape.
veals itself as a carefully calculated de- His figures appear more natural than in

sign that squeezes the most out of a earlier paintings, and he envisions a sin-
small, awkward corner lot with maxi- modeling them,
gle light source for
mum artistry and almost hypnotic skill." which he does with soft coloring. He
continued the old practice of using a
gold backdrop for the "sky" and filled
Broederlam, Melchior
it with supernatural beings, but Broed-
c. 1355-c. 1411 • Flemish pamter
erlam also painted in a lifelike hawk
• Late Gothic
swooping down, a touch that insinuates
. . . the greatest of all pre-Eyckian Thus did Broederlam bal-
"real" sky.
panel painters insofar as their work ance MEDIEVAL idiosyncrasies with
 BRONZE 95

Steps toward the verisimilitude of the poured into the hollow spaces thus cre-

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE. ated. The technique was developed so

that casts could be reused. The ancient
bronze Greeks excelled in bronze casting, and
Most civilizations went through a pe- the legendary daedalus was said to
riod during which people discovered have made a large bronze statue. Ac-
that when alloyed with tin, copper was cording to one tradition, two mid-yth-
more easily heated and shaped, and that century bce Greeks on the island of
the higher the percentage of tin, the Samos, already a production center for
harder (and grayer) the resulting bronze armor and kitchenware, in-

bronze. more yellow than

(Brass, vented the lost wax technique. How-
bronze, combines copper and zinc.) ever, there is evidence that the process
Other metals might be added to copper was known to Sumerians a good deal
alone, or to bronze, varying its proper- earlier, and that in fact the Greeks
ties. Dated between the Stone and Iron learned it from the Egyptians. In any
Ages, the Bronze Age may have begun case, the technique enabled casting of
in Mesopotamia as early as the 4th mil- life-size and larger statuary. Trunk,
lennium BCE (opinions differ about this arms, legs, and head were cast sepa-
date). It was once thought that a rately, then fitted and finished so care-

statue's place of origin could be deter- fully that the joins were invisible. The

mined by the makeup of its alloy, and process was almost an assembly line
that Romans used lead but Greeks did from the 7th century bce on. Hair and
not. now understood that both used
It is beards were added to customize each
lead. In fact, nearly every workshop of statue; jewelry and clothing concealed
the ancient Greek and Roman periods seams, joins, and chaplet holes. Silver
used essentially the same processes. was used for eyes, fingernails, and teeth,
Bronze is worked by hammering sheets though sometimes tin was substituted.
of it into a mold, repousse; by nailing Eyes of glass paste or colored stones
and shaping it onto a carved wooden were inserted into empty sockets
their
foundation; or by casting. Small solid before the head was attached. The an-
objects could be cast by pouring liquid cient bronze working procedure was il-
bronze into molds. (Sometimes molds lustrated on the red-figure Foundry
were made of sand.) Other objects, Vase of c. 475 bce.
from small minoan figures of bulls to Few original Greek sculptures, either
major classical statues, were made by of bronze or of marble, survive. Roman
the cire perdue, or lost wax method of conquerors, 2nd century bce, looted
hollow casting. This involves several them for their palaces and villas.

steps: First, roughly made of clay or Roman artists made useful though less

plaster, the carved model is coated with than satisfying marble copies (see
wax. The wax is more finely sculpted pointing), but as the imperial fortunes
with details, and that in turn is coated waned, the original bronzes were
with clay. When the model is baked, the melted for weapons or to make house-
wax melts away through a hole left for hold items. Bronze sculptures not lost to
that purpose. Molten bronze is then expediency were later destroyed by
 —

96 BRONZING, AGNOLO

Christian distaste for pagan Rome's turbing color (see mannerism). In con-
luxury and "brazen images." However, trast to Pontormo's religious subjects,
some stunning bronze originals sub- however, Bronzino's mythological alle-

merged in shipwrecks have been recov- gory has a lascivious edge: With frown-
ered from the sea and restored, notably ing intensity (and a muscular arm that
the RIACE BRONZES of C. 460 BCE. calls Michelangelo to mind). Time
From the end of the Roman Empire personified pulls back a curtain to re-
to the beginning of the Italian renais- veal Cupid, who twists sensually and in-
sance, freestanding monumental cestuously around his mother, Venus,
bronzes were no longer made, and the to kiss her mouth as he holds her breast.
lost wax art of casting them was itself The scene is dense with both bodies and
lost. (Lost wax casting of bronze doors allegory. Its political context is a matter

did continue; see carolingian and of conjecture, for it was commissioned

ghiberti.) Not until donatello's by Cosimo I de' medici as a gift to King
early-i5th-century David was monu- FRANCIS I of France. Mannerists used
mental hollow casting of statuary revi- masks to symbolize deceit (there are
talized. Bronze sculpture declined after two in Venus). Cosimo also commis-
Bernini's death in 1680, and remained sioned two pietAs from Bronzino, fin-
dormant until rodin took it up at the ished in 1545 and 1552. Although
end of the 19th century. Rodin rein- the same cartoon was used for both,
vented bronze as an expressive mater- there is a great change in coloring
ial, a line of development taken in from bright and artificial to dark and
different directions by sculptors as di- —
somber and in facial expressions,
verse as degas, brancusi, giacometti, from benign to miserable. In short,
and MOORE. there was a change of mood that
matched a change that had taken place
Bronzino, Agnolo in the religious climate of the time: the
1 503-1 572 • Italian pamter • Counter-Reformation. Marcia Hall's
Mannerist comment, quoted above, refers to that

change in Bronzino's second Pieta.

In Florentine art among the first

symptoms of response to the Counter-

Brouwer, Adriaen
Reformation is Bronzino's replica of
1605/6-1638 • Flemish • painter •
his Pieta . . .to suppress the allusive
Baroque
sensuality o/^bella maniera in favor of
direct declarative statement. (Marcia He always scorned the world's vanity. I
Hall, 1992) He was slow in painting and spent
money generously. I With pipe in his
In Allegory of Venus 1544-45), (c.
mouth in foul taverns, I There he spent
Bronzino paints a scene with many
his youth, completely out of money I
of the discomfiting irregularities that
He lived the life he painted. (Cornelis
distinguish the work of his Manner-
de Bie, 1661)
ist teacher, pontormo: ambiguity of
space, unnatural, even impossible Born in Brouwer worked in
Flanders,
human forms and postures, and dis- Dutch Haarlem, where he probably
 BROWN, FORD MADOX 97

Studied under hals, as well as in Flem- fullest tragic development, singled out
ish Antwerp. He was the most influen- a couple from the middle class.

tial painter of "low life" genre painting

in the Netherlands of the 17th century, The picture Brown describes. The Last
giving a new earthiness to the tradition of England (1852-55), is his master-
BRUEGEL the Elder had pioneered a cen- piece. It has the circular format of a
tury earlier. His rude and bawdy peas- TONDO, and the subject —a married
ants are presented with masterful, brisk couple with a baby — alludes to the
brushstrokes. Brouwer's paintings have Holy Family theme. But this is a politi-
a sharp bite: Fighting Card Players (c. cal subject, not a biblical one, as

1631-32), for example, is ugly and vio- Brown's commentary above explains. It

lent. In Tavern Scene (c. 163 1-3 z), a concerns the economic necessity of
drunk reaches under a woman's skirt leaving the homeland. Brown's wife
while she tugs at his hair, rubens and modeled for the woman, he for the
REMBRANDT are among those who ad- man; the child is all but hidden under
mired and collected his work. Brouwer the mother's cloak. They are on a de-
influenced van ostade in Holland and parting boat; the husband holds an um-
TENiERS in Flanders. Whether Brou- brella to shield his wife from the ocean
wer's themes had moralizing intent or spray. Behind them is "an honest family
were forthright observation, meant to of the green-grocer kind," behind them
be a "slice of life" and nothing more, is a "reprobate" shaking his fist at the
debated. So is the cause of his imprison- country he must abandon. Brown him-
ment in Antwerp 1633 and that of
in self was in dire financial straits at the

his early death, which has been attrib- time he painted the picture, and was
uted both to dissolution and to the planning to leave for India, which he
plague that swept through the city in probably would have done had the
1638. The poem of the chronicler de painting not sold. (Despite Brown's
Bie, quoted from above, suggests that comment, the rate of emigration greatly
Brouwer's paintings were true to his increased over the next decades.)
own lifestyle. Brown had traveled and studied widely
before settling inLondon in 1844. Im-
portant influences on his style were
Brown, Ford Madox
works of HOLBEIN, which he saw in
18Z1-1893 • English • painter •
Basel, and the nazarenes, whose work
Realist
he saw in Rome. In 1848 rossetti
This picture is in the strictest sense began to study with him, and they
historical. It treats of the great formed an enduring friendship. In
emigration movement which attained Brown's largest, most complex and am-
its culminating point in 18 jz. The bitious painting, Chaucer (1851), Ros-
educated are bound to their country by settiwas his model for Chaucer and
quite other ties than the illiterate man, various members of the pre-raphael-
whose chief consideration is food and ITE brotherhood modeled for other
physical comfort. I have, therefore, in characters. Brown was never a member
order to present the parting scene in its of the Brotherhood, though he sympa-
 — —

98 BRUCKE, DIE (THE BRIDGE)

thized with their ideas, acted as adviser, with from the sea. Your
rarities

and adapted some of their subjects and excellency must judge for yourself if
techniques. One of those techniques the flowers do not surpass gold and
was a meticulous finish, millais's "wet jewels.
white" method of layering transparent
colors bit by bit on a wet white The son of Pieter bruegel, Jan the
GROUND. Brown also painted land- Elder did not follow the Bruegel indus-
scapes, which he did out-of-doors, try of copying his father's work, as his

looking at nature as ruskin and the older brother, Pieter the Younger, did.
Brotherhood urged. Instead, Jan the Elder developed into a
highly original, very inventive painter,
Briicke, Die (The Bridge) and became one of the leading Antwerp
A group of German architectural stu- artists of his day. He often worked with
dents who wished to paint kirchner, other artists — paintings by three or
together with Erich Heckel (1883- more artists were not uncommon in the

1970), Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884- 17th century, and Flemish painters

1976), and Fritz Bleyl (i 880-1966) were especially good at teamwork. Jan
formed Die Briicke in Dresden in 1905/ the Elder collaborated several times
06. Their first exhibition, in 1906, with RUBENS. He popularized paintings
which NOLDE was invited to join, of forest interiors filled with wild ani-
marked the emergence of 20th-century mals; busy ports, harbors, and river
German expressionism. One of their scenes; and especially pictures that al-

was to revive woodcuts

intentions (see lude to traveling. He also painted still
woodblock), which they honored as a LIFE, and his astonishing rendering of

uniquely German medium —they were texture earned him the nickname "Vel-
nationalistic in spirit, and their name vet Bruegel." Meticulously detailed and
signifies their faith in the future, for richly colored. Vase with Flowers
which they intended to act as a (1605) contains 58 species and 72 vari-
"bridge." They were especially in- eties of flowers, both spring and sum-
terested in MEDIEVAL art and the oper- mer blossoms. He painted from live

ations of the craftsmen's guilds. blooms (perhaps supplemented with a

Proudly uninfluenced by the contempo- botanical drawing or two, and maybe
rary movements of cubism and futur- an artificial flower), probably from the
ism, Die Briicke members did, however, gardens of the archdukes in Brussels.

find inspiration in African and Oceanic While writers today mention the vani-
sculpture and etruscan art. TAS aspect of such paintings, referring
to the transience of life, Jan the Elder
did not, nor did his client, Cardinal Bor-
Bruegel, Jan, the Elder
romeo. On the contrary, Borromeo
1568-1625 • Flemish • painter •
wrote about how much, in the midst of
Baroque
winter, he enjoyed the sight and imag-
Under the flowers I have placed ined scent of Jan the Elder's flowers.
a jewel, with minted coins [and] Jan's sons, Jan II (1601-1678) and Am-
 BRUEGEL, PIETER, THE ELDER 99

brosius (1617-1675), continued their Bruegel. Comparing Bruegel's Battle

father's tradition. Between Carnival and Lent (1559) with
Bosch's Garden of Earthly Delights (c.
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder 1504), one can almost imagine that
c. 1525/30-1569 • Flemish • painter Bruegel portrays the very scene Bosch
• Northern Renaissance had been looking at before closing his
eyes and transforming it into a demonic
No one except through envy, jealousy
nightmare. The elements of excess that
or ignorance of that art will ever deny
concerned Bosch, from inebriation to
that Pieter Bruegel was the most
fornication, are also present in Brue-
perfect painter of his century. But
gel's rollicking scenario. Bruegel's Bat-
whether his being snatched away from
tle is from high overhead, a
seen
us in the flower of his age was due to
PERSPECTIVE he often employed to as-
Death's mistake in thinking him older
tounding effect. This is especially true in
than he was on account of his
Fall of Icarus (c. 1553-60), a picture of
extraordinary skill in art, or rather to
themoment in Ovid's Metamorphoses
Nature's fear that his genius for
when the wax that attached Icarus's
imitationwould bring her into
wings melted and the boy plunged into
contempt, I cannot say. (Abraham
the sea. The viewer is placed in the sky,
OrteUus, cartographer, 1574)
where Icarus's father, daedalus, who
Little documentation about Pieter made the wings, might be — though his

Bruegel the Elder survives, and the image was rubbed out in one version, he
homage paid by his friend Ortelius, is present in another. A peasant is plow-
quoted above, is the only contemporary ing beneath us, and then the land falls

source about him. It is known that off to the sea far below where Icarus
Bruegel was in the Antwerp guild in splashed down — only his feet are visi-

1 5 50, and that he traveled over the Alps ble. W. H. Auden describes this paint-
and visited Italy in the following years. ing in a poem entitled Musee des Beaux
Like DiJRER, he made wonderful draw- Arts (1938). He remarks on how in-
ings along the way, but unlike Diirer significant this catastrophe is to the
and other Northern artists, he was not plowman, or to those on the ship who
greatly influenced by the Italian mas- must have been amazed at what they
ters. On the contrary, he remained res- saw: The tragedies of failure and death
olutely interested in the landscape and are personal to those who suffer them.

lore of his own homeland, and repre- For the rest of the world life goes on.
sented both with gusto. He introduced It is uncertain what effect the Prot-
the winter landscape as an independent estant Reformation or the Counter-
category, and itwas taken up by others, Reformation may have had on Bruegel,
including his son Jan bruegel and de and whether his religious references are

MOMPER. If Pieter Bruegel looked to specifically directed to one or the other.

any authority, it was that of bosch, but Perhaps his cynical perspective was cast
only early in his life when Bosch's sense on religion in general. The intention of
of irony and the bizarre appealed to his peasant scenes is similarly conjee-
lOO BRUNELLESCHI, FILIPPO

tural. Were they moralizing, or comic West, the construction technique had
merely for the sake of comedy? Or per- been lost. Brunelleschi's style is charac-
haps they were meant to vaHdate a terized by clarity and ordered harmony,
Flemish national tradition in the face of derived both from classical examples
oppressive Spanish rule. All that may be and from the application of mathemati-
said with some certainty is that these cal ratios. Santo Spirito (begun 1436),
pictures were not painted for the peas- with a cruciform plan, approaches
ants themselves. Classical ideals in its cool rationality
and use of a ratio of 1:2 throughout the
Brunelleschi, Filippo building. He used white stucco with ele-

1377-1446 • Italian • architect • gant details of trim in gray limestone

Renaissance called pietra serena, or "serene stone."
Brunelleschi's logic of design and crisp
[Members of the jury] were astonished
articulation are seen in the Pazzi Chapel
had set himself—
at the difficulties he
(begun c. 1440), which approaches the
the pose of Abraham, the placing of
central plan he later realized in Santa
the finger under Isaac's chin, his
Maria degli Angeli (1434-37) in Flo-
prompt movement, and his drapery
rence. Equally, had he won the Baptis-
and manner, and the delicacy of the
tery doors commission, Brunelleschi
boy Isaac's body; and the manner and
might never have invented the scientific
drapery of the Angel, and his action of
methodology for showing linear per-
seizing Abraham's hand. (Antonio
spective. His famous demonstration of
Manetti, 15th century)
the accuracy of his perspective scheme
The judges were astonished by his was the "peepshow": Standing with his

work, as Brunelleschi's biographer, back to the Florence Cathedral, a

Manetti, remarks in the quotation viewer held, in one hand, a picture,

above, but they denied him the prize in painted in perspective, of that same
the competition to design bronze doors cathedral. He stood in the very spot
for the Florence Baptistery, ghiberti from which the picture had been
was the winner. was a fortunate deci-
It painted, and as he looked through a
sion: If he had won, Brunelleschi pro- "peephole" that was bored at the "van-
bably would not have renounced ishing point," he held in his other hand
sculpture to become an architect, and a mirror that reflected both the painting
the style of Italian renaissance archi- of the cathedral and the actual cathe-
tecture would not have developed in dral itself. In the mirror he ascertained
quite the way it did. Brunelleschi went that pictorial illusion matched visual re-
to Rome with donatello and studied ality. This experiment, performed in

the ancient buildings and monuments about 1413, confirmed Brunelleschi's

still standing, the pantheon and system, on the basis of which artists like
COLOSSEUM especially. For the Florence DONATELLO and MASACCio began in-

Cathedral, which had been under way vestigating the portrayal of distance. It

since 1Z96, Brunelleschi designed a remained for alberti, later, to establish

dome — no large-scale dome had been the geometric system that enabled
built since the Pantheon, and, in the artists to plot perspective graphically.
 BULFINCH, CHARLES lOI

Brygos Painter in the discipline of art history there has

6th-5th century bce • Greek vase reigned a stagnant peace.
painter • Late Archaic
Bryson's words, quoted above, were
The cups decorated by the Brygos
written in 1983. They were recorded
Painter were provided by the potter
again by the art historian Donald Kus-
Brygos. Brygos also furnished the
pit in the professional journal Art Bul-
imitators of the Brygos Painter with
letin in March 1987, mtroduced by the
many of their cups; others were
alarm "Art history is in crisis." Bryson
furnished by imitators of the potter
was then director of English Studies at
Brygos. (J. P. Beazley, 1944)
Kings College, Cambridge University,
The perils inherent in distinguishing England, and thus an outsider to the
and identifying anonymous artists are discipline he critiqued. But his words
revealed in the quotation from beaz- had struck their mark, and by 1988 he
ley, above. Named for the potter whose was able to write, "There is little doubt:
ceramics he decorated, as Beazley the discipline of art history, having for
points out, the Brygos Painter was so long lagged behind, having been
highly accomplished in the red-figure among the humanities perhaps the
TECHNIQUE. He Specialized in decorat- slowest to develop and the last to hear
ing the KYLix, used as a wine goblet, of changes as these took place among
with appropriate themes of revelers. even its closest neighbors, is now un-
This painter was the first to present per- mistakably beginning to alter." Spurred
suasive images of striding figures, ren- on by Bryson's scrutiny, encouraged
dering them in profile, and showing and engaged not only by his writings on
CONTRAPPOSTO on vases some years art but also by essays he collected and

before it appeared in sculpture. He edited, art historians have been apply-

alsoshowed an odd sense of humor: ing new METHODOLOGIES of Critical
Having drained the kylix of its con- theory such as semiotics, poststruc-
tents, the unfortunate reveler drink- TURALiSM, FEMINISM, Post-Colonialism
ing from one Brygos cup would come (see orientalism), and psychoana-
on a scene in which a man, who has lytic and gender studies to study
similarly overindulged, is sick to his art. Bryson has unquestionably sparked
stomach. self-examination, opened many doors,
and energized the field of art history.
He also moved to the United States
Bryson, Norman
and took a teaching post at Harvard
born 1949 • English • critical
University.
theorist • Postmodern

It is a sad fact: art history lags behind

Bulfinch, Charles
the study of the other arts. . . . What is
1763-1844 • American • architect •
certain is that while the last three or so
Federal/Neoclassicist
decades have witnessed extraordinary
and fertile change in the study of / enjoyed too the confidence and good
literature, of history, of anthropology. will of my fellow townsmen, who
I02 BURCHFIELD, CHARLES

chose me one of their Selectmen at the do not fit under any stylistic umbrella,
early age of twenty-seven. The although they are expressionist in

occupation [of] this office and some aspects, as well as idiosyncratic.

superintending the building of the One of his personal touches comes from
State House after my plans afforded his love of music: In trying to express

me sufficient and agreeable sound, he arrived at visual equivalents

opportunity. in the form of short, expressive, often
parallel lines. His wish to represent sen-
Bulfinch had no formal architectural sory experience in a visual language
training. Rather, born into a wealthy places him among modernists like
family, he was a practitioner in the gen- DOVE, MUNCH, and kandinsky, in con-
tleman-amateur tradition, self-taught trast to his frequent categorization as

from books. He went on the European an idiosyncratic, anachronistic artist.

GRAND TOUR in 1 78 5. Among the many Comments excerpted from his journals,
buildings he designed were the Con- quoted above, describe some of his

necticut State House in Hartford (after concerns. Burchfield painted mainly in

1785-prior to 1795) and the Massa- watercolor (e.g.. The First Hepaticas,
chusetts State House in Boston (1795), 1917-18).
about which he reminisced in the quota-
tion above. Redbrick with marble trim, Burckhardt, Jacob
its outstanding features are white 1818-1897 • Swiss • historian
COLUMNS and a golden dome topped
/ want to get away from of them,
all
with a cupola that itself is topped by a
from the radicals, the Communists, the
gilded pinecone. In 1818, appointed by
industrialists, the intellectuals . . . the
President James Monroe, Bulfinch went
philosophers, the sophists, the state
to Washington, D.C., to succeed la-
fanatics, the idealists, from every kind
TROBE as architect of the Capitol.
of "ist" and "ism."

Burchfield, Charles A cultural historian and the author of

1 893-1 967 • American • painter • The Civilization of the Renaissance in
Modern Italy (i860), Burckhardt merits both
credit and blame for determining how
[The painter should] paint directly the
we have looked at and thought about
emotion he feels, translating a given
art of the Italian renaissance, the pe-
object or scene without detours. . . .

riod that has, at least until recently,

The pulsating chorus of night insects
dominated the study of art history.
commences swelling louder and louder
For Burckhardt, as for vasari, on
until it resembles the heart beat of the
whose writings he relied, the European
interior of a black closet.
Renaissance meant Italy in general and
Many of Burchfield's paintings are rec- Florence in particular, and every revi-
ollections from his childhood — emo- sionist reassessment begins by paying
tions of fear, excitement, loneliness. His its dues to both writers. As the historian
pictures have a wavering, supernatural Francis Haskell writes, ". . . it still re-

aura, a haunting mysteriousness. They mains almost impossible for most of us

 —

BURNE-JONES, SIR EDWARD COLEY IO3

not to think of Italian painting, sculp- In his PERFORMANCES Burden submits

ture, and architecture as having been himself to danger and violence, which,
born in Florence and as having then he believes, are woven through contem-
'progressed' in a direct line, so to speak, porary culture. In another performance.
along the road which w^e will all have to Shoot (1971), a friend fired a rifle at his
follow: childhood, adolescence, matu- arm and wounded him. In part through
rity, and (by implication) decay and the danger, surprise, and fear involved.
death." This "diachronic" (see syn- Burden purposefully establishes a
chronic) line of progression is a legacy strong emotional connection between
of Burckhardt, who also looked for ide- himself and his audience. He learns
ological consistency and identified the and those present actually see —what it

cult of the individual —which he did is like to experience and participate in

not always necessarily applaud — as destructive acts like those that are daily
characteristic of the Renaissance, bock- fare on television but foreign to the lives
LiN, a friend of his who went to live in of most people.
Italy, was among the late- 19th-century
painters who took Burckhardt's es- Burgundy
capist protests, such as that quoted See VALOis
above, and praise of Renaissance Italy
to heart. Burke, Edmund
See SUBLIME
Burden, Chris
born 1946 • American • Burne-Jones, Sir Edward Coley
Performance • Pluralism 183 3-1 898 • English • painter •

Pre-Raphaelite/Symbolist
At 6:00 p.m. three invited spectators
came to my studio. . . . Wearing no The look of the pictures has done me
clothes, I entered the space. . . . Two good: I feel that I could paint so much
assistants lifted one end of a 6-foot better already.
sheet of plate glass onto each of my
Burne-Jones met his lifelong friend and
shoulders. The sheets sloped on the
collaborator, William morris, at Ex-
floor at right angles from my body.
eter College of Oxford University in
The assistants poured gasoline down
1853. Both were inspired by reading
the sheets of glass. Stepping back they
RUSKIN. ROSSETTi gave Burne-Jones a
threw matches and ignited the
few lessons, but was otherwise
his art
gasoline. After a few seconds, I jumped
self-taught. Burne-Jones supplied Mor-
up sending the glass crashing to the
ris with designs for stained glass,
floor.
tiles, and tapestry. In i86z he went to
The event he describes above is one Bur- Paris and Italy with Ruskin, who had
den staged on April 13, 1973, on him copy giotto and Venetian painters
Oceanfront Walk in Venice, California. like TITIAN and tintoretto, artists

He named it Icarus after the mythical whose qualities of "grace," "tranquil-

son of DAEDALUS whose wings melted lity," and "repose" Ruskin valued.

away when he flew too close to the sun. After Burne-Jones went on to Venice
I04 BURNISH

without Ruskin, he described his reac- Landmarks in Nineteenth-Century

tions to what he saw in the letter to Painting, bell reproduced The Golden
Ruskin quoted from above. Eight pic- Stairs, citing it as the epitome of Pre-
tures of his in the opening exhibition of Raphaehtism, a movement of "utter in-

the Grosvenor Gallery in London in significance in the history of European

1877 brought Burne-Jones sudden culture."
fame and moved him to the forefront of
AESTHETiciSM. (Known as a shrine of burnish
artiness, the Grosvenor was lampooned In general, burnishing refers to polish-
in Gilbert and Sullivan's Patience, ing a surface, usually by rubbing it.

1 88 1.) The women Burne-Jones painted More specifically, the term applies to
were beautiful and chaste, sensual and laying down metal leaf —gold, silver,

remote, dreamy and languorous, and tin —on various surfaces such as wood
the subjects inwhich they appeared and parchment. A burnishing tool both
were taken from medieval legend or rubs the leaf onto the prepared surface
CLASSICAL mythology, although he also and brings it to a shine. The medieval
painted biblical and fanciful themes, monk theophilus describes a bur-
(Chaste though the women may have nisher as "a tooth or a bloodstone that
been, his paintings of women proved ir- has been carefully cut and polished on a
resistible to some men who bought smooth, shining horn tablet." He also
them and could not refrain from plant- mentions using the teeth of beaver,
ing kisses on the canvas.) Among "fan- bear, and boar,
ciful themes" is The Golden Stairs
(1876-80). A procession of 17 women Bush, Jack Hamilton
(all based on a single model) descends a 1909-1977 • Canadian • painter •
spiral staircase "like spirits in an en- Abstract Expressionist
chanted dream, each moving gracefully,
...
, , , , , 111
,

freely,
,
,

„
and
, .

in unison with her neigh-

.
,
. . . 1
...
did try what he suggested, which
,
was to paint simpler, no hot licks to be
, , ,

bors, as a contemporary reviewer , , . , „

,,,„,, . , , , , , r up to date, no trying to be in style. 10
wrote. What is the
place they have left, r 1 , r o 1 i ;
..., . try and find out what tack Bush was as
why , ,

they pass before us thus, whither

,

they go, who , ,

they are, there

. ...
nothing
is
an artist.

to tell." Burne-Jones received letters One of the group of Canadians known

from around the world asking for an as Painters Eleven, based in Toronto,
explanation. His ambiguity was inten- Bush was a colleague of Jock macdon-
tional, linking him to the symbolist ald. Bush, too, was strongly influenced
movement, and to Stephane Mallarme's by the critic greenberg, about whom
later (189 1 pronouncement: "To
)
n^me he speaks in the quotation above.
an object is to take away three-fourths Bush's interest in color is evident in

of the pleasure given by a poem. This works like Painting With Red (1957),
pleasure consists in guessing little by with its contrasting, bold circular
little: to suggest it, that is the ideal." shapes against a light background.
The descent of Burne-Jones's reputation Later, with the series of Sash paintings,
was swift, however. In his 1927 book his shapes and colors are more con-
 BYZANTINE IO5

trolled. In Sash on Red Ground (1963), its zenith in the Byzantine era) that
the sash is a vertical, columnar, hour- combine some vestiges of classical ob-
glass form that holds bands of color. As servation of the natural world with
Greenberg himself wrote about Bush, rigidity and abstraction. Byzantine style

"he became a supreme colorist. When it emerges from a blend of Greek, roman,
comes to putting one color next to an- and Near Eastern art. Its First Golden
other, Noland and Bush are alone in Age (526-726) is seen in the church of
this time, and maybe in any other." (See SAN vitale (Ravenna; 526-47), a
also noland) domed octagonal building with a cen-
tral plan and mosaic images of the em-
Byzantine peror Justinian and his wife, Theodora.
For several reasons, including the fact In Constantinople itself Justinian built
that paganism was strong among hagia
a palace church dedicated to
Rome's ruling aristocracy and the civil SOPHIA (Church of Holy Wisdom;
service, the emperor Constantine 532-37), a masterpiece of Byzantine
moved his center of activity east of style. The apse mosaic at Sant' Apol-

Rome. In the year 330 he transferred linare 549) in Classe (Ravenna's

(c.

the capital of the empire to the ancient port) transmits an important political
Greek fortress town of Byzantium. It and theological message: Christ is not
stood close to the main focus of the em- seen in person; rather, he is symbolized
pire's trade, and was a strategic location by a jeweled cross in a starry circle.
for checking enemies from the East as Such decoration suggests the influence
well as migratory tribes from the of the Monophysites (from the Greek
steppes. Moreover, Christianity was meaning "one nature"), who main-
growing ever stronger in the East. The tained that Christ was only divine, not
new capital was called Constantinople; both human and divine. Their argu-
today we know it as Istanbul. However, ment about Christ's nature fueled the
it was Byzantium that lent its name to growing rejection of Christian figura-
the civilization that lasted for 1,000 tive imagery that culminated in icono-
years. The shift eastward continued clasm: During the 8th century. Emperor
under Constantine's successors as Leo III ordered the destruction of all im-
Roman territory came increasingly ages that showed Christ, the Virgin
under attack from northern and eastern Mary, saints, or angels in human form
Germanic tribes (see migration). An (see icon). Besides the theological argu-

example of the transition to the Byzan- ment, this prohibition also pitted the
tine style is the cruciform-plan mau- power of the Eastern emperor (who ap-
soleum of Galla Placidia (c. 425) in pointed the patriarch of the Orthodox
Ravenna, on the Italian Adriatic Sea. Church) against that of the Western
Its plain brick exterior belies its rich pope. In 843 iconoclasm officially

interior decoration — a distinction be- ended and art again began to flourish,
tween outside and inside that is charac- leading to a Second Golden Age of
teristic of early christian buildings. Byzantine art. Exemplary of this period
The inside walls are adorned with col- is the dome mosaic of the small
orful mosaics (mosaic art reached monastery church in Daphne, near
I06 BYZANTINE

Athens, an awe-inspiring head and Vladimir himself accepted Christianity

shoulders called Christ Pantocrater and introduced Orthodox Christianity
{Ruler of the Universe, c. iioo). The to Russia, which became a cultural
final break between Catholicism in the province of Byzantium. During the
West and Orthodoxy in the East came Fourth Crusade (1204), French knights
in 1054. In VENICE, long under Byzan- captured Constantinople instead of
tine influence, the five-domed Saint proceeding to Jerusalem as originally
Mark's church was begun in 1063 and intended, so in the 13th century the
given a remarkable biblical mosaic pro- Byzantine Empire was ruled by Western
gram. (Saint Mark's facade and outer nobles. In 1261 the Byzantines drove
domes date from later periods.) Around out the Westerners, and the final flow-

988, according to legend, a Russian ering of Byzantine art lasted from 1261
ruler named Vladimir learned from his until the conquest of Constantinople by
envoys that only in Byzantine Chris- the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
tianity did God "dwell among men."
 —

Cabanel, Alexandre floating on ocean swells with cupids fly-

1823-1889 • French < painter ing about her, is sleeping, and thus vul-

Academic nerable rather than dangerous. She is

the opposite of manet's bold and con-

M. Cabanel is not an artist; he is a
frontational nude Olympia, which was
saint. He doesn't make art; he makes
painted the following year.
perfection. He does not deserve
criticism; he deserves paradise.
Cage, John
(Camille Lemonnier, 1870)
19 1 2-199 2 • American • musician
Once reputed to have more students • Modernism
than any other Hving French master,
Where do we go from here? Towards
and more winners of the prix de rome,
theater. That art more than music
Cabanel himself received most of the
resembles nature. We have eyes as well
honors that the French government be-
as ears, and it is our business while we
stov^^ed on artists. Fiis international rep-
are alive to use them.
utation was well deserved, judging by
the tone of Lemonnier's praise, quoted Cage studied with the musically revolu-
above, from a salon review. As did tionary composer Arnold Schonberg,
GEROME, Cabanel taught at the ecole and himself became an iconoclast. His
DES BEAUX-ARTS, and there was some- performances and ideas — including in-

thing of a rivalry between them. At the determinacy, randomness, and using

Salon of 1886, at least 112 exhibitors the 7 Ching—xn^idt Cage a motivating
were Cabanel's students. His popularity influence outside music. Building on
dwindled, however, and Gerome took ideas of duchamp. Cage also removed
among Americans.
the lead, especially art from the realm of aesthetic purity.
Both were academic painters who Cage abandoned the effort of commu-
favored exotic Middle Eastern sub- nicating through music as "art" and
jects. Cabanel's best known of that type strove instead to make the listener
is Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Con- conscious of what exists in the environ-
demned Prisoners (1887), an erotic rep- ment. The everyday world, then, be-
resentation of the popular Oriental came the source and stage for art.
FEMME FATALE. Perhaps more alluring, Unlike DADAists and suRREALists, Cage
and certainly less threatening, is his ear- did not employ psychological devices to
lier and most famous work. The Birth probe the individual's subconscious
of Venus (i86z). This voluptuous nude, his goal was to avoid personal determi-
 a

I08 CAILLEBOTTE, GUSTAVE

nation altogether. A performance at from the excerpt of a letter he wrote to

BLACK MOUNTAIN COLLEGE in I95Z, PISSARRO in 1879, quoted from above,
often called simply "the Event," is one effect the rain had on Caillebotte
historic: Beneath rauschenberg's was to make him long for the sunny
White paintings, with Edith Piaf countryside. Shared topics aside, Caille-
records playing in the background, botte's painting technique is more
Merce Cunningham (Cage's collabora- polished than that of other Impression-
tor and companion) danced among ists. In The Floorscrapers (1875) —
members of the audience, pursued by a subject that allies him with realism —
barking dog; simultaneously poets read Caillebotte has chosen an unusual
poetry from ladders, four boys dressed theme: three men finishing the wood
in white served coffee, and Cage, sitting floors of what seems to be a chic Paris
on a step ladder, occasionally read a apartment (these may be Caillebotte's
lecture on the relation of music to Zen own rooms). He examines this labor-

Buddhism. The Event is legendary as intensive scene from an odd angle that
the first happening, on which the makes the parallel floorboards slant
movement by that name was based. sharply, reminiscent of the Japanese
Cage also influenced fluxus and con- prints that fascinated Impressionists
ceptual ART. (see ukiyo-e). This seems both an inter-
est in the urbanization of labor — yet
hardly industrialization — and a con-
Caillebotte, Gustave templation of human collaboration, as
1848-1894 • French • painter • the men work in tandem. The historian
Realist/Impressionist Robert Rosenblum astutely links this

scene with paintings eakins made of

/ am always very happy to see you but
men rowing together (e.g.. The Biglen
I cannot say for sure that I won't he in
Brothers Turning at the Stake, 1873).
the country shortly. Several times now
The two Caillebotte paintings discussed
I've come down to leave and the
above secure the painter a place as
moment I reach the bottom of the
an innovator in the 19th century. His
stairs the rain begins again. This
own Impressionist art collection, be-
weather is really vile.
queathed to the state and accepted only
Caillebotte exhibited with the impres- over the protest of most ecole des
sionists, collected their works, and beaux-arts teachers, cast him as pro-
shared some of their interests —the wide vocateur, causing an uproar when it

boulevards of modern Paris, for exam- was exhibited in 1897.

Rainy Weather (1877)
ple. Paris Street:

catches the sensations of an instant in

which wet, gray cobblestones, side-
Calder, Alexander
walk, and umbrellas reflect the ambient
1 898-1976 • American • sculptor >

light, and fashionable people, singly

Abstract
and in couples, hurry along in their pri-

vate, umbrella-sheltered worlds to My entrance into the field of abstract

wherever they may be going. Judging art came about as the result of a visit
 —

CALLOT, JACQUES IO9

to the Studio of Piet Mondrian in Paris Callicrates

in 1930. 1 was particularly impressed See ICTINOS
by some rectangles of color he had
tacked on his wall in a pattern after his Callot, Jacques
nature. I told him I would like to make 1592/93-1635 • French •

them oscillate— he objected. I went printmaker • Mannerist

home and tried to paint abstractly—
The "Grandes Miseres" may . . . be
but in two weeks I was back among
regarded as a precipitation of his
the plastic materials. I think that at
general feelings about war, brought to
that time and practically ever since, the
a head by the invasion of Lorraine.
underlying sense of form in my work
(Anthony Blunt, 1953)
has been the system of the universe, or
part thereof. For that is a rather large Callot's interest in beggars and people
model to work from. with deformities often seems inspired
by BOSCH and bruegel, and in the

The essence of Calder's mobiles, as sense that he exaggerated forms, his

they were named by duchamp, is cap- work is in accord with the Mannerist
tured in the passage quoted above turn away from classical beauty (see
wherein the sculptor describes his inspi- mannerism). He worked in Florence
ration. The signature works by which for the MEDICI court, often engraving
he is known are standing or, usually, images of the public festivities the
hanging mobiles set into motion by air Grand Duke staged to amuse Floren-
currents. He used diverse materials for tines. When the Grand Duke died in

the free-form shapes he suspended in 1 621, Callot returned home to Nancy.

space from strings or wires, and they There his interests changed; he drew
move fast or slowly depending on the landscapes, sometimes giving them fan-
force of the breeze and their own pre- tastic rock outcrops and ruined build-
disposition. After World War II, Calder ings,and religious themes inspired by
began to work on a monumental scale, the Counter-Reformation (e.g.. The
exemplified by the 42-foot-wide sheet Agony in the Garden, 1625). In the
metal Mobile (1959) designed for the 1630S, when Richelieu invaded Lor-
Arrivals building at Kennedy Airport in raine and captured Nancy, Callot did a
New York. As much as the airplanes series of etchings on the horrors of
seen taking off and landing from the war, Grandes Miseres de la Guerre, to
huge window that frames it, this work which BLUNT refers in the quotation
is the epitome of flight. In the 1960s above. In one scene. Hangman's Tree,
Calder added stabiles to his oeuvre he shows only the thick trunk and lower
equally monumental metal sculptures branches of the huge tree from which
firmly planted on the ground. Four bodies hang like strange, morbid fruits.
Elements (1962), located outside a A priest stands on the ladder halfway
museum in Stockholm, has four free- up the tree giving absolution to the next
standing, whimsical, bright red, yellow, victim. This is a grisly scene, and it fore-
and green forms, and while grounded shadows images that will be produced
they do move, driven by motors. in the next century (see goya). Some
no CAMERA OBSCURA

historians believe Callot was not anti- character and uses of High Art by

war, but Blunt's analysis suggests other- combining the real and Ideal and
wise: "The result is strangely grim, and sacrificing nothing of Truth by all

gives the lie to those who maintain that possible devotion to Poetry and
Callot was a purely detached observer, Beauty.
recording the scene of hanging without
emotion as if it had been the Fair of Cameron received her first camera as a
Gondreville." giftfrom her daughters when she was
48. She became known for her majestic
camera obscura photographic portraits of major figures
Literally "dark chamber," from the in British intellectual society. Showing
Latin, the camera obscura was used to just his head, she captures the intensity
project images on a surface where they of the British historian in her Thomas
could be accurately traced. A precursor Carlyle (1863), for example. Cameron
of photography, the camera obscura used suggestion and approximation
was originally a closed dark room with rather than clarity and detail, and some-
a tiny hole on the side facing the scene times, as with Carlyle, harsh illumina-
to be recorded. Light rays from that tion from above to achieve a dramatic
scene entered through the hole and pro- effect. She was one of the few early pho-
jected it onto the opposite wall. Until tographers who subscribed to aes-
corrected by a convex lens or mirror, THETiciSM, the concept of art for art's
the image projected was upside down. sake, an underpinning of pictorial-
The color in these images was intense, ism. Cameron articulated her intention
for although the scene was reduced in in the quotation above. She also said, "I
size, the color remained the same. Not longed to arrest all beauty that came be-
only artists but the general public as fore me, and at length the longing has
well was fascinated by the camera ob- been satisfied."
scura during the 17th century, espe-
cially noting that it showed moving Campin, Robert
images. Most i6th- and 17th-century c. 1375/79-1444 • Netherlandish •

treatises recommended it for artists; painter • Northern Renaissance

HOOGSTRATEN described using one, and
What strikes a viewer, first and
VERMEER probably employed a camera
foremost, about [Campin's] Virgin and
obscura for compositional purposes. By
Child before a Firescreen /5 its insistent
the 1 8th century a portable model be-
emphasis on the everyday world,
came popular, and canaletto seems to

have taken advantage of it for his of singular objects,

materialistic, full

adroitly chosen. (Craig Harbison,

panoramic paintings.
1995)
Cameron, Julia Margaret
Along with van eyck, Campin was one
1815-1879 • English •
northern
of the founding artists of the
photographer • Pictorialist
RENAISSANCE. However, Campin's ap-
My aspirations are to ennoble proach to the visual world was as dif-
photography and to secure for it the ferent from that of his contemporary as
 —

CANALETTO (GIOVANNI ANTONIO CANAL) III

were their patrons: Campin's work Virgin sits at her kitchen table. The
went not to members of the peripatetic right wing of the triptych has an
Burgundian court (see valois), but pri- image of Joseph at work; the product of
marily to members of the middle and his carpentry has been identified as a
upper-middle class in the prosperous mousetrap and its meaning described as
city of Tournai (south of Bruges and illustrating the story of Christ's mission

Ghent, in modern Belgium). Campin to trap the devil. The left wing shows
seems to have spent most of his life in kneeling donors of the middle class.
Tournai, where in 1428 he took part in Campin's authorship of several works,
a revolt against the government. In besides those mentioned, is proposed
1432 he was sentenced to undertake a rather than confirmed, as the pictures
pilgrimage to Provence as penance for are unsigned and undated. Attributions
adultery. His paintings reflect the status aside, looking at these works through
of his clients: In simple domestic set- their own "visual language" and not
tings they are proudly bourgeois. In Vir- with a particular set of expectations, we
gin and Child before a Firescreen (c. more fully understand them. As Harbi-
1425), for example, Mary looks like a son also writes, "Realism in the fif-

Flemish housewife nursing her infant in teenth century commented on, perhaps
her own sitting room. A basket-weave even derived from, its social setting."
firescreen behind her, with delicate
tongues of flame only just visible above Canaletto (Giovanni Antonio
its rim, may symbolize the Virgin's Canal)
HALO and the Pentecostal fire of the 1 697-1 768 • Italian • painter •

Holy Spirit, but as Harbison, quoted Rococo

above, maintains, it is day-to-day hour- ,, f,
. ,

Mr. Smith engaged Canaletto to work

1^1 ,

geois domesticity —not hidden symbols,

, .
, , , ,

r
for
1
htm
r
for many years at a very
1
low
, , , ,

class struggle, or noble pretension , , , , , \^

, , 1

, 11 /- 1 price and sold his works to the English

that preoccupied the painter of this , , , ,tt
- , , ,
1- •
r at much higher rates. [HoTdiCe
image. Indeed, the very ordinariness of ^, , , ,

, ,
... .
,
Walpole, 1 8th century)
the setting, along with certain stylistic
analyses, actually raises doubts that this Canaletto began his career in the studio
important work was, in fact, by the of his father, a painter and designer of
hand of Campin, who was the premier theatrical scenery, especially for the
painter of Tournai with many impor- opera. He excelled in "vistas" or
tant clients. Another questioned attri- "views" {veduta in Italian), which he
bution Campin's "masterpiece," an
is began painting in 1720. As walpole
altarpiece known as the Merode Trip- observes in the quotation above, Cana-
tych, usually dated c. 1425-28. (Analy- letto worked for the British consul to
sis through dendrochronology Venice, Joseph Smith, and dedicated a
suggests that the wood panels date set of 31 etchings, pubhshed between
from the 1450s to the 1460s.) Its central 1744 and 1746, to him. Smith acted as
panel, the Annunciation, again a do- intermediary when Englishmen on the
mestic scene, is a wonderful catalogue grand tour wanted to buy Canaletto's
of a contemporary interior in which the views of Venice and its great festivals.
 .

112 CANO, ALONSO

During the War of the Austrian Succes- the exception of one for paper and
sion (1740-48), when there were few another for canvas. (Harold Wethey,
tourists in Venice, Canaletto went to 1955)
England. There he took the Thames
River and British country houses for his The 17th century is called Spain's
subjects. He returned to Venice in 1 755 "golden years": Although politically
Canaletto's pleasure in Venetian light, decadent under the last of the Hapsburg
his care in representing the surfaces of rulers, it was a brilliant period for Span-

Venetian buildings, the glowing anima- ish literature (e.g., Cervantes, 1547-
tion of the skies, and the activity below 1616), and saw the rise of the Spanish
them all contribute to the appeal of his school of painting. In this period Cano
paintings, especially to visitors who, sculpted figures with grace and beauty.
having returned home, wished to recap- One of the most notable is a painted
ture the atmosphere of their sojourn. To wooden carving, the Immaculate Con-
achieve his effect, Canaletto changed ception (1655-56). In 1667, the year of
his viewpoints, moved closer and far- his death, Cano designed the first mas-
ther away, rotated some buildings, and terpiece of Spanish baroque art, the fa-
changed some rooflines — in short, the cade of the Granada Cathedral. Along
views he painted accommodated his with other examples of his work, the
aesthetic taste as much as they imitated Immaculate Conception is on view in-

what he saw. It is thought that he used side the cathedral. The refinement of
the CAMERA OBSCURA as a complement Cano's touch belies the violence of his

to other devices, from ruler and com- temperament. Among his transgres-
pass to CLAUDE GLASS, and to any avail- sions, he was suspected of murdering
able optical aids that he might have his wife. He had applied for and was ac-

found compositionally useful. But while cepted for a position at the Granada
he benefited from such implements, he Cathedral in 1652, after her death. His
was not constrained by them. Cana- designs included two magnificent silver
letto's light, delicate atmospheres are altar lamps and he was engaged in
consistent with the rococo period, but painting seven large canvases —the Life
his work is not completely coherent of the Virgin — ioT the sanctuary. But his

with that style. relations with the canons of the cathe-

dral were strained; they denied him or-
Cano, Alonso
dination as a priest, for which he had
1601-1667 • Spanish •
supposedly been studying. The bitter-
painter/sculptor/architect • Baroque
ness of his relations with them is pre-
[His] will, dictated on August 18 and served in correspondences and the
August z^, i66y, as Cano lay ill in bed minutes of chapter meetings. His will,

just ten days before his death, starts referred to in the quotation above, also
with a declaration of faith in the tenets stated that "because of his great poverty

of the Catholic Church. To the and numerous debts, he could not leave
document he attached a list of debts, money for masses to be said for his
most of which were for clothing with soul.
 CANVAS 113

canon uity. Canova's purity and clarity of

From its initial Greek definition as a form, idealized beauty, and grace were
pole, "canon" referred also to the rules part of the new neoclassical wave.
that serve to keep things straight, up- But his life and work not only straddled
right, and in good order. The canon two centuries, it also reflected the
went on to include the rules themselves dreadful period of Italian history when
(e.g., the Canon of polykleitos) and, Rome was invaded by the French and
ultimately, those v^orks in a given disci- the Republic of Venice dissolved. When
pline that measure up to its most strin- Venice fell to the French, Canova al-

gent rules or standards. Such standards most fled to America but went instead
are always somewhat in flux, and never to Possagno, his native village. He
more so than in recent years, when the worked in Vienna, and also held the
choice of works considered founda- post of Inspector General of Antiquities
tional in the study of art history has at the Vatican, the position that Ra-

been vigorously criticized. This canon is phael had inaugurated. Napoleon

contested for its aristocratic bias and an called him to Paris twice —
one of the
exclusive christian, white, male, clas- visits is referred to in the letter from
sical, and Eurocentric focus. (See also Canova Napoleon quoted from
to
feminist, popular culture, folk above. It should be added that Canova
ART, and outsider art) went on to say that the equestrian
statue he was modeling would be
Canova, Antonio clothed "in the heroic style" because "it

1757-182Z • Italian • sculptor • was not fitting that [Napoleon] should

Neoclassicist be represented in the nude while com-
manding his army." That became acad-
W(? began to talk . . . of the custom of
emic, however; after Napoleon's
clothing statues. Whereupon I
demise, a figure of Charles III of Naples
protested that God Himself would be
by another sculptor was placed on the
unable to do something fine if He tried
horse Canova had fashioned. In 18 15,
to portray His Majesty dressed like
at the pope's behest, Canova went to
that, in his French breeches and boots.
France, where he recovered Italian
Canova's father died when he was four, works of art looted by Napoleon. In
his mother remarried, and Antonio was London he studied the elgin marbles,
sent to live with his grandfather, who about which he wrote, "The works of
owned a quarry and was a stonemason. Pheidias are truly flesh and blood, like
Soon after his loth birthday he was ap- beautiful nature itself." When Canova
prenticed to a sculptor. With the money died, he was buried with full state

he earned from his first important honors.

work, Daedalus and Icarus (1778-79),
Canova set off for Rome. He was in canvas
close contact with the cultivated society A woven fabric, canvas may be made of
of intellectuals and patrons and much materials that range from hemp to cot-
influenced by new research in antiq- ton and linen. In Venice during the be-
114 CAPITOLINE WOLF

ginning of the 1 6th century, canvas, Hke it as for its artistry. Almost 3 feet high,

that used in sails, started to replace it is believed to be an etruscan work of

wood PANELS as the material of choice c. 500 BCE, and is celebrated as a repre-
for OIL PAINTING. The logic of adopting sentation of the animal that saved Ro-
canvas in that shipbuilding center seems mulus and Remus, legendary founders
obvious and especially advantageous, of Rome. According to the historian
considering its relative ease of trans- Levy (59 BCE-17 ce), the two were
portation through a city of narrow twins born to a Vestal Virgin who was
bridges. At first a smooth ground to ravished by Mars. Cast into the Tiber
paint on was created, as with panels, by River, the infants were discovered by a
preparing the canvas surface with wolf, who then nursed and cared for
GESSO, a plaster-based coating. Then, them. They later established Rome on
reducing the thickness of the gesso, the site of their rescue. The Wo// itself is
painters began experimenting with the of uncertain lineage. While it is known
variety of textures that different weaves that a statue of a she-wolf was dedi-
provided. Consistent with his bold, cated on the Capitoline Hill in Rome in

broad brush technique, Tintoretto 296 BCE, it is not known whether this is

often used a coarse weave, especially for the original; it could even have been
paintings that would be seen from a dis- made in the Middle Ages, as some 19th-
tance. Because untreated canvas ab- century scholars believed. Two suckling
sorbs liquid, artists have almost always infants beneath the wolf were not added
treated canvases; however, franken- until the Italian renaissance. Writers
THALER chose to work on raw canvas praise the alert guardianship of the ani-
when she developed her technique of mal, and it has been suggested that the
staining rather than painting. Artists Wolf may well have been the apotro-
conventionally stretch their canvas over PAic guardian of a tomb. As the repre-
a wooden frame of whatever size they sentation of the surrogate mother of
decide to work in. abstract expres- Rome, however, the work with totemic
sionists, on the other hand, who power finally brings most unbeliev-
wanted to interact with their materials ers to heel. Authentically Etruscan or
in new ways, might, like kline, attach not, this image served the propagandis-
the canvas to a wall, thus creating a re- tic aims of Italian nationalism as late as

sistant surface to act against. Jackson the 20th century, when it was used to
pollock placed his canvas on the floor endorse the Fascist dictator Benito
so that he could walk around, reach Mussolini. Another spectacular Etrus-
over, and pour paint onto it. (See also can bronze, the Chimera of the 5 th to

support) 4th century bce, is less controversial

and provides an intriguing contrast. Of
"Capitoline" Wolf about the same size as the Wolf, the

Few canonical texts omit this bronze Chimera, with a lion head, snake tail,

wolf, which exerts a powerful spell as and goat head on its back, is as supple
much for its fiercely protective, mater- as the Wolf is stiff, as active as she is

nal aura and the legend that surrounds still, as aggressively threatening as she is
 CARAVAGGIO (MICHELANGELO MERISl) II5

wary. In the Chimera we see realized the was heinous and cowardly — he at-
potential for movement and life that the tacked one of his victims with a sword,
Wolf holds in abeyance. from behind — he was dangerous and
unpredictable. He killed a man in a dis-
Caracciolo, Giovanni Battista pute over a wager on a tennis match and
(called Battistello) was himself murderously beaten. Little
578-163 5
1 • Italian • painter • defense of his behavior is possible,
Baroque though modern scholars have proposed
Though he started as a Mannerist, alternative readings of the historical
Caracciolo came under the influence of sources that discuss Caravaggio, and
CARAVAGGIO and was one of the most these range from blaming the prejudice
important of that artist's early follow- of his contemporary biographers to the
ers. Caracciolo lived and worked in effort by later writers to mythologize
Naples (where Caravaggio had been his violence. "The miracle of Caravag-
twice, in 1607-08 and in 1609-10), and gio is that a man personally so out of
was instrumental in establishing the control ever mustered the discipline to
Neapolitan school of painting. (See make paintings, much less produce
also MANNERISM and caravaggisti) masterpieces," Elizabeth Cropper and
Charles Dempsey wrote in 1987, an ad-
Caravaggio (Michelangelo equate summing up. Caravaggio's un-
Merisi) precedented "realism," or naturalism,
1571-1610 • Italian • painter • was anti-iDEAL to begin with and
Baroque adopted the everyday world of the
lower classes as a conventional setting.
Has anyone else managed to paint as
In two versions of Supper at Emmaus
successfully as this evil genius, who
(1601 and 1606), the news of Christ's
worked naturally, almost without
resurrection is presented, and the re-
precepts, without doctrine, without
action to it becomes, in the later work,
study, but only with the strength of his
talent, with nothing but nature before
increasingly subtle, personal, and com-
plex. Caravaggio seems to be following
him, which he simply copied in his
an effort to popularize Counter-
amazing way? (Vencincio Carducho,
Reformation revivalism as it was pro-
1633)
moted by Saint Philip Neri, founder of
In his own time, Caravaggio was com- an order called the Oratorians. Car-
pared to the Anti-Christ, whose "false avaggio set ordinary people in unexcep-
miracles" would lead great numbers of tional settings, and then he exploded
people, deceived and moved by his the ordinary with the miraculous. Light
paintings, straight to hell, poussin, was his means of exposing idea and
who hated him, said, "Caravaggio feeling, and his dramatic use of it was
came world to be the ruin of
into the unprecedented (see chiaroscuro). Lit-
painting." Caravaggio was transgres- tlewonder his detractors worried about
sive and radical in his personal life as his power of persuasion. His contrast of
well as in his public art. His criminality light and shadow, bright and dark, is es-
 —

Il6 CARAVAGGISTI

pecially eerie in combination with the precipitated the first, "Early Baroque,"
undercurrent of outrage in his works in Italy, and that his influence on artists

the Beheading of Saint John the Baptist of France, the Netherlands, and Spain,
(1608) is an example: The man holding as well as of Italy, was decisive.

a knife behind his back stands astride

the naked John, forcing his head against Caravaggisti
the ground. At the ready is the charger, Painters who came under the influence
or platter, on which the severed head of caravaggio and adopted his style of

will be given to Salome (as indeed it is painting, even if only briefly (e.g.,

in another of Caravaggio's paintings). baglione).

Unsettled drama also permeates Car-
avaggio's blatantly confrontational caricature
homoerotic paintings, with their seduc- Based on exaggeration or mockery of
tive, androgynous figures. His first physical traits, the caricature is a comic
major patron. Cardinal del Monte, portrait, or a scene for ridicule, satire,
was a man who lived a self-indulgent and burlesque. The decoration of the fa-

life, mainly in the company of young mous sound box of a Mesopotamian

boys dressed up as girls. Caravaggio lyre of c. z6oo BCE, in which animals
resided in Monte's household for a time play the roles of people, may be among
and reflected his sponsor's taste in a the earliest caricatures. Fragments of
Bacchus (1597-98),
series of images. In POTTERY from ancient Egypt dated
the god offers the viewer a goblet of c. IZ95-1070 BCE have paintings in

wine, lounges like a Roman sybarite, which cats and mice are dressed as hu-
and has before him a luscious bowl of mans in what seem to be parodies of the
ripe fruit that on closer inspection,
is, upper classes. Social satire inspires
rotting. Beauty and decadence, light much caricature. Artists of ancient
and dark, ordinary people and strong Greece and Rome practiced caricature,
emotion are characteristics of Caravag- although it was their poets and drama-
gio's paintings. His devotion to natural- tists who used it most effectively, me-
ism was so pronounced in the Death of dieval images of Jews frequently took
the Virgin (1605-06) — the Virgin so the form of wicked caricature, as did
clearly looks like a corpse —that the fa- propagandistic prints of the leaders of
thers who commissioned it for a chapel the Catholic and Protestant Churches
in the Roman church of Santa Maria during the 16th-century Reformation.
della Scala found the painting offensive The initiation of caricature as serious
and rejected it. (They were not the art is generally attributed to Annibale
only people who refused a work after carracci in the last decade of the i6th
commissioning it from Caravaggio.) century. Caricature as political attack
RUBENS, in Italy about that time, per- flourished in England during the 18th
suaded his own patron, the Duke of and 19th centuries, when artists often

Mantua, to buy the Death of the Virgin. sold directly to the public, not to avoid
When the baroque era is seen as an in- editorial infringement on their point of

ternational wave with a number of na- view but, rather, to profit directly from
tional styles, it is clear that Caravaggio the party or candidate offering the best
 CAROLINGIAN ART II7

price (HOGARTH was an exception). imized by the highest religious author-

Major caricaturists in England were ity of Western Christendom (and the
James Gillray (1757-1815); Thomas pope received the protection of Charle-
Rowlandson (1756-1827); George magne). Western (or Roman) Catholi-
Cruickshank (1792-1878); and ten- cism remained officially independent of
NiEL. Their work was rarely credited as secular rulers; in the East, however, the
art, but the very people who denounced Orthodox Church of byzantine the
it walpole) also collected it.
(e.g., empire did not separate spiritual and
Somehow the work of the French cari- secular authority, but instead vested
caturist DAUMiER has fared better in en- both in the emperor, who appointed
tering the CANON, while for the most the patriarch of the Church. Charle-
part, work of the English artists did magne's personal seal read renovatio

not. The ephemeral nature of political Romani imperii, meaning "renewal of

satire —the fodder of caricature — is the Roman Empire"; the Carolingian
doubtless the cause of its short life and period is known as a renaissance.
lack of appreciation, though the artist's Charlemagne declared himself Con-
drawing skill is frequently exceptional. stantine's heir and looked back to
The distinction between caricature and Christian Rome for inspiration, al-

CARTOON (in the modern sense of the though he established the center of his

word) blurred during the 19th century, realm at a favorite residence in Aachen,
though "caricature" is the staple of po- Germany. It was a monumental palace
litical cartooning. Caricature remains complex with administrative offices,
fundamentally "purposeful deforma- royal workshops, and the Palatine
tion of the appearance of the original," (Palace) Chapel (c. 792-805), chief ar-

as Richard Brilliant writes. And it pre- which may have been the
chitect of
sumes a shared culture, for, as he adds, bishop Odo of Metz. This large ma-
"recognition of the person to be por- sonry and mosaic building has a central
trayed is essential. ... To be successful, plan, its DOME rising over an octagonal
hence recognized, the caricature de- base. Originally had a walled fore-
it

pends on the viewer's prior knowledge court from which crowds could see the
of the original and on the deformation emperor when he stood in a second-
of those facial features thought to be story window. Learning and the arts
most typical of the subject." were promoted by Charlemagne and his

scholarly protege Alcuin of York, and

Carolingian art thrived. As part of a program of educa-
c. 750-c. 900 tional reform, a new and simple script
Named for the Frankish king Charles known as Carolingian minuscule was
the Great, knownCharlemagne in
as introduced, and manuscript illumina-
French (the word "Carolingian" comes tion flourished; according to legend,
from the Medieval Latin word Carolus, Charlemagne's Coronation Gospels
for "Charles"). The pope crowned (c. 800-10) was buried with him. The
Charlemagne emperor of Rome in 800 so-called author portraits of ancient
at Saint Peter's on Christmas Day. By Roman manuscripts became models for
this action the new emperor was legit- representations of the evangelists in
Il8 CAROLUS-DURAN (CHARLES-^MILE-AUGUSTE DURAND)

Carolingian books. Charlemagne died color. Carolus-Duran's The Woman

in 8 1 4 but his influence continued in the with a Glove (1869) is a graceful, full-
work of his children and grandchildren. length portrait of his wife dressed ele-
The Utrecht Psalter (c. 830), or psalm gantly in black, with a yellow carnation
book, with its lively, vividly expressive in her hair. The painting shows the in-
pen-and-ink drawings, is probably the fluence of VELAZQUEZ, whose work was
best-known book from the period. Car- important to Carolus-Duran. It also
olingian books show a melding of hi- makes allusions to titian's Man with
BERNO SAXON and Mediterranean the Glove (c. 1523), and perhaps to
styles; important illuminated manu- society portraits by British painters of
scripts might be written in gold on the previous century. Even more inter-

purple vellum, imperial symbols. Cov- esting is its connection to the works
ers of gold inset with precious gems (for of Carolus-Duran's own American
example, on the Lindau Gospels, c. student, sargent, whose style was
870) protected the text and turned the close to that of his teacher. In fact, Sar-
book itself into an object of devotion. gent's Portrait of Carolus-Duran ( 1 879)
marked the start of the American
Carolus-Duran (Charles-Emile- painter's professional career.
Auguste Durand)
1 83 7-19 1 7 • French • painter • Carpaccio, Vittore
Academic c. 1460/66-1525/26 • Italian •

painter • Renaissance
When hismoney was exhausted
[during his studies in Rome] he Carpaccio's almost contemporary
returned to Paris, there to begin the legend of Saint Ursula makes use of
long struggle with poverty and the long horizontal format . . . to
disappointments which developed in represent ceremonial events: the
him a strength to overcome difficulties dispatching and reception of
and a desire to assist other poor young ambassadors, processions. Several
artists, which when rich and influential episodes may be combined in one
he never failed to do. (Anna Seaton- canvas so figures may appear more
Schmidt, 19 17) than once within the same scene.
Color helps the viewer recognize them
Carolus-Duran established his reputa-
and thus make sense of the narrative.
tion as a fashionable portraitist as well
(Marcia Hall, 1992)
as a popular and successful teacher. He
set up a small, independent studio that In a fanciful and witty style, harmo-
was distinguished by the number of En- nized by a golden tonality, Carpaccio
glish and American students he at- painted narrative scenes for a fraternal
tracted. His teaching differed from that group, the Scuola di Sant' Orsola (Ur-
of the i^coLE des beaux-arts in that he sula)— Scwo/e (plural) — under the aus-
did not stress pencil drawing but, pices of the church, who were dedicated
rather, had his students work directly to carrying out good works. Saint Ur-
on canvas with paint. He was also a sula, whose legend Carpaccio illus-
strong advocate of the importance of trated in the 1490s, went to Rome
 —

CARR, EMILY II9

accompanied by lo maids of honor and France's second empire. His master-

11,000 virgins (see voragine). On the piece is The Dance (1866), a group of
return trip, Ursula and her court of vir- figures for the front of the Paris Opera
gins were all slaughtered by Huns. (1861-74). The building was designed
Carpaccio's characters are usually by the architect Charles Garnier
solemn-faced, with little expression, yet (1825-1898), whose recollection of
they seem portraitlike. Casual details Carpeaux's moment of inspiration is
dogs, conversants, passersby, and archi- quoted above. The sculpture became
tecture in the background — add scandalous, however, when complaints
anecdotal interest, and as Marcia Hall that the nude bacchantes were drunk,
points out in the comment quoted vulgar, and indecent were accompanied
above, he used color codes for narra- by demands that the work be removed.
tive purposes. Gentile bellini seems to The outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
have had some influence on Carpaccio War diverted attention from The
in that series, but there is no connection Dance, and after the war it received
between the two in Carpaccio's Medita- praise instead of reproach. The next
tion on the Passion (probably c. 1510). group of nudes Carpeaux made for
Here the artist has invented two aged, public display was more restrained: The
emaciated saints with long white Four Continents (1867-72) are four
beards, seated on either side of a dead women who include America wearing a
Christ, who, oddly enough, is similar feather headband and Africa with a
to but more attractive than the figure chain around one leg. Carpeaux repro-
CRiVELLi painted three decades earlier. duced the head of Africa as a bust
There is a multitude of intriguing land- bound with ropes and inscribed "why
scape details, but most significantly, WAS BORN A SLAVE?" Carpeaux was
I

half of the countryside composed of

is favored at the court of Louis Napoleon
verdant, rolling hills, and leafy trees, (Napoleon III) and lost stature as well
while the other half is rocky, with one as his health with the Third Republic.
bare, contorted tree scratching at the
sky.
Carr, Emily
1871-1945 • Canadian •
Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste
painter/writer • Expressionist
1 827-1 875 • French • sculptor •

Beaux-Arts You must be absolutely honest in the

depicting of a totem for meaning is
Immediately he seized a pen, a bit of
attached to every line. You must be
paper and, in a second, traced a few
most particular about detail and
marvelously intersecting lines, making
proportion. I never use the camera nor
with a few movements the best
work from photos; every pole in my
composition in the world; in short, five
collection has been studied from its
minutes afterward, he had arrived at
own actual reality in its own original
his group! (Charles Garnier, 1880)
setting, and I have as you might term
Carpeaux is one of the few sculptors it, been personally acquainted with
who established themselves during every pole here shown.
I20 carrA, carlo

Carr single-mindedly combined a love broadens my individuality in

for her native British Columbia with the relationship to things.
pursuit of art. Many of her works fo-
cused on the life and lore of West Coast During the 1910s, Carra signed the fu-
Native Americans whose totems, grave- turist manifestos along with his col-

yards, and churches she studied. Her leagues BOCciONi, Luigi Russolo
commitment to Indian art is expressed (1885-1947), BALLA, and SEVERINI.
in the quotation above, from a lecture About 19 1 5 he began to turn his back
she gave in 1913. She added, "Indians I on Futurism and studied the work of
think express it well when they say to GIOTTO and the Italian renaissance.
one another 'come and see the woman The following year he met de chirico
make pictures with her head and hands, and they began to paint in the style they
not with a box.' "
Corner of Kitwan- named Scuola Metafisica, or the Meta-
cool Village (c. 1930) shows a series of physical School. Its two main princi-
totem poles moving into the distance. ples, formulated between 1917 and
The foremost totem seems alive: Its 1919, were to evoke those states of
lowest figure has a large red mouth and mind that question the existence of the
wide-open eyes; it appears strangely be- ordinary, objective world, and to
seeching as it gazes directly at the achieve this through solid, clearly de-
viewer. The top of the pole has an older, fined forms that, paradoxically, look
wiser face. Electric blue hills showered quite objective and ordinary. Scuola
by supernatural light fill the back- Metafisica lasted only a few years.
ground. Carr's works, including many Carra and de Chirico quarreled over
composed of swirling brushstrokes and the authorship of the movement and
landscapes empty of people, are highly diverged, but Scuola Metafisica bridged
charged as if with spiritualism. Carr the gap between Futurism and sur-
was neglected during her early career realism. While de Chirico's enigmatic
and had to run a boardinghouse and images are dark and threatening,
make souvenir pottery in order to Carra's are more melancholy and less
survive. Finally, she found and was en- frightening. An example of his work is
couraged by painters group of
in the Mother and Son (1917), in which both
SEVEN, and she has become one of figures are oversize, featureless dress-
Canada's most renowned artists. She maker dummies, similar to those de
also wrote several autobiographical Chirico used, in an almost empty but
books. claustrophobic room. The commentary
quoted above is from Carra's essay
Carra, Carlo
"The Quadrant of the Spirit," written
1 88 1-1966 • Italian • painter •
in 1919.
Futurist/Metaphysical School
Carracci, Annibale
Now it seems that my spirit is moving
1560-1609 • Italian • painter •
in an unknown matter or is lost in the
Baroque
whirlpools of sacred spasm. It is

Knowledge! It is a sweet dreaming Thus, when painting was drawing to

that dissolves all measure and its end, . . . it pleased God that in the
 CARRACCI FAMILY 121

city of Bologna, the mistress of are bloodier, the body more twisted,
sciences and studies, a most noble and the moment of death somehow
mind ivas forged and through it the more recent. To the extent that ba-
declining and extinguished art was roque artists meant to draw the audi-
reforged. He ivas that Annibale ence into the religious experience, this
Carracci. (Giovanni Pietro Bellori, was, and remains, an overwhelmingly
1672) effective work. Called to Rome
1595 in

to paint in the Farnese Palace, Annibale

Reaction against all that was artificial decorated the Galleria Farnese
in MANNERISM found a powerful ex- (1597-1601), a room that measures
pression in the paintings of Annibale. some 68 by 21 feet and is some 32 feet
His works are the epitome of natural- high, with the Loves of the Classical
ism, yet, if they look back to the Ital- Gods. In his biography of Annibale,
ian renaissance for clarity and quoted from above, Bellori also writes

inspiration, they also look to contem- about the fresco: "And since the end
porary life for the bluntness of truth. of all irrational pleasures is sorrow and
His Butcher's Shop (c. 1581-84) is an punishment ... he painted Andromeda
example of the best of genre painting. bound to the rock to be devoured by the
In addition, art historians think that sea monster, symbolizing that the soul
it contains portraits of three of the bound to emotion becomes the food of
Carracci: Ludovico (Annibale's cousin, vice if Perseus —that is to say, reason
an artist of high and original ac- and the love of the worthy — does not
complishment, from whom Annibale come to his assistance." Carracci's
learned painting); Agostino (Annibale's scenes were divided by illusory frames
brother, who taught him engraving); and fictitious architecture. Even more
and Annibale himself. In part because than MICHELANGELO, who identified
Ludovico, his teacher, was the son of a himself as a sculptor above being a
butcher, Annibale's painting is also painter, Carracci painted monochrome
thought to be an allegory of the acad- figuresmeant to look like sculptures.
emy that the Carracci founded in their He went so far as to paint these figures
hometown of Bologna. It was the first as though some of their "marble" parts
academy based on the premise that art had broken off, that is, as if they were
can be taught by the study of antique actual relics, but with lifelike details,
and Renaissance same
traditions, at the such as eyes that look heavenward. Car-
time stressing the importance of draw- racci's stay in Rome was fairly short:

ing from life. However, genre scenes Suffering severe depression, in about
were by no means Annibale's main 1605 he became incapacitated and gave
preoccupation. The Dead Christ (c. up his studio. He died in 1609, not yet
1581-84) revisits the idea mantegna 50 years old.
had about 80 years earlier, of looking at
the foreshortened body as though Carracci family
standing at its feet. Annibale's blunt Three outstanding members of this

confrontation with this corpse is family of artists — Ludovico

(1555-
equally disconcerting, and the wounds 1619), Agostino (1557-1602), and An-
122 CARRIERA, ROSALBA

nibale (see above) — set a new course for and WATTEAU as well as members of the
Italian art at the end of the i6th cen- French court, from whom she also re-
tury. The accomphshments of Annibale ceived commissions. Her portraits show
ultimately outdistanced those of the a deft hand at subtle flattery. The
others, but the artistic reform they insti- French academy welcomed her, and its
tuted together was realized initially artists followed her example of an ele-

through the academy that they opened gant but intimate kind of portraiture.
in Bologna around 1582. The Accade- She started in the light and airy rococo
mia degli Desiderosi, started in Lu- vein, with its superficial glamour, but
dovico's studio, emphasized the study her later pictures became more expres-
of nature and drawing from life, not sive. A Self-Portrait of c. 1744 looks at a

only people but plants, animals, land- woman nearing her 70s with gray hair
scapes, and objects as well. They also and a thoughtful, though glazed, cast to
formulated the classical ideal in a pe- her eyes. One cannot help but read dis-
riod when discoveries from antiquity may knowing that in two years
there,
had persuasive influence. Their motiva- Carriera would lose her sight.
tion was in large part a strong reaction

against the artifice of mannerism and a cartoon

direct appeal to the viewers' emotions. The Italian cartone means "card-
This is especially true of their religious board." The term "cartoon" first re-

paintings, which were inspired by the ferred to full-scale drawings for designs
Counter- Reformation. that would be applied to other surfaces:
walls, wood PANELS, STAINED GLASS
Camera, Rosalba windows, and can-
rugs, tapestries,
1675-1757 • Italian • VAses. Some cartoons were POUNCEd;
painter/pastelist • Rococo that is, pinpricks along drawn lines al-
lowed charcoal dust to filter through
/ have been unanimously admitted to
and transfer the picture to the desired
the Academie. No vote was taken, as
surface. By masaccio's time (early 15th
no one wanted to make use of the
century), enough paper was available
black ball.
to be used for fresco cartoons. Car-
Carrierawas painting snuffboxes and toons by RAPHAEL and rubens for ta-
miniatures on ivory in Venice when, pestries are among the world's most
the story goes, an Englishman per- prized works of art. During the 19th
suaded her to take up pastel. But she century the word "cartoon" began to be
was no "Little Match Girl" Carriera — used for humorous drawings, especially
had a good education in French, his- the political satires earlier known as
tory, literature, and music. She was ad- caricatures. This occurred in 1843,
mitted to the Academy of Saint Luke in after the popular English magazine
Rome in 1705 and earned several no- Punch published a humorous cartoon
table portrait commissions, including that parodied serious cartoon submis-
the kings of Denmark and Poland. She sions in a competition to design decora-
went to Paris in 1720 and met rigaud tions for the Houses of Parliament.
 —

CASSATT, MARY 1 23

During the 20th century, humor has be- even more renowned. The male version
came the main usage of the word, espe- of a caryatid, of which surviving exam-
cially the cartoon strips of popular pies are rare, is an atlantid (atlas in

CULTURE. Since the 1960s, however, Greek; plural atlantes). Telamon (pi.

new developments have redefined the Telamones) is the Roman term.

term: Using cartooning techniques
black outline and dot screen — and Cassatt, Mary
comic books themselves as sources, 1 844-1926 • American •

LiCHTENSTEiN made cartoon images painter/printmaker • Impressionist

into HIGH ART. In his groundbreaking . r ^ u iw j
, , , , . ^ . After give me trance, women do
all
, ,

Maus 1986), Art Spiegelman

,

book,
.

(born 1948 used the

^ , ,
...format
comicstrip ,
r
,

,
r 1
1
not have to fight tor recognition here
,
-r
if

,, ,
^ . . , . they do serious work.
to tell the story of his parents deporta-
tion and concentration camp experi- Born in Philadelphia, Cassatt lived as an
ences during World War II. At the end expatriate in Paris, where she was able
of the 20th century, the comic strip is an to enjoy more freedom (as expressed in
increasingly serious medium for politi- the comment above), and to work and
cal and social satire. exhibit with the great French impres-
sionists, DEGAS, RENOIR, and MONET.
caryatid She, too, painted in bright colors, with-
A sculpted female figure used in place of out shadows or particular attention to
a COLUMN. Conflicting stories explain depth, but concentrated on the momen-
its origin, one being that caryatids rep- tary effect of light, and she, too, was
resent the women who danced around a greatly influenced by Japanese prints
tree sacred to the goddess Artemis (see ukiyo-e). Unlike her male counter-
Karneia, or Caryatis. Another explana- parts, however, who usually painted
tion is He relates
given by vitruvius. women as ornaments or as sexual or
the caryatid to Greek women from the social problems, Cassatt portrayed
town of Carya who collaborated with women as individuals in their own, in-

the Persians when they invaded Greece, dependent, female worlds. She reveals
These women were later humiliated: their relationships to one another, to
Treated as slaves, they were forced to their children, and to the domestic and
carry heavy burdens on their heads, as social lives of which they were the
caryatid columns carry the weight of a center. She also recorded their public
building. The earliest examples of cary- personas: In Woman in Black at the
atids that survive are the elaborately Opera (1880), the subject, looking
dressed archaic columns standing through her opera glasses, is both spec-
guard at the Treasury of the Siphnians tator and participant in the upper-class

at the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, c. urban milieu that was frequently an

530 BCE. The classical caryatids from Impressionist theme. The painting
the Porch of the Maidens, or south prompts contemplation about the act of
porch of the Erechtheion (421-405 seeing, and of being seen. Equality for
bce) on the Athenian acropolis, are women was important to Cassatt, but
124 CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE

there is great subtlety in her approach, gentle in effect. As does the quotation
and her paintings never made strident from his letter, above, the painting ar-

statements. Toward the end of her life ticulates the artist's friendship and ad-
she tried to help the women who miration for Castiglione. When the
worked at a factory near her own man- painting was auctioned off in the 17th
sion. She is reported to have said, "If I century, rembrandt tried to buy it, but
weren't a weak old woman, I'd be a So- the bidding exceeded his resources,
cialist." In the early 1890s, Cassatt Nevertheless, it remained in his mem-
painted a mural — Modern Woman, ory, and two of his own self-portraits
now lost —for the Women's Building at used it as a point of reference,
the Columbian Exposition of 1893 ^^

Chicago. catacombs
The underground cemeteries of ancient
Castiglione, Baldassare Rome, a network of corridors and bur-
1478-1529 • Italian • author ial chambers called cubicula (singular

"cubiculum"), were sometimes on as

/have made drawings of various types
many as five levels. Paintings on the
based on Your Lordship's suggestions,
walls of Christian cubicula in Rome are
and unless everybody is flattering me, I
among the earliest examples of early
have satisfied everybody; but I do not
CHRISTIAN art.
satisfy my own judgment, because I

am afraid of not satisfying yours.

catalogue/catalog — collection
(Raphael, in a letter to Castiglione,
MUSEUMS document their collections of
c. 1514)
works of art in comprehensive cata-
In hisbook of dialogues, The Courtier logues.
(written 1508-18, published 1528),
Castiglione formulated the standards catalogue/catalog — exhibition
for aristocratic behavior. These in- In their earliest and simplest forms, ex-
cluded disdain of materialism and os- hibition catalogues did little more than
tentation, and esteem for elegance and identify the works of art presented,
restraint. In view of the excesses of During the late decades of the 20th cen-
turn-of-the-century Italy, the restora- tury, exhibition catalogues gained im-
tion of the medicis to power in Flo- portance documents of current
as
rence in 15 12, and the papacy of Leo X scholarship. Detailing the theme of the
(which began in 15 13), Castiglione's exhibition, the catalogue contains es-
book seems politically as well as so- says by curators and scholars who are
cially motivated. He may have helped specialists in the field. It may discuss the
his friend RAPHAEL compose a letter to historical circumstances of the artist
the pope that resulted in Raphael's or artists presented, along with new in-

appointment as Superintendent of An- formation about the artists' patrons,

tiquities. In Castiglione (c. 15 14-15), associates, influences, and so on. Con-
Raphael's subject is soberly dressed in sequently, significant exhibition cat-
shades of black, gray, and white; the alogues are reviewed as major new
portrait is warm, softly lighted, and scholarly texts. (See also exhibition)
 —

CAVALLINI, PIETRO 1 25

catalogue/catalog— raisonne e.g.,Keokuk (The Watchful Fox), Chief

Raisonne, French for "reasoned," refers —
of the Tribe, 183Z warriors, and med-
to a catalogue devoted to the works of a icine men and women. He also por-
single artist. The scholar producing it trayed ceremonies, dances, hunting,
strives to describe all available perti- games, and warfare. On his own, with
nent, factual documentation including neither financial support nor official
dates, biographical information about sanction, Catlin pursued his mission
the artist, the provenance (i.e., se- from tribe to tribe, making careful, ac-
quence of ownership), attributions, curate representations. These ulti-

and exhibition history of each work, mately formed the basis for the Indian
whether engravings of the work were Gallery opened by the Smithsonian In-
made, and all previous scholarship. stitution in Washington, D.C. Catlin's
feelings about his subject are expressed
cathedral in the Some of his
quotation above.
The bishop's chair or throne (from the contemporaries accused him of sen-
Latin cathedra) —originally placed in timentality, perhaps to avoid feeling
the apse, or niche, behind the high guilty about claiming the territories In-

altar —gave its name to the church dians inhabited. Contemporary critics
where the bishop officiated. A cathedral are more likely to challenge Catlin for

is an urban building. exploiting Native Americans for his

own artistic and economic interests
Catlin, George than for romanticizing them.
1796-1872 • American • painter •
Romantic Cavallini, Pietro
active c. 1273-1308 • Italian •
J love a people who have always made
painter/mosaicist • Late Gothic
me welcome to the best they
had who are honest without laws,
. . . I commemorate Petrus de
here
who have no jails and no poor- Cerronibus, whose life spanned a
house who never take the name of
. . . hundred years, who never covered his
God in vain who worship God . . . head even in the cold, and who was
without a Bible, and I believe that my father— [signed] Giovanni
God loves them also . . . and oh! how I Cavallini, scriptor to His Holiness the
love a people who don't live for the Pope, (between 1230 and 1260)
love of money. ^. .
^ „.
The above acknowledgment of Pietro
Between 1830 and 1836, Catlin ex- by his son is one of the very few written
plored the world of Native Americans documents regarding Cavallini. (Of
in the vastand largely unvisited area three others, one contains his signature
from the upper Missouri River and the as witness to a land transfer, and two
headwaters of the Mississippi to the concern the terms of his employment by
Mexican Territory in the far Southwest, the king.) Cavallini, located in Rome,
He produced written documentation as worked in mosaic as well as paint, and
well as comprehensive pictorial records in an interesting blend of styles. This
that included portraits of chieftains composite is seen in the row of seated
126 CE

apostles of his Last Judgment fresco gelo's influence also led him to sculp-
(c. 1 The figures have that stiff
291). ture. Cellini's forms are curvaceous and
FRONTALITY of the Contemporary highly decorative. A member of the
BYZANTINE Style, but they also have a FONTAINEBLEAU school for five ycars
CLASSICAL volume and solidity, and (1540-45), he created a gold saltcellar
their forms are modeled with light. for the French king francis i that is or-

Th'S modeling suggests that Cavallini namented with nude, elongated, reclin-

may have seen some ancient roman ing figures of Neptune and Earth. The
wall paintings that are lost to us now virtuosity of its workmanship is as bril-
but probably resembled those later liant as the material from which it is

found at herculaneum. At any rate, made. Only his saltcellar and a relief,
Cavallini is appreciated for his influ- Nymph of Fontainebleau, survive from
ence on GIOTTO, whose own Last Judg- that period. To heighten its dramatic ef-

ment, in the Arena Chapel (1305-06), fect, Cellini used the mannerist device
draws from Cavallini. of exhibiting his work by candlelight.
He lost favor with Francis I as a result
CE of palace intrigue and returned to Flo-
An alternative to ad for purposes of rence, where he achieved renown for
dating, ce stands for Common Era. (See Perseus (1545-54), a larger-than-life-
also bce) size bronze sculpture commissioned by
Cosimo de' medici. Both its elaborate
Cellini, Benvenuto detail and its vitality established his rep-

1 500-1 571 • Italian • sculptor • utation as a sculptor, and he vividly de-

Mannerist scribes casting it in his well-known and
lively autobiography. Cellini's devotion
Sculpture mother of all the arts
is the
to art, and to his own self-fulfillment,
involving drawing. If a man is an able
was untempered by the politics or the
sculptor . . . he will easily be a good
religious strife of his era.
perspectivist and architect, and also a
better painter. ... A painting is

nothing better than the image of a tree,

Celtic cross
man, or other object reflected in a
A circle surrounds the juncture of its
fountain. The difference between
vertical post and horizontal arms in this
paintingand sculpture is as great as
cross. Such freestanding Celtic crosses,
between a shadow and the object
carved of stone and as high as 17 feet,
casting it.
were erected around monastic grounds
Celliniwas extravagant with both in the Irish countryside from the 8th to
words and materials. He wrote two the loth century. Their designs have
treatises on art, rhymes, letters, and an spirals and interlace patterns and de-
autobiography in which he described pict Christian themes with simplified
himself as a statesman, soldier, and but expressive figures. Some scholars
lover, as well as an artist. He was a see a relationship to Coptic art. Primar-
goldsmith above all, but Michelan- ily located in Ireland, Celtic crosses are
 CEZANNE, PAUL 1 27

also found in Scotland and on the Isle of artist binds him to the Italian renais-
Man. sance. As he describes in the quotation
above, he was a student of Agnolo
Cennini, Cennino GADDi, son and pupil ofTaddeo gaddi,
1 3 70-1 440 • Italian • artist/writer • who was the godson and student of
proto-Renaissance GIOTTO. Cennini is thus believed to be
an accurate source of information
Here begins the craftsman 5 handbook,
about the methods of Giotto and his
made and composed in the . . .

followers.
reverence of God, and of The Virgin
Mary, and of Saint Eustace . . . of all
ceramics
the Saints ofGod; and in the reverence
See POTTERY
of Giotto, ofTaddeo and of Agnolo,
Cennino's master; and for the use and
Cercle et Carre (Circle and
good and profit of anyone who wants
Square)
to enter this profession.
A group formed in Paris, in 1929, by
None of Cennini's own art survives, the artist-critic Michel Seuphor (born
but his book, // libro deWarte (com- 1901) and the Uruguayan painter
pleted known in translation
1437, Joaquin Torres-Garcia (i 874-1949).
as The Handbook of Crafts), is ex- Its first exhibition, in April 1930, was
tremely valuable as a compendium of on the ground floor of the building in
early-i5th-century Florentine artistic which PICASSO lived. Cercle et Carre
techniques. For example, after his de- was a reaction against the figuration or
scription of the steps to be taken in ap- residual representation of less rigidly
plying nine layers of gesso, and then nonobjective abstract artists. In-
sketching the composition to be painted cluded in Cercle et Carre were kandin-
with charcoal made from burned wil- SKY, LE CORBUSIER, LEGER, MONDRIAN,
low twigs, he writes, "When you have SCHWITTERS, Joseph stella, taeuber-
finished drawing your figure, especially ARP, and ARP, though he was both an
if it is in a very valuable [altarpiecel, so Abstract and a surrealist artist. The
that you are counting on profit and rep- Cercle et Carre group and its periodical
utation from it, leave it alone for a few by the same name were short lived, but
days, going back to it now and then to they had considerable impact. Their ac-
look it over and improve it wherever it tivities and mailing list were taken over
still needs something. . .
." Cennini by the abstraction-creation group
equates painting with work, although in 1931.
all work was believed to be the result of
sin and the loss of Paradise. However,
Cezanne, Paul
Cennini sees art as a worthy project re-

quiring imagination and invention to 1 83 9-1906 • French pamter •

reveal the invisible. In that endeavor he Post-Impressionist

links painting with poetry, as the poet,
too, composes "strange fables." The But I always come back to this: the
value and dignity Cennini accords the painter should devote himself entirely
128 CEZANNE, PAUL

to the studyof nature and endeavor to solid and durable of impressionism,

produce pictures that are an education. for Cezanne was concerned with solid-

Chatter about art is almost useless. ity, volume, and form. His devotion to
solid form was equaled by his commit-
Throughout his hfetime, even while he ment to color, which he used for mod-
was rejected by the press and pubHc, eling, rather than using the age-old
other artists collected Cezanne's paint- technique of shading, or tonal modeling
ings: pissARRO owned fourteen, degas with black and white. Of himself, and
seven, renoir three, gauguin five, and of his great series of male and female
in 1899 MATISSE bought Cezanne's bathers, Cezanne wrote that he wished
Three Women Bathers (1879-82) even to do "Poussin over entirely from
though was near financial
he, Matisse, nature." Respectful of that great 17th-
ruin. Cezanne's first one-man exhibi- century French painter, Cezanne's com-
tion was held by vollard in 1895. ment is ambiguous but understandable.
fauve, cubist, German expressionist, Like POUSSIN, Cezanne was interested
Russian suprematist, and construc- in CLASSICAL authors, but unlike
tivist movements were all directly in- Poussin, whose scenes were idealized,
debted to him. The vision his work Cezanne painted as, if not exactly what,
inspired was powerful enough to pene- he saw. Regarding the bathers, whom
trate four centuries of obscurity and re- he painted in landscape settings, among
vive the reputation of piero della the obvious problems he cited was "to
Francesca: Both he and Cezanne repre- gather together the necessary number of
sented figures and objects as geometric, people willing to undress and re-
. . .

volumetric forms. Cezanne's range was main motionless in the poses I had de-
grand and diverse — portraits, figures termined." (He once shouted at a
(notably bathers), landscapes (espe- restless model, "Be an apple!") Of his

cially Mont-Sainte-Victoire in Prov- contemporaries, he most admired "the

ence), and still lifes. In the latter humble and colossal Pissarro," nine
category he is famous for his signature years his senior, who became his paint-

apples on a tipped surface, or plane. ing companion. Cezanne was born in

Using psychoanalytic theory, Meyer Aix-en-Provence. His father, a tyrant

schapiro's influential 1968 essay con- whom he feared, made hats — and
siders that Cezanne's apples carry "a enough money to buy the local bank. At
latent erotic sense" and show "an un- the College Bourbon, Cezanne devel-
conscious symbolizing of a repressed oped his love of classical literature —he
desire." Cezanne's often quoted intent held Virgil and Plato above all — and a
may have been, as he told Bernard, to friendship with Emile Zola. In many
"treat nature by the cylinder, the ways this friendship was the emotional
sphere, the cone," although its rele- center of Cezanne's life, and it became
vance to hisown work is dubious, and it exceedingly painful. It ended when
is suggested he may have been speaking Zola published L'Oeuvre in 1886, and
primarily as a "teacher." Perhaps more Cezanne saw a character in the novel as
important was hiscomment to the ef- unkindly representing himself. A shy
fect that he wanted to make something man, given to outbursts of rage.
 CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE I29

Cezanne was both insecure and over- modern art was complete," writes the
confident about his own art. Despite the critic John Russell. Art historians iden-
esteem his work enjoyed, Cezanne was tify the offshoots of several movements
never quite satisfied with it, and the in Chagall's paintings: expressionist
very year of his death he wrote, "Shall I emotion, fauve colors, cubist geome-
ever reach the goal so eagerly sought tries, even de chirico's Metaphysical
and so long pursued? I hope so, but as painting, in addition to surrealist fan-
long as it has not been attained a vague tasy. His work does contain many of
feeling of discomfort persists which will the irrational characteristics that are
not disappear until I shall have gained manifest in Surrealism, but while he
the harbor." was claimed by spokesmen of the move-
ment, Chagall denied the affiliation, re-

Chagall, Marc jecting especially its interest in

1887-1985 • Russian • painter • automatism and psychoanalysis:
Expressionist/Cubist/Fauve "For my part, I have slept well without
Freud," he told an interviewer in 1944.
The fact that I made use of cows,
Many of Chagall's images are romantic
milkmaids, roosters, and provincial
homages to his wife, Bella; he may, for
Russian architecture as my source of
instance, show himself floating above
forms is because they are part of the
her to plant a kiss on her face {Birth-
environment from which I spring and
day, 1915-23). But his work is not all
which undoubtedly left the deepest
light-hearted. White Crucifixion (1938)
impression on my visual memory of
portrays Jesus as a crucified Jew, sur-
any experiences I have known. Every
rounded by symbols of Jewish worship
painter is born somewhere.
and German persecution. In fact the
Chagall went to study in Paris in 19 lo, original painting, later overpainted, had
and associated with apollinaire and a Nazi swastika on a flag at the upper
painters of the new cubism, as well as right. "Christ has always symbolized
the other Jewish artists modigliani, the true type of the Jewish martyr,"
souTiNE, and pascin (see also school Chagall once said. Among his im-
OF PARIS). Chagall was from a family of portant commissions was a series of
Hasidic Jews in Vitebsk, Russia. He re- STAINED GLASS windows he designed
turned home to Vitebsk after the Russ- for the Synagogue of the Hadassah
ian Revolution and set up the Free Medical Center in Jerusalem in 1962.
Academy there. He was ousted after
just a year, in 19 19, at the instigation of
Champaigne, Philippe de
MALEViCH, who Supported a more radi-
1 602-1 674 • Flemish • painter •
cal, avant-garde approach than that of
Baroque
Chagall. Many of Chagall's richly col-
ored scenes that recollect his youth are Philippe de Champaigne is important
steeped in both Jewish and Russian not only as an original artist but also
folklore. "By the time he left Russia for as summing up one aspect of French
good, in 1922 . . . integration of Russian art in the middle of the seventeenth
Jewish life into the bloodstream of century. His portraits and his later
130 CHARDIN, JEAN-BAPTISTE-SIMEON

religious works are as true a reflexion persecution. They were soon expelled
of the rationalism of French thought as and dispersed.
the classical compositions of Poussin
in the 1640s. One uses the formula of Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon
Roman republican virtue to express his 1699-1779 • French • painter •

beliefs, and the other that of Rococo

Jansenism. (Anthony Blunt, 1953)
Messieurs, messieurs, not quite so fast!
Seek out the worst of all the pictures
An accomplished, successful artist em-
here, and think that two thousand
ployed by Cardinal Richelieu early in
unfortunates have broken their
his career, Champaigne did his best
brushes between their teeth, in despair
work after he became familiar with the
at ever doing anything as bad. . . . If
doctrines of Jansenism, as blunt notes
you will hear me out, you will perhaps
in the quotation above. A fervently
learn to be indulgent.
emotional religious movement —the
most puritanical wing of French Cath- Chardin persisted in painting still life

olicism —^Jansenism emerged in France compositions because he enjoyed them,

in 1640 with the publication of Cornelis despite theirlow status in the acade-
Jansen's Augustinus. It was in part a re- mic hierarchy. With some exceptions, a
action to the abstract, mechanistic, sci- vivid contrast of strawberries and white
entific rationalism of the era's physicists carnations, for instance, his arrange-
and philosophers: The works of Galileo ments are quiet juxtapositions of shapes
and Descartes were published during and subtle plays of color. He also
the same period. Champaigne's master- painted a series of meditations on the
piece, Two Nuns of Port Royal (full theme of mothers and children — for ex-
title: Mother Catherine Agnes Arnauld ample. Morning Toilette (c. 1741).
and Sister Catherine de Sainte Suzanne, These may have to be taken with a grain
the Artist's Daughter. The Ex Voto of of moralizing salt regarding female
1662), was painted in gratitude for the virtue. Consider a contemporary ob-
cure of his daughter: A Jansenist nun, server's words (linking the political
she had been paralyzed but then recov- term "Third Estate" to painting for
ered —thanks to the prayers of the pri- what may be the first time): "Does a
oress, Champaigne believed. One of the woman of the Third Estate ever pass by
bare gray walls of the background is in- Ithe picture] without believing that here
scribed with the story of her miraculous is an idea of her character . . . her do-
recovery. The older nun kneels in mestic surroundings, her countenance,
prayer, the afflicted woman is seated. her frank manners, her daily occupa-
Both have large red crosses on their tions, her morality, the emotions of her
white habits, both are serene, and a ray children. . . . While her Mother adjusts
of light communicates the miracle that her hair, this little Girl turns to look
has occurred. Jansenism displeased back at the Mirror. ... In this ... we
both the Jesuits and the Crown, and the read awakening vanity." Some histori-

nuns of Port Royal were under threat of ans read into Chardin's servant class an
 .

CHARONTON, ENGUERRAND (QUARTON) I3I

oppressed proletariat prescient of the the Virgin (1453) for the Carthusian
French Revolution. Whether or not that monastery of Villeneuve-les-Avignon.
is true, he did ennoble ordinary people A lengthy contract, quoted from above,
and simple things — pots, pitchers, eggs, designates the scenes that are to be in
meat — and he could hardly be far- the Coronation. The program was quite
ther from the effete fripperies of specific, yet it also left certain details to
BOUCHER or the eroticism of frago- the artist's discretion. In 1970 the histo-
nard. Both were his contemporaries; in rian Charles Sterling identified Charon-

fact, Chardin was Fragonard's first ton as also the painter of the famous
teacher (Boucher was his second). Avignon Pieta (c. 1455), which had, in
DIDEROT, a great supporter of Chardin, the past, been hung next to the Corona-
wrote, "It is the business of art to touch tion. In this pietA, the scourged body of
and to move, and to do this by getting Christ, contorted by rigor mortis,
close to nature. Welcome back, great curves rigidly over his mother's lap; the
magician, with your mute composi- heads of the three mourners repeat the
tions! How eloquently they speak to the arc of Christ's body, and at the left edge
artist! How much they tell him about of the picture the man who commis-
the representations of Nature, the sci- sioned the work, dressed in a white sur-
ence of color and harmony! How freely plice, kneels in prayer. Sterling found
around these objects!"
the air flows stylistic elements that connected the
Chardin was a modest artist whose two paintings, such as similarities in the
speech to the jurors of the official treatment of fingers and of folds in the
SALON of 1765, quoted from above, drapery, as well as the shapes of nos-
ends "Adieu, messieurs; be lenient, trils, lips, and eyebrows. Moreover, the
messieurs, lenient!" landscape in the Pieta is reminiscent of
the hills in the background of the Coro-
nation. These features, not specified by
Charonton, Enguerrand the contract, were apparently added by
(Quarton) Charonton, who included a prominent
c. 1410-C. 1466 • French • painter local landmark, Mont-Sainte-Victoire,
• Late Gothic/Northern Renaissance in his scene. (More than four centuries
, ^ „ ,. , , 1 , n I
later, cezanne depicted the same
Item: In Paradise . . . should be all the
mountam more
.

than 60 times.) Once

•
v ^
estates of the
, „
,
, ,
world arranged by said
, , ,

, I
.
,
. ...
the association between the two paint-
,

, , , ;
Master Enguerrand . . . there should be . , „, . . .

;•;•;;/; ifigs and Charontou is made, it seems

,
the heavens in
,
,

,
which will be the sun
ATI, 11
likely
1

that the donor represented

1 1 11the in
and the moon. . . . After the heavens, „ • - • •

man 1 1 1 i r

,
... , . , , , , , ,
Pteta, a gaunt with high cheek-
the world in which should be shown a ,

111
. , . ,
, ,

r , .
r T^ bones and rurrowed brow, is the same
part of the city of Rome,
,

(contract, ^ ...
Jean de Montagnac who signed the con-
tract for the Coronation. As interesting
Enguerrand Quarton, or Charonton, as as Sterling's Pieta attribution is, there is

he is called in English, painted the bril- not universal agreement among art his-

liant, intensely colored Coronation of torians, some of whom find as many

132 CHARTRES CATHEDRAL

differences as similarities between the on salvation. Above the Royal Portal

two paintings. are three lancet (acutely arched)
stained glass windows, and above
Chartres Cathedral them is a large "rose window" a cir- —
Chartres is a town 55 miles southwest cular stained-glass window articulated
of Paris. was the location of a pre-
It with stone "tracery," or ornamentation
Christian goddess cult and then a that gives a lacelike effect. Beyond its

church that burned down before the western facade, the balance of the
nth century. The Cathedral of Notre cathedral, rebuilt after 1 194, is the first

Dame was founded in the nth cen- masterpiece of mature. High Gothic
tury where the church had been. The style. Its nave rises over 300 feet.

cathedral, now familiarly known as Chartres contains more than 8,000 im-
Chartres, itself burned twice in the izth ages in various media, and has retained
century: in 1134 and in 1194. Its re- almost all of its original stained glass.
building, which continued until 1260, Chartres's crypt contains the relic that
was inspired by the philosophy of the made the cathedral one of the most im-
abbot SUGER, and is the embodiment portant pilgrimage destinations of the
of GOTHIC ideas. The western portion medieval period: remnants of silk from
of Chartres was roughly contemporary what is believed to be a robe worn by
with, and is thought to resemble, the Virgin Mary. The miraculous holi-
Suger's (now lost) west side of the Ab- ness of this relic (which survived both
bey Church of Saint-Denis. Having sur- fires) contributed to the fervor with
vived the 1 194 fire, it preserves our best which an extraordinary cross section
examples of Early Gothic architecture of the faithful sometimes dedicated
and decoration. Its three entryways are themselves to the cathedral's rebuild-
called the Royal Portal because they in- ing: "One might observe women as
clude sculptures of biblical kings and well as men dragging [wagons loaded
queens. Their "jamb" or column stat- with building supplies] through deep
ues are of a type first used at Suger's swamps on their knees," as a contem-
Saint Denis. In contrast to earlier Ro- porary account described it. But be-
manesque sculptures that are subordi- cause they resented the imposition of
nated to the building's form, Gothic new taxes that rebuilding Chartres ne-
statues begin to show independence and cessitated, it was not consistently sup-
integrity. When the Gothic era pro- ported by either nobles or the general
gresses —as it is seen to do on Chartres's population, and cathedral financing
later facades — architectural sculpture even provoked intermittent riots during
becomes increasingly naturalistic, indi- the 13th century.
vidualized, and self-contained. Christ
enthroned surmounts the central of the
Chase, WilHam Merritt
Royal Portals at Chartres. Where Ro-
1849-1916 • American • painter •
manesque sculptures, like those by
Impressionist
gislebertus, emphasized the threat of
damnation (e.g.. Last Judgments), the My God, rd rather go to Europe than
Gothic spirit placed stronger emphasis to heaven!
 .

CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGENE I33

Chase played three important roles: As peculiar to it, that is to say, such as it

a tastemaker he introduced French im- tvould appear if viewed separately, but

PRESSiONiSM to America, as a teacher of a from the peculiar
tint resulting

he taught the leaders of American color and the complementary of the

Modernism (sheeler, demuth, and color of the other object. On the
o'keeffe), and as an artist he was other hand, if the colors are not
among the best-selling American im- of the same tone, the lightest tone

PRESSIONISTS. He was from a modest will be lowered, and the darkest

Indiana background, but he took easily tone will be heightened; in fact,

to the fashionable world of New York they will appear by the juxtaposition
and profited from his trip to Europe, as different from what they really

the quotation above suggests. To an are.

early acquaintance with the Munich

SCHOOL, he added mastery of the plein Chevreul's researches on color began
AIR landscape, and he evolved a per- when he was a professor of chemistry,
sonal, eclectic blend. Chase was less and continued during his employment
concerned with exploring the effects of at the Gobelins tapestry works. In his
light, which preoccupied many French book On the Law of the Simultaneous
Impressionists, than with develop- Con^ras^mg o/" Co/ors (1839, quoted
ing his virtuosity and ability to use from above), he maintained, for exam-
paint beautifully. He was also de- pie, that contrast harmony is increased

voted to capturing the affect of those he by juxtaposition of complementary col-

loved. Whether painting his home, stu- ors like yellow and violet. His influence
dio, or the sandy, sun-bleached coast- on artists was vast, among them Pis-
line of Long Island where he spent sarro, seurat, the delaunays, mac-
summers, his own environment and donald-wright, and russell. Besides
family were frequently his subject mat- incorporating his ideas in their paint-
ter. The Fairy Tale (1892), for example, ing, with Chevreul's theories in mind
is a sparkling, affectionate picture of his artists also became conscious of the
wife and one of his daughters seated frames they used, and even expressed
among the dunes. There is a sense of concern about the color of the walls on
pleasure and well-being about his which their work was displayed. Seurat
pictures for which many critics dis- went a step further by extending the no-
miss him. tion of complementary colors to his
frames. Besides his interest in color,
Chevreul is known for work defining
the nature of animal fats and their ef-
Chevreul, Michel Eugene
fectson the manufacture of soap and
1786-1889 • French • chemist
candles, and for his moral rectitude:
Now what do we learn by the law of "Chevreul was a determined enemy of
simultaneous contrast of colors? It is charlatanism in every form," insisted
that when we regard attentively two the author of a biographical entry about
colored objects at the same time, him in the Encyclopaedia Britannica of
neither of them appears of the color 19 1 1
134 CHI RHO (XP)

Chi Rho (XP) early 1970s. In addition to her mission

The first two lettersword

of the Greek of educating women artists, she was de-
for Christ, Xpictoc, are combined to termined to educate the public about
make a cross. This monogram symbol- women. The Dinner Party (1979), an
ized Christ's presence. Constantine's installation, is her most renowned
troops were ordered to place the xp project and a tour de force that the critic

monogram on their shields during the lippard has called "one of the most
battle in which he defeated the army of ambitious works of art made in the

Maxentius in 312. xp decorated sar- postwar period." The "dinner table" is

cophagi and was the inspiration for in- an equilateral triangle 48 feet on each
tricate embellishment on illuminated leg.Each of the 39 place settings is ded-
MANUSCRIPTS, such as the book of icated to an important woman, and
KELLS. each has a runner, chalice, and a plate
designed to symbolize the woman
chiaroscuro honored. Table linens are made with
This word combines the Italian chiaro, traditional needlework techniques,
meaning "light," with oscuro, for including crochet and applique. Vag-
"shade." Chiaroscuro in art refers to inal imagery is integral to the design.
the contrast of strong shadows with Among the "guests" are o'keeffe,
bright highlights, usually with forms Susan B. Anthony, and Sojourner
determined by the meeting of dark and Truth. The names of 999 additional
light rather than by outlines. It is a tech- "women of achievement" are inscribed
nique that may achieve theatrical effect. on the tile floor. More than 100 women
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE artists who pio- collaborated to bring The Dinner Party
neered in and explored chiaroscuro to completion, and it drew some 10,000
were sebastiano del Piombo, people to the San Francisco Museum of
RAPHAEL, and GiULio Romano. The use Modern Art, where it was first shown.
of chiaroscuro by caravaggio influ- Applauded for its effort to encourage
enced many other artists. Chiaroscuro social change by bringing to light the
combined with sfumato is called the accomplishments of women, it was also
"dark manner." (See also tenebrism) attacked from various philosophical
positions. To some the vaginal imagery
Chicago, Judy (Judy Cohen) was disconcerting, for example; others
born 1939 • American • objected to the lack of nonwhite women
teacher/painter/sculptor/mixed media artists. Chicago formed the nonprofit
• Feminist Through the Flower Corporation to
oversee the exhibition of The Dinner
/ believe in the power of art to change
Party across the United States.
consciousness.

Born in Chicago, Judy Cohen changed

her name to Judy Chicago. She was an chimera
educator, innovator, and organizer in Refers to a mythical, fire-breathing,
the feminist art movement of the part-lion monster, usually a female ani-
 CHRISTINA, QUEEN OF SWEDEN I35

mal. For the most famous chimera, see in their representation of fantasy. In

"capitoline" wolf. The Melancholy and Mystery of a Street

(1914), a child rolls a hoop down an

chinoiserie empty, arcaded street that, perversely,

China had a long tradition and sphere widens in the distance and tilts toward
of influence, from its white-glazed pot- her. A shadow cast on the street is inex-
tery that inspired 9th-century Islamic plicable, as are other details, and all are
potters to invent a tin-based glaze to ominous. De Chirico's premonition of
the Chinese silks that were imitated in surrealism is clear, or at least it was to
Italy in the 14th century. However, the the Surrealists who adopted his strate-
term "chinoiserie" refers particularly to gies. However, de Chirico, who rarely
Western imitations or evocations of associated with the world outside his
Chinese art, made during the 17th and own family and had an obsessive depen-
1 more fanci-
8th centuries. These were dence on his mother, was alienated by
ful than accurate, and were especially the stridency of the Surrealist group.
prevalent in the ROCOCO-style decora- There were recriminations on both
tive ARTS, with designs on wallpaper, sides,and de Chirico broke resolutely
silver, dinnerware, and furniture (e.g., from them in 1933 by renouncing the
Chinese Chippendale) as well as fabric. paintings of his early career, which were
those the Surrealists admired. "De
Chirico, Giorgio de Chirico seemed hell-bent on self-

1888-1978 • Greek/Italian • painter immolation," writes the critic Michael

• Metaphysical School Kimmelman about how the artist paro-
died, devalued, and discredited his ear-
Et quid amabo nisi quod aenigma est?
lier accomplishments. "The paradox is

"What shall I love if not the enigma?" that his late works, in their extreme
quoted above, was inscribed on de campiness and nihilism, are much more
Chirico's Self-Portrait of 191 1. Some of shocking than the classic de Chiricos,
his enigmas are empty city streets seen with their melancholic views of antique
from disorienting perspectives, some- ruins." During the late 1990s, those re-
times with six vanishing points. Painted actionary works, with their references
predominantly in a mustard yellow, modernism, and
to the past, disdain of
brown, and blue, they are nightmarish their parody and irony, seem purely
stage sets. De Chirico was a modern in postmodern long before the move-
his disruption of believable space and in ment had a name.
the coalition of different points of view.
His notion of painting as symbolic, Christian art
metaphysical vision (see carrA), and See early christian

his interest in Nietzsche, Schopenhauer,

Christina, Queen of Sweden
Theosophy, and the subconscious — all
1 626-1 689 • Swedish • collector
part of his era's currency —also fed his
work. But among all artists of his time, / have it in my thoughts and resolution
he painted pictures that were distinctive to quit the crown of Sweden and to re-
136 CHRISTO AND JEANNE CLAUDE DE GUILLEBON

tire myself unto a private life, as much to have told his business manager to
more suitable to my contentment, than "keep that crazy woman out of my cab-
and troubles attending
the great cares inets . . . for one could so easily take
upon the government of my kingdom; some of my small paintings." Christina,
and what think you of this resolution? herself erratic and volatile, died at the
age of 62 after living more than half her
The Queen of Sweden posed this ques- life in Rome.

tion to the startled Enghsh ambassador

before she began secret preparations to Christo (Christo Javacheff, born
flee The palace
her country in 1653. 1935 i" Bulgaria) and Jeanne
apartments contained more than 800 Claude de Guillebon (born 1935)
paintings. "There is an infinite range of Site/Process art
items," Christina said, "but apart from
You like to see what is behind the
some thirty or forty Italian originals, I
package, as well as appreciating the
discount them all." After the crown was
new form that has been created, the
formally removed from Christina's
new visual value the most . . .

head on June 6, 1654, she made her way

important thing is the passage from
to Italy, disguised as a nobleman, and
one form to another. Also the
her cherished works of Italian masters
continuation, that the first form peeks
left the palace with her. There were sev-
through from behind. No, the thing
eral stops en route, including one in
that is behind is not so important
Innsbruck, where, in November 1655,
either, only that motion, that passage is
she made public her conversion from
important.
Lutheranism to Roman Catholicism.
Her entry into Rome, in a procession Christo started by wrapping relatively
that included most of the College of small projects: Package on a Wheelbar-
Cardinals, proceeded to the papal row (1963), for example. Over the
apartments, where the pope received decades, joined by his wife, Jeanne
her. Christina appointed bellori to be Claude, he has wrapped everything
her librarian and antiquarian, and in from bridges (The Pont-Neuf, Paris,

her palace she displayed those works ^975~^5y 1985) to islands {Surrounded
she had kept from the great collection Islands, Biscay ne Bay, Greater Miami,
her father, Gustavus Adolfus, had Florida, 1980-83). He installed an 18-
looted from Prague: paintings by Ra- foot-high, 24'/2-mile-Iong line of white
phael, TITIAN, CORREGGIO, VERONESE, fabric across the landscape north of San
and RUBENS among them. While Chris- Francisco — Rw««/w^ Fence, Sonoma
tina was in Italy, France was gaining in and Marin Counties, California 1972-
prestige and art collections. Cardinal j6, and scattered 3,100 blue umbrellas
and successor.
Richelieu's secretary in Japan and gold ones in California.
Cardinal Mazarin, was an avid but All of these projects have an unexpected
greedy connoisseur who considered beauty that is altered and enhanced by
Christina his arch rival. He is reported changes in the light, the weather, and
 CHRISTUS, PETRUS I37

Other natural events. The involved ne- 'Wrapped Reichstag' may well have
gotiations and planning they require are been the most effective example of po-
part of the work in progress, and the ex- litical art in years."
citement they generate is often irre-
sistible. Writing in The New York Times ChristUS, Petrus
about the wrapping of the Berlin Reich- c. 1410-1475/76 • Netherlandish •

stag, which was completed in July painter • Northern Renaissance

1995, Michael Kimmelman found him- ^ , ,^1 • , r , ,

./ r , 1 1
In short, ILhrtstusJ transformed the
self swept mto the spirit of the cele-
language of his great predecessors [van
brated event as the final length of
Eyck and van der Weyden] into a
material was unrolled to finish covering
homely idiom, plain to the point of
the German parliament building. "The
. . „ artlessness and humbly human rather
only thing missing was a bow on top, , , „, . _, .
, „ ...

, , ,
.
T 1 J r
t"^^ heroic— a basic blemish readily
he began his report. It had taken 60.5 1 1 1 , i # ti , ir
, .. r 1 ij • assimilable by those who, like himself,
tons of silvery fabric that
r

was held I

in
hailedfrom the less developed
place by 10 miles of bright blue rope.
Northern districts of the Netherlands.
Kimmelman, a self-declared skeptic,
(Erwin Panofsky, 1953)
was unable to resist enthusiasm and ap-
preciation. Besides the beauty of the panofsky's assessment of Christus,
new form, which Christo refers to in the highlighting the relative simplicity of
comment above, when an object be- his style, might seem to detract from the
comes invisible, or accentuated by out- artist's status, yet it is just that quality

what it is, what it stands for, and

line, that gave his work wide appeal, and he
what it means become increasingly was, finally, more influential than his
a matter for contemplation. In other famous forerunners. Christus is docu-
words, when something is visually mented as being in the busy mercantile
changed, or rendered "absent," its pres- city of Bruges soon after van eyck died

ence and significance are multiplied, in 144 1. Van Eyck's influence on Chris-
Christo raises money and enlists public tus's work appears in the fine details of

support, and sells his drawings to cover brocade, gems, and other particulars in
the cost of his projects; it is important to a painting usually named Saint Eloy in
him that he make no profit from the His Studio (1449), though that identifi-

completed work. Its only economic cation is uncertain. It is a picture of a

benefit is enjoyed by local merchants, goldsmith and his clients (perhaps the
Kimmelman's conclusion is as eloquent firstgenre painting in Netherlandish
as his introduction —about topping the art), and might have been commis-

German parliament with a bow — is sioned by the goldsmith's guild. Eloy

jesting: "The project was transient. But was a yth-century goldsmith who be-
it left an afterimage of a kinder, gentler came a martyr and subsequently the
Reichstag. ... So much so-called politi- trade's patron saint. The clients in the
nowadays struggles to make an
cal art picture are apparently buying a wed-
impact and fails. Without trying ding ring, but there is much uncertainty
 —

138 CHRYSELEPHANTINE

and speculation regarding the implied only is their provenance now in ques-

message. Another of Christus's well- tion, so too is their authenticity.

appreciated works is Portrait of a Lady

(c. The "lady" really
1470). seems just a Church, Frederic Edwin
child. Her head is encased in a stiff 1 826-1900 • American • painter •
black hat held on by a chin strap. Her Hudson River School
hairline has been plucked to make her
We were soon among the most terrible
forehead higher, as was the fashion of
crags and yawning chasms I ever
the time. She seems impatient with hav-
saw— jagged black rocks piled up in
ing to sit for the artist and casts a side-
awful grandeur— we were lost in
wise glance at him.
amazement. And yet as we progressed
they became still more terrible.

chryselephantine A student and brilliant disciple of cole.

Uniting Greek words for "gold" Church went with his mentor on
(chrysos) and "ivory" (elephantinos), sketching rambles in New York's
the term refers to sculpture that com- Catskill Mountains, where Cole had his

bines those materials. Earlier cultures studio in the 1840s. Church responded
used chryselephantine — for example, to the spiritualism of the transcen-
an exquisite Phoenician ivory carving dentalist movement and to the pros-
titled Lion Mauling a Nubian (c. 880 perous patrons who wanted patriotic

bce), inlaid with jewels as well as landscapes charged with the American
gold — but the most celebrated chrys- doctrine of Manifest Destiny (see

elephantine works, both by pheidias cole). Many of them were financially

(5th century bce), are known only as well as philosophically invested in
through literary sources: Athena Parth- the nation's march westward. Church
enos, standing 40 feet high in the Par- painted landscapes with sunsets that
thenon, and a colossal seated Zeus at fulfilled the most ardent cravings for the

Olympia, named one of the seven sublime. With his "Great Pictures"
WONDERS OF THE WORLD. Both Were showing a single work for the price of
described by pausanias in the 2nd cen- admission — he enjoyed box-office suc-
tury CE.The core of Pheidias' statues cess: The majestic Niagara (1857)
was wood, but he used gold veneer for earned him $4,500, a great sum for the
the clothing and ivory veneer for the time. Church traveled to the North At-
heads, hands, and feet. If those colossi lantic to paint Icebergs ( 1 86 1 ); to South
are the most famous chryselephantine America to paint a volcano, Cotopaxi
works, a group of small figurines might (i86z); and to the Near East in 1867 to
be the most infamous. Three small fe- follow the path Jesus had trodden.
male carvings purporting to be minoan "After years of seeking the wild, the
made their way to the United States new, and the virginal in South America
in the early 20th century, the most and elsewhere, he was now plunging
renowned a "Snake Goddess" at the into the most aged, history-laden part
Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. But not of the world," the historian John Davis
 CISTERCIAN 139

writes. "His journey east was essen- Angels surround her and prophets peer
tially a search for origins . .
." The through arches in the throne's base.

search was propelled by Charles Dar- The beginning of an interest in three-

win's The Origin of the Species (1859) dimensionality is evident. In contrast
and Church's need to reconcile his reli- to this formal, stolid, monumental
gious sentiments with post-Darwinian presentation, Cimabue also painted
science, which removed God from the Crucifixion, a fresco that is filled

landscape. In the passage quoted above, with agitation and emotion. Although
from a letter to a friend. Church de- Cimabue's fame was great, it was
scribes his approach to the El Khasne at eclipsed by that of his successor
Petra, which he painted in 1874, five GIOTTO, as the passage quoted from
years after his return home. He entered Dante makes clear.

Petra via a narrow passage through

cliffs that rose 300 feet on either side of cinquecento
him —thought to be the split left in the The Italian for "five hundred," this

rock by the rod of Moses. The cliffs term actually refers to the 1500s, or,
darkly framed his view of El Khasne more commonly in English, the i6th
("the Treasury"), and this is the view century.
that he painted. El Khasne is one of the
paintings that convince Davis that Circle
Church did find the spiritual comfort he Name of a nearly 300-page construc-
sought while on his quasi-scientific, ar- London
TiviST manifesto published in
chaeological expedition. in 1937 by hepworth, Nicholson,
and GABO. Included were drawings and
Cimabue (Cenni di Pepi) commentaries by many major artists

c. 1240-130Z • Italian • painter • (e.g., MONDRIAN, whose important

Late Gothic essay Plastic Art and Pure Plastic Art
appeared there). Illustrations by both
Cimabue thought to hold the field in
Constructivists and non-Constructivists
painting, and now Giotto has the cry, so
were included.
that the fame of the other is obscured.
(Dante, // Purgatorio, c. 13 17)
Circle and Square
Cimabue, a nickname, means "de- See CERCLE ET CARRE
horner of oxen" and may allude to
Cenni being a violent man. Working in cire perdue (lost wax process)
Florence, he was the last major practi- See BRONZE
tioner in the maniera greca, and is
best known for his large altar panel, Cistercian
the Madonna Enthroned (c. 1280-90): Like the congregation at cluny, the
The Virgin, with the Christ Child on Cistercians were a reformed order of
her lap, is seated in the upper portion BENEDICTINE monks that originated in

of an elaborate architectural (but Burgundy, France. However, they were

imaginary and unbuildable) throne. founded, in 1098, as a reaction to the
140 CLARK, LORD KENNETH

elaborate art and liturgy of the Cluniac ditional posts, including chairman of
order. Cistercians lived an austere life. the Independent Television Authority.
They established communities in the While Civilisation was a sweeping sur-
wilderness and worked there as labor- vey of Western art, Clark's other books
ers, clearing forests, draining swamps, focused on particular themes. Best
and developing a wool trade. Led by known among them are Landscape into
Bernard of Clairvaux (abbot 1 1 1 5-54), Art (1949) and The Nude (1956). Inde-
they practiced strict mental and physi- pendently wealthy, Clark was also an
cal discipline. Their order, of whom 50 art PATRON and collector.

percent were women, flourished and

spread. Their buildings were as un- Classical
adorned as their lives, and majestic in Used almost off-handedly in reference

their simplicity: They valued perfect to anything of high quality and endur-
proportions and excellent masonry over ing appeal, from hairstyles to automo-
sculpted decoration. The Abbey Church biles, in art "Classical" particularly
of Notre Dame (1139-47) in Fontenay indicates the civilizations of Greece and
has a simple geometric plan and plain Rome. The term derives from the Latin
walls, pointed barrel vaults, and classis, which originally meant "mobi-
ARCHes that may have been influenced lizing the army." Because the military
by ISLAMIC architecture. Pointed arches was ranked according to social and
later characterized gothic buildings. financial status, the word came to mean
that which is of the highest order, das-
Clark, Lord Kenneth sicus, in contrast to a lower order, pro-
1903-1983 • English • art historian letarius. During the Middle Ages,

Above all I believe in the God-given

students —who were called classici—
studied Greek and Roman authors,
genius of certain individuals, and I
which how
is their civilization began to
value a society that makes their
be known as Classical. The most spe-
existence possible.
cific art historical meaning of Classi-
The sentiment expressed above puts cal narrowed during the early 19th
Clark in the camp of the aesthetic century, when it served to contrast
movement, an heir to the effusive emotional romanticism with the mea-
PATER. It was expressed in Clark's book sured, restrained, balanced, and orderly
Civilisation (1969), which was com- quality of Greek art of the period be-
posed from the scripts of a television tween 480 and 323 BCE. Preceded by
series of the same name. The series the ARCHAIC and followed bv the hel-
made Clark a celebrity outside his own lenistic, this Classical period is con-
profession, where he was already re- ventionally divided into three parts:
nowned: He was the Keeper of Fine Art Early Classical, 480-450 bce. The
at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, Classical era begins with the Greek vic-

then director of the National Gallery in tory over vastly superior forces in the
London while serving as Surveyor of the Persian Wars (490-480 bce). Success
King's Pictures, and held numerous ad- confirmed the Greek sense of moral and
 CLASSICAL 141

political superiority, including the insti- Athens ultimately lost to Sparta, Athens
tution of democracy. It may also have forfeited its political preeminence. His
inspired the relaxed, freestanding pos- opponents blamed Pericles for having
ture of painted and sculpted figures broken an earlier vow to leave the
called CONTRAPPOSTO. But while expe- Acropolis in ruins as a reminder of Per-
riencing liberation, Classical artists sian barbarianism. He was also con-
maintained sobriety and control, con- demned because, in order to finance the
straints that give the name Severe Style Acropolis development, he used tithes
to the art of this early, transitional Clas- paid to Athens by independent states
sical period. Examples are the riace for the defense of Greece against the
BRONZES (c. 460 bce) and the discobo- Persians. The mutual defense pact was
LOS (450 bce). Faces of these statues are known as the Delian League because
less vacant than are those of archaic the money was originally housed in
statues; they appear thoughtful and are the Treasury at Delos. There was a sense
on the verge of showing emotion, that Athenians were being punished for
Whereas Archaic sculptures were stiff, hubris (excessive pride), as the Persians
these powerful, athletic bodies are rep- had been 50 years earlier when they lost
resented in moments of arrested action, the war. Works of art began to show a
High Classical, 450-c. 430/420 bce. turning inward, especially evident in
Also known as the Classical Moment, numerous carved grave markers, the
this period is usually characterized as Hegeso Grave Stele (c. 410 bce), for ex-
one of a new, self-confident frame of ample. The strong, athletic figures of
mind. This is manifested in Athens' rise earlier periodsbecame soft, sensuous,
to power and epitomized by the build- and languorous, and female nudes be-
ing program that pericles launched on came part of the artistic repertoire for
the Athenian acropolis. During the the first time. But there also developed a
early years of this period, the sculptor somewhat paradoxical predilection, in
POLYKLEiTOS had translated Greek the period 430-400 bce, for the purely
philosophical ideals into an artistic decorative look of drapery. Deeply,
treatise known as the Canon. Celebrat- elaborately carved drapery had already
ing values of order, measure, propor- appeared (e.g.. Three Fates/Goddesses
tion, control, and harmony, Pericles on the Parthenon), but in Late Classical

enlisted the sculptor pheidias to over- images, such as Nike Adjusting Her
Of this, and of the entire
see his project. Sandal (c. 420 bce), it m.ight seem, as
period, the Parthenon is the High J. J. Pollitt writes, that "ornamental
Classical exemplar. The period repre- beauty has become an end in itself and
sented the first intellectual peak of hu- to a great degree has usurped the role of
manist optimism. meaning or 'content' in the specific
Late Classical, 420-323 bce. After narrative sense." Traditionally the Late
the terrible plague that struck Athens in Classical period ends with the death of
the summer of 430 bce (in which Peri- Alexander the Great in 323 bce and the
cles died) and following the Pelopon- beginning of the Hellenistic era. Some
inesian War (431-404 bce), which historians dispute that division based on
142, classicism/classicist/classicizing

the belief that it recognizes a political to human perfection. (John Constable,

change, not a stylistic one. As yet there 1836)
is no consensus on establishing a new,
or an intermediary, period. Claude,who was born in France, went
to Rome to become a pastry cook. He
classicism/classicist/classicizing found work in the home of the painter
In ART HISTORY these terms suggest the Agostino Tassi, and the die was cast. By
adaptation of techniques, ideas, and at- the 1 630s he had established his own
titudes of GREEK and ROMAN ART, espe- reputation as a landscapist. As did his
cially those based on logical, rational friend and countryman poussin,
principles and deliberate composition. Claude remained an expatriate in Rome
In this context artists of the renais- throughout his life. He was entranced
sance, and later artists like poussin, by the countryside outside the city, the
were "classicists" in their acceptance of Roman campagna. In this environment
and building on classical tradition. he saw the poetry of light, a bucolic
Distinctions are complicated, however, serenity, and the romance of Virgil's po-
by the specifically neoclassical move- etry. In contrast to Poussin, whose land-
ment that began in the i8th century. scapes are formed according to rational
Needless to say, Neoclassical artists like geometric progression, those of Claude
Jacques-Louis david were classicists, are atmospheric and airy, open and
but classicists (or classicizing artists) light. Where Poussin's landscapes were
were not all Neoclassical. preferred by intellectuals, Claude's pa-
trons were from the aristocracy. He in-
Claude glass vented a compositional technique of
A small convex mirror backed with using trees or buildings or even ships to
black or silver is called a Claude glass "frame" the outer edges of the picture,
because the landscape it reflects resem- and a foreground coulisse, or space for
bles those painted by claude lorrain, the viewer to slip in to the picture, so to
and because he is thought to have used speak. In the middle ground there is

such an optical device. The Claude glass likely to be a basinlike body of water, a
suppresses details and simplifies tonal horizon with hills, and heavy atmos-
gradations of color. The convex curve pheric perspective in the background.
creates an indented foreground, called (See also repoussoir) Claude res-

a coulisse, another characteristic of olutely introduced asymmetry, which

Claude's work. Numerous artists, from gave great weight to one side of the
canaletto to COROT, are thought to picture, but he carried off potential
have used a Claude glass. imbalance through a bowl of sky. He
also reduced the human figure to al-
most insignificant dimensions. The pas-
Claude Lorrain (Claude Gellee)
toral mood of Claude's serene, ideal
1 604/5?-! 68 2 • French • painter •
landscapes had great influence on late-
Baroque
1 8th- and early- 19th-century European
Claude Lorrain is a painter who and American painters (see cole)
carried landscape to perfection, that is and came to epitomize the notion of
 CLEMENTE, FRANCESCO I43

the PICTURESQUE. (See also claude lum hoping to help her out of her de-
glass) pression. The work to which he refers is
L'implorant, first modeled in the mid-
1890S and cast in bronze in 1900. It is a
Claudel, Camille kneelingwoman, precariously bent for-
1 864-1943 • French • sculptor • ward, whose arms reach up beseech-
Modern ingly.

At last you were "yourself," totally free

of Rodin's influence. (Eugene Blot,

Clemente, Francesco
1932)
born 1952 • Italian • painter •

At 17 Claudel moved to Paris with her Neo-Expressionist

mother and siblings expressly to study
My overall strategy or view as an artist
sculpture. Because women were not yet
is to accept fragmentation and to see
admitted to the ecole des beaux-arts,
what comes of it— if anything. . . .

she studied with private teachers in a

Technically, this means I do not
studio she and others rented, rodin
arrange the mediums and images I
came in as a substitute teacher, and they
work with in any hierarchy of value.
began a relationship, when he was 43
One is as good as another for me.
and she 19, that lasted 15 years. She
was his collaborator and model as well Clemente's images are ambiguous,
as his lover (though not his only one). overlaid with psychodrama, and widely
He would neither marry her nor treat diverse: In 198 1 he painted two dozen
her as a serious, independent sculptor, 8y4-inch by 6-inch miniatures in the
although her talent and skill were delicate patterned style of Indian il-
prodigious. She worked with him on the luminated MANUSCRIPTS (Francesco
Burghers of Calais (1886) and Gates of Clemente Pinxit), while in 1983 he
Hell ( 1 880-1900), and there was a sim- painted a big, 6y2-foot by 7V4-foot,
ilarity in their approaches until she left distinctly indelicate head with small
him as a declaration of autonomy. heads peering from its eyes, nostrils,
Claudel then changed her subject mat- mouth, and ear (Untitled). These
ter and style, fashioning small figures in choices reflect the openness he ex-
everyday scenes. The odds were too presses in the quotation above. His
much against her success, and sculpting influences and sources are similarly di-
was extremely difficult without major, verse, ranging from the political ac-
state commissions. Her life veered into tivist-artist BEUYS to the self-referential

tragedy as she became paranoid about ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONIST artist TWOM-

Rodin stealing her work, and her family BLY, from Christianity and the Tarot to
became convinced that she should be Egyptian and surrealist art, and from
committed to an asylum. They did so the mystical writings of blake to those
when she was 49, and she spent the final of theorist Roland Barthes (see semi-
three decades of her life there. Blot, otics). Remaining consistent, however,
quoted above, was her friend and agent. are Clemente's insistent self-portrayals
He wrote to her at Montdevergues asy- and his auto- or homoeroticism.
 —

144 CLODION (CLAUDE MICHEL)

Clodion (Claude Michel) sidian, and colored glass are some of the
1 73 8-1 8 14 • French • sculptor • inlays. Cloisonne designs were used to
Rococo form fantastically beautiful falcon,
eagle, vulture, and winged-scarab pen-
Sculptor of the Graces. (Mercure de
dants like those buried with the Egypt-
France, 1779)
ian king Tutankhamen in about 132.5
Clodion's not quite z-foot-high Satyr BCE. Germanic tribes also excelled in
and Bacchante (c. 1780) is an example the art of cloisonne (see animal style).
of the frivolous, erotic, and sensuous in
ROCOCO style. It captures the high pitch Cloisonnism
of the era's self-indulgence, even as it The look of cloisonne led to the appli-
was on the verge of change. Clodion cation of the word "Cloisonnism" to
was influenced by bernini, whose the 19th-century paintings of Bernard,
sculpture he studied during several GAUGUIN, van GOGH, and others. After
years spent in Rome. He was also af- the IMPRESSIONISTS had so rigorously
fected by the paintings of his French banned the idea of outlining forms and
contemporary fragonard. Clodion of drawing (from which outlines are de-
was a virtuoso modeler in both stone rived), those POST-IMPRESSIONISTS re-

and clay — it has been said that he could stored it. "Outline expresses that which
shape marble as if it were malleable is permanent, color that which is mo-
but he is best known for his small mentary," wrote Edouard Dujardin, the
TERRA-COTTA (baked clay) creations critic who coined the term "Cloison-
that were usually displayed on table- nism." "The work of the painter will be
tops or shelves. The assessment of his something like painting by compart-
work quoted above is from a letter writ- ments, analogous to cloisonne." mod-
ten by an Italian visitor to a 1779 exhi- ernism in painting owes a great deal to

bition inwhich Clodion's work was the concept of Cloisonnism, which pre-
shown. His style linked him with the tends no approximation of the natural
Ancien Regime, the monarchy, and world.
aristocracy, but despite being a monar-
chist he managed to adapt to the Revo-
Close, Chuck
lution and subsequently the Empire,
born 1940 • American • painter •
periods during which his work may
Photorealist
have prompted reveries of better times.
. . . / just stopped. Made a clear break.
cloisonne I decided I didn't want to make those
Cloison is French for "partition" or, in paintings anymore; I wanted to do
anatomy and botany, "a dividing mem- something different, to force myself to
brane." Cloisonne is a technique that make new solutions. So, I decided to
uses wire or metal bands fused to a sur- work from photographs, not because
face — like a dividing membrane —to de- that's what I wanted my art to be

fine forms or figures that are then filled about, but because no matter how
with enamel or inlaid with gemstones. interesting a shape was, if it wasn iri 't

Turquoise, lapis lazuli, carnelian, ob- the photograph I couldn 't use 't.
 —

CLOUET, JEAN AND FRANq:OIS I45

In the comment above, Close describes with or refer to the environment in

his switch to head and neck portraits, which they exist. In contrast, sculpture

and to self-portraits, based on pho- such as nike of samothrace (c. 190

tographs in which the subject is looking bce) or bernini's Ecstasy of Saint
straight at the camera. The scale is very Teresa (1645-52), both of which relate
large,about 9 feet high and 7 feet wide, to, depend on, and interact with their

At first Close painted in black and surroundings, are open form, wolf-
white, but he started to use color in flin described closed form as charac-
1970. Even with the switch to color he renaissance (Italian
teristic of the

imposed severe limitations on himself and northern), and open form of

for example, the number of colors he baroque art.

would use — because he found those

confinements creatively liberating. He Clouet, Jean (c. 1485-1541) and
roughed in his images with an air- Francois (c. 1516-1572)
BRUSH before meticulously finishing French • painters • Northern
them. His Self-Portrait (1968) is an ex- Renaissance
ample of how his portraits bring view-
In those days there was Janet, who
ers uncomfortably, even offensively,
painted very good portraits; his
close to faces in which the stubble of
portraits of Francois I and Frangois II
beard is all too clear. In 1988 Close suf-
are at Fontainebleau. He worked . . .

fered a spinal blood clot that left him

equally well in oils and in miniature.
confined to a wheelchair and almost im-
Ronsard spoke favorably of him in his
mobile. As he had earlier set formal re-
poetry. (Felibien, 1679)
strictions for himself and triumphed,
now his limitations were physical. Jean Clouet was listed among the king's
Again he triumphed. Sometimes having artists at fontainebleau in 1516, and
to hold the brush in his teeth, he still it is 1525 portrait of francis I for
a c.

painted enormous portraits based on which he is famous today. The largest

Polaroids and carefully planned on a partof this painting is taken up by Fran-
grid of small squares that are like a tile cis's elaborately decorated and embroi-
mosaic in grays and browns. "A rav- dered, shimmering silk shirt with great
aged artist had become, in a miracle, puffed sleeves; Francis's head appears
one of the great colorists and brush too small in proportion to his splendid
wielders of his time," wrote the critic bodice. This painting is frequently
Roger Angell about Close's 1996 ex- linked to contemporary works of hol-
hibit. BEIN, especially his similarly ostenta-
tious portrait Henry VIII (1536). Jean's
closed form/open form son, Francois, named perhaps in honor
A term most often used for sculpture, of the king, succeeded his father as
this phrase may also be applied to a court painter to Francis I in 1540. No
pamting and architecture. Forms that less attentive to luxuriant detail,

are "closed," like the Greek kouros Francois is best remembered for a per-
and DONATELLo's David (c. 1435), are plexing picture called Diane of Poitiers
self-contained, seeming not to interact at Her Bath (c. 1570). However, every-
146 CLUNY

thing but the name of the artist, who tions along pilgrimage routes. The en-
signed it, is now in question. If not tire international congregation was
Diane, who is the nude woman seated ruled by a single abbot who was head-
decorously in her tub? She may be quartered in Burgundy. Cluny III

Marie Touchet, the mistress of Charles (1088-1130), as the building on the

IX. The mysterious figure is framed by site, the Abbey Church of Cluny, is
drawn, bright red drapes; in the room called, was the largest and most splen-
behind her is a fireplace and one of her did church in Europe. According to leg-
servants with a kettle of water. The end, Saint Peter himself designed the
other servant is nursing an infant while church and presented it to a monk by
a child reaches to pluck a grape from the name of Gunzo, who was respon-
the bowl of fruit on the tray that covers sible for the project. It reflected de-

the tub. Whatever the symbolism and velopments of the first Romanesque
the lady's identity, the painting is full of architecture in France. All but the south
engaging detail. Little is known about transept of Cluny III was destroyed
Francois Clouet, and attributions of after the French Revolution, in the early

his paintings and drawings are prob- 1 800s, and its style and grandeur are
lematic. In fact, after both Jean and known mainly through its plan, archae-
Francois died, they were thought to ology, theoretical reconstruction, and
have been one and the same person, as churches such as the Cathedral at
recorded in the quotation above, and, Autun (c. 1120-30) that were influ-

moreover, regardless of their merit, enced by Cluny. Some sculpture re-

French portraits from 1500 to i6zo maining at Cluny III, such as carved
were assigned to "Janet." It was not capitals (the top, decorative portion of a
until the 19th century that the comte de COLUMN, pier, or pilaster), shows high
Laborde, a historian of French art, re- accomplishment; gislebertus and pos-
discovered and distinguished between sibly the anonymous Master of the
father and son. Church of the Madeleine at Vezelay

( 1 1 20-3 2) learned their craft at Cluny.

Cluny
The Cluniac congregation was founded Cobra (CoBrA)
in 910 in Burgundy, France, and soon In 1948, reacting to the cold rationality

established the first great monastic and geometry of De stijl and con-
reform movement during the Roman- structivism, artists in Copenhagen,
esque period. Members of a branch of Brussels, and Amsterdam united in a

the BENEDICTINE Order, Cluniac monks movement named for their cities:

were known for using the arts to en- CoBrA. Allied in principle with Ameri-
hance the beauty of church services. can abstract expressionism as well
(They, in turn, provoked the reformist, as dubuffet and art brut in France,
more The Cluniac
ascetic Cistercians.) they insisted on free expression and ab-
reform spread to new and existing straction —sometimes figurative, some-
monasteries, and also grew by affilia- times entirely nonobjective. They
tion with or establishment of priories used thick paint and strong, at times
(religious houses), especially at loca- even violent colors. Cobra painters in-
 —

COEUR, JACQUES, HOUSE OF I47

elude Karel Appel (born 1921), whose of text on a single page were the result
apparently nonrepresentative abstrac- of simpleminded imitation, as scrolls
tions seem to coalesce into strange, ani- were composed of columnar text. Now
mated FIGURES and faces. such books with multiple columns, like

the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus— with

codex, codici (pi.) four columns of text per page —and the
Codex refers to a book with bound three-column Utrecht Psalter of c. 830,
pages, in contrast to a scroll, which is are often interpreted as purposeful
Most ancient and
unrolled to be read. rather than naive efforts to imitate older
early medieval literature was on pa- (familiar) forms on the part of the
pyrus scrolls. Papyrus came from scribes who copied them (see scripto-
Egyptian marshes and was becoming rium).
scarce as the Christian era opened. It

was also less durable than parchment Coene, Jacques

(treated animal skin). A form of pagan See BOuciCAUT master
codex using animal skins has been
found from as early as ist-century ce Coeur, Jacques, House of
Rome. A codex made from paper ex- Jacques Coeur (c. 1400-1453) was the
isted in the Christian community by the wealthiest man in France and finan-
2nd century. The first Christians pre- cial minister to King Charles VIII. His
ferred codici to scrolls and paper to house in the city of Bourges, France, is

parchment: Paper was inexpensive an intriguing example of domestic ar-

—
and unpretentious compared to costly
pages made of animal skins and the
early Church was poor and humble.
Moreover, the codex
guished their texts from both pagan
erature and the Jewish Torah, both of
chitectureand a key to understanding
— Northern European sensibility. In con-
trast to the highly symmetrical, logi-
form distin- cally organized architecture of Italy
lit- during the same period, Coeur's house,
between 1443 and 145 1, has win-
built

which were on scrolls. After Constan-
tine institutionalized Christianity in the
4th century, the codex was standard-
ized, but parchment became preferred.
Besides its durability, this preference
was possibly based on the very reasons
parchment had earlier been rejected
expense and its connection to pagan-
ism: Wealthy, aristocratic pagans
prime candidates for conversion to
Christianity, and religious texts
frequently used to proselytize.
process of copying texts from papyrus
roll to parchment codex began under
Constantine. Until recently, it
lieved that codices with several
dows and rooms of different sizes and
shapes appropriate to their functions
rather than to any prerequisite for bal-
ance and harmony. Richly carved deco-
ration and detailing sometimes plays on
the owner's name, which translated
from the French means "heart." There
are numerous stairways, narrow halls
were with unexpected turns, and surprising
effects of changing space and light.
were Marvelous illusions are created on the
The building's facade where what appear to
be windows with figures leaning out of
them are actually sculpted stone por-
was be- traits —
either of servants or of Coeur
columns and his wife. Originally these were
148 COLE, THOMAS

painted to resemble reality even more taste. He located his studio there and
closely. Coeur's brilliant career was as immersed himself in and painted its

unpredictable as his house: He was spectacularly beautiful views, thus es-

falsely accused of poisoning the king's what would be named the
tablishing
mistress and imprisoned. After his re- HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL. Nature was
lease he became a religious crusader, symbolic as well as inspiring for Cole:
and died defending Constantinople Details like the "blasted" tree (de-
against Turkish forces. stroyed by natural causes such as light-
ning) could represent a life cut short; a
Cole, Thomas sawed tree represented the incursion of

1801-1848 • American • painter • civilization in the wilderness; and a

Romantic/Hudson River School gnarled tree or rock formation could be
seen as one of America's natural antiq-
I never succeed in painting scenes,
uities. True to the romantic notion of
however beautiful, immediately on
inspired genius, he often painted in the
returning from them. I must wait for
landscape the small figure of a pensive
time to draw a veil over the common
was a close friend and hiking
poet. Cole
details, the unessential parts which
companion of William Cullen Bryant
shall leave the great features, whether
(
1 794-1 878), America's leading nature
the beautiful or the sublime, dominant
poet, who wrote Thanatopsis (1817).
in the mind.
Self-taught and an avid American
American landscape painting during the patriot — there was new resistance to
19th century was inspired by conflict- European influence — Cole neverthe-
ing drives. One was the doctrine of less believed he must take the European
Manifest Destiny, which proclaimed GRAND TOUR, which he did in 1829.
the white American's divine mandate to After three years he returned home even
claim the "wilderness" for "progress," more persuaded of his adopted coun-
whether or not it was already inhabited. try's natural and moral superiority — di-

The other looked at the land already dacticism infused his work. The Course
claimed by industrialization with mel- of Empire (1836) is a sequence of five

ancholic nostalgia. On each side of the pictures that James Fenimore Cooper
dichotomy, attention was directed at called "the work of the highest genius
what seemed unique, important, and this country has ever produced." In
"American" about the American land- this allegory for the cyclical stages
scape. Thomas Cole was not the first through which a civilization passes,
painter of the American land —he was Cole painted Savage, Pastoral, the Con-
preceded by, for example, Alvan Fisher summation of Empire, Destruction,
(1792-1862) and Thomas Doughty and Desolation. Whether a caveat to
(
1 793-1 856) — but he was the most the new nation, documentation of the
outstanding of its early interpreters. inevitable, or a political commentary on
Born in England, Cole came to America the Jacksonian era, the content of the
with his parents in 18 18. He found the message is debated by scholars. So are
drama of the Hudson River region, and the scenes in a later, four-painting se-
especially the Catskill Mountains, to his ries, The Voyage of Life (1842). Here he
 COLLECTING I49

metaphorically follows the stages from ber of art and marvels" — or, as com-
joyful birth, to hopeful youth, to tor- monly called in English, cabinet of cu-
mented manhood, to, finally, death and riosities. These contained a mix of
own "voyage" ended
salvation. Cole's knickknacks as well as classical
prematurely when he died of an "in- sculpture and treasures from nature
flammation of the lungs" lo days after (e.g., beautiful or unusual stones and
his 47th birthday. shells). Means of collecting have ranged
from looting and the spoils of war to
collage buying the treasures of a deposed
From the French for "pasting or glu- monarch: When Charles I was be-
ing," a collage is a composition made headed, in 1 649, his collection of paint-
by affixing various materials to a flat ings was disposed of in what has been
surface. As a novel technique for studio called the "Sale of the Century." te-
art was pioneered by picasso,
it niers, court Archduke
painter to
BRAQUE, and GRis, who began to make Leopold Wilhelm, documented his pa-
mixed-media collages in 19 12. They tron's collection with a type of painting
combined pieces of newspaper and known as the cabinet picture: In The
other preprinted patterns on their can- Gallery of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm
vases to produce various textures, (1651), one of II such representations,
forms, and images. The idea evolved in Teniers recorded the archduke's paint-
several ways, from photomontage to ings in minute detail. Several had been
inventions in three-dimensional art, es- bought from the estate of Charles I,

pecially CONSTRUCTIONS and ASSEM- mentioned above. Most museums state

BLAGES. These works boldly defied and their goals in terms of "collecting, pre-

ultimately revolutionized centuries-old serving, and educating," so that, even if

conventions that defined art. they have space to show only a fraction
of their holdings, they continue to
collecting collect. Selling works of art — de-
Research on and documentation of col- accessioning — is problematic for muse-
lecting are increasingly important to ums, as the ethics of disposing of works
studies of art history, patronage and of art are complex. Selling is usually al-

collecting constitute one approach, and lowed only in order to exchange one
the development of museums is an- work for another that is more appropri-
other. In ancient times etruscans col- ate to the overall collection. Selling
lected Greek vases (see pottery), and from the collection to raise money is

Romans both and copied

collected frowned on. That the culture of collect-
Greek sculpture. Charlemagne pre- ing has its own history is recognized
served Latin poetry and prose (see car- in a number of books on the subject.
olingian). The activities of collecting Francis Haskell has written on both pa-
; in any century determine what remains tronage and collecting. The Origins of
} available to future generations. From Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities
the mid-15 50s, princely collections de- in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth -Century

veloped in Europe with the fabled Europe, edited by O. Impey and A.

Kunst- und Wunderkammer — "cham- MacGregor, 1985, is another source of
150 COLONIAL STYLE

information. The Journal of the History measure of its visual strength, or bright-
of Collections keeps up-to-date with re- ness. Chromatic painting concerns the
search on the subject. juxtaposition of intense colors.
While the application of color, or
Colonial Style pigment, to works of art certainly de-
In American art history, this term pends on the medium, or binder, that
broadly refers to style before the Revo- carries it (from water to wax, oil to

lutionary War (1776-83). was gen-

It pixel), the choice of color, or artist's
erally eclectic and dependent on PALETTE, is usually characteristic of the
European precedents. Much of this art historic period in which he or she
was anonymous, and in painting was al- paints. Color in medieval art was of
most exclusively made up of portrai- supreme importance, its jewel-like pu-
ture. rity considered a reflection of Paradise.
During the ITALIAN renaissance, the
color emphasis began to change and drawing
The eye's perception of color depends came to be valued more highly than col-
on the light emitted, or reflected, by an oring — a judgment articulated in the
object. Local color refers to the actual, mid- 1 6th century by vasari, who
intrinsic color of something as it would placed the art of Florence higher than
be seen in daylight against a neutral that of its rival, Venice, where the vi-

background; that is, local color does sual effects of color and light were
not reflect ambient light or other colors. strong. Vasari's point of view, though
(For example, the local color of snow is challenged, gained strength and pre-
white, although it may look pink at sun- vailed. The battle was joined when the
set.) In pigment is the insolu-
painting, French Academy debated the issue in

ble substance, mixed with a binder, 167 1, and though its official position
used to give the paint its color, or was to give them equal weight, its unof-
"hue." The variables of color are: ficial position favored drawing. Backed
hue — This refers to the perceived up by Platonic theory, the academic po-
color of an object —for example, red or sition held that whereas color was mun-
yellow. dane, relating to the world of emotion,
value— A relative term, value repre- drawing was spiritual and a skill of the
sents a position on the scale between intellect. Because to their respective ad-
white (the highest) and black (the low- mirers RUBENS represented the camp
est). A color such as tan, for example, that favored color and poussin that of
has a higher or lighter value than a line, the dispute was phrased as the
brown, which is darker and closer to Rubenistes vs. the Poussinistes, or,

black. When the average value in a sometimes, the Moderns vs. the An-
painting is closest to white, its "key" is cients (see LINE vs. color). This back
highest; moving closer to black, its key and forth took a new turn during the
lowers. 19th century, when impressionism
intensity (also called saturation and and neo-impressionism set to examin-
chroma) — Also a relative term, inten- ing the properties of light and color and
sity refers to the purity of a pigment, a FAUVE painters broke all rules relating
 COLOSSEUM 151

to color. A multitude of theoretical ex- works are meant to be experienced at

plorations of color ranges from those of close range so that they surround the
ARCIMBOLDO in the 1 6th century to viewer in a color environment, rothko
those of ALBERS in the 20th. and newman are among the Color Field
Recently, the quarrel over "refresh- painters. Other Abstract Expressionists
ing" Renaissance art, what the histo- (e.g., Jackson pollock and de koon-
rian Marcia Hall calls the "Cleaning ing) similarly absorb the viewer's entire
Controversy," prompted emotion al- field of vision; however, their canvases
most as shrill as that piqued by Vasari. are meant to convey the process of artis-
After centuries of believing that Italian tic creation (see action painting). Evi-
Renaissance color in painting, espe- dence of the artist's hand, or the process
cially that of Michelangelo, was re- of making the art, is underplayed in
strained by discretion, washing the dirt Color Field Painting, and works such in

off the walls of the Sistine Chapel re- as those of frankenthaler and louis,
vealed that it was, rather, submerged who stained their canvases instead of
beneath centuries of accumulated using a brush, the artist's touch is virtu-
grime. The sometimes boisterous colors ally removed. Later Color Field painters
of the great Italian masters were dif- (e.g., Ellsworth kelly) fit into the cate-
ficult for some art historians to accept, gory of hard edge painting.
"Knowing little about Renaissance
color technique and palette, and reared Colosseum
on images that were sedately obscured, Nothing expresses the grandeur and in-

they were suddenly confronted with a genuity of ancient Rome as well as

brilliance in the color, and what had its public architecture, and nothing
been beloved and familiar images now displays those qualities better than the
seemed both strident and indecorous," Colosseum. If, as the saying pro-
writes Hall. While cleaning may restore claimed, "All roads lead to Rome,"
some parts of old paintings to their once there, the Colosseum was the em-
original appearance, nothing can be bodiment of the Empire. It may have
done to reverse other ravages of time, been named for a colossal bronze statue
such as the damage to top layers of of the emperor Nero as god of the Sun
paint on duccio's Maesta (i 308-11), that was removed under Hadrian's rule
which gives the flesh color a greenish by 24 elephants, or for the size of the
tint, or the common occurrence of the theater itself (some 615 feet long, 510
darkening of color, especially the feet wide, and 160 feet high), or for
browning of green. both. The Colosseum was dedicated by
Titus in 80 CE. Jewish prisoners of the
Color Field Painting Judean War had been employed for its

Initially part of abstract expression- construction (see arch of titus). The

ISM, Color Field painters covered a can- exterior facade is notable for its use of
vas to its edges with large fields of color, the three Greek column orders flank-
intimating that the painting would, or ing rows of ARcnes: Doric on the
could, continue beyond the edges to in- ground floor, Ionic in the middle and
finity. Despite their large size, these Corinthian on top. The masonry blocks
152. COLUMN

were originally fastened together with ing to convention, the structural col-
iron tenons; these were torn out and umn derives from the trunk of a tree;
used for making weapons during the however, the peripteral Greek temple
MEDIEVAL period. Some 80 numbered has also been imagined by the archi-
entry arches led, through passages, into tectural historian scully as surrounded
the oval amphitheater — so enormous and supported by a procession of sol-
that for opening celebrations it could be diers. Greek columns were usually built

flooded to stage a full-fledged naval up in sections, called drums. These were

battle. Other lavish festivities included fastened with metal pins soldered in
chariot races, gladiatorial battles, and place. ROMAN columns, in contrast,

Christian martyrdom. An estimated were usually monoliths, with separate

50,000 spectators could be entertained. capitals and bases. Column styles seem
During the early 19th century, a British distinct according to time and place, yet

botanist noted curious and rare vari- are also interrelated. For example, the
eties of flora in the Colosseum ruins. He Greek Doric capital resembles those of
theorized that they grew from ancient minoan times. Capitals are the col-
seeds spread by feed that had been im- umn's clearest identifying characteris-
ported for the exotic animals brought in tic: Lotus-, papyrus-, and palm-like
some 1,800 years earlier — ostriches, designs capped Egyptian columns; an-
crocodiles, elephants, boars, bison, hip- cient Persian palaces had bull heads; sa-

popotamuses, bears, leopards, tigers, cred, freestanding columns erected by

and lions — all slaughtered at an unbe- the 3rd-century bce Indian emperor
lievable rate. (Titus had 5,000 animals Asoka had four lions back-to-back. A
killed in a single day.) Excavations BYZANTINE innovation was complexly
begun 1850 revealed a vast under-
in ornamented carvings not only on capi-
ground network of dens, passages, tals but also on impost blocks just

ramps, and even elevators to lift below them. Romanesque capitals

large animals into the arena, and often bore miniature monsters or nar-
showed that the botanist's conjectures rative scenes (known as "historiated"
were true. capitals). Column shafts are equally in-
ventive; some are clustered; some, usu-
column ally less than the entire circumference of
A vertical pillar or shaft usually em- a pillar, are attached or engaged with
ployed to support a horizontal element, the wall; and others —the most famous
but also purely decorative or commem- of which support the baldacchino of
orative (see COLUMN of trajan). A row Saint Peter's in Rome (designed by
of columns is a colonnade; peristyle in- bernini) — are fashioned to appear
dicates that the colonnade surrounds ei- twisted. Innovation included using
ther a building or courtyard; peripteral kore figures (caryatids) as the column
describes a building surrounded by a shaft.The Romanesque trumeau, a
colonnade. A decorative, shallow pro- columnlike support that divides two
jection that resembles a column but is openings, usually of a cathedral portal,
non-load-bearing is a pilaster. Accord- reached great complexity with writh-
 COLUMN OF TRAJAN I53

ing, entwined figures. A building's styl- c. 450 BCE, to use a Corinthian column,
istic allegiance is most often reflected in initially for a temple interior. The acan-
the type of column used. thus leaves of the Corinthian capital are
supposed to have been inspired by
column orders plants growing on the grave of a
Refers specifically to variations in Corinthian maiden, an idea that also
Greek architecture related to a build- comes from Vitruvius. Corinthian
ing's COLUMNS. The orders include the columns were used with architectural
base, shaft, and capital of the column, detailing that generally accompanied
along with the entablature it supports, the Ionic order.
consisting of architrave, frieze, and cor-
nice. Of the five well-known examples, Column of Trajan
all but the Tuscan have fluted shafts. The emperor Trajan ruled from 98 to
Each order has its distinctive capital. 117 CE, during which time he built the

The Tuscan, with its Doric capital, is last and greatest of the Roman forums.
the simplest column and is said to be It was dominated by a huge basilica, at

derived from the etruscan temple. the back of which, between two library
Named for its origin on the Dorian buildings (one for Greek books, the
mainland, the massive, severely simple other for Latin), stood the commemora-
Doric column was, according to vitru- tive marble column, iz8 feet high, built

vius, based on male proportions. Its en- in 113 CE, perhaps the work of Trajan's
tasis, a slight bulge along its shaft, was military engineer/architect Apollodoros
described as "muscular." Doric of Damascus. The base served as the em-
columns had plain capitals; their peror's mausoleum and his statue origi-
friezes, just under the pediment, were nally stood on top (the statue was lost in
divided into alternating panels of the Middle Ages and replaced by one of
triglyphs {tri, meaning "three"; glyphs, Saint Peter in the i6th century). Inside
meaning "carved grooves") and the column is a staircase, lighted by 43
metopes, which were usually bas-relief small windows. During Trajan's reign
(see relief) scenes from mythology. the empire reached its farthest bound-
From Ionia, which also influenced the aries, and the relief carving encircling
robes on archaic korai
seen (see the column commemorates his two Da-
kore), the Ionic column seemed rela- cian campaigns that expanded the em-
tively feminine: taller, slimmer, and pire into Hungary and Rumania. More
more refined. The coil of its capital has than 2,500 figures populate some 155
been related alternately to a palm tree, episodes, presented chronologically in a
a ram's horn, and fern fiddleheads. narrative sequence that grows larger
Above the Ionic capital is a running in width (but remains low in relief) to

frieze that was often sculpted, ictinos retain legibility as it mounts higher. The
was combine the
the first architect to uppermost scenes were best appreciated
two orders, using the Ionic column and from the tops of the no longer extant
frieze for the interior of a Doric tem- two-story libraries. This winding record
ple. He may also have been the first, in of history emphasized Roman feats of
154 COMPUTER GRAPHICS

engineering and architecture as much as computer graphics

mihtary prowess, consistent with impe- See PRINTING
rial propagandistic braggadocio. The
pictures were probably once painted, Conceptual art
and certain details, such as armor, were Conceptual art followed minimal art
enhanced by metal. Moreover, the ori- later in the 1960s. In making Concep-
entation of figures — their gazes, ges- tual art, the artist is concerned with an
tures, movement, and actions —was idea, not an object: "The world is full of
consistent with the actual directions of objects, more or do
less interesting; I

places and events: Facing forward re- not wish to add any more," commented
flected going in the direction of Dacia, the Conceptual artist Douglas Heubler
or downstream on the Danube. Gener- in 1969. In one sense it is antimaterial-

ally accepted as the most extensive nar- ist and anticonsumerism. From another
rative work of art from the ancient point of view it is an entirely intellectual

world, because of its upward spiraling, pursuit, disassociated from notions of

increasingly distant story line, and de- craftsmanship, kosuth said,"The art

spite the sculptural adjustments men- I call conceptual is . . . based on . . . the

tioned above, the narrative's continuity understanding of the linguistic nature
is difficult for an individual to follow. of all art propositions." Sol lewitt,
But as Richard Brilliant has demon- also working in the conceptual mode,
strated, the artist "converted the narra- often presents ideas for others to exe-
tive into a double system of sets, one cute in what is designed to be a tempo-
proceeding along the helix, the other, as rary mural, and acconci explored his

a paranarrative, set at vertical intervals relationship with others as his concep-

in tableau form." These tableaux acted tual endeavor.

like chapter headings, repeating certain

figures of Trajan, the protagonist, as Concrete art
both anchor and heroic icon. "The Col- In 1930 van doesburg proposed the
umn of Trajan," Brilliant writes, "can term "concrete art" as a more accurate
legitimately assert its claim as the classic description for abstract or nonob-
example of Roman narrative art; incor- JECTIVE art because, he pointed out,
porating elements of narration that of- abstracting implies removing. "Con-
fered immediate as well as extended cretion signifies the natural process of
gratification, it is coherent in detail and condensation, hardening, coagulating,
in its thematic formulations, all gov- thickening, growing together. . . . Con-
erned by a heroic central character who cretion is something that has grown."
never disappears from view or from the ARP was among the few artists who
consciousness of viewers." The Column adapted van Doesburg's term at the

of Trajan inspired many later monu- time. In 1947 it was revived in Paris and
ments, among them the 11th-century in the work of albers, who had moved
bronze column commissioned by bern- to the United States and exhibited regu-
WARD to narrate the life of Christ, and larly with the American Abstract Artists
Napoleon's column in the Place Ven- group as well as with abstraction-
dome. creation in Paris.
 CONSTABLE, JOHN I55

Condivi, Ascanio in 189Z the consummate connoisseur,

1 525-1 574 • Italian • MORELLi, wrote, "It has been said, sar-
painter/Michelangelo's biographer • castically, that the art connoisseur is

Renaissance distinguished from the art historian by

knowing something about the art of
From the hour in which the Lord
the past. If he happens to be of the bet-
God by His singular beneficence
ter sort he abstains from writing on
made me worthy not merely of the
the subject. On the other hand, the
presence (which I would hardly have
art historian, although writing much
hoped to enter), but of the love,
upon art, really knows nothing about
the conversation, and the close
it; whilst the painters who boast of
companionship of Michelangelo
their technical knowledge are neither
Buonarroti, the unique sculptor and
competent critics nor competent his-
painter, I . . . applied myself with all
torians." Connoisseurship's other re-
attention and study to the observation
nowned practitioners, berenson and
and collection not only of the precepts
DUVEEN, used their skills to authenti-
he imparted to me about art, but of his
cate works of art, not only distinguish-
sayings, actions, and habits, together
ing them from counterfeit, but also
with everything in his whole life which
establishing "authorship," period,
seemed to me to warrant wonder or
style, and those details that depend on
imitation or praise.
visual familiarity and depth of knowl-
Condivi was a student of Michel- edge. However, they also greatly dis-
angelo. Although his artistic achieve- credited esteem for connoisseurship by
ments are negligible, his Life of combining it with commerce. While
Michelangelo (1553), quoted from pure connoisseurship is now down-
above, was reputedly dictated to him by played in art historical studies, it still

the master himself in an effort to correct has a significant role, especially in com-
errors in the first edition of vasari's bination with scientific methods of re-
Lives (1550). One example is Vasari's search.The ongoing reattribution of
statement that the slaves Michelangelo works by rembrandt is a foremost ex-
carved for the tomb of Julius II repre- ample.
sented the provinces captured by the
pope. Condivi called them the Liberal Constable, John
Arts captive at the pope's death —a sig- 1 776-1 83 7 • English • painter •
nificantly different metaphor. In his sec- Romantic
ond edition (1568) Vasari tried to meld
Painting is a science and should be
both ideas, but the importance derived
pursued as an inquiry into the laws of
from the contrast throws light on
nature. Why, then, may not landscape
Michelangelo as the shaper of his own
be considered as a branch of natural
image for posterity.
philosophy, of which pictures are but
experiments?
connoisseurship
A connoisseur, in its original French When he was 26 Constable made a mo-
meaning, is one who knows. However, mentous decision to devote himself to
156 CONSTRUCTIVISM

painting. He wished to concentrate on ference, into elements such as storms

what he called "natural painture," by and ruins.

which he meant the "pure and unaf-

fected" portrayal of the English coun- Constructivism
tryside. He worked outdoors, sketching A revolutionary concept for sculptural
in OIL, to capture the immediacy of a forms. Constructivism intended to sup-
scene. The Haywain (i 821), his famous plant the long tradition of works that
rural idyll, exemplifies his desire to were carved (subtractive), modeled (ad-

show both a distinctive place and a par- ditive), and cast (see bronze) in favor

ticular time; the title he originally gave of those that are constructed, as the
thework was Landscape: Noon. "No word implies. Based on picasso's ex-
two days are alike, not even two hours; periments, Constructivist ideas found a
neither were there ever any two leaves foothold in where the old
Russia,
alike since the creation of the world," RENAISSANCE traditions were less en-
he said. His "scientific" observations trenched and the social revolution
included sketches of cloud formations, under way at the time mandated
and he studied the effect of light and at- nonelitist forms, tatlin is credited with
mosphere on the sky as well as the designing the first totally abstract,
countryside. After his wife died, in nonrepresentative Constructivist sculp-
1828, Constable's work became more ture. Constructivists split over their in-

turbulent. The oil sketch Hadleigh Cas- terpretations of the nature and purpose
tle (1828-29) is of a ruined castle by the of art. Some, like Tatlin, popova, and
sea; it expresses disaster and desolation rodchenko, embraced the Russian
in subject, mood, and technique. Con- Revolution's rejection of useless art in
stable used a palette knife to apply favor of practical, easily understood,
the paint, and the surface is flecked socially useful "Productivist" works.
with white daubs, called "Constable's Others (e.g., gabo) were interested in
snow," that further agitate appearance the principles of Constructivism but re-
and affect. Constable conceded both his jected its rigid utilitarian, anti-

own melancholy — "How for some wise spiritual/intellectual mandate. Artists

purpose is every bit of sunshine clouded committed to the latter camp left Rus-
over in me" — and the consolation sia, for most part. The pros and cons
the
painting brought: "My canvas soothes of the Constructivist factions were ar-
me into forgetfulness of the scene of tur- gued in numerous manifestos. (The
moil and folly and worse." Constable labels "Constructivism" and suprema-
concentrated on rural scenes of farming TiSM were sometimes interchanged.)
during a period when the Industrial Outside of Russia, Constructivist ideas
Revolution was actually wreaking had enduring influence, and many per-
havoc on the landscape and on the lives mutations in Europe and America, es-

of country people. This was especially pecially through the bauhaus. In the
true in his native Suffolk. While he ac- 1980s, a group of avant-garde archi-
knowledged those troubles in writing, tectsembraced the idea of combining
no overt sign of them appears on the Constructivism and deconstruction
—
canvas unless one reads them, by in- in a movement they named Deconstruc-
 CONTINUOUS narrative/continuous REPRESENTATION 1 57

tivism — based on the idea of disassem- (i 5 1 2/1 3-1 5), now in a museum, is hy-
bling MODERN architecture and then re- pothetically relocated in its original
assembhng it in new ways. Rarely built, monastery, where victims of a skin dis-

these experimental concepts are pur- ease were cared for, thus expanding the
posefully disorienting. significance of Christ's ravaged flesh. In
the words of the historian Brunilde Sis-

Conte crayon mondo Ridgway, "An object out of its

Crayon is French for "pencil" and this context can only be appreciated on aes-
type of "pencil" was named after a thetic grounds, for its visual appear-
French painter who was an inventor of someone beautiful whom we
ance, like
almost mythical genius, Nicolas- admire from a distance, without ever
Jacques Conte (175 5-1 805). The Conte speaking to or getting to know. After a
crayon, patented in 1795, was origi- while the exercise seems futile and plea-

nally made from a mixture of graphite sure pales by comparison with intelli-
and clay, seurat used the Conte crayon gent and lively conversation with a less

along with chalk to achieve the gloomy physically attractive but more articulate

mood of twilight snowy day in his

on a companion. Any artifact acquires
black-and-white drawing Place de la beauty and importance as a representa-
Concorde, Winter (c. 1882-83). Today tive of the culture that produced it."

the term "Conte" is a trade name for Literature, agricultural and/or techno-
synthetic chalks. logical developments, and psychology
are some resources. Arnold Hauser's
context (contextualization) Social History of Art (1951) and, by
To study art "in context" is to examine way of contrast, Meyer schapiro's psy-
its existence in relation to pertinent in- choanalytic The Apples of Cezanne: An
formation outside the work of art it- Essay on the Meaning of Still-Life
self. Where formalist studies remove (1968) are each contextual but in very
the work of art from external circum- different ways, patronage is a contex-
stances, contextual studies return it. tual consideration in The Taste of An-
Contextual approaches include exam- gels (1948) by Francis Henry Taylor, a
ining the historic period in which it was past director of the Metropolitan Mu-
created, the written text it may have il- seum of Art. He examines the influence

lustrated or to which it refers, and of patrons since the ancient Egyptians.

artists on whom and works on which it Patronage is also the topic of Francis
depends for models or inspiration. Haskell's Patrons and Painters: Art and
MARXISM is a contextual approach from Society in Baroque Italy (1980).
a socioeconomic point of view. Works
that have been removed from their orig- continuous narrative/continuous
inal locations were, in the past, studied representation
without reference to their intended sur- Describes illustrations in which more
roundings or environment. Contextual than one episode in a story appear
studies imaginatively, if not physically, within a single image and with the same
"recontextualize" them. For example, background. For example, on one page
grunewald's Isenheim Altarpiece of the early-6th-century Vienna Gene-
158 CONTRAPPOSTO

sis, Rebecca is seen both en route to the plicit in the idea that the individual
well and, having drawn the water, giv- Greek male citizen could shape his own
ing it to Eliezer and his camels. Nearly destiny and that of the state. During the
1,000 years later, continuous narra- ITALIAN renaissance, when the Classi-
tive is seen when Saint Peter appears cal world was enthusiastically rediscov-
three times in masaccio's The Trib- ered, artists took contrapposto to
ute Money (c. 1427): In the center of extravagant limits, as seen in the exag-
Masaccio's picture, Christ tells Peter he gerated torsion of Michelangelo's
will find a coin in a fish's mouth, at left Dying Slave {i$i^-i6).
Peter takes the coin from the fish, and
at right Peter gives the coin to the tax conversation piece
collector. (See also narrative/nar- This secular version of the popular re-
ratology) naissance typeconver- (sacra
sazione), in which two or more people
contrapposto converse, in- or out-of-doors, was espe-
Refers to pivoting of the body, no mat- cially popular in Britain during the 1 8th
ter how slight, around the central axis century. Gainsborough is the best-
of the spine. In contrast to the rigid, known painter of conversation pieces.
stiff-legged frontality of ancient
Egyptian and Mesopotamian stone Copley, John Singleton
figures and of the Greek kouros, 5th- 1738-18 1 5 • American • painter •

century bce Greece witnessed a stun- Colonial

ning advance exemplified by Kritios
. . . the people generally regard
Boy (480-470 bce), our first historic
[painting] no more than any other
example of contrapposto in sculpture.
useful trade, as they sometimes term it,
The subtle shift of weight to one leg,
like that of a Carpenter tailor or shew
angle of the hips, turn of the head, and
[sic] maker, not as one of the most
consequent relaxation reveal under-
noble Arts in the World.
standing of the muscular and skeletal
form and a momentous new natural- Copley's Irish parents immigrated to
ism that has the effect of giving life to America in the mid-i730s, and he was
stone. With this understanding, the born in Boston. His father died in the

Greek sculptor could advance to show- mid-i740s, and in 1748 his mother
ing the body in motion with anatomical remarried. Copley's stepfather, Peter
fidelity. Kritios Boy is dated at the bor- Pelham (1 697-1751), was a skilled en-

derline dividing the archaic and clas- graver who specialized in the difficult
sical periods, the beginning of an era medium of the mezzotint. Copley was
sometimes known as the Greek Mira- instructed by Pelham until his stepfa-
cle: after the birth of democracy in 510 ther died, in 175 1. The rest of Copley's
bce and subsequent Greek victories education in art came from studying
over the Persians. Thus, the unprece- the paintings of smibert, feke, and
dented liberation embodied in the artis- BLACKBURN and from reading books on
tic realization of contrapposto may be English, French, and Italian art. He be-
linked to the unparalleled freedom im- came a successful portraitist among
 COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON I59

Boston's merchant and professional in the World" if he went to study in Eu-

elite: A portrait by Copley became an rope "before [his] Manner and Taste
emblem and affirmation of an individ- were corrupted or fixed by working in

ual's success. The historian Paul Statie [his] little way at Boston." Copley
writes, "Copley's unmatched success as wrote to WEST in 1770, "I am desiore-
a producer in a culture of consumption ous of avoideing every imputation of
was built upon his ability to sell dream party spir[it], Political contests being
material that told consumers in visual neighther pleasing to an artist or advan-
terms what it was possible for them to tageous to the art itself."Copley's wife
believe about themselves. . . . [He] was the daughter of a Tory merchant
helped the elite define who they were, who was a principal agent for the
for both themselves and others." Seem- British East India Company, and in
ingly unable to paint the human form 1774, an angry mob threatened Copley
with any sense of true anatomy, Copley and his family for allegedly harboring a
painted the stuff of the colonial Ameri- Tory. Copley left for England on the eve
can's material life —the silks and satins, of the American Revolution. Two years
brocades and laces, embroidery and earlier Copley had painted the revolu-
gold braid —with a sheen, elegance, and tionary Samuel Adams (1770-72); the
opulence more dazzling than the real historian Carol Troyen writes, "For
thing. He fashioned himself as an aris- Copley . . . Adams was a stirring history
tocrat, and at the same time saw his pa- painting in the guise of a portrait." Ear-
trons as Philistines, as suggested by the lier still he had painted Paul Revere
quotation above from a letter he wrote (1768). The circumstances of the Re-
in 1767. Nevertheless, Copley achieved vere commission are unknown, but
great intimacy and direct rapport with some scholars read a political statement
his sitters. But he wished to acquire an in Copley's portrait of the thoughtful
English style, so he corresponded with silversmith, especially considering Re-
artists in London and sent them his vere's participation in Revolution-
most highly accomplished work, Boy ary politics and the anti-British symbol-
with a Squirrel (Henry Felhatn) (1765). ism of the teapot that Revere holds in
This is a picture of his half brother his hand: The despised British Town-
seated at a table with a tiny squirrel on shend Acts of 1767 had imposed duties
a gold chain and a glass of water on certain English goods entering
nearby. It is an extravagant show of America, including the East India Com-
texture and reflections, from polished pany's tea. However veiled his politics,

wood and water to pink satin collar and though, Copley's artistic ambition was
hght gold vest. The links in the chain, clear — he sailed for England in June
and even the hairs on the boy's head, 1774. He continued to receive portrait
might be counted one by one. Copley commissions and painted several his-
has also painted the fresh sweetness of tory PAINTINGS. His most notable
youth and an appealing little flying work from England is Watson and the
squirrel. In return he received the now Shark (1778), an unusual scene docu-
infamous opinion of Reynolds that he menting an actual accident off the coast
could become "one of the first Painters of Cuba in which the young Watson's
l6o COPTIC ART

leg was bitten off by a shark. The pic- carded materials (such as schwitters
ture caused a popular sensation when it used) in combinations that are inexplic-
was exhibited in London. Copley never able through any connection other than
returned home. the imagination. Untitled (The Hotel
Eden) (1945), for example, is an assem-
Coptic art blage that contains a bird, tattered pa-
"Coptic" means native of Egypt but in pers with writing, a coil, a ball, and
current usage it signifies Christian- other items inside a painted box some
Egyptian. As in other parts of the 15 by 15 inches square and almost 5

Roman Empire, Christianity was estab- inches deep.

lished in Egypt,and by 553 CE the last
bastion of the ancient pagan faith, a Cornish Art Colony
temple to Isison the island of Philae, A group of more than 70 artists, play-

was closed. Egypt came under Byzan- wrights, architects, landscape design-
tine influence, but disputes with the ers, writers, actors, and patrons of the
Orthodox Church led to establishment arts who lived and worked in Cornish,
of the independent national Coptic New Hampshire, during the late 19th
Church. Coptic art could be more deco- and early 20th centuries. Members in-

rative than illustrative; it was a distinc- cluded saint-gaudens, the dewings,

tive blend, combining ancient local and cox in addition to playwrights such
traditions of Egypt (e.g., frontality) as Percy MacKaye and the performers
with later Greco-Roman influences. Isadora Duncan and Ethel Barrymore.
It is characterized by an abstract, for- For three years Cornish even served as
mal style with strong outline drawing the site of Woodrow Wilson's summer
and clear brilliant color. (See sub- White House.
antique)
Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille
Cornell, Joseph 1 796-1 875 • French • painter •

1903-1972 • American • sculptor • Naturalist

Modern/Surrealist
Be guided by feeling alone. We are
/do not share in the subconscious and only simple mortals, subject to error;
dream theories of the surrealists. so listen to the advice of others, but
follow only what you understand and
According to the comment quoted
can unite in your own feeling. Be firm,
above, Cornell did not subscribe to the
be meek, but follow your own
processes used by surrealists, but
convictions.
his work was exhibited with theirs
and clearly demonstrates their influ- Corot was the central figure in the
ence. Fitting small, found objects into development of French 19th-century
shadow boxes, Cornell created strange, landscape painting. With Theodore
evocative circumstances —not scenes as ROUSSEAU, Corot came increasingly to
such, but configurations that prompt be associated with outdoor or plein air
stories in the mind of the viewer. His painting. Early in his career Corot trav-

materials include souvenirs and dis- eled widely throughout Europe, includ-
 .

CORREGGIO (ANTONIO ALLEGRi) l6l

ing three visits to Italy. He taught two Correggio (Antonio Allegri)

generations of painters, hved to the age c. 1489-1534 • Italian • painter •
of 80, and was extremely prolific. His late Renaissance/proto-Baroque
productivity plus his popularity led to a
andJill
.

, , r r ^t fs impossible to describe the delicate

multitude or rorgeries the joke that ,
, ,

„ J J , . .
f vivacity which characterizes the works
Corot had pamted 3,000 pictures, or ,
^ ^
.
^ . . •
T T 0/ Antonio da Correggio.
,
He ,

depicted
,

He began ...
, , 1
which 6,000 were in America.
, , , , . . , hair in a manner unknown before . .

to paint the landscape during a period

when
,

It was still
.,, 1111
ranked below HISTORY
soft and doiuny, the separate hairs
,. , , , , , r ,,
„ , . polished so that they seemed of gold
PAINTING in France (see academy).
and more
/ ',
. - . , .
,
beautiful than natural ones.
However, an interest in the countryside,
,
J , , which were surpassed by his coloring.
weather, and other natural
,

phenomena ,.. , t

. , (Vasari, mid- 1 6th century)

was consistent with the writings orf
,

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Ecstatic bliss, spiritual and sexual, char-

who sought truth and saw morality in acterizes the works of Correggio. His
the "primitive," natural world. While ceiling paintings combine the illusionis-

the English landscape painter consta- tic trickery of mantegna's Camera

BLE preceded and perhaps influenced degli Sposi (1465-74) with the ener-
Corot, Constable's comment that gized, muscular figures of michel-
"painting is a science," next to Corot's angelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508-
appeal to "feeling," highlights distinc- 12). The viewer feels swept up into a
tions between them. Corot felt, and of- whorl of celestial activity. On the
fered his audience, the beauty of the domes of a church and the Cathedral of
landscape: not morality or social com- Parma, the city where he spent most of
mentary, but the pleasure of visual sen- his career, Correggio painted Christ in
sation. Perhaps there are allusions to one and the Virgin in the other, each
music as well; it is suggested that levitating directly overhead. The audac-
Corot's favorite composers, Beethoven ity of looking up into their swirling
and Mozart, influenced the moods and robes was at least as bold as Man-
rhythms of Corot's art. There is a soft tegna's eye-level view in the painting
focus, a sense of many semitransparent Dead Christ, in which Christ is seen feet

veils, and a gentle atmospheric am- first. Correggio's ceilings were proto-
bience and subtlety in Corot's later types for baroque
The mytho- artists.

landscapes. Souvenir of Mortefontaine logical FRESCOes he painted in Mantua,

(i864),for example, is two-thirds taken to satisfy Duke Federigo gonzaga's

up with the feathery amplitude of the appetite for unusual excitements, illus-
silvery green, leafy branches of a tree, trated the extramarital affairs of the
Behind it the perfectly still, silvery water god Jupiter, legendary ancestor of the
melds, on the horizon, into a soft sky of Gonzaga family. Jupiter and lo (c.
the same colors. It is an altogether har- 1532.) portrays the lustful god as a huge
monious picture. smoky cloud, his grip on the naked,
fleshy lo like a huge, dark paw, and
corps exquis just the shadow of his face kissing hers.
See EXQUISITE corpse This sexual rapture seems prescient
1 62 CORTONA, PIETRO DA (PIETRO BERRETTINl)

of Bernini's Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, tragedy, calling for few figures in sim-
sculpted more than a century later. ple, unified compositions, Cortona ar-
gued on behalf of the great epic drama,
Cortona, Pietro da (Pietro a grandiose theme with many episodes.
Berrettini) Sacchi's point of view reflects "Classic"

1 596-1669 • Italian • BAROQUE; Cortona's, "High" Baroque.

painter/architect • Baroque An example of Cortona's painting
in this manner is his ceiling fresco
Images of the nude are not per se
for the BARBERiNi palace in Rome, Glo-
obscene .[but] more often than not
. .

rification of the Reign of Urban VIII

the painter of nude images designs
(1632-39). Cortona's ceiling, inspired
them with some immodesty. Nor
by the illusionism of correggio (As-
would a painter deserve praise who, in
sumption of the Virgin, c. 1530), is an
order to show off his skill, pictured
exuberant, complex picture that over-
and exhibited . . . the lawful embraces
whelms and transports a viewer into the
of a married couple in the nude, for
light-filled "infinity" above. And de-
not all that we are allowed to do in
comment, quoted above, from
spite the
private are we allowed to represent in
Cortona's Treatise on Painting and
public.
Sculpture (1652), a number of nude
Cortona's genius, the historian witt- forms do float overhead, seeming per-
KOWER writes, "was second only to ilously close to the spectator's head.

that of Bernini," and his achievements

should be considered among the most Cotan, Juan Sanchez
outstanding of the 17th century. Curi- 1 560-1627 • Spanish • painter •

ously, Cortona refused to choose the Baroque

subjects he painted but preferred in-
struction from his
of his greatest supporters was Marcello
Sacchetti, a man
CLASSICAL culture and
Sacchetti discovered the young Pietro
after admiring a copy he had made of
Raphael's Galatea (1512). Under the
Sacchetti family wing, Cortona was
given the important commission for
decorating their country home, a pro-
ject on which SACCHi also worked.
Later, the so-called
Luke dispute between Cortona and Sac-
The framing space, or window, in
patron. Luckily, one
Sanchez Cotdn's still lifes would
probably have been recognized by
of learning, steeped in
contemporaries as a cantarero, or
a poet as well.
The hanging of fruits
primitive larder.
and vegetables from strings attached
somewhere above was an allusion to
actual practice that helped to keep
them from spoiling. (Peter Cherry and
William Jordan, 1995)
Cotan had a successful career as a
Academy of Saint painter of still lifes before he joined
the Carthusian order as a lay monk in

chi became famous (see academy). 1603, at the age of 43. He painted
Both artists departed from the Classical vegetables and fruits —cabbage, leek,

belief that linked painting with poetry parsnip, lemon, apple — suspending
(see UT PiCTURA poesis), but where Sac- some of them from strings. Sometimes
chi insisted on a style consistent with he hung dead birds in his arrangements.
 COURBET, GUSTAVE 1 63

These compositions are eloquent in imposed upon them the title of

their parsimony, placed against a black "romantics." Titles have never given a
background what looks like a large
in just idea of things; were it otherivise,

shadow box but was a cantarero, as de- the work would be superfluous.
scribed by Cherry and Jordan above.
They add, "None of the compositions Courbet was born town of
in the rural

suggests the random disorder of a larder Ornans, which he made both famous
shelf, however, so it would be a mistake and infamous in his paintings, espe-
to forget that these are artfully cially Bwm/^i Ornans (1849). Because

arranged." It is even proposed that this picture raised the grim, everyday
Cotan's arrangements have a basis in life of ordinary people in a harsh,
mathematics. Among the most beauti- provincial landscape to the level of his-
ful is Still Life with Quince, Cabbage, tory painting, it created a scandal.
Melon, and Cucumber {1600). T\\t oh- The Stone Breakers (1849) an old —
jects look unreal, even surreal. They and a young man doing backbreaking
might emphasize asceticism, the ab- —
work beside the road was considered
sence of touch, and geometric organiza- equally unseemly, and dangerous in ad-
tion rather than nourishment. The dition. The revolutions of 1848 were
Carthusian order, which Cotan joined still fresh, and the unrest of workers
after painting most of the still lifes for was a threatening specter. Courbet's
which he is known, stresses solitude; friend Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a So-
the brothers took meals, studied, and cialist, saw an indictment of capitalism
prayed alone for most of their day. in The Stone Breakers, which he com-
They ate no red meat and they fasted on pared to a biblical parable. (The paint-
Fridays, sustaining themselves on bread ing was destroyed during World War
and water. In his later years, Cotan de- II.) Courbet is called the father of the
voted most of his time to painting sa- "Realist" movement, though he de-
cred subjects and to illustrating the murred, as in the quotation above (see
history of his order, though he did con- realism-), that it was the labeling, not
tinue painting still lifes from time to the intent he disputed. For he also
time. wrote, "Realism is essentially the demo-
cratic art." He was adamant that paint-
Cotman, John Sell ing could only represent things "both
See NORWICH school real and existing." He insisted that "An
abstract object, invisible or nonexis-
counterproof tent, does not belong to the domain of
See OFFSET painting." He was also firm in his ideas
about education. In 1861 a group of
students, dissatisfied with the state-run
Courbet, Gustave
ECOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, asked Courbet
1 819-1877 • French • painter •
to direct an alternative school. Though
Realist
he declined, saying, "I do not have, and
The title of "realist" has been imposed I can not have, students," he agreed to
upon me, as the men of 1830 had work with them in a rented studio. The
164 COUTURE, THOMAS

model was usually a peasant with a country, for his mission is to please and
farm animal. While the official 1855 to charm." He accomplished that mis-
Paris Exposition was in session, sion when he showed Romans of the
Courbet presented an Exhibition of Dec^tience at the salon of 1847. It is a
Forty Paintings in a shed called the scene of roman debauchery spread
Pavilion of Realism. His "Manifesto of across a huge canvas, almost z6 feet in
Realism" introduced the show's cata- length, i^Vi feet high. The implicit
logue. The most important painting on moral lesson about corruption and de-
exhibit was his own large and endlessly cline led to much speculation about the
intriguing work, a scene set in his studio artist's points of reference. Was he al-

with himself at the easel painting a luding to contemporary excess.' The

landscape, a nude model looking over painting was exhibited on the eve of the
his shoulder from behind. To the left of 1848 Revolution. After the Revolution,
the painter are people from Ornans: Couture concentrated on modern
hunter, peasant, worker, Jew, priest, a French history. Decadence became a
young mother with her baby. On the symbol of tradition, though Couture
right side are portraits of people from was called a painter oi juste milieu, that
Courbet's life in Paris: client, critic, is, one who mediates between strict

and intellectuals, including his friend neoclassicism romanticism.

and
BAUDELAIRE. The title of the work is Couture placed strong emphasis on the
Studio of a Painter: A Real Allegory importance of the rough sketch, or
Summarizing My Seven Years of Life as ebauche, which remains visible on the
<3W Arf/'s^ (1854-55); the "seven years" canvas despite application of thick
are from 1848 to 1855. The only un- paint and layers of glaze. Couture's
equivocal statement that can be made students included those who rebelled
about this painting is that it measures against his teaching, like manet, and
more than 19V2 feet in length and is those who supported it, like puvis de
nearly 12 feet high. chavannes.

Couture, Thomas Cox, Kenyon

181 5-1879 • French • 1856-1919 • American •

painter/teacher • Academic/Eclectic painter/critic • Academic Classicist

/ have made a tour of painting as The lack of discipline and the

many make a tour of the world. I exaltation of the individual have been
shall relate to you my voyages, my the destructive forces of modern art.
discoveries. They are not so numerous
The ARMORY SHOW of 19 13 was the
and I believe very simple. You will not
subject of the essay in which Cox made
have the difficulties I had, but will
the statement quoted above. "This
learn easily what it is necessary to
thing," he also wrote about that exhibi-
know.
tion, "is not amusing; it is heartrending
Among the lessons Couture taught was and sickening." Besides being an impas-
that, "Yes, the artist ought to submit sioned critic of the new. Cox was a

himself to the taste and customs of his skilled painter in the old, acadExMIC
 CRANACH, LUCAS, THE ELDER 1 65

manner that looked back not only to shows a naturalism and freshness that
CLASSICAL style but to Classical subject will come to the fore in the rococo of
matter as well. An Eclogue (1890) is a the next century.
painting that plays with antiquity; it is

likely that the title has a roman source Cozens, Alexander

in Virgil's Eclogues— idyWic pastoral 1717-1786 • English • painter •
poems. One female figure is based on Romantic
the APHRODITE OF MELOS. Cox Studied
Too much time is spent in copying the
in Paris and brought his academic train-
works of others, which tends to
ing, especially the study of the nude,
weaken the powers of invention, and I
home with him. Yet the landscapes in
scruple not to affirm, that too much
which he placed his figures could be
time may be spent in copying the
quite free and impressionistic. During
landscape of nature herself.
the 1 8 80s and 1890s, mural painting
was very popular in America, and Cox Cozens composed a treatise called A
was especially successful as a muralist. New Method of Assisting the Invention
inDrawing Original Compositions of
Coysevox, Antoine Landscape (1786), from which the
1 640-1 720 • French • sculptor • comment above is taken. It is a curi-
Baroque ous remark in that not only do his
own cloud studies look true to nature,
There is no direct evidence to show
besides being poetic, but they also were
that he lost the favour of the King, but
(Cozens's scruples notwithstand-
it is certain that by the 1690's the taste
ing) copied by none other than consta-
of the latter was moving away from
ble, England's preeminent landscape
the classical manner, of which
painter and observer of clouds! Citing
Girardon was the distinguished
LEONARDO as a reference. Cozens sug-
exponent, and beginning to favor a
gested using ink blots as a prompt to the
more Baroque style. It is partly for this
imagination when seeking ideas for
reason that the position of Girar don's
landscape forms. Alexander Cozens's
rival, Coysevox, improved as that of
son, John Robert Cozens (1752-1798),
Girardon became weaker. (Anthony
was also a landscape painter.
Blunt, 1953)

In the quotation above, blunt de- Cranach, Lucas, the Elder

scribes Coysevox's rise to eminence as 1472-15 53 • German •
one of the major sculptors employed painter/printmaker • Northern
in the decoration of Versailles. Coy- Renaissance
sevox also carved portrait busts that
. . . without images we can neither
show he had looked carefully at those
think nor understand anything.
done by bernini. However, his terra-
(Martin Luther, i6th century)
cotta bust of LE brun (1676) is more
restrained and subtle than those he Early in his career, paintings — e.g..

made of Louis XIV later. Later still, Crucifixion (c. 1 500) —and drawings by
sculpting portraits of his friends, he Lucas Cranach were highly charged, al-
 — —

l66 CRAWFORD, THOMAS

most exploding with emotion. That members of his very large and success-
changed with his embrace of the Protes- ful WORKSHOP to copy.
tant Reformation. Despite his disap-
proval of some religious imagery, such Crawford, Thomas
as crucifixes, Martin Luther, quoted 1813-1857 • American • sculptor •

above, was well aware of the persuasive Neoclassicist

value of art. Luther worked closely with
. . . a new stereotype rose to replace
Cranach, his friend and follower, in the
the Demonic Indian: the Doomed
development of numerous works. Cran-
Indian. . . . Probably the most vivid
ach also painted Luther's portrait sev-
image of the Doomed Indian is the
eral times. In fact, the evangelical fervor
most official one, placed where few
of both Lucas the Elder and his son,
visitors notice it today— on the Senate
Lucas the Younger, also an artist, was
pediment of the U.S. Capitol in
so great that they created the equivalent
Washington. (Robert Hughes, 1997)
of a school of visual rhetoric on behalf
of the Reformation that lasted some 50 A New Yorker who worked as a stone-
years. Cranach's woodblock print Al- cutter and then studied at the National
legory of Law and Grace (c. 1529) is a Academy of Design, Crawford went to
clearly propagandistic image: With the Rome 1835 and enrolled in thor-
in

writings of Luther as his source, valdsen's studio. Later, his own studio
Cranach used biblical imagery to distin- in Rome became one of the most active.
guish the Protestant belief in salvation As did his fellow Americans abroad,
through faith from the Catholic stress Crawford kept in touch with devel-
on good works. Part of the new Protes- opments at home. When the United
tant ethic more positive and en-
was a States moved into its era of large-scale
couraging attitude toward sexuality. patriotic sculpture programs —and con-
This helps to explain Cranach's paint- gressmen decided that American art-

ings of nude women, such as the three ists should receive the commissions
Graces The Judgment of Paris (c.
in Crawford's assignments included de-
1530). While the women wear only signs for bronze doors on the new wings
necklaces and transparent veils around of the Capitol and sculpture for the Sen-
their loins, Paris is outfitted as a Ger- ate's pediment. His instructions regard-
man knight in a full suit of armor ing the pediment were to provide an
somewhat inconvenient for romantic allegory of "the struggle between civi-
overtures, as is the advanced age of his lized man and the savage, between
companion. When he developed his the cultivated and wild nature." The
nudes, Cranach's style became oddly Progress of Civilization (1851-63) has
stylized: His figures flattened, looking figures on either side of America, who
stilted or awkward. They seem retro- was personified as a woman (in an-
spectively GOTHIC, decorative, and af- cient dress) accompanied by an eagle.

fected — anachronistic. Why he adopted Pioneers, merchants. Native Ameri-

this style is uncertain, but one specula- cans, teachers, even industry, in the
tion is that it was an easy model for the guise of a mechanic, and the "Doomed
 —

CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS 167

Indian" Hughes writes about above are There are also elements to trick the
all part of Crawford's design. Crawford —
eye an oversized gourd and apple
died suddenly, of a brain tumor, before and a multitude of other engaging
he could finish the project, which was details. For a church in Ascoli, this
completed by others according to his ALTARPiECE celebrates the pope's 1482
plans. grant of limited self-government to the
town. That happened on the Feast Day
Crivelli, Carlo of the Annunciation; thus, two mes-
c. 1430-1495 • Italian • painter • sages are commemorated here: one
Renaissance from the angel Gabriel, who brings the
word of God to Mary, and the other
. . . a formula that would, without
from the pope, berenson's assessment
distorting our entire view of Italian art
of Crivelli, quoted above, acknowl-
in the fifteenth century, do full justice
edges both how impossible it is to fit
to such a painter as Carlo Crivelli,
him into a category and how endlessly
does not exist. He takes rank with the
interesting his paintings are.
most genuine artists of all times and
and does not weary even
countries,
Crome, John
when "great masters " grow tedious.
See NORWICH school
(Bernard Berenson, 1894)

He was born in Venice, but little else Cropsey, Jasper Francis

of Crivelli's biography is known, al- 1 823-1900 • American • painter •

though court records of 1457 find him Romantic/Hudson River School

guilty of keeping an absent sailor's wife
/ was so disposed to adorn my writing
captive and hidden for purposes of car-
book, on the margin, wherever there
nal knowledge. He spent six months in
was a blank space, with fancy letters,
jail and subsequently left Venice. After
boats, houses, trees, etc., and paint, or
three decades of productivity, what we
color the picture in my books that I
see of Crivelli's oeuvre is inconsistent
would undergo the reprimand of the
in terms of expression, and is some-
teacher, rather than desist from it.
times exceptionally strange. His Pieta
(c. 1470) is so disturbing a representa- Cropsey worked in an architectural of-
tion of Christ (flaccid body, pointed fice before he took up painting, first in

face,and open mouth) and two angels watercolor, then in oil. Encouraged
(whose grimaces resemble nausea more by established painters, he began show-
than grief) that it is difficult to look at. ing his work, advocating truth to nature
In contrast. The Annunciation with and expressing admiration for the work
Saint Emidius (i486) is so intriguing of COLE. In 1847 he made the grand
that it is hard to stop looking at it. This TOUR of Europe. On returning home,
is a flamboyant display of perspective he set himself to painting American
and of exceedingly detailed architecture scenery. His success enabled him to re-
lavishly ornamented with grotesques turn to England, and he became active
and textiles, especially Oriental rugs. in the social and artistic circles there.
l68 CRUCIFIXION

He painted some English scenery but that as long as conversion to the faith
continued to produce American land- was foremost, would
a suffering Christ

scapes, such as Autumn — On the Hud- be disadvantageous imagery. Once the

son River (i860), a sweeping vista with Church was secure, as it was by the
the unique colors of the season and loth century, more dramatic renderings
carefully observed details of nature. could serve other philosophical, theo-
Queen Victoria appointed Cropsey to logical, and political intentions. Points

the American Commission of the i86z of view external to the event portrayed
International Exposition in London, were argued out in images: The Eu-
and he received a medal for his service. charist, for example, was alluded to by
He returned to New York in 1863, paintings that included angels capturing
taught, and produced architectural the blood from Christ's wounds, and
designs that included an elaborate man- politics were sometimes coded into the
sion for himself that he named Alad- entourage of witnesses surrounding the
din. Financial reverses forced him to sell cross. Perhaps the most startling Cruci-

Aladdin, however. Cropsey wrote the fixion in history was that painted by
words quoted above in 1846, to be GRiJNEWALD on the Isenheim Altarpiece
included in a book about American (151 2/1 3-15), in which Christ is shown
artists. with dreadfully lacerated and punc-
tured flesh. Significantly, the Isenheim
Crucifixion Altarpiece was made for a monastery
Crucifixion was a widespread form of where sufferers of ergotism, a skin dis-
execution in the ancient world: Before ease, were cared for. In the 20th cen-
the execution of Christ, 6,000 fugitive tury, CHAGALL painted Crucifixions
slaves, followers of Spartacus, were said that included symbols of Judaism, such
to have been nailed to crosses along the as a tallithand menorah, and scenes
road to Damascus, and there was a pe- reminiscent of pogroms and Nazi de-
riod during Roman rule when 500 Jews struction.
were crucified every day. Punishment
by crucifixion continued until Constan- Cubism
tine converted to Christianity, which in Following FAUVISM, but remaining
the 4th century became the state reli- consistent with modernism, Cubism
gion. Described in texts, crucifixions abandoned perspective, disrupted tradi-
were, apparently, never visually repre- tional representations of space, and sac-

sented —although a cross alone symbol- rificed the use of continuous contour
ized Christ during the early 4th century. and conventional modeling. How-
Once Christianity was secure. Crucifix- ever, where previous Modernists as-
ion images began to appear, but they serted the flatness of the canvas. Cubists
showed Christ with his eyes open and played with that concept by portraying
without expression. Not until the dra- different aspects and facets of geometri-

matic GERO CRUCIFIX (c. 970) is his cally shaped objects — the cylinder,
suffering conspicuous. A number of ex- sphere, and cone of which c^zanne
planations for this new approach are —
had spoken on a flat surface. It was
proposed, among them the conjecture braque who first painted in this man-
 1

CULT OF SAINTS 1 69

ner, and MATISSE, looking over entries gleizes and Jean Metzinger (1883-
to the 1908 SALON d'automne, who 1956), collaborated on the first impor-
said of him to the critic Louis Vaux- tant theoretical tract, On Cubism
celles, "Braque has just sent a painting (1912). The so-called Salon Cubists
made up was
of small cubes." Braque showed their work together at the 191
rejected at that Salon, but when Vaux- salon des independants. Others who
celles later saw Braque's work he coined joined the group include the sculptor
the term "Cubism" to describe it. archipenko, the Italian painters who
(Vauxcelles is also the man who first developed futurism, and laurencin,
used the word "fauve" to describe the duchamp, and gris.
art so named.) Cubism soon became an
art-world buzzword, though in truth Cubist Realism
the works in question contained far See precisionism
fewer cubes than other shapes. From
1908 to 1914, PICASSO and braque, cult of saints
working together, explored various The earliest Christian saints were indi-
possibilities of showing the faceted viduals who were persecuted because of
shapes of objects and people whose their faith. Once persecution ended, the
forms they broke apart and reassem- Church beatified people for extraordi-
bled, so to speak. Picasso brought to nary acts of devotion. From c. 500 to
Cubism his interest in African and 750, the Christian cult of saints gained
Oceanic art, inspired by visits to the popularity, probably because each saint
Ethnographic Museum in Paris, while might be appealed to for specific assis-
Braque thought more about Cezanne's tance: SaintAnthony took care of pigs,
blocklike surfaces. Saint Apollonia (whose teeth had been
During its development, two distinct pulled) cured toothache, Saint Gene-
approaches characterize Cubism. The vieve cured fever, and Saint Sebastian
first. Analytic Cubism, involved the warded off plagues. Saints had sym-
breakdown of a subject into component bolic attributes associated with their
aspects and their rearrangement. Colors lives that identified them in a work of
and contrasts are reduced to shades of art: For example, Sebastian has one or
brown and gray, black and white. The more arrows in his body; Jerome is
second is Synthetic Cubism, also called accompanied by a lion, his constant
Collage Cubism. Here images were con- companion after he removed a thorn
structedfrom objects and shapes cut from its paw. The cult of saints in-
from paper and other materials. Syn- spired works of art and artists in many
thetic Cubism was an artistic break- ways: Events in the life of a particu-
through that had the effect of liberating lar saint formed the decorative pro-
painting and sculpture from their tradi- grams for FRESCOes and altarpieces
tional materialsand techniques. (See in churches where their relics were
also assemblage) housed; hagiographies (saints' biogra-
While Picasso and Braque worked phies) provided texts for illuminated
together, other artists individually ex- manuscripts. The container for relics

plored the Cubist approach. Two, of a saint, a reliquary, might be as

lyO CURATOR

elaborate as the bejeweled golden statue cial, historical, and political context,
fashioned, probably during the nth and as having important financial
and 1 2th centuries, to hold the skull of repercussions regarding the value of
the miracle-working Saint Foy. With works. The ethics of curating are an im-
their magical powers, the relics of saints portant contemporary concern.
drew pilgrims and patrons, and thefts of
relics by churches and monasteries (in- Curry, John Steuart
cluding those of Saint Foy, and of Saint 1 897-1 946 • American pamter
Mark by the city of Venice) were fre- Regionalist
quent. Throughout the medieval pe-
/ don't feel that I portray the class
riod and into the renaissance, while
struggle, but I do try to depict the
the cult of saints thrived, artisans and
American farmer's incessant struggle
artists produced anything from modest
against the forces of nature.
pilgrimage souvenirs such as metal
flasks decorated with biblical scenes, The least well known of the regional-
badges, and popular prints to major benson
ist triumvirate that included
altarpieces. An example of the latter and WOOD, Curry was Kansas born. He
is van eyck's Virgin in a Church studied at the Kansas City Art Institute
(c. 1440), which shows the most-hoped- before he went to the Art Institute of
for experience of pilgrims: a vision. Van Chicago, and then, as had his col-
Eyck's Virgin is thought to be the small leagues, on to Paris and New York. The
statue in a pilgrim church that has come dynamic fervor of Curry's brushwork
alive and moves forward in the picture, and figures is seen in pictures like Tor-
carrying the infant Christ in her arms. nado Over Kansas (1929), in which a
farm family rushes to their under-
curator ground storm shelter as the threaten-
Although the director of a small mu- ing funnel approaches. The comment
seum may also be a curator, the dis- quoted above is pertinent to this work.
tinction is that the former is the Curry's murals are in Washington,
administrative head while the curator is D.C., and the Kansas state capitol,
in charge of all or part of the collection. where he imagined abolitionist John
A large museum has curators for spe- Brown as a latter-day Moses.
cific subcategories of the collection,
such as Ancient and American art, and
Cuyp, Aelbert
for educational programs. A curator's
16x0-1691 • Dutch • painter •
job includes research, planning exhibi-
Baroque/Classical phase
tions, acquiring works, deciding if and
how works will be shown (both bor- Cattle and a shepherd, by Albert Cuyp,
rowed and from the museum's own col- the best I ever saw of him; and the
lection), and providing information for figure is likewise better than usual: but
the public through such means as cata- the employment which he has given
logues, wall labels, and gallery tours. the shepherd in his solitude is not very
The choices a curator makes are in- poetic: it must, however, be allowed to
creasingly recognized as providing so- be truth and nature; he is catching
 —

CYCLADIC ART IJl

fleas or something worse. (Sir Joshua Cycladic art

Reynolds, 1781) Art of c. 3000-zooo BCE (late Neolithic
to early Bronze Age) from a cluster of is-
Cuyp painted panoramic views of the lands in the Aegean Sea north of Crete,
Dutch countryside — he Uved in Dor- known as the Cyclades. White marble
drecht. He may not have traveled to was abundant, and most notable
Italy, but he was influenced by the soft, among Cycladic works are numerous
golden light seen in paintings of the marble female figurines. These are flat,

Roman campagna, or countryside (see schematic, and similar in design: arms

elsheimer). Besides sunlit landscapes folded across the chest, ovoid heads,
populated by cows, sheep, and small and wedge-shaped noses. They were
figures of shepherds — disapproved of found in graves. Such highly abstracted
by Reynolds in the quotation above forms reduce the figure to its essentials,

Cuyp also painted atmospherically still as will later Greek art, especially during
and glistening river scenes, full of sail- theGEOMETRIC and archaic periods.
ing craft both large and small, often From presumption rather than knowl-
around sunset (e.g.. The Maas at Dor- edge, Cycladic statuettes have been
drecht; no date). They will be recol- called idols, but their purposes and
lected in the United States some 200 meanings are not known.
years later, in the marine paintings of
LANE.
 D

Dada Dadd, Richard

Thismovement was begun in 191 6 by a 1 8 17-1886 • English pamter
group of French and German artists and Fairy Painter
poets in Zurich, in reaction to the hyste-
Splitting is either good or bad. For not
ria of World War I. Had they not gone
so the same terms are had.
to Switzerland, most would have been
called to fight. Several explanations for Dadd was a student at the Royal Acad-
the origin of the word include a claim emy when, lost in morbid thoughts
that it came from opening a French- about the devil, he murdered his father.
German dictionary and landing on He was institutionalized in Bethlem
dada, which is French for "hobby- Hospital, familiarly known as Bedlam.
horse." The members rejected reason, During 43 years of confinement he
logic, and futurism, which they be- continued to paint strange, fairy-tale
lieved had led to the war. Dada, scenarios; Fairy Paintings, as such fan-
founded in particular by a German tasies were called, were popular in mid-
actor and playwright, Hugo Ball, em- 19th century England. He recorded
braced nonsense, political anarchy, the detail obsessively in his hallucinatory
emotions, intuition, and irrationality. It world, and worked on his masterpiece.
was negative and pessimistic. Meetings The Fairy Feller's Master Stroke, for
were held in the music hall Ball ran, the nine years, 1855-64. The creatures in
Cabaret Voltaire. The major artist in this picture are gnomelike but of incon-
the group was arp. Dada spread rapidly sistent scale; we look at them as if

through Europe after the war, affecting, through blades of grass, but our point
numerous artists (e.g.,
albeit briefly, of view is confusing, and there is no
SCHWITTERS, MONDRIAN, LISSITZKY, horizon. A man with an ax, the "feller,"

van DOESBURG, and grosz). It also sur- seems poised to split a nut that is bigger
faced briefly in New York. A huge exhi- than his own head, but he is too far
bition was held in Berlin in 1920, but away to reach it. And instead of looking
Dada had run its course by 1921 (the at the nut, he looks straight ahead. A
last great Dada exhibition was in 1922), barely discernible figure facing the
when it was displaced, in Paris, by sur- feller, a white-bearded man in a conical

realism. hat, seems to be a controlling appari-

 DAGUERRE, LOUIS-JACQUESMANDE 1 73

tion. The perplexity, the extraordinary which King Minos's wife, Pasiphae, hid
finesse of details that look real but are so that she could mate with a bull,
impossible, and an underlying feeling of Daedalus was also responsible for the
malevolence make this image frighten- labyrinth in which the half-man, half-
ing. Dadd wrote a long explanation en- bull Minotaur, Pasiphae's offspring,
titledElimination of a Picture its & was hidden. And he made wings for
subject— called The Feller's Master himself and Icarus, his son. Icarus lost
Stroke. It is not a coherent narrative, as his wings when he flew too close to the
the quotation from it above demon- sun and the wax that attached them to
strates, but it provides glimmers of his body melted. In the 4th century bce
Dadd's intention. The lines about split- artiststook the name of Daedalus. In
ting have sinister echoes in that Dadd terms of style, "Daedalic" refers to a
had attacked his father violently with a type of sculpted figures in the Early ar-
knife and razor. While Dadd's work es- chaic period. About one-third life-size,
capes stylistic categories, it has vision- these flat, planklike sculptures, often
ary qualities. marble and often women, are clothed,
sometimes wear wide belts, are rigid,
Daedalus/Daedalic forward-facing (frontal), and have
The mythical first sculptor, Daedalus hair reminiscent of the wigs on both
was celebrated by both Greek and Egyptian and Mesopotamian statues. A
Roman authors. Homer introduced him well-known example is the yth-century
in the Iliad around the 8th century bce BCE Auxerre statuette at the Louvre.
and his persona developed over subse-
quent centuries in multitudes of texts. Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mande
PLATO wrote that Daedalus's statues 1789-185 1 • French •
are Hke opinions: "... if they are not painter/photographer • Realist
fastened up they play truant and run
By without any idea of
this process,
away." In fact, there are many literary
references to the necessity of chaining a
how to draw, without any knowledge

Daedalic statue to keep of chemistry and physics, it will be

it in place; from
possible to take the most detailed
the start, Daedalus was known as a
views, the most picturesque scenery in
sculptor who freed the limbs of statues
a few minutes. With the aid of the
from their torsos, opened their eyes,
. . .

daguerreotype everyone will make a

and gave them life. Whether a true his-
view of his castle or country-
torical sculptor preceded the legends of
house even portraits will be made.
.
the fictional man is a topic of debate
. .

and research, and the great variety of A successful painter and entrepreneur
roles he has assumed over time are ac- who was able to create great effects
companied by an equally rich profes- with the dioramas he painted and ex-
sional vita that includes goldsmith, hibited, Daguerre is credited with dis-
architect, inventor, and magician, as covering the processes that produce
well as sculptor. One of his most noto- positive exposures from the surface of a
rious creations was the wooden cow in silvered plate that has been exposed to
 —

174 DALI, SALVADOR

light. He may have experimented with He studied at Madrid's Academy of

the camera with the intent of improving Eine Arts before he went to Paris (in

his dioramas. The process he patented is 19Z8) and met the Surrealists. Three
called the daguerreotype, and its use important influences on his work were
spread quickly. One of Daguerre's first de CHiRico, Ereud's writings on dreams
successful daguerreotypes was modeled and the subconscious, and the Spanish
on the traditional still life: Still Life poet Eederico Garcia Lorca, whose
in Studio (1837) demonstrates the de- dreams were expressed in drawings of
tail and fine gradations in tone, from refined romantic sensibility. However,
white to black, Daguerre could capture. Dali's subjects and style were very dif-

Each exposure produced only one print. ferent. He used the hard-edged trompe
An Englishman, William Henry Fox l'oeil technique with luminous but un-
Talbot ( 1 800-1 877), had also worked settling colors that sometimes look like

on a photographic process based on the tinted photographs — he called them

light sensitivity of silver. His intention "handpainted dream photographs."
was to duplicate drawing, at which he His intentions are expressed in the quo-
was unskilled but which he wished to tation book La Femme
above from his

accomplish. Talbot's discoveries led to Visible (1930); he named his method

the modern negative print process and "critical paranoia." His best-known
eventually evolved into the marketable work, The Persistence of Memory
film and photographic prints that re- (193 1 ), describes an interminable emp-
placed Daguerre's method. tiness in which commonplace objects
three pocket watches — become bizarre,
Dali, Salvador limp forms draped over a branch, the
1904-1989 • Spanish • painter • edge of a solid rectangle, and an am-
Surrealist biguous, inexplicable form. A fourth
watch retains its shape, but has ants all
/ believe the moment is at hand when,
over its surface. Dali contributed to the
by a paranoiac and active advance of
first Surrealist motion picture, a land-
the mind, it will be possible
mark in experimental cinema, Luis
(simultaneously with automatism and
Bufiuel's Un Chien Andalou (1929). In
other passive states) to systematize
1938 Dali met Ereud, who told him,
confusion and thus to help discredit
"What interests me in your art is not the
completely the world of reality.
unconscious but the conscious." Dali
The last major artist to join the surre- was moving away from Surrealism
alist group, Dali is also one whose (from which its dictatorial founder,
name is synonymous with the move- Andre breton, who had previously em-
ment. Born near Barcelona —the Cata- braced Dali, expelled him in 1934, in
lan environment of GAUDi, picasso, part because Dali supported Eranco).
and MiRO —he was a highly emotional Dali's late paintings were devoted to the
child given to hysterical outbursts, mystery of Christ and the Mass: The
memories of which influence the irra- Crucifixion (1951), more than 6 feet
tionality and violence of his paintings. high, locates the Cross as if it were
 DANUBE SCHOOL I75

floating in a dark night, with dayHght, is a woman standing on a globe above a

clouds, and a landscape below. Most chariot drawn by two lions. She is ac-
astonishing is the perspective — as companied by figures of Liberty (a nude
though the artist were high above the youth with a torch). Industry, and Jus-
CRUCIFIXION, looking down on Christ's tice. Abundance follows behind. Thou-
bent head and at the shadow of his sands of Parisians took part in a festival

stretched-out arms on the cross. Dali to celebrate the unveiling of the final
moved to the United States in 1940. He monument in 1899. Dalou's vivid and
designed for the theater, magazines, heroic public works contrast with his
and jewelry makers. He cultivated an more personal sculptures. One is a com-
outlandish appearance (e.g., waxed, memorative marble bust executed
handlebar mustache) and eccentric, ex- 1888-90 of COURBET, a friend and fel-
hibitionist behavior. In 1950 he re- low Socialist, and another expresses his
turned to Spain and a reclusive life. support for Alfred Dreyfus. Dreyfus
was a Jew victimized by prejudice and
Dalou, Jules false accusations of treason; the "Drey-
183 8-1902 • French • sculptor • fus Affair" split the art community as
Neo-Baroque/Romantic well as all strata of French society.
Dreyfus was sent into exile in 1895, ^^^
I have made the resolution to
same year Dalou sculpted Truth De-
undertake, without further delay, the
nied, a nude woman sitting on a rock
monument about which I have
with her head buried in her arms in a
dreamed since 1889, dedicated to the
pose of utter dejection. During the
glorification of the workers. This
1 890s, Dalou worked on terra-cotta
project is in the air; it is of the
models for a "Monument to Workers,"
times. . . . The future is there. It is the
a glorification of labor, a project that he
cult called to replace past mythologies.
described in the words quoted above,
The first 19th-century sculptor to pro- but it was unfinished at his death.

fess admiration for bernini, Dalou was

inspired by Bernini's baroque style. A Danube School
lifelong Socialist and French Commune Rivers and forests had an especially
supporter, Dalou felt compelled to flee powerful grip on German artists of the
France after the collapse of the brief northern renaissance, and the Dan-
revolutionary government and begin- ube River had a particular lure for

ning of the Third Republic. He went to some, including altdorfer and cran-
London, and there succeeded in gaining ACH the Elder. Altdorfer's Danube
commissions from upper-class patrons, Landscape (c. 1520-25), a romantic
then returned to Paris after the general and mysterious scene, is an example of
amnesty of 1879. He was chosen to de- this interest: a castle tucked at the bot-
sign a grandiose bronze monument, tom of a winding path that runs
The Triumph of the Republic (1879- through dense woods to the river
99), for the Place de la Nation. In an below. There are no people in Altdor-
over-life-size composition, the Republic fer's painting, but Cranach includes the

I
176 DAUBIGNY, CHARLES-FRANgOIS

Holy Family in the foreground of his studio-boat, the Botin, from which he
wild Danube landscape of tall pines painted his riverscapes.
and birches, despite its distinctly non-
Danube subject: Rest on the Flight into Daumier, Honore
Egypt (1504). As is true of members of 1 808-1 879 • French •

the HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL some three painter/printmaker • Realist

centuries later, the term "Danube" sig- ., , ^ .

.,. . 11 taut etre de son temps.

and mterest m
.
,

nifies an approach to
landscape rather than an association of "One must be contemporary," quoted
individual artists or a specific place. in the original above, is one of the few
authenticated statements made by Dau-
Daubigny, Charles-Francois mier, and a byword for realism^. Dau-
1817-1878 • French • painter • mier was a social satirist in a time
Barbizon School marked by social unrest rooted in the
., ,. Industrial Revolution and the repressive
It seems as if
,
the canvas exposed m ... , .^. . •
tm i- t 1

, , , . 7 , / //-I activities of King Louis Philippe. In his

front of the site had painted itself by t^ .
, ,

.
,
CARICATURES, Daumier portrayed the
some magic process and new ^
,„,,,.,_. 1 • •
1 1 1

,
king as Gargantua, the glutton invented
/m/eni/ow. {Iheophile Gautier, 1859) t^ 1 1 tt 1 • 1
11
1

by Rabelais. He also wittily turned the

Born into a family of artists, Daubigny king, whose face was bottom heavy, in-

decorated trinkets for a clockmaker and to a pear; poire, French for "pear," also
worked as a restorer of paintings at the means "dunce" or "simpleton." Dau-
Louvre. He studied with delaroche mier was imprisoned for six months, in
and traveled to Rome. His success in the 1832, for such insults, but he remained
early 1850s was marred by complaints relentless in his portrayal of injustice,
that his landscapes lacked finish. In Rue Transnonain, April i^, 18^4 (pub-
1859, the year he was named Chevalier lished in 1834) records an incident that
of the Legion of Honor, a cartoon ap- followed a workers' demonstration
peared showing a man in his bathing during which a man, shooting on troops
trunks standing in front of a large paint- from a window at 1 2 rue Transnonain,
ing. The caption read: "Effect produced killed an officer. Vengeful soldiers
on a visitor to the Salon by the water broke into the building and murdered
in the marvelous paintings of M. Dau- eight men, a woman, and a child. Dau-
bigny." The name of the actual paint- mier's lithograph shows four corpses,
ing, which hung in that year's salon, a man in his nightshirt, a child, and,
was The Banks of the Oise. The re- barely visible, mother and grandparent,
nowned photographer nadar both It is a bloody, grisly scene. As had
bought the painting and printed the car- Jacques-Louis david, Daumier made
toon in a newspaper he published. Some analogies between the dead man's pose
critics, in fact, found a photographic and conventional representations of the
quality in the painting — perhaps the dead Christ. Daumier's translation of
magic new invention to which Gautier the sordid facts of contemporary life

refers in his review quoted above, into art included humorous jibes at
Daubigny worked on his famous lawyers. His cartoon Nadar ^Jerating
 DAVID, GERARD I77

Photography Height of Art

to the wreath, has a roman look, while his
(1862) shows the famous photographer bronze medallion portrait Theodore
taking pictures from the basket of a Gericault (c. 1827-30) is appropriately
hot-air balloon. We get the message Romantic (see gericault). Among his

that "elevation" refers only to Nadar's best-known works is a 14-foot-high,

altitude, not to aesthetics. In his unfin- dynamic Grand Condi com-

figure, the

ished painting The Third-Class Car- missioned in 1 8 16, one of a dozen

riage (c. 1862), Daumier considers the colossal marble statues erected on a
dislocations of progress: The first major bridge across the Seine. It represents a
French railway line was established in famous 17th-century general, a military

1843. Daumier's scene is set inside a hero at 22, as he is about to hurl his

railway carriage and the figures who baton at the enemy during the
1644
face us — an elderly woman with a bas- Battle of Freiburg, which he won for
ket, a young woman nursing her child, France. The sculpture no longer exists,

and a —
young boy look like peasants but known from bronze casts of
is

from a painting by millet. But they
seem to have been scooped up out of
their natural environment and dropped
into a world in which they
their identity, but their dignity as well.
His appeal to emotion makes Daumier
the maquette made in 18 17. David
d'Angers added his hometown of
Angers to his name in order to avoid
lose not only confusion with the painter Jacques-
Louis DAVID, whom he greatly admired.
David d'Angers was friends with the lit-

a ROMANTIC, but his interest in social erary figures of his day, and Victor
justice is that of a Realist. Hugo wrote Ode to David for him in

1828.
David d'Angers, Pierre-Jean
1788-1856 • French • sculptor • David, Gerard
Romantic c. 1460-15 23 • Netherlandish •

painter • Northern Renaissance

As for myself, I concede to no jury of
artists the right to admit or to refuse Gerard David's Baptism of Christ
the work of their colleagues. . . . I triptych is surely one of the
recognize but one judge for the artist— masterpieces of the artist's career. . . .

the public, which can and should pass [His work] has been thought by some
sentence upon cliques and coteries. critics to be lacking in energy and
conviction, yet careful analysis of
An eloquent witness of the times
David's Baptism shows to be not
in —
which he lived the First Repub-
only unusual but, I believe, of deep
it

lic, the Empire of Napoleon I, the

personal significance. (Craig Harbison,
Restoration of Louis XVIII, Charles X,
1979)
the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe,
and the brief Second Republic —David When Archduke Maximilian was im-
d'Angers received neoclassical
a prisoned in Bruges in 1488, the author-
training and absorbed romantic ideas ities on David to decorate his
called
and attitudes. His head of Victor Hugo quarters with pictures. David himself
(c. 1827-30), encircled with a laurel went to court, if not jail, for making off
lyS DAVID, JACQUES-LOUIS

with several boxes of "patterns," or a the Queen of Heaven (see also campin).
MODELBOOK. It was an act of retribu- David shows a new maternal ideal that

tion, as the man from v^hom he confis- was just emerging in European society.

cated the patterns owed him a large His images were made in the midst of
debt. So perhaps David had better rea- the Reformation, when pictures as
son than either van der weyden or icons were suspect; thus, his "normal-
BOUTS, both of whom had similar com- izing" of Mary may have had additional
missions, to be asked for murals on the impetus.
subject of justice for the city hall of
Bruges. David followed memling as the David, Jacques-Louis
city painter of Bruges. Among his most 1 748-1 825 • French • painter •
unusual works is an altarpiece, Trip- Neoclassicist
tych with the Nativity (c. 1505-10). It
The Academy is like a wigmaker's
has a full-blown landscape with great
shop; you cannot get out of the door
trees in full leaf, a stream, and oxen.
without getting its powder on your
The theme is biblical, and the landscape
clothes. What time you will lose in
must be seen in that context; it comes
forgetting those poses, those
close to being an independent, self-
conventional movements, into which
contained visual appreciation of nature.
the professors force the model's torso,
The Baptism of Christ (150Z-07), men-
as if it were the carcass of a chicken.
tioned in the quotation above, was con-
Even the latter . . . is not safe from
cerned with contemporary questioning
their mannerisms.
of that ritual, especially regarding the
salvation of unbaptized infants, as Har- David was admitted into the French
bison goes on to demonstrate. In repre- Royal Academy in 1766, and after a se-

senting such theological questions ries of unsuccessful efforts finally won

several years before the Protestant Re- its PRIX DE ROME in 1774. His great
formation, David effectively antici- HISTORY PAINTINGS, such as The Oath
pated in paint what would later be of the Horatii (1784), fulfilled both the
discussed in print. As Harbison puts it, CLASSICAL ideals he absorbed in Rome
"Art would not serve as a precise record (in fact, he returned to Rome to work
of developments in other spheres; on the painting) and the French taste
rather than mirroring thought, art for political metaphor: father and son
might provoke it." This is an important pledging themselves to the honor of
reversal of what is considered the stan- their country, women weeping as their
dard procedure: art illustrating ideas husbands, brothers, and lovers go off to
that have already acquired currency by war — individual self-sacrifice for the

the written word. The same can be said greater good. The story looked back to
of the secular world evoked in David's Horace and forward to the Republic.
images of the Virgin feeding the child Serious, sober, spartan, and manly,
(e.g., Virgin and Child with a Bowl of it was so well admired that people of
Porridge, c. 1520), in which Mary is the time began to talk of "David's rev-
more like a contemporary mother than olution." The Horatii was followed by
 DAVIES, ARTHUR B. 1 79

Death of Socrates (1787), another lotte Corday. (Marat had a skin condi-
heroic figure and moral message about tion that necessitated soaking in the
a man maintaining dignity to the end. tub, so he adapted a tub for use as his
No less an authority than Reynolds desk and received visitors as if in his of-

proclaimed, "This picture is in every fice.) David had called on Marat the
sense perfect." David's personal history day before the murder. In David's
followed the roller-coaster course of painting, Marat has a stab wound on
French politics. Early in the Revolution his chest, his head has fallen back, and
David supported Robespierre and the his arm hangs loose. Marat is in the fa-

extreme wing of the Jacobins. After the miliar pose of the dead Christ of many
Revolution, in 1790, he began his elab- pietAs; David based his rendering on
orate Oath of the Tennis Court, which paintings by RAPHAEL and by caravag-
commemorates the meeting, on June GIO.
20, 1789, at which the deputies of the
Third Estate swore not to disband until Davies, Arthur B.
they had given France its constitution. 1 862-1928 • American • painter •

He showed a highly finished prepara- Visionary/Symbolist

tory drawing of it at the first salon of
. . . the great imaginator. (Robert
the Revolutionary period in 1791. This
Henri, 1910)
was a new kind of history painting,
portraying current events rather than If his dreamlike paintings of unicorns
ancient or mythological ones. After and virginal maidens in mystical set-

the Revolution, David spearheaded tings (e.g.. Unicorns, 1906) make

the movement that led to replacing Davies seem an unlikely associate of the
the academy with Com-
the short-lived socially conscious members of The
mune of the Arts. The comments EIGHT with whom he exhibited, that is

quoted above were made in a speech to no more paradoxical than the double
his With the downfall of
students. life he led as the head of two families.

Robespierre, David was imprisoned.
Released, he unhesitatingly painted for
Napoleon's Empire. When Napoleon
returned from Elba, David declared his
allegiance. With Napoleon's downfall,
The escapist themes and muted tonal
harmony of his work (in paintings such
as The Dream, c. 1908) aligned him
with the French artist puvis de cha-
VANNES; their visionary aspect con-

the aged David went into exile in Brus- nected him with earlier Americans like
sels, where he died. During the height of RYDER, BLAKELOCK, and INNESS. Davies
his power, David was as influential as was a leading figure in New York's art
LE BRUN had been a century earlier. world. He was able to bridge its frac-

Clear, solemn, heroic, powerfully dra- tious groups, and, as president of the
matic yet simple in his composition, Association of American Painters and
David was neoclassical painter.
a Sculptors, was a prime mover of the
This is seen in The Death of Marat 19 1 3 ARMORY SHOW. The appreciation

(1793). Marat was a hero of the Revo- of Davies by henri quoted above is ex-
lution murdered in his bath by Char- cerpted from Henri's review of the Ex-
l8o DAVIS, ALEXANDER JACKSON

hibition of Independent Artists in 1 9 1 o, and tracery, Lyndhurst, reminiscent

in which Davies showed his work. of walpole's Strawberry Hill, seems
like a medieval castle transplanted to

Davis, Alexander Jackson America.

1803-1892 • American • architect •

Romantic eclectic/Picturesque Davis, Stuart

1 894-1964 • American pamter •
The Greek temple form, perfect in
Modernist/Abstraction
itself, and well adapted as it is to

public edifices, and even to town One day I set up an eggbeater in my

mansions, is inappropriate to country studio and got so interested in it that I
residences. The English collegiate style nailed it on the table and kept it there
is for many reasons to be preferred. It to paint.
admits of greater variety both of plan
Before they followed henri to New
and outline . . . while its bay windows,
York City, the ashcan painters had
oriels, turrets, and chimney shafts
worked for Davis's father at the
give a pictorial effect to the
Philadelphia Press, where he was art di-
elevation.
rector.At the age of 16, Stuart Davis,
In collaboration with his first associate, too, went to New York to study with
Ithiel Town
(1784-1844), Davis de- Henri. The armory show, and his sub-

signed several greek-revival state sequent interest in French cubism,

capitols (Indiana and North Carolina, changed his stylistic direction, but
1 831; Illinois, 1837; Ohio, 1839), and work largely
Davis kept the focus of his

the United States Custom House in on American themes. The eggbeater

New York (1833-42). Davis also popu- mentioned above, with other objects,
larized the GOTHIC revival in the United was the subject of a yearlong process of
States, especially in cottages such as disciplined research he pursued in an ef-
the Henry Delamater Residence in fort to flatten space and natural forms.
Rhinebeck, New York (1844), with its "I felt that a subject had its emotional
steeply pitched roof and ornate carpen- reality fundamentally through our
try details. His ideas found expression awareness of . . . planes and their spatial
in the earliest suburban developments relationships," he wrote. Words that
of the 1850S. Among Davis's most appeared on signs, packaging, and in

splendid houses is Lyndhurst, Tarry- advertisements intrigued him and be-

town, New York (1838 and 1865-67). came part of his COLLAGE-Iike paint-
A great stonemansion based on the ings. Some of his works are prescient of

models of Cambridge and Oxford POP art.

Universities, Lyndhurst represented a
similar design in Davis's book Rural
de Kooning, Willem
Residences (1837), and he called it
1904-1997 • Dutch/American •
English collegiate style, as in the ex-
painter • Abstract Expressionist
cerpt from the book quoted above.
With its STAINED GLASS windows, pan- One day, I'd like to get all the colors in
eled rooms, carved, pointed archcs, the world into one single painting.
 DEALER l8l

Born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, de once remarked to the critic Harold

Kooning moved to New York City Rosenberg, "There is no plot in paint-

when he was about 23 years old. In the ing. It is an occurrence which I discover
early 1960s, he settled on Long Island, by, and it has no message."
where he could be close to the sea.
"There is something about being in De Stijl

touch with the sea that makes me feel See stijl, de

good. That's where most of my paint-
ings come from," he once told a friend. dealer
De Kooning worked in an abstract ex- An intermediary between buyer and
pressionist style, specifically action seller. Before dealers came to represent
or gestural painting, in which clear artists, as they do today, medieval
indications of how the work was artists found patrons through their par-

—
made the stroke of the brush or splash ticipation in WORKSHOPS and guilds.
of the paint —are intact for the viewer's Becoming more independent during the
contemplation. When the viewer looks RENAISSANCE, artists were often con-
closely at one section of a painting, a tacted by patrons through intermedi-
sense of a figure will move into focus, aries acting as "agents." With the
then move out again. Contrasting col- growth of a mercantile class and private
ors are superimposed on one another, commissions, both fairs and shops
and it sometimes seems that the artist could become an artist's outlet. During

has achieved his goal, as expressed in the 1 8th century, as the range of col-
the comment above. As for other lecting expanded, the role of dealers
painters of his period (e.g.,gorky and began to grow. In the 19th century,
Jackson pollock), for de Kooning some dealers became important advo-
painting was an existentialist experi- cates for avant-garde art (e.g., see du-
ence, recording anguish, the meaning- RAND-RUEL, VOLLARD, and GOUPIL'S
lessness of and the importance of
life, gallery). Still, there remained a core of
action over understanding. De Kooning dealers (e.g., duveen and berenson)
is notorious for his series of paintings of on whose connoisseurship of historic

women, throughout the 1950s espe- periods wealthy patrons depended. The
They are fierce, angry, dismem-
cially. importance of dealers today is reflected

bered, and reassembled as the most by the lavish advertisements they place
horrendous kind of femme fatale. in various art magazines. The power of
These were not offhanded, spontaneous the art dealer over an artist's ability to
impressions; rather they were worked earn a living is inestimable. Artists
on, and revised, over long periods of in the 20th century have used many
time. (His reputation for being unable tactics that serve, at least in part, to by-

to finish a painting was widely known.) pass and sometimes short-circuit

De Kooning read avidly in philosophy that power, from producing non-
and literature. Perhaps more clearly collectible art (e.g., performance
than his contemporaries, de Kooning and auto-destructive art) to sell-
used painting to examine and try to un- ing their work in cooperatively run
derstand the world around him. As he galleries.
1 82 DECALCOMANIA

decalcomania Miriam schapiro, Joyce Kozloff (born

See ERNST 1942.), and Robert Kushner (born

1949) are among artists working in

Deconstruction Decorative art.

A term coined by Jacques Derrida, De-

construction is an approach of post- decorative arts
STRUCTURALISM. Belief in the instability While paintings and sculpture serve a
of meaning is a foundation of this point more singularly decorative purpose
of view. According to Derrida, all than, for example, a chair or a teapot,
"texts" are subject to reconsideration ironically the term "decorative arts"
and "deconstruction," and a work of came to be used for such utilitarian ob-
visual art is considered as much a text to jects. Ceramics (see pottery), textiles,

be "read" as is a written work. Via De- and furnishings of all kinds fell into the
construction, questions about a work decorative category. Paintings and
of art may multiply ad infinitum; "the sculpture were called fine art (beaux
lastword" can never be written. While arts), implying a hierarchy as much as a
ideas of Derrida and other Poststruc- distinction. Yet throughout most of his-

turalists are conveyed through writing tory prior to the late i8th century, there
(an irony not lost on those or other pur- were no such distinctions. Even during
veyors of words), they are also ex- the renaissance, when artists secured
pressed in works of art. One way that higher social status than could crafts-
this occurs is by the artist subverting, people, there was an interdependence
sabotaging, and generally defying inter- between a painting and its interior set-

pretation. ting, whether hung over a sideboard

it

or next to a window, or was painted

Decorative art on the ceiling. The occasion for separ-
In the mid-1970s the term "Decora- ating the decorative and fine arts was
tive," or sometimes "pattern," was art the French Revolution. As the philoso-
employed to describe painting that was pher/critic Arthur Danto writes: "It was

pleasing to the senses and focused on Jacques-Louis David, functioning as

pattern and structure in overall design artistic commissar, who decreed the di-

rather than representation. Influences vision, classifying furniture making as

to be found for this movement were ma- an inferior art in contrast with the high

TISSE and islamic art as well as Orien- arts of painting, sculpture and architec-
tal design. The political weight of ture." Jacques-Louis david, a revolu-
Decorative art had to do with its affir- tionary, was motivated by wanting to

mation of skills, such as quilting and discredit the values of the old aristoc-
textile and basket weaving, that were racy,who were patrons of fine furniture
historically described, and usually dis- makers. He was also driven by his belief
counted, as secondary crafts and that painting and sculpture could serve
women's work. Thus, Decorative art the moral purpose of elevating the
participates in the philosophy devoted "masses." David's discriminatory clas-

toremoving barriers between "high" sification has been challenged ever since
and "low" and "art" and "craft." it was made, most vehemently by the
 DEGAS, EDGAR 1 83

ARTS AND CRAFTS movement, mstitu- icalproblem of greater consequence

tions like the bauhaus, and contempo- during the 19th century. Degas may
rary efforts to break down hierarchical have categorized prostitutes according
barriers. to then current pseudoscientific studies
that related physical types to moral and
Degas, Edgar intellectual status. Degas was extremely
1 834-19 1 7 • French • interested in Japanese woodblock
painter/sculptor • Impressionist prints (see ukiyo-e). Many of his pic-
tures show their radical cropping and
A painting is a thing which requires as
dramatic use of empty space. Viscount
much and vice as the
trickery, malice,
Lepic and His Daughters (1873) is an
perpetration of a crime; make
example of Degas bringing three figures
counterfeits and add a touch of nature.
to the front of the picture plane, then
Degas met manet at the Louvre, where cutting off the girls at the waist and
Degas was copying a painting by their father at his thighs. With the
VELAZQUEZ. Subsequently Degas be- empty space behind the figures, and
came a member of the avant-garde and with the various directions in which the
was grouped with the impressionists. people — and even dog and an um-
a
He was sympathetic to their struggles brella —point, the whole composition is

and intentions, but their preoccupation both disorienting and magnetic. Manet
with painting outdoors, and with light and Degas were flaneurs, a term that
and him
fleeting perceptions, interested came to describe the artist who wan-
less than the movements of human and dered the streets watching the bustle of
animal forms. Drawing was far more daily activity and noting it in his sketch-

important to Degas than it was to most books. One of Degas's most perplexing
Impressionists, who were likely to ig- works is, however, an indoor scene, In-
nore outlines in favor of generalized terieur {Interior; c. 1868-70), often
shapes. Working frequently with pas- Le Viol, meaning "The Rape."
subtitled
tels. Degas made many pictures of bal- Whether Degas called it that, or
let dancers and racehorses. He also whether a rape has or will take place, is

produced monotypes of prostitutes uncertain. In fact, everything about the

and pastels of women bathing or getting painting has been unsettled since it was
into and out of tubs. Most of these first shown to the public in the begin-
women look cumbersome and are por- ning of the 20th century, and a multi-
trayed in unattractive poses. The tude of interpretations have been
bathers and prostitutes, especially, have offered. Literary sources are postulated,
prompted numerous books and articles especially a shocking novel by Zola,
positing the artist's misogyny, his impo- Therese Raquin, published in 1867. The
tence (now disputed), and speculation painting's composition is, again, disori-
about whether the bathers are also enting. A man stands by the door, cast-
prostitutes. Though the subject was ing a dark shadow; a seemingly dejected
treated in earlier art (see genre), with woman is at the other side of the room,
the growth of urbanization, prostitu- and of the canvas, her back to him. The
tion became a socioeconomic and med- most highly illuminated object, directly
184 DEGENERATE ART (ENTARTETE KUNST)

beneath a lamp on a table in the center Germany. Meanwhile, exhibitions were

of a room, is an open box with pink lin- mounted in Paris and London to offset
ing. There are objects of clothing scat- the effects of the Nazi effort, and works
tered around the room. Whatever is the of the same artists were shown as exam-
"meaning" of this awful moment must ples of "independent" international art,

be left to the observer's imagination.

Degas's notes about it tell us only that Delacroix, Eugene
he meant to "greatly elaborate the ef- 179 8-1 863 • French • painter •
fects of the evening —lamp, candle, etc. Romantic Baroque
The intriguing thing is to show not the
O young artist, you search for a
source of the light but the effect of the
subject— everything is a subject. Your
light." Degas also worked as a sculptor,
subject is yourself, your impressions,
MODELING horses and ballet dancers
your emotions in the presence of
above all. His Little Fourteen-year-old
nature.
Dancer (1880-81) was the only sculp-
ture he exhibited during his lifetime. It With contemporaries Victor Hugo and
was remarkable not only for the child's Hector Berlioz, Delacroix completed
bold spirit, but also for the fact that he the trinity of late-i8th- and early-i9th-
dressed the wax statuette in a real tutu century Romantics preeminent in
and ballet shoes; the real hair on her French literature, music, and art. Dela-
head was tied in a ribbon. The statue croix had modeled for gericault's
was not cast in bronze until 19 19, at Raft of the Medusa, and his own paint-
which time more than xo copies were ings similarly presented contemporary
made. events with great drama on very large
—
canvases characteristics of romanti-
Degenerate Art (Entartete Kunst) cism. Delacroix wanted to thrill, to
The name given by Nazis to works sys- move, to motivate his viewers in the
tematically confiscated by them from new French Republic. Himself an eye-
German museums and exhibited at the witness to the popular July 1830 upris-
Galerie am Hofgarten in Munich in ings in Paris that reignited the spirit of

1937. The scorned works were juxta- revolution, Delacroix was excited by
posed with the art of the insane and the battle for individual freedom — in-

children, the "resemblances" high- dividualism was an important tenet

lighted by labels for purposes of de- of Romanticism. Delacroix's Liberty
meaning the artists. For contrast, in a Leading the People (1830) became an
new gallery across the park from the archetype for the image of idealistic and
Degenerate Art was an exhibit of tradi- heroic revolution. The figure of Liberty
tional, representational art highly ap- is a bare-breasted woman forging
proved of by the National Socialists. ahead, holding the Tricolor above her
deemed "degenerate" included
Artists head as both emblem and weapon. Her
KANDINSKY, KLEE, CHAGALL, MATISSE, dress billows as if she had created a
and PICASSO. For propaganda purposes, wind by the force of her movement,
the exhibit of Degenerate Art toured bringing to mind the great Hellenistic
 — 1 —

DELAROCHE, HIPPOLYTE-PAUL 1 85

marble nike of samothrace (c. 190 which Delacroix, to the glory of our
bce). But Delacroix's Liberty strides century, has translated better than any
among fallen bodies with the smoke of other artist? It is the indivisible, the im-
burning Paris behind her. The picture palpable; it is the dream, the nerves, the
combines journalistic reporting and soul. And he has done this . . . with no
mythic allegory. Delacroix used dra- other means save contour and color."
matic lighting, a rich palette, and
sweeping — and sometimes splashing Delaroche, Hippolyte-Paul
brushstrokes. In many of his pictures 1797-1856 • French • painter •
Delacroix applied paint with energy ap- Neoclassicist/Romantic
propriate to their violence. He was
The public readily admires jane Grey's
fiercely anti-CLASSiCAL, and his battle
pose. admires the cautiousness of
It
with INGRES became a cause celebre. A
the hands, the sickly whiteness of the
standard comparison of their styles
shoulders; there is nothing that is not
contrasts pictures that both artists
approved of by interested viewers,
made of Paganini: In Ingres's neoclas-
even down to the left knee, resting
sical pencil drawing of 18 19, Paganini
alone on the pillow. (Gustave Planche,
is rendered in a formal manner with
1834)
crisp, descriptive lines and elegant shad-
ing; cropped at the hips, he is not play- Delaroche endeavored to portray scenes
ing his violin, which is tucked beneath from the past, from religion and lit-

his arm, but he is composed, sophisti- erature history painting —with the
cated, idealized. Delacroix's oil paint- veracity of today's sharp-focus photog-
ing of 1832 shows Paganini playing his raphy. He presented themes as if they
violin, his entire body curving as if with were from a stage play, tableaux frozen
the resonance of his music. There are in time. The Execution of Lady Jane
none of the careful specifics and ob- Grey (1834) is a prime example: Blind-
jective details of Ingres; for Delacroix, folded, wearing a brilliant white silk
art is subjective and intuitive. In 183 dress, the young woman is about to be
Delacroix accompanied a French diplo- beheaded. She is watched by her execu-
matic mission to Morocco. A few paint- tioner, whose red tights presage the

ings, such as yeomen of Algiers (1834) blood soon to flow onto straw so care-
and Jewish Wedding in Morocco (1837/ fully painted that individual stalks
41), resulted from his trip, but the seven could be counted. The composition is

note/sketchbooks and some watercol- clear and balanced, details of costume

ORs he brought home have greater and style are exact and dispassionately
spontaneity and enormous appeal. In- recorded. Yet the picture is fraught with
fluenced by the work of rubens and implied if not explicit emotion. De-
Gericault, Delacroix himself influenced laroche was an artist who found a path
numerous artists, including renoir between the extremes of cool neoclas-
and van gogh. In his eulogy at the sicisM and passionate romanticism, a
artist's death, baudelaire wrote, juste milieu, as itwas called. The text

"What is this mysterious je ne sais quoi quoted above is from a review of the
 —

1 86 DELAUNAY, ROBERT

SALON of 1834 in which Jane Grey was Delaunay-Terk, Sonia

shown. Delaroche has a reputation as a 1885-1979 • Russian •
gifted teacher, with more than 355 painter/designer • Orphist
recorded pupils, gerome and millet
Up to the present, painting has been
among them.
nothing but photography in color, but
the color was always used as a means
Delaunay, Robert
of describing something. Abstract art is
1885-1941 • French • painter •
a beginning towards freeing the old
Orphist
pictorial formula. But the real new
Color alone is form and subject. painting will begin when people
understand that color has a life of its
As he moved through cubism and fau-
own, that the combinations of
infinite
viSM, Delaunay created brightly col-
color have a poetry and a language
ored Eiffel Tower paintings (c. 1909)
much more expressive than the old
that appealed to German expression-
methods. It is a mysterious language in
ists, who invited him to exhibit with
tune with the vibrations, the life itself,
the BLAUE reiter group. As his interests
of color. In this area, there are new
evolved, Delaunay's concentration on
and infinite possibilities.
the effects of color led him to refer
back to the color studies of signac and Sonia Terk, born in the Ukrainian town
to develop ideas for entirely nonobjec- of Gradizhsk, settled in Paris in 1905
TiVE paintings in a style apollinaire and spent most of her life there. With
named orphism. Important theoretical Robert delaunay, whom she married
bases for Delaunay's work were the sci- in 1 9 10, she believed in the primacy of
entific writings of chevreul on color color and was a cofounder of or-
harmonies as well as those of Charles phism. The Delaunays received a com-
Henry, who discussed color in terms of mission to decorate the Air and
movement. Delaunay's brilliant circles Railroad Pavilions for the Paris Exposi-
and spheres, as in Simultaneous Con- tion of 1937, and Study for Portugal is

trasts: Sun and Moon (191 3) flaming — her gouache design for that project:
reds, hot yellows, and golds embedded four scenes that brightly capture mood
in dark and light greens and blues and movement with simplified figures,

were painted in (tondo)

a circular landscape, and architectural details. She
format. These "Disks," or "Cosmic had already expanded into fabric design

Circular Forms," Delaunay himself re- after piecing together a quilt for her son

ferred to in terms of "Simultaneity." in 191 1. She worked also in collage,

With the less celebrated paintings of a bookbinding, book illustration, and de-
contemporary, the Czech-born Fran- sign, including costumes for a Diaghilev

tisek (Frank) Kupka (1871-1957), and ballet. Her work in textiles led her into

those of the American synchromists, a collaboration with couturiers and

Delaunay's experiments with color great success in the world of fashion.
were among the earliest examples of An interest in merging the fields of com-
nonrepresentational, nonobjective ab- merce and art resulted in her publishing

stract art in Europe. articles and delivering lectures on her

 DENIS, MAURICE I 87

theoriesand work. In 1930 she returned cut down. Dendrochronology is some-

to painting and joined the abstrac- times used to confirm an age provided
tion-creation group. She wrote the by RADIO CARBON DATING. Since the
words quoted above in 1949. 1960s, dendrochronology has been a
useful means of determining the earliest
Demuth, Charles possible year of a painting on a wood
1883-193 5 • American • painter • PANEL and of building timber. For ex-
Precisionist ample, it was used to establish that a
painting entitled Girl with a Flute, as-
America doesn't really care— still, if
signed to VERMEER, was painted on
one is really an artist and at the same
wood from a tree felled in the early
time an American, just this not caring,
1 650s. (That does not prove that Ver-
even though it drives one mad, can he
meer was the artist, however, and its at-
artistic material.
tribution, debated on the basis of style,
Demuth incorporated the slanted 'Mines has recently been changed to "circle of"
of force" used by futurists in his land- Vermeer —probably one of his children,

scapes with flatter, less aggressively as he is not known to have had stu-
fractured, and more carefully organized dents.)
PRECISIONIST forms. His colors in these
works— he often used pencil with wa- Denis, Maurice
TERCOLOR washes — are pale relatively 1 870-1943 • French • painter/writer
and subtle. Taking on the challenge of • Symbolist/Nabi
what he considered the national trait of
. . . it is well to remember that a
passivity toward mechanization, as in
picture— before being a battle horse, a
the comment above from a letter he
nude woman, or some anecdote— is
wrote to STIEGLITZ, around 1920 De-
essentially a plane surface covered with
Imuth began to paint symbols of Ameri-
colors assembled in a certain order.
can industry: My Egypt (1927) is a view
of an enormous grain elevator that The comment above, from Denis's es-

kj looms as large as the great Pyramids. In say "Definition of Neo-Traditionalism"

7 Saw the Figure 5 in Gold (1928), his (1890), is so frequently quoted that it

carefully organized planes are bril- has practically become the definition of
liantly colored with fire engine red and MODERN art. Denis was 20 when he
brassy gold. Inspired by a poem by De- wrote the words that effectively turn at-

muth's friend William Carlos Williams, tention from the historic subject of a
the painting vividly expresses the work to its means and materials of pro-
truck's clanging gong, howling siren, duction. was the underpinning of
It

and rumbling wheels racing through the synthetism and the development of
dark, rainy night. ABSTRACTION and its multitude of vari-
ants, from CUBISM and abstract ex-
dendrochronology pressionism to MINIMALISM. Despite
The science of measuring tree rings in a the significance of his proclamation,
cross section of wood that enables Denis's name, as well as his art, is rela-

an estimate of the year the tree was tively unknown, certainly in compari-
 a

1 88 DER BLAUE REITER

son to those about whom he wrote. duced Matisse to vlaminck at the large

Even in his most renowned painting. van GOGH retrospective of 1901. Van
Homage to Cezanne (1900), he shows Gogh's bold use of color and paint in-

himself very much in the background spired them, as did that of gauguin.
while both of his idols, cezanne and Derain was among the painters who ex-
REDON, share the limelight. Curiously, hibited at thefamous 1905 salon
in Homage, a copy of a still life by d'automne, where the fauve move-
Cezanne serves as stand-in for Cezanne ment was named. His spontaneity and
himself. inventiveness are evident in London
Bridge (1906): The perspective is both
Der Blaue Reiter arbitrary — as if one were suspended in

See blaue reiter, Der midair above the bridge — and dis-

torted. Bold primary colors are used,

Der Sturm but the sky is flaming red, orange, and
See STURM, Der yellow, some buildings are blue, and the
water is bright green with strokes of
Derain, Andre bright blue and high yellow. As the
18 80-1 9 54 • French • painter • short-lived Fauve movement waned,
Fauve Derain was attracted to Cubism. De-
rain's politics as well as his art have a
. . . These strange African images made
smudged reputation: Accusations of
a powerful impression upon Andre
Nazi collaboration are long-standing.
Derain who, while regarding them
Derain's defenders say he believed his
with a great deal of fondness, admired
trip to Germany would 300
liberate
the talent with which the sculptors
artists held captive there, and would af-
from Guinea and the Congo had
fect the return of his house, which the
reproduced the human figure without
Nazis had requisitioned. Though his
utilizing any element taken from direct
reputation rivaled that of any other liv-
vision. (Guillaume Apollinaire, 1912)
ing painter in the 1920s, it has since de-
Derain and vlaminck became friends clined,

in was Vlaminck, accord-

1900, and it

ing to APOLLINAIRE, who showed De- Dervini Krater

rain the African sculpture, masks, and Named for the area of Macedonia
fetishes he had discovered in antique where it was found in 1962, this large,

stores. Apollinaire goes on to describe bronze, HELLENISTIC vase, more than z

the chain of circumstances through feet high, contained cremated remains
which Derain eventually communicated believed, from an inscription, to be
his interest in African artifacts to pi- those of a nobleman. Variously dated
CASSO and braque, who later would from the 4th and 2nd centuries bce, it is

use those artifacts for their experiments a masterpiece of metalwork, with ap-
in who seems to have
CUBISM. Derain, repousse scenes
plied silver details,
been an important link for many art- show Dionysus and Ariadne and their
had also met matisse in 1899,
ists, attendants as well as a parade of ani-
when he was 19 years old, and he intro- mals that include a lion with its prey —
 DEWING, THOMAS WILMER 1 89

goat — slung over its back. Separately luded to in vasari's comment quoted
cast and attached to the shoulder of the above.
vase are four lovely, seated female fig-

ures. To wonder of its exquisite

the de- Dewing, Maria Oakey
tail and workmanship may be added the 1 845-1927 • American • painter •

fascination of its decoration, which Naturalist

provides important information for the

/ must paint pictures or die.
study of the Dionysian cult.
Early in her career Maria Oakey was
Desiderio da Settignano linked with cassatt as one of the two
14Z9/3Z-1464 • Italian • sculptor • most promising American women
Renaissance artists of their time. She had studied at
Cooper Union School of Design for
Some came from
say that he Women in New York, in Paris with
Settignano, a place two miles from
couture, and then with William Mor-
Florence, others consider him a
ris hunt and la farge. She was suc-
Florentine, but this is of little cessful as a STILL LIFE and portrait
importance where the distance is so painter,and her commitment to her
slight. He imitated the style of work was strong enough to prompt the
Donatello, being naturally endowed statement to Oscar Wilde quoted above.
with gracefulness and lightness in the
After she married Thomas Dewing (see
treatment of heads. His women and below) and raised a family, Maria Dew-
children possess a soft, delicate and ing painted less, and her subjects
charming manner, due as much to changed from people to gardens. She
Nature as to art. (Vasari, mid- 1 6th was extraordinarily skilled at painting
century)
garden scenes: Garden in May (1895) is

Desiderio was born and trained in the a floral masterpiece of pink and white

stonecutting village of Settignano, blossoms in her extensive gardens. She

where the rossellinos and lived took the unusual perspective of a gar-
where, later, Michelangelo became dener bending over to the level of the

entranced with marble. Desiderio exe- fragrant flowers. Later in her life, when
cuted a monumental tomb for the Flo-
Thomas was ill and no longer painting,
rentine HUMANIST Carlo Marsuppini Maria again took up the figure. Fier
(after 1453) that was set across from oeuvre is largely lost, but interest on the

the earlier Bruni tomb by Bernardo part of contemporary art historians is

Rossellino at Santa Croce, Florence. bringing her accomplishments to light,

Desiderio was a student of donatello and from time to time some of her lost

and skilled at rilievo schiacciato (thin or

works are resurfacing.

shallow relief), as evident in the

Dewing, Thomas Wilmer
marble panel Madonna and Child (c.
1851-1938 • American • painter •
1460). This example, along with the
Aestheticism
several putti on the Marsuppini tomb,
show Desiderio's keen observation and Dewing one of those figures who
is

obvious skill at sculpting children, al- summarize an age, and in his art may
 .

190 DI SOTTO IN SU

be seen an original distillation of many ing married a painter, Maria Oakey (see

later nineteenth-century tastes and Maria Oakey dewing).

preoccupations: Victorian idealism and
illusion, fin-de-siecle nostalgia and di sotto in su
wistfulness, an aestheticism joined to See perspective
poetic and musical sensibilities, and
shapes of the real world treated as Diachronic analysis
vehicles of either personal or universal See SYNCHRONIC ANALYSIS
meaning. (John Wilmerding, 1976)
Diderot, Denis
Dewing, like ryder, evades most cate- 171 3-1784 • French • philosopher/
gories. In fact, comparing him with critic

Ryder yields an interesting juxtaposi-

Here, then is how I would have a
tion. Where Ryder built up layer upon
school of drawing run. When the
layer of thick dark paints to create
student knows how to draw easily
strangely threatening, moonlit land-
from prints and busts, I keep him for
scapes, Dewing lightly brushed his
two years before the academic model
landscapes with pale, filmy vapors:
of man and woman. Then I expose to
greens, blues, pinks, pallid taupes. The
him children, adults, men in the prime
black figures in Ryder's landscapes are
of life, old men, subjects of all ages
almost grotesque, gesticulating silhou-
and sexes, taken from all walks of
ettes. Dewing's figures are equally
society, in a word all kinds of
anonymous, but they are graceful, ele-
characters. . . . After the drawing
gant, ethereal women who float,
hour an able anatomist will
dreamlike, in his misty landscapes (e.g..
explain the skinned body to my
Summer, c. 1890). Dewing's paintings,
student and he will draw from
. .

like those of whistler and inness,

the skinned body once a month at
were impressionistic, but not in the
most.
studied sense of the impressionist
movement. Dewing was interested in il- Diderot is generally considered to be the
lusion and mood. The well-dressed, founder of art criticism, which he
upper-class, idlewomen who populate launched 1759 when he began
in to
his canvases, as they did many other write regular reports on the salons in

contemporary pictures, were known Paris. His opinions appeared in Corre-

as "decorative." The historian Wil- spondance whose subscribers
litteraire,

merding, quoted above, situates Dew- were a small number of the elect
ing in time and place. His scenes should throughout Europe including princes,
also be understood in the context of a kings, and Catherine of Russia, from
period during which, in fact, many whom he accepted a pension. Despite
women were struggling for and insist- his popularity and influence, both
ing on an opportunity to do more than church and state in France continued to
stand around looking like beautiful reject him. Diderot's strong opposition

ornaments. Interestingly, Thomas Dew- to practices at the academy, such as

 DINE, JIM 191

drawing from plaster casts and from Die Briicke

models posed as if they were classical See BRiJCKE, Die
statues, is expressed in the quotation
above. He promoted the notion of stu- Diebenkorn, Richard
dents studying human nature and inter- 1922-1992 • American •

action in the world around them. "To painter/printmaker • Abstraction

the works of nature the beholder must
/ seem to have to do it elaborately
supply significance, feeling, thought, ef-
wrong and with many conceits first.
fect, emotional influence; in the work of
Then maybe I can attack and deflate
art he expects to find all that, and it
my pomposity and arrive at something
must be there," he also wrote in his
straight and simple.
"Essay on Painting" (1766). It was
translated into German and also pub- Diebenkorn has moved between repre-
lished by GOETHE. Diderot's Philosoph- sentational and nonrepresentational,
ical Thoughts (1746) was burned for its ABSTRACT and FIGURATIVE art. He
attack on Christian dogma and morals, painted landscapes, nudes, and color
and Diderot's continued defiance led to studies, working in bright and luminous
his imprisonment. While in prison he colors such as buttercup yellow, violet,
began the Encyclopedie, on the arts and and mellow turquoise. Ocean Park,
sciences, which would occupy him for named after the section of Santa Mon-
the next zo years. Part of the enlight- ica, California, where he lived, is an es-

enment's great project of cultural edu- sentially abstract series from the 1970s.
cation, assembled under Diderot's Ocean Park N. loy (1978), for exam-
direction, it contains 17 volumes of ple, nearly 8 feet high and some 6 feet

text, with 72,000 articles, and 11 vol- wide, is composed of rectangles, wide
umes of plates. Besides Diderot himself, and narrow, that capture the colors of
its140 contributors included the most Pacific air, a sliver of water, the green
prominent philosophers, Voltaire, of, perhaps, a boat, the bright yellow
Rousseau, and d'Alembert among sun. Diebenkorn is considered the dean
them. The goal was to present in clear, of the California painters, a group that
accessible prose the fruits of accumu- includes Elmer Bischoff and David
lated knowledge and learning. Because Park, who was Diebenkorn's teacher at
of censorship, successive volumes the California School of Fine Arts in
appeared at an irregular pace. The San Francisco.
first seven were issued, one per year,
Dine, Jim
from 175 1 to 1757. Distribution of
born 1935 • American • painter •
the 10 remaining volumes took place
Pop Art/New Realist
in 1766. The volumes of plates, rela-
tively unaffected by censorship, were My paintings are involved with
released at the rate of roughly one per "objects." At a time when the
year from 1761 to 1772. In its original consumption of same is so enormous I
printing, about 4,000 copies were find the most effective picture of them
made. to be not a transformation or romantic
192 DIORAMA

distortion but a straight smack right Standing in the room, a viewer was
there attitude. I am interested in their meant to have the illusion of being pre-
own presence. sent in the actual scene in which he or
she was surrounded. The term "dio-
Dine made assemblages, environ- rama" combines French words for
MENTs, and happenings before he "through" and panorama.
started to create paintings of, and with,
real things. One of his most vivid and diptych
impresswe is Five Feet of Colorful Tools Derived from ancient writing tablets
(1962). This assembles a collection of with hinged leaves {di means "two"), a
actual tools that he has painted in a diptych is a pair of panels, either
kaleidoscope of colors, along with out- painted or carved, that are to be seen
line shapes painted on the large canvas, open or closed. (See also altarpiece)
from the top of which these tools are
hung. Dine also painted everyday items Discobolos
of clothing — ties, belts, hats, shoes, and The Discobolos (460-450 bce), or Dis-
in one instance. Double Isometric Self- cus Thrower (in a competition of both
Portrait (1964), two bathrobes side by ancient and contemporary Olympic
side. came to make self-portraits
"I Games), was a bronze sculpture by
when I felt I knew enough about myself myron. The original is missing, but it
to speak publicly and about that sub- was copied several times in marble by
ject. I used an image of a bathrobe be- Roman artisans and discussed by the
cause I found a photo of one and after ancient writers Lucian and Quintilian.
rendering it on canvas, it seemed to be In the figure of a nude young man,
my body inside," he commented. knees bent, right arm raised to launch
the discus, the torsion of his body ex-
diorama presses collected energy and suspended
The familiar diorama of today is found animation. Once the problem of show-
in natural history museums where ing contrapposto in freestanding
three-dimensional models, often behind sculpture had been solved, a new world
glass, reproduce particular scenes and of possibilities opened up. Besides its

natural habitats. However, the diorama exploration of movement, the self-

was invented by daguerre in 1822, be- control explicit in this work embodies
fore he worked on photography, which the highest values of Greek classical
he probably investigated to enhance his art and of Greek life as well. Buried at a
dioramas. Such dioramas were large villa on the Esquiline Hill in Rome, the
paintings with special lighting effects first of several Discobolos replicas was
shining through the painted surface, discovered on March 14, 178 1, and im-
The lighting mimicked various times of mediately became famous. In the 20th
day (e.g., moonlight) and atmospheric century, Adolf Hitler imagined the
conditions. Theatrical in effect, such statue to represent the young manhood
paintings were often housed in a room of what he considered the "master
that was itself often called a diorama, race" and moved to acquire it. It was
 —

DOBELL, SIR WILLIAM I93

sold to him despite protests of the Ital- work was condemned and removed
ian High Commission for Science and from public collections. He continued
Art; however, it was returned to Italy in to portray Fascism with cynicism and
1953. In a scene of Leni RiefenstahPs disgust, but hid his criticism in tradi-
documentary of the 1936 Berlin Olym- tional allegories like The Seven Deadly
pics, a shot of Discobolos comes to life Sins (1933). At the age of 52 he was
as a real athlete. Commissioned to forced to join the Home Guard, was
record the games as an exaltation of taken prisoner, and spent several
Hitler's National Socialism, the film months in a prisoner-of-war camp. After
perversely — used monuments associ- the war his work acquired a religious
ated with Greek democratic idealism to spirituality in an expressionist style.

promote Nazi totalitarianism. He linked his new work, and that of

other German artists, to the years of sup-
divisionism pression they had endured. He describes
The term used by neo-impressionist their feelings in the quotation above.

painters themselves for what came to be

known as pointillism. Dobell, Sir William
1 899-1970 • Australian • painter •
Dix, Otto Modern
1 891-1969 • German • painter •
/ am always worried whether I am
New Objectivity
doing my best work. I think I have
Nothing superficial and unessential been side-tracked a lot by trying to
could have survived the intense heat of keep up to date with modernism. I am
trial and persecution. At the same time essentially a traditionalist and I think
the material and spiritual trying to be a modernist . . . I have
difficulties . . . left their mark. failed to do my best work.

InGermany, after World War I, there In 1929 Dobell won a scholarship that
was a marked reaction against abstrac- allowed him to study in London. Before
tion and a return to representative, fig- returning home in 1938, he also visited
urative, or "objective" art. This France and Belgium. Among the artists
revealed itself in the biting commen- whose work left a great impression on
taries of GROSZ, BECKMANN, and Dix, his was the highly expressive and dis-

whose approach was called new objec- torted portraiture of soutine. In 1944
tivity. There was exaggeration and Dobell won a prize for portraiture
confrontation in their works. Dix's Dr. awarded by the Art Gallery of New
Mayer-Hermann (1926) is a bizarre South Wales. Two of the unsuccessful
portrait of a rotund dentist whose competitors challenged the award,
equipment reflects and distorts sur- claiming Dobell's painting was carica-
rounding reality and overpowers the ture, not a portrait. Besides making
bloated man, with his expressionless Dobell a household name, the court
baby Dix did not leave Germany
face. case marked the conflict that modern
during the Nazi regime, though his art created in Australia. Another of his
194 DOESBURG, THEO VAN

works is Dame Mary Gilmore (1957), as rectangles. Though abstracted, the

which shows a ramrod-straight, gray- scene is entirely recognizable. In the sec-

haired aristocrat with lacy collar, shim- ond work, van Doesburg used only
mering gown, and white gloves. Her straight lines, and the picture's relation
elongated neck and body give the paint- to its subject is nearly indecipherable.
ing a MANNERIST affect, but in her pos- Van Doesburg and mondrian worked
ture and face Dobell has captured an together closely until van Doesburg de-
impressive statement of advancing age serted the vertical/horizontal axis for
and unassailable dignity. diagonals in a variation he named Ele-
mentarism in 1924. Feeling betrayed,
Doesburg, Theo van Mondrian left De Stijl.

1883-1931 • Dutch •

painter/architect • De Stijl dome

Domes vary widely in size and shape,
In the same way as man has ripened to
from the spherical lid of the pantheon
be able to oppose the domination of
to the onion-shaped domes of Byzan-
the iftdiuidual, arbitrariness, the artist,
tium. Among the most adventurous ex-
too, has ripened so as to be able to
perimenters was BORROMiNi, who
resist the domination of individuality
designed an oval dome for San Carlo
in plastic arts.
alleQuattro Fontane (1638-41) in
As originator of De stijl, van Doesburg Rome and a complex "star hexagon"
claimed that the movement was for Sant' Ivo della Sapienza (1642-50),
founded in Dutch Protestant idealism, also in Rome. For the most part domes
Dutch culture since the
influential in are spherical vaults of even curvature
Reformation. De Stijl was the purest built on a circular base. There are sev-
and most idealistic of modern ap- eral means of constructing and support-
proaches, with its search for the perfect ing a dome, including the cylindrical
harmony its practitioners believed pos- drum, groin vaults (see arch), and
sible both for the individual and for adaptive permutations that enable a cir-

society. Theirs was a spiritual/ethical cular lid to be put on a square base. De-
mission. In their art they gave absolute rived from the Italian word duomo,
primacy to the straight line and right meaning "cathedral," domes are actu-
angle. Inviting artists to contribute to ally among the earliest forms of over-
their publication, van Doesburg wrote, head covering. Examples from ancient
"The quadrangle is the token of a new Europe are the conical "beehive" tombs
humanity. The square is to us what the at Mycenae of c. 1300 bce (see Myce-
cross was to the early Christians." He naean). To Romans the dome repre-
based two of his paintings, both entitled sented heaven, none is more
and
Card Players {c. I9i6-i7and 1917), on celestial than that of the pantheon.
Cezanne's Card Players of c. 1892. In The small, chapel-like rooms of Christ-
the first version, van Doesburg system- ian CATACOMBS in Rome had decorated
atized the people and objects of domes. Once Christianity was autho-
Cezanne's picture into flattened geo- rized by Constantine, church buildings
metric shapes, including curves as well with a central plan, such as the Church
 DOMENICO VENEZIANO I95

of Santa Costanza in Rome (c. 337-51), FAMILY "academy" in Bologna and

were covered by domes. Some histori- were masters of the fresco technique.
ans suggest that Roman baths, associ- Carracci students were known for their
ated with the idea of baptism, plus the CLASSICIZING style, and Domenichino
Catacombs, where the promise of Hfe had been among the most ardent classi-

was foremost, combined to

after death cists. This is evident in his Life of Saint
promote building domes for Christian Cecilia (161 3-14), frescoes at the
churches; however, that interpretation church of San Luigi de' Francesci in
is controversial. Domed ceilings were Rome, where the figures are taken di-
often decorated with mosaics. The 6th- rectly from ancient Classical statues
century hagia sophia is a masterpiece and set among archaeologically correct
of the BYZANTINE era with a central furnishings. When he worked on San
dome supported by pendentives — the Andrea, his earlier restraint had a burst
triangular area joining arches that en- more like the in-
of energy that looked
close or define the base of the dome. fluence of CORREGGIO, RAPHAEL, and
MICHELANGELO than of ANTIQUITY. As
Domenichino (Domenico the historian wittkower writes, "It
Zampieri) may be supposed that Domenichino
1581-1641 • Italian • painter • wished to outshine his rival Lan-
"
Baroque franco.

Lanfranco's frescoes are very well

Domenico Veneziano
displayed above Domenichino's
c. 1410-1461 • Italian • painter •
Evangelist figures which, being more
Renaissance
finished, more meticulously painted
and closer to the eye, permit the vision The an important part of
lighting is

of Glory to diffuse itself into the Domenico's innovation [in the St. Lucy
distance in a way better adapted to the Altarpiece], bathing in a credible
whole. (Bellori, 1672) atmosphere the architecture and
figures within the perspective
The FRESCoes in Rome's San Andrea
space. . . . [The picture's placement] in
della Valle (1622-27), referred to by
a loggia with open-air exedra behind—
BELLORI, above, were the subject of
that unique kind of indoor-outdoor
fierce competition between lanfranco
building so suitable to the central
and Domenichino, who tried to claim
Italian climate— enabled him to
the entire project for himself. had It
provide outdoor lighting in an
been promised to Lanfranco, and was
architectural (and therefore
the largest commission ever awarded to
perspectival) framework. (Marcia Hall,
an artist until — as the result of
1992)
Domenichino pulling strings the work —
was divided, to the fury of both. "But," Domenico was a painter of the Floren-
as Bellori goes on to write, "this change tine avant-garde that included uc-
did not bring such damage to art that it CELLO, ANDREA Castagna, and piero
did not still remain glorious." Both della Francesca, all of whom were in-

artists had studied at the carracci spired by MASACCIO. He was born and
196 DOMUS AUREA OF NERO

trained in Venice, whence his name, but ter had inherited from the International
httle else is known of his background. Style (see Gothic). But he was not yet
In Florence by the late 1430s, it may be technically in charge of the human fig-

that he brought with him a Venetian ure: The eyes of his c. 1408 marble
PALETTE of pinks and light greens offset David are vacant and the legs unnat-
by coral, white, blue, and other rich col- ural. The eyes begin to focus with Saint

ors. This color scheme is notable in George (c. 14 14) but the legs, still prob-
Madonna and Child with Saints, lematic, are hidden behind a shield. An
known as the Saint Lucy Altarpiece, important step is that Saint George, al-
painted c. 1445. Domenico also used though in a niche (on the same building,
strong natural light to illuminate his Orsanmichele, as nanni's Quattro
pictures, and was interested in explor- Santi Coronati), is more believable,
ing PERSPECTIVE, as described by Hall alert, confident, and individualized, and
in the quotation above. Yet he remained he stands at the very front of his niche
somewhat retrospective in his tendency looking as though he could step out
to line up his cast of characters in the on request. From this time forward
front of the picture plane, and to deny Donatello's sculpture is known for its

them the expression of emotion. psychological depth and expressive

Domenico did pioneer in important power —Donatello himself is said (by
areas: He seems to have been the first to VASARi) to have cursed at his statue
paint his figures in the kind of grouping known as the Zuccone ("Pumpkin
called sacra conversazione, or "sa- Head"; c. 141 5 to mid-i430s), as in the

cred conversation"; he was also one of quotation above. His later bronze
the first to paint a tondo, or circular David of c. 1435, two-thirds life-size,
composition; and, although the mural was the first freestanding nude in about
has been lost, documents suggest that 1,000 years. It was also the first exam-
he was the first Italian artist to experi- ple of sensuality attached to the human
ment with oil painting, perhaps in form since antiquity. His helmetlike
combination with the egg tempera hat and high boots suggest this David
used in buon fresco. may have been modeled on an antique
image of Mercury. "Donatello's first in-

Domus Aurea of Nero novation . . . followed repeatedly in the

See GOLDEN house of NERO Italian Renaissance, was the transfor-

mation of the King of Israel into a

Donatello young Greek god," wrote Kenneth

c. 1 3 86-1466 • Italian • sculptor • CLARK, who also posits the likeness of
Renaissance antinous as a possible point of refer-
ence for Donatello's David. What
Speak, damn you, speak!
seems certain is that while previous
During his early career in Florence, Do- sculptors had based their work on the
natello was in ghiberti's workshop, example of other statues, Donatello
and his own sculpture showed, for a used a living boy for his model, and,
time, the same sinuous curves his mas- moreover, represented him with an
 dor6, gustave 197

aura of self-confidence and self- donor

satisfaction. Donatello left Florence in In art a donor is usually the individual
the mid-i440s and went to Padua. His who commissions a work, perhaps on
Gattamelata (1447-53) was the first behalf of a church or museum, or gives
monumental bronze equestrian statue it as a gift. Donors were frequently por-
since antiquity and an homage to the trayed along with religious subjects in
Marcus Aurelius monument standing altarpieces of the late medieval and
on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. Besides earlynorthern renaissance periods,
the freestanding sculpture discussed Accompanied by saints, such images
above, Donatello made images in re- were commissioned in thanks for bene-
LiEF. His interest in linear perspective fits received, or in the hope that the
is apparent in his skillful use of very saint will serve as a friendly intermedi-
thin, shallow relief (rilievo schiacciato) ary before God on the donor's behalf,
to represent distance while raising the The donors of campin's Merode Trip-
height of closer objects. An intriguing tych are an example. Sometimes the
innovation in relief is the bronze floor terms donor and patron are inter-
for the tomb of Bishop Giovanni Pecci changeable, but subtle distinction may
at Siena Cathedral. To a viewer stand- be drawn from the roots of each word:
ing at the foot of the tomb, it looks per- For donor the Latin origin is to give,
suasively like the dead bishop, bronzed whereas the root of patron is father,
and laid to rest. The bishop's head faces
the high altar (above which duccio's Dore, Gustave
Maesta stood in Donatello's time) and 183 2-1 883 • French •

from this vantage point the deceased illustrator/painter • Romantic/Realist

seems to receive blessings from the pre- „, . , ^ r^ .
... , .
.,T^ 11 , I here ts a sayinp by Gustave Dore
,..,_. tomb was
sidmg cleric.

lution in the Pecci

Donatello
,
s ingenious so-
to create
which
,
,. , ri
I
;
have always admired:
^ „
»

.
•

^ ,
i

.
«t
1
.
i
have
the patience of an ox." I find in it a
metaphorically a cost-free perpetual
certain goodness, a certain resolute
Mass for the Bishop's soul that was ac-
honesty— in short, that saying has a
tivated every time a priest stood at the
deep meaning, it is the word of a great
altar," writes the historian Geraldine
artist. (Vincent van Gogh, 1883)
Johnson. When he was in his late 60s,
the expressive qualities in Donatello's Van gogh's admiration for Dore,
sculpture evolved in a startling way quoted above, was expressed in a letter

with Mary Magdalene (1454-55): the to his brother Theo written the same
emaciated, almost repellent appearance year Dore died. Dore had moved to
of the aged, repentant saint, once a Paris from his home in Strasbourg in
beautiful woman. This is Donatello's i848,and worked for three years on the
personal statement about the relation- Journal pour rire. He subsequently il-
ship of body The power and in-
to soul. lustrated numerous books, including
fluence of Donatello's innovative work stories by Balzac (1855), Dante's In-
affected both painting and sculpture for ferno (1861), Cervantes' Don Quixote
the greater part of the 15th century. (1863), the Bible (1866), and Milton's
 —

198 DOSSI, DOSSO (GIOVANNI DE LUTERO)

Paradise Lost. There is often a highly rary Giovio, in the quotation above.
emotional, dramatic flair to these illus- Dosso's most characteristic works are
trations that links Dore to the roman- mythological subjects, of which Melissa
tic sensibility. In the 1860s and 1870s, (15x05) is often named as his master-
however, he was in England, where he piece. An enchantress, Melissa liber-
captured the suffering and plight of the ates humans whom the wicked witch
urban poor with both accuracy and has turned into animals and trees. In

pathos. It was these lithographs, in Dosso's painting, the fantasy landscape

the mood of realism, that impressed surrounding Melissa is in transition

van Gogh. men emerge from two tree trunks and

are concealed in others — and a wist-
Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni de ful dog contemplates a shiny suit of
Lutero) armor, awaiting his turn to be de-
c. 1490-154 1/42 • Italian • painter metamorphosed into a knight. Dosso is

• Renaissance both playful and sophisticated, and a

rich colorist.
The gentle manner of Dosso of
Ferrara is esteemed in his proper
Dou, Gerrit
works, but most of all in those which
1613-1675 • Dutch pamter
are called parerga ["accessories," or
Baroque
"background"]. For devoting himself
with relish to the pleasant diversions [Dou] filled his house in Amsterdam
of painting he used to depict jagged with almost countless distinguished
rocks, green groves, the firm banks of children for instruction and learning.
traversing rivers, the flourishing work (Joachim von Sandrart, 1675)
of the countryside, the gay and hard
As a boy of 14, Dou was Rembrandt's
toil of the peasants, and also the far
first student in Leiden and probably
distant prospects of land and sea,
stayed with him until Rembrandt left
fleets, fowling, hunting, and all that
forAmsterdam. Then Dou started his
genre so pleasing to the eyes in a lavish
own school in Leiden, and became a
and festive style. (Paolo Giovio, i6th
fashionable and highly successful artist.
century)
Later, he too left for Amsterdam, where
During the 15th century, a high level of he continued teaching, according to
skill was achieved by a group of his contemporary sandrart, quoted
painters established in Ferrara, where above. Dou was a painter of everyday,
the ESTE dukes called a variety of artists GENRE scenes, highly detailed and with
from Northern Europe, as well as Italy, an enamel-like Some had moral-
finish.

to their courts. In the i6th century, izing themes, such as women's virtues
Dosso dominated the Ferraran school. or, as in the case of The Evening School
The historian Frederick Hartt suggests (before 1665), a work he painted as a
that the flatness of the local landscape student of Rembrandt, an educational
prompted these artists to flights of high theme. Seated at a table with his pupils,
imagination. Such elevation is apprecia- the teacher sharpens his pen by candle-
tively described by Dosso's contempo- light — this allegorical picture is on the
 DOWNING, ANDREW JACKSON I99

subject of keeping one's skills honed. been lynched," as Douglas described it.

The candlelight symbolizes enlighten- It is the fourth panel. Song of the Tow-
ment in the education of children. ers, that Douglas describes in the quota-
Small, candlelit scenes became a spe- 1939 Douglas
tion excerpted above. In
cialty of Dou in his later years. went to Fisk University, where he
founded the school's art department.
Douglas, Aaron
1 899-1 979 • American pamter •
Dove, Arthur
Modern 1 880-1946 • American pamter •

A great migration, away from the Modern

clutching hand of serfdom in the South Why not make things look like nature?
to the urban and industrial life in
Because I do not consider that
America, began during the First World important and my nature to make
it is
War. And with it there was born a new them this way. To me it is perfectly
will to creative expression which
natural. They exist in themselves, as an
quickly grew in the New Negro object does in nature.
Movement of the twenties. At its peak,
the Depression brought confusion, One of the three painters stieglitz

dejection and frustration. championed most energetically (the

others were marin and o'keeffe),
The movement about which Douglas Dove went to France for 1 8 months in
speaks in the quotation above is the
1908 and was drawn to the work of
HARLEM RENAISSANCE, of W^hich he waS both CEZANNE and matisse. In The
a part. His words also describe one of Lobster (1908), a still life that seems
the themes of a series of murals illus- frame before
about to tumble out of its
trating the lives of African-Americans,
us, the bright color and decorative plea-
entitled Aspects of Negro Life (com- sure of Matisse are combined with the
pleted 1934), that he painted for the structural building up and complexity
Countee Cullen Branch of the New of design found in Cezanne. Dove's
York Public Library. These murals treatment of subjects became more styl-
combine an intriguing illusion of lami-
ized, simplified, and finally abstracted,
nation, as if each image was built up though never entirely nonobjective.
with layers of tissue paper rather than He once said, "There is no such thing as
paint. Figures appear as shadows, or sil-
abstraction. It is extraction, gravitation
houettes, giving the flat forms a unique
toward a certain direction, and minding
sense of depth. In four panels, the se- own
your business."
quence moves from an African setting
to historic images, from slavery to the
Downing, Andrew Jackson
Civil War, against an American back-
181 5-1852 • American • architect
ground. The third panel. An Idyll of the
(landscape and building)/author •
Deep South, "portrays Negroes toiling
Eclectic/Revival
in the fields, singing and dancing in a

lighter mood, and mourning as they With the Passion for novelty, and the
prepare to take away a man who has feeling of independence that belongs to
200 draftmanship/draughtsmanship

this country, our people seem human form are treated only sporadi-
determined to try everything. cally. Paintings of northern renais-
sance artists are more attentive to the

The first landscape architect in Amer- texture and uniqueness of materials

ica and father of the park movement, such as fur and brocade. Ultimately, the
Downing wrote several influential representation of drapery is generally
books, among them Cottage Residences consistent with the mood and meaning
(1842) and The Architecture of Coun- the artist has in mind, from the subtle
try Houses (1850), in which he de- infusion of light on the clothing and
scribes Italian villas, Victorian table covers in vermeer's pictures
mansions, and the very popular gothic to the once again schematic render-
fantasies. His comment, quoted above, ing of cloth in a painting such as Henri
aptly explains the prevailing taste for rousseau's The Sleeping Gypsy (1897).
"everything," and Egyptian
Greek
styles included, symptomatic of the drawing
era's revivalism. As Downing also Refers to images executed by means of
wrote, "A blind partiality for any one lines, outlines, and shading, usually
style in building is detrimental to the with pencil, or pen, or in charcoal,

progress of improvement." chalk, or some such graphic medium.

The conventional meaning of drawing
draftsmanship/draughtsmanship refers to what were often preparatory

Refers to drawing ability. designs or studies for a work that would

ultimately be painted or sculpted. These
drapery drawings became recognized and col-

In art, "drapery" refers to any fabric lected as works of art in their own right

that falls in folds or pleats. The treat- during the renaissance. (See also line
ment of draperies, especially the vs. color and graphic art)
method used for modeling, often
serves to define style. The elaborately p. \y7*11
detailed and sensuous fall of fabric fol-
c. i630?-after 1680? • Dutch
lowing contours of the body in the High
painter • Baroque
CLASSICAL stone figures of the Three
Goddesses 438-432 bce) and of
(c. Although I have always resisted the re-

Nike Fastening Her Sandal (c. 410 bce) attribution, I must admit that its very
is known as the wet drapery style. In existence forces me to look at the

MEDIEVAL pictures, drapery tends to fall painting more critically. One then
into schematic, decorative folds that discovers that features of the painting
have little reference to the weight and which were always considered marks
texture of the fabric or to the body be- of its greatness as long as it was a
neath it, although in certain instances it Rembrandt— a certain vagueness, a

does have great expressive content (e.g., poetic suggestiveness, an ambiguity of

EADWINE and STOSS). Even during the meaning— turn into signs of inferior
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, the intrinsic artistry when they are attributed to

qualities of fabric and its relation to the Drost. (Gary Schwartz, 1985)
 DRYSDALE, SIR GEORGE RUSSELL 20I

Little is known about Drost or his Somebody once said to me: "You're
work, but he was catapulted into the doing something rather valuable, be-
limelight in the late 1980s after a mem- cause this sort of thing will disappear
ber of the Rembrandt Research Project one day and there won't be any
(RRP) tentatively reattributed one of records" Well, I hadn't even thought
the best-known works by rembrandt of it like that. . . .1 think it is simply
—the Polish Rider (1655) at the Frick because somehow in a way these
Museum in New York City — to him. people, they not only have to me a pe-
Several works that appear to bear his culiar dignity and grace, not the
mark have been found, including a self- sort one thinks of in the Apollo
. . .

portrait (1662), but there seems small Belvedere, but the way in which a
likelihood that an undiscovered genius man comports himself in an environ-
is being retrieved. After the question ment which is his and has
about the Polish Rider was raised, some been his and his alone, he's at ease
commentary tended toward the opinion in it.

that it never was so magnificent as may

previously have been thought, as the Born in England, 1923 Drysdalein
quotation above suggests. When he was went with his family to settle in Aus-
asked about the de-attribution of the tralia, where he studied art. He was
Polish Rider, Julius Held, a major Rem- commissioned by a newspaper to docu-
brandt scholar, dismissed the RRP as ment the effects of drought in Western
the "Amsterdam Mafia" and stood by New South Wales in 1944, and became
the idea that Rembrandt himself known for his brilliantly colored paint-
painted what Held calls an "idealized ings that explore the hardships of rural,
portrait" of a youthful Polish national outback Ufe. Exhibitions of his work in
hero. Held's point of view was vindi- London sparked new interest in Aus-
cated in October 1997 with word from tralian art. Drysdale explored the plight
the RRP that the authenticity of Polish of the Aborigines and their encounters
Rider was confirmed as being by the with white settlers. The comment
master's hand — perhaps touched up a quoted above was in response to the au-
bit by another make it more
artist to thor Geoffrey Dutton's question about
sellable after Rembrandt went bank- his attachment to the Aborigines. Drys-
rupt in 1656. dale's pictures are generally sketchy,
and show figures with the flat look of
much FOLK ART. Still, they are strongly
arypomt expressive, conveying loneliness and
bee INTAGLIO
often a strange, puzzling discomfort.
The Rainmaker (1958) has an espe-
T^ J , „. _ ^ ,, cially unusual theme: The face of
Urysdale, Sir George
° Russell al u
this Aboriginal religious man, whose
1 i 1

19 1 2-1 98 1 • English/Australian
^ • i- j • j i-
presence is outlined in dark 1
lines
painter • Realist j j r 1 1

against an ocher and red background,

,
is

/ don't know I've ever tried to analyze erased or dissolved, so that it has no fea-
this question of painting aborigines. tures.
202 DUBUFFET, JEAN

Dubuffet, Jean feet high, is an example of one of his

1901-1985 • French painter • Art simulacres.

Brut
Duccio di Buoninsegna
It is the man in the street that I'm
active c. 1278-1318 • Italian •
after, ivhom I feel closest to, with
painter • Late Gothic
whom I want to make friends and
enter into confidence and connivance, On the day that it was carried to the
and he is the one I want to please and Duomo the shops were shut, and the
enchant by means of my work. bishop conducted a great and devout
company of priests and friars in
In his early 40s when he began paint-
solemn procession, accompanied by
ing seriously, Dubuffet created works
the nine signori,and all the officers of
steeped in ideas of philosophy and psy-
the commune, and all the people, and
chology. He studied the way an indi-
one after another the worthiest with
vidual perceives an object before
lighted candles in their hands took
consciously focusing on it, and he was
places near the picture, and behind
intrigued by images unaffected by aca-
came women and children with great
demic constraints, such as those made
devotion.
by children and psychotics. He coined
the term art brut to describe such art. Duccio, who worked in siena, strad-
His own figures have the outline forms dled the MANiERA GRECA and the Inter-
with which children typically express national Style of French Gothic. The
themselves, and his style consciously re- grace and elegance of Duccio's figures
jects signs of sophistication while, para- are often compared to the sturdier,
doxically, it is purposefully learned and sculptural figures of giotto in Flo-

cultivated. One example is View of rence. In contrast to the discretion of his

Paris: The Life of Pleasure (1944), painted characters, Duccio himself
which has sticklike figures lined up seems to have been quite unruly:
along the bottom of the picture in front Records show that he was fined at least

of a flat backdrop of brightly painted nine times for various transgressions.

doors, windows, and identifying words In 1308 Duccio was commissioned to
(e.g., "modes," "pianos") representing paint Altarpiece of the Virgin for the
a city street. In the 1960s, Dubuffet Cathedral of Siena. In 13 11 a cere-
began, from a series of doodles, to de- monial procession escorted the altar-
velop interlocking forms that look like piece to the cathedral, or duomo, amid
parts in a jigsaw puzzle and which he the chiming of all the city's bells, the
called the "hourloupe" series. When flourish of trumpets, and the bellow of
these free-form — sometimes
figures bagpipes. As also described in the con-
standing alone as sculpture — became temporary account quoted from above,
transformed into recognizable allusions candles and torches lighted the way.
to real objects, he named them "simu- This, the Maesta, is Duccio's most
lacres." Group of Four Trees (1972), a renowned work. In its central panel the
fanciful construction of epoxy paint on Virgin is surrounded by a multitude of
polyurethane over metal, standing 40 saints and angels, and each face, framed
 DUCHAMP, MARCEL 203

by a HALO, is carefully individualized. enne-Jules Marey prompted the work

Yet each is also characterized by a kind a critic called "an explosion in a
of ethereal wistfulness. Originally the shingle factory" when it appeared and
altarpiece contained a large group of created havoc in the armory show of
paintings, including a predella of 13 19 13. His notoriety, after that show,
smaller subjects beneath the main panel made him an international figure, but
i' and 16 subjects above it. The back was his skepticism about the fundamental
composed of 26 images relating to the value of art and his hatred of its com-
story of the passion. All this was en- mercialization led to his invention of
closed within an extraordinary, elabo- "ready-mades." They were exactly
rately carved and gilded architectural what he called them: manufactured
frame. In 1506 it was removed from its items that he used for his own purpose.
gj
original altar and subsequently sawed The first ready-made was Egouttoir
apart. The pieces were redistributed, (Bottle Rack; 1914), a galvanized-iron

some lost, some sold, so that it is now rack for drying bottles to which he
left to the imagination to reconstruct merely added an inscription and his sig-

the overwhelming effect of the work, nature. His most notorious ready-
shimmering in candlelight, in the early made, Fountain (1917), was a urinal.
14th century. Duccio's influence was Repercussions from his act of elevating
widespread: martini and pucelle ordinary objects to the status of art sim-
were among his followers. (See also ply by insisting that they were art re-
maestA) main with us today. His painting on
glass. The Bride Stripped Bare by Her

Duchamp, Marcel Bachelors, Even (The Large Glass)

1887-1968 • French • (1915-23), also his last painting in any
painter/sculptor • Dada medium, is both the great centerpiece
of his early career and as enigmatic as
My aim was a static representation of
,

any pamting
...,,.
m the history or art. In
. t

movement— a static composition of .. • 1

1 l j
puzzling over it, scholars nave used
positions taken
indications of various ^ ... , . u- •

every possible approach, rrom whimsi-

'

by a form in movement— with no t- j- / 1

•

Freudian (which at times seem in-

r i
•^
'
cal to
attempt to give
^ cinema effects through . ... t-w l l- \c
terchangeable). Duchamp himself
^ * stated that he wanted to "put painting

The comment quoted above, made by once again at the service of the mind."
Duchamp in 1946, is from his explana- conceptual art, a movement that

tion of how the infamous Nude De- spread after the late 1960s, owes alle-

scending a Staircase (19 12) came about, giance to Duchamp. The irony, doubt,

He was interested in breaking up forms, jouissance, or sense of play, of post-

as CUBISTS had done, but "wanted to go modernism are also rooted in

further — much further— in fact in quite Duchamp. The critic Arthur Danto
another direction altogether," he said, writes, "The story of the avant-garde in

He denies that either FUTURISM, DELAU- the twentieth century, whether in

nay's simultaneity, or the stop-action America or in Europe, seems largely to

photography of muybridge and Eti- be the story of Duchamp." A frequent
204 DUFY, RAOUL

visitor to New York, Duchamp moved 1934. Against a rich blue background
permanently to the United States in that unifies the sky and water is a jolly
1942. He renounced two
art for scene of multicolored and multi-shaped
decades, as far as most people knew, flags, a white boat, and the sketchy
and even his closest friends were black outlines of the town in The Har-
shocked to learn, after his death in bor at Deauville (c. 1928). Dufy's en-
1968, that he had been secretly occu- joyment of such scenes is expressed in

pied with a major project. Etant Bon- his comment quoted above. Perhaps it is
nes: I. la chute d'eau, 2. legaz d'eclairage his apparent lack of deep conviction or
(Given: i. The The Illumi-
Waterfall, 2. angst that marginalizes Dufy's work for

nating Gas) is an installation at the most art historians, though it equals

Philadelphia Museum of Art. It may be that of a nearly exact contemporary,
seen only through two peepholes in an the more serious and highly esteemed
ancient wooden door. The "bride" re- rouault, in individuality and inven-
turns, an oddly mutilated, naked form tion.

holding a lamp, lying in the foreground

of an idyllic setting on a bed of twigs dugento/duecento
and dead leaves, johns called it "the Italian for "two hundred," this term ac-
strangest work of art in any museum." tually refers to the 1200s, or, more
commonly in English, the 13 th century.

Dufy, Raoul
1877-1953 • French • Duncanson, Robert S.
painter/illustrator/designer • 1 8 17/22-1872 • American • painter
Expressionist • Romantic/Hudson River School

Unhappy the man who lives in a Every day that breaks, to my vision,

climate far from the sea, or unfed by sheds new light over my path. What
the sparkling waters of a river! was once dark and misty is gradually
becoming brighter. My trip to Europe
Dufy worked his way through current
has to some extent enabled me to
styles, including impressionist and
judge of my own talent. Of all the
FAUVE, and after 1908 experimented
landscapes I saw in Europe (and I saw
with CUBISM before he developed his
thousands) I did not feel discouraged.
personal style. This is characterized by
calligraphic lines and bright colors, Entirely self-taught, Duncanson was the
characteristic also of the expression- first African-American artist to earn in-

ists. His subject matter — harbor and ternational fame, though he was virtu-

racetrack scenes —match his light ally forgotten until the centenary of his
touch. (He also worked in the decora- death, when the Cincinnati Art Mu-
tive ARTS: tapestry, pottery, textiles.) seum mounted a retrospective of his
Dufy began painting regattas in 1907 work. He spent eight months in Europe
and they remained a subject of interest and, as the quotation above indicates,
to him, especially at Le Havre, where he came home reassured. A skilled painter
was born; at Deauville between 1925 in the style of the Hudson river
and 1930; and in England from 1930 to SCHOOL, he moved to Cincinnati in
 —
DURA-EUROPOS 2O5

about 1857 but had numerous commis-
sions, some from Boston. Every detail
meticulously recorded in the idyllic
Blue Hole, Little Miami River (185 1);
the scene is set near the junction of the
Ohio and Little Miami Rivers, a fa-
vored escape route for fugitive slaves.
Outside of the mainstream, Duncanson
was long neglected and considered
secondary, derivative painter. Attention
was drawn to his work during the
1990s, when the historian David Lubin,
in his book Picturing a Nation: Art and
Social Change in i^th -Century America
(1993), looked for coded meanings in
Duncanson's work. Reading between
the brushstrokes, so to speak, Lubin
and succeeding art historians find mes-
sages hidden in Duncanson's land-
scapes. For example, boats crossing
water are metaphors for the flight to
freedom, and Roman ruins represent
the end to which slave-owning nations
are destined. Duncanson's physical and
mental health became increasingly trou-
kower, "so thoroughly acclimatized
is that even the discerning eye will hardly
discover anything northern in his art."
The compromise of algardi that
Duquesnoy rejected, to which Witt-
kower refers in the quotation above,
was between bernini's Grand Manner
Baroque and restrained Classicism.
a Duquesnoy lived in Rome until shortly
before his premature death, at the age
of 46. From 1627 to 1628 he worked
for Bernini on the baldacchino of
Saint Peter's. In 1629 he received a
commission for his most famous work,
a marble, over-life-size Saint Susanna
(1627-33) bellori said that a more
perfect synthesis of the study of nature
and the ideas of antiquity could not be
found. Her serene face gazed directly at
the congregation; the martyr's palm
in her right hand, she directed the wor-
shiper's attention by gesturing toward
the altar with her left. As the sculpture
was so site-specific, the meaning of the
posture and gesture was lost when it

bled; he entered a mental hospital in was moved from the niche in the church
! September 1872 and died there that De- of Santa Maria di Loreto for which
cember. It is now believed that he prob- itwas designed. Duquesnoy's clarity
ably had a brain tumor. and restraint in the pull of gravity on
the folds of the clothing contrast to
Duquesnoy, Francois works by Bernini, where drapery
1 597-1 643 • Flemish « sculptor seems to have a life of its own. Duques-
Baroque noy had special skill at imbuing his
PUTTi with the affect of small children,
Duquesnoy was probably a greater
and with both Susanna and putti he in-
artist than Algardi; in any case, he was
augurated a baroque type that many
less prepared to compromise. (Rudolf
followed.
Wittkower, 1958)

A BAROQUE sculptor, Duquesnoy was a Dura-Europos

friend of poussin, and their ideas about The ANCIENT city on the Euphrates
the importance of classical references River called Dura-Europos was known
for art were in harmony. Born in Brus- only from literary sources until after
sels, Duquesnoy moved to Rome in World War I; in 1920, a British patrol
161 8 and was, according to witt- stumbled on the site. Excavations,
 —

206 DURAND, ASHER B.

under a Franco-American team, began of roman art, such as the drapery of a

in 1928. It is believed that Dura was man's clothing (possibly Moses or Ezra)
founded by one of Alexander the who is reading the Torah in the syna-
Great's Macedonian successors, shortly gogue. For the most part, characteris-
after Alexander's death in 323 bce. tics of Dura's Near Eastern heritage are
Dura is from the Greek word for evident: Faces are expressionless, there
"fortress,"and Europos probably de- is little if any effort to show depth of
rives from the Macedonian city of its field, and people are represented in a hi-

founder (Seleukos). Dura was under eratic scale —the more important the in-

Roman rule when it was conquered and dividual, the larger he or she is drawn,
destroyed by the Sasanids (a dynasty of Moreover, both Persian and Roman
Persian kings) in 256 CE. One of the clothing styles are represented in the
most remarkable discoveries during ex- pictures. It is apparent that both Jewish
cavations is the great number of reli- and early christian art of this period
gions that were practiced there. Besides is drawn from the same pictorial reper-

temples belonging to several pagan toire as were the arts of competing cults

cults, there was a Jewish synagogue and such as Mithraism, Manichaeism, and
a Christian church with a baptistery. Gnosticism. They all vied for followers.
Both synagogue and baptistery were in and so, one might speculate, in an eclec-

private houses, and both were pre- tic set of illustrations, diverse individu-
served because they stood near the city als might find something personally
wall and were filled with sand and rub- meaningful,
ble to shore up a defensive embankment
when Dura was under siege. There are Durand, Asher B.
some paintings in the baptistery (of 1796-1886 • American • painter •

Adam and Eve and the Good Shep- Romantic/Hudson River School
herd), but those in the synagogue are es-
In recommending you, in the
pecially numerous and in an excellent
beginning of your studies, directly to
state of preservation. They contain
Nature, would not deceive you with
I
scenes from Jewish history and legend,
the expectation, that you will thus
such as Finding of the Baby Moses. Fig-
most speedily acquire the art of
ures of people and animals on these mu-
picture -making— that is much sooner
rals make perfectly clear the flexibility
acquired in the studio or the picture
with which prohibitions against art,
gallery. I refer you to Nature early, that
as in the Second Commandment, were
you may receive your first impressions
interpreted during certain periods of
of beauty and sublimity.
Jewish history as well as in early Chris-

tianity. Stylistically, paintings in the Kindred Spirits (jS^^) \sDurand's most

Dura synagogue show the figures flat- celebrated painting and a paean both to
tened, forward-facing (frontal), out- cole, who had died the year before,
lined, and their poses formulaic and to 19th-century American land-
simplified to quite geometric, abstract scape painting of the Hudson river
forms. There are only occasional lifelike school. It is a dramatic scene of a
details that seem to show the influence gorge, with the figures of Cole and his
 DURER, ALBRECHT 2O7

close friend William Cullen Bryant Gogh, Vincent's brother, who worked
standing on a ledge, talking. This is just for goupil's gallery, and to Georges
the kind of landscape the two loved, Petit, his most active competitor. In-

and there is also a wealth of the kind of vited by an American dealer, Durand-
symbolism Cole loved to use, including Ruel visited the United States in his

a broken tree trunk to represent a life search for new outlets; trips to New
cut short, a bird flying into the hazy dis- York in 1886 and 1887 proved success-
tance signifying Cole's departed soul, ful — his sales established some fine Im-
and a nearby bird that is surely pressionist collections in America,
Bryant's. The picture, commissioned by and he was encouraged to open a
one of Durand's longtime patrons, was branch office. During his absence, how-
presented to Bryant (also a friend of ever, several of his artists, Monet
Durand) in appreciation of his moving among them, took advantage of the
oration at Cole's funeral. Full of ro- other outlets. While one argument
mantic sentimentality, glorification of made was that Durand-Ruel was
nature, and spiritualism. Kindred Spir- "pushing" Impressionists to reduce his
its also payshomage to the great Amer- own stock, that overlooks his impor-
ican wilderness in which they all saw tance, as the historian rewald points
the nation's Manifest Destiny (see out in the quotation above. Among all

cole). The comment made by Durand, of Durand-Ruel's painters, renoir was

quoted above, appeared in a periodical the only one who remained faithful and
called the Crayon, published in America never dealt with Theo Van Gogh. In the
for writings about art. mid-i890s, Durand-Ruel's business
was a financial disaster, though he con-
Durand-Ruel, Paul tinued to give important shows to con-
1831-1922 • French • art dealer temporary painters.

. . . without Durand'Ruel's stubborn

Diirer, Albrecht
advocacy and devoted and selfless
1471-1528 • German •
support, Impressionism would not
printmaker/painter • Northern
even have been in a position to attract
Renaissance
the business of those who . . . were
eager to cash in on its slow success. One may often search through two or
(John Rewald, 1956) threehundred men without finding
amongst them more than one or two
Durand-Ruel defended and champi-
points of beauty which can be made
oned the IMPRESSIONISTS during the
use of. You therefore, if you desire to
1 870s despite the financial difficulties
compose a fine figure, must take the
they caused him. His gallery was on la
head from some and the chest, arm,
rue Lafitte in Paris, a street lively with
leg, hand, and foot from others.
art galleries and antique shops. Perenni-
ally short of cash, Durand-Ruel was Diirer broke through many barriers and
forced to hold back payment to artists trod much new ground, and did so with
from time to time and lost some of the unsurpassable skill in drawing, water-
artists he represented to Theo van color and oil painting, and printmak-
208 DiJRER, ALBRECHT

ing. He also wrote treatises on art —the Nuremberg. He went to Italy to see and
quotation above is from The Book of learn, and recorded his journey with ex-
Human Proportions, written in 151 3, tremely beautiful watercolor impres-
and brings to mind the legend of the an- sions of the landscape. These reappear
ciENT Greek zeuxis (c. 450-390 bce), in the backgrounds of subsequent
who combined the traits of many works. His effort to visit and perhaps
women to create his sculpture of Helen study with schongauer was precluded
of Troy. Among Diirer's earliest works, by Schongauer's death. Still, Diirer be-
drawn pen and ink before he was 13,
in came the most accomplished and
are self-portraits of prodigious skill, renowned printmaker of his time, adept
Moreover, the artist portrayed himself at both woodcut (see woodblock) and
as an individual, a personality —not engraving. An example of the former is

only the practitioner of his craft, the the action-packed Four Horsemen of
usual rationale for a self-portrait. Diirer the Apocalypse (1498). In contrast is his

explored his inner life, which was fre- engraving Knight, Death, and Devil
quently shrouded by depression. He (15 13), which, with untold numbers
depicted this allegorically in an en- of fine lines, seems to hold the viewer,
GRAVING titled Melencolia i and dated as well as the knight on his horse, in
1 5 14. In one of his most startling and suspended animation. As was Schon-
controversial self-portraits (of 1 500), gauer's, Diirer's father was a goldsmith.
Diirer presents his likeness in a way that Diirer had the additional benefit of a
calls to mind an icon of Christ: nearly godfather who was a leading German
expressionless, with long hair, and with printer. Diirer became a follower of
large, mesmerizing eyes gazing out at Martin Luther, whose teaching influ-
the viewer. His artistic and religious, or enced Diirer's work at the end of his
spiritual, intention in this self-portrait is life. This is visible in a 152.3 woodcut,
one of the ongoing puzzles for art histo- The Last Supper, which the artist
in

rians: Was he suggesting that the took a traditional subject and gave it
artist/creator is Godlike, or that the new doctrinal meaning. For Luther the
artist's inspiration comes from God? sacrament was a commemorative rather
Was he illustrating an idea, related to than a symbolic event, so in Diirer's

the mystical doctrine professed by Saint image the platter that previously would
Francis and popularized by Thomas a have held the symbolic "sacrificial

Kempis — Imitatio Christi, or Imitation lamb" is significantly empty. Repre-

of Christ —that to follow Christ is to senting the Lutheran belief that bread
become like him? Or was he mindful of and wine do not miraculously become
theologian Nicholas of Cusa (1401- Christ's flesh and blood, and that the

64), who proposed that looking at laity, not just the priest, should partake
Christ's image and being looked at by it of both, a basket of bread and a pitcher
is reciprocity of love in which self-love of wine sit unceremoniously on the
becomes an act of devotion? Can Diirer, floor, and a chalice is set on the table,

or should he, be absolved of accusations The style Diirer used for this image is

of blasphemy, or of narcissism? Diirer sophisticated in its lucidity, but distilled

traveled widely from his home in and direct compared to his earlier
 DUVEEN, BARON JOSEPH 209

woodcuts. That is also in step with the Duveen, Baron Joseph

unadorned directness of Reformation 1869-1939 • English • art dealer
thinking.
You can get all the pictures you want
at fifty thousand dollars apiece. That's
Duret, Theodore
easy.But to get pictures at a quarter of
183 8-1927 • French •
a million — that wants doing.
writer/collector

Joseph Duveen joined his father's busi-

As soon as people looked at Japanese
ness and built it into the world's largest
pictures, where the most glaring,
dealership in art. He also formed some
piercing colors were placed side by
of the most important collections in the
side, they finally understood that there
United States, selling to Henry Frick
were new methods for reproducing
(1849-1919), Andrew Mellon (1855-
certain effects of nature which had
1937)5 Morgan (1837-1913), and
J- P-
been neglected or considered
John D. Rockefeller (i 839-1937). One
impossible to render until then,
of the stories told is that, when he was
and which it might be good
still green, Duveen tried to best Mor-
to try.
gan, offering him a collection of 30
Duret was an important supporter of miniatures of which just 6 were great
the Impressionists, whose work he also treasures. Morgan sharply selected and
explained to the public at large, espe- pocketed the six best, divided Duveen's
cially The Impressionist Painters
in figure by 30, multiplied by 6, and paid
(1878), from which the quotation Duveen accordingly. Duveen's uncle,
above is taken. He endeavored to con- also in the business, and the one who
nect IMPRESSIONISM with the tradition usually dealt with Morgan, is quoted as
of Western art, French painting in par- saying, "You're only a boy, Joe. It takes
ticular, and pointed to the convention a man Morgan." beren-
to deal with
of contemporaries laughing at artists SON worked for Duveen during a part-
who were later lionized. Duret was nership of some 26 years, signing
manet's chief defender, and Manet certificates that authenticated renais-
painted his portrait in 1868. whistler sance paintings especially. Duveen's in-

painted his portrait in 1882, as did fluence was powerful; he persuaded his
VUILLARD in 19 1 2. clients to ignore modern pictures in
favor of the far older works he sold with
Diisseldorf School characteristically flamboyant com-
From the late 1840s to the early 1860s, ments such as the one quoted above.
several American painters studied in Rembrandt's Aristotle Contemplating
Diisseldorf under the leadership of the Bust of Homer (1653) is one of the
leutze. Included were woodville, famous pictures that passed through his

BINGHAM, Eastman johnson, and, hands. Though he and Berenson raised

among landscapists, bierstadt and dealing to a fine art, their ethics have
whittredge. Characteristic of paint- been questioned, most seriously in

ing in Diisseldorf was a fixation on de- Colin Simpson's book Artful Partners
tail and sharp realism ^ (1986).
210 DUVENECK, FRANK

Duveneck, Frank in the guild before his 19th birthday,

1 848-19 19 • American • painter • van Dyck was playing a major role
Realist in the execution of rubens's designs at
21, the age at which he became court
American Velazquez. (Henry James,
painter to James I of England. His talent
1875)
and fame soared, as did his commis-
Duveneck was born in Kentucky to sions. The seventh child in a prosperous
German immigrants. His was a father merchant family, he seems to have been
shoemaker, and Duveneck worked as a a deeply religious Catholic, but his per-

sign painter and as an assistant to an sonality and philosophical point of

itinerant church decorator. In 1870 he view are not reliably documented. Bio-
went to Munich, to study at the Royal graphical hearsay suggests that he was
Academy. On his return to the United excessively fond of luxury, proud, am-
States, he taught in Cincinnati; cox and bitious, sensitive, excitable, and highly
TWACHTMAN were among his first competitive. If Rubens set the standard
pupils. He returned to Munich, where for his century as both painter and gen-
he started his own classes; several tleman, van Dyck came as close as any-
Americans, known as the Duveneck one else to meeting it. To Rubens's
Boys, were enrolled. Duveneck had a stylistic exemplar van Dyck added Tit-

PAINTERLY Style and, typical of the Mu- ian's Venetian coloring and atmos-
nich SCHOOL, his early works were phere; on his travels throughout Italy he

dark, but his palette brightened in the filled his sketchbook with studies after

18 80s. The Turkish Page (1876) is both Titian (and may even have sparked
vintage Munich (realistic depiction of Rubens's interest in the Venetian's
workers or peasants focusing on a cer- work). Rubens and van Dyck together
tain picturesqueness of their clothes and changed the formal, standardized con-
way of life) and Duveneck in top form. cept of portraiture. In Charles I, King of
The subject is a thin young boy, on a England, Hunting (c. 1635) van Dyck
shiny marble floor, with a copper bowl portrayed the ill-fated king dismounted,
on his lap. A white parrot, wings standing casually in front of his horse,
spread, is perched on the edge of the which seems to genuflect respectfully
bowl. Henry James, quoted above, (see equestrian). In painting sinuously
agreed with "aesthetic Boston" that elegant noblewomen, van Dyck in-

Duveneck, then z6, was an American creased the length of their bodies to
painter of resounding significance. nearly twice the norm, reminiscent of
the GOTHIC International Style's hyper-
Dyck, Sir Anthony van elegance. His Marchesa Elena Grimaldi
1599-1641 • Flemish • painter • Cattaneo (1623), in which a Genoese
Baroque noblewoman stands beneath a ruby red
umbrella held by an African page,
. . . the best of my pupils. (Rubens,
brings to mind that Genoa was a key
1618)
port in the slave trade of the i6th and
A child prodigy who studied painting at 17th centuries. In that age of explo-
the age of 10 and registered as a master ration, painters of the baroque were
 —

DYING GAUL/dYING GLADIATOR 211

fascinated by the foreign and exotic. Wife and Himself The figures are gen-
Painter to royalty in the Netherlands erally believed to represent victims in

and in England, in 1632 van Dyck was the war King Attains I of Pergamon had
appointed "Principalle Paynter in Ordi- just waged against Gallic invaders. In

nary to their Majesties," knighted, and the Dying Gaul, as it is generally

presented with a gold chain by Charles known, although pliny the Elder called
I. In 1635 a special road and dock were the work "Dying Gallic Trumpeter,"
constructed to facilitate the king's visits the subject has a rope around his neck,
to van Dyck's studio. Van Dyck died in and although clearly suffering from the
1641, however, only 42 years old. bleeding wound in his side, he main-
Rubens had died the previous year tains a worthy dignity. Yet his pathos is

and Charles would be beheaded in undeniable, and especially interesting

1649. when compared with the late archaic
types of fallen warrior figures, as on the
Dying Gaul/Dying Gladiator Greek Temple of Aphaia at Aegina (c.

The status of the conqueror is aggran- 490-480 bce), whose bearing shows no
dized when the enemy is honorable and evidence of their lamentable circum-
brave, as is this life-size marble figure, a stances. Lord Byron wrote an impas-
Roman copy of a Hellenistic bronze sioned tribute to the wounded Gaul in

original dated about 220 bce. It was Childe Harold (181 8) that ends, "Shall
part of a larger group of sculptures that he expire / And unavenged? — Arise! ye
included Gallic Chieftain Killing His Goths, and glut your ire!"
 —

Eadwine, the Scribe period much longer than I should have

active c. 1150 • Anglo-Saxon •

permitted myself to remain there. My
honors are misunderstanding,
monk/scribe • Romanesque
persecution, & neglect, enhanced
Prince of Scribes because unsought.

Covering a full page of the large-format

Canterbury Psalter, or psalm book (c. Born and raised in Philadelphia, Eakins
1 1 50), is a picture of a monk hard at spent his life there, except for approxi-
work. Bent over the book he is writing, mately four years of study in Europe
he has a pen in one hand and a knife that began in 1866. In Paris he studied
for scraping over errors that need fix- under the artists he lists above, and
ing — in the other. The importance and when he traveled to Spain he was
rigor of his task are expressed by the in- strongly affected by velAzquez and
tensity of his gaze, the containment of RiBERA, whose work he called "Big
his figure inside an architectural frame- Painting." There are two strains that
work, the tight swirls of the fabric of his characterized his work when Eakins re-
robes, and the inscription, quoted turned home. One is a pervasive gloom:
above, that proclaims the elevated His mother was mentally ill and con-
stature of the writer. Although itwas fined to the house for two years before
long thought to be a self-portrait, more she died. Eakins helped care for her,
recent opinion suggests this may be a and the family's agony is evident in

representation of a famous Canterbury paintings he made at the time of his sis-

scribe of an earlier period. ters (e.g.. Home Scene, c. 1871). The
other characteristic of that era's work
was a seemingly compulsive study of
Eakins, Thomas
detail, especially seen in several pictures
1844-1916 • American •
of rowers (e.g.. Max Schmitt in a Single
painter/sculptor • Realist
Scull/The Champion Single Sculls,

/was born in Philadelphia July i^th, 1871). Eakins measured, plotted grids,
1844. 1 had many instructors, the took photographs, and even sculpted
principal ones Gerome, Dumont figures that he then placed on the grids.

(Sculptor), Bonnat. I taught in the In one picture he graphed ripples in the

Academy from the opening of the water, giving each ripple three surfaces,
schools until I was turned out, a and figured out how the light would be
 —

EARL, RALPH 213

reflected by each surface. He was metic- require Mr. d. to put himself in such a
ulous in accuracy of perspective, light, position. (Barber and Punderson,
and color. Truthfulness to nature was 1890)
his creed. It also led to the "misunder-
standing, persecution, & neglect" that There is no evidence that Earl had any
he wore like a stigma. Insisting that formal instruction before he painted his
artists need a thorough understanding first known pictures depicting scenes of
of the human body, he studied anat- the Battles of Lexington and Concord in

omy, performed dissections at a med- 1775. The pursuit of veracity led him to
ical school, and wanted his students to the battlefields with his friend Amos
dissect also. He insisted that both male Doolittle, as described in the quotation
and female students paint nude models. above. The result was four historical
His gesture of removing a model's loin- paintings that Doolittle, a novice at the
cloth to show a muscle, and numerous skill, made engravings. In 1778,
into
other indiscretions, led to his dismissal, during the Revolutionary War, of
in 1886, from the Pennsylvania Acad- which he disapproved. Earl went to
emy of the Fine Arts, where he had England and trained under west, but he
served as director. Ten years earlier he returned home
1785 and painted in
in

had suffered a blow when the painting the COLONIAL style —

portraits of stiff,
that is now considered his masterpiece, forward-facing, grim-looking people
The Gross Clinic (1875), ^^^ rejected whose clothing and surroundings sig-

for the Centennial Art Exhibition be- nify their social rank —almost as if he
cause of its harsh truth; the surgical had never left New England. In Oliver
procedure, and especially the bloody Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ells-
hand of the surgeon heroicized as a — worth (1792), the sitters are placed on
Christ-like figure —
was too much for either side of a window that looks out
the sensibility of the judges. The paint- on their estate. Oliver, who played an
ing was hung in the medical exhibition important role in the writing and ratifi-

instead. During his later years Eakins cation of the Constitution, holds a copy
painted a series of portraits of people he of that document in his hand; Abigail,
knew — usually not commissioned dressed in a shimmering white gown
and they reveal a contemplative, dis- that leaves barely any flesh exposed and

„ consolate sadness. a bonnet that is almost twice the size of

her head, appears far older than her 36

years. Despite his emotional parsimony.
Earl did display a decorative flair that
Earl, Ralph
often showed up in his careful rendering
1751-1801 • American • painter •
of richly patterned rugs, and he was
Colonial
skilled in painting landscapes, which
l| . . . When [Earl] wished to represent he usually reduced to window views.
one of the Provincials as loading a Earl's death, according to the report of

gun, crouching behind a stone wall a minister in Connecticut, was the result

when firing on the enemy, he would of "intemperance."

I
 —

214 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART

Early Christian art Roman Sol InvictusP^ictorious Sun)

No Christian figurative art has sur- driving the horses of the sun chariot in a
vived from the ist and virtually all of golden sky. The halo, both pagan and
the 2nd century. What has been found Christian, derives from this association

is symbolic rather than narrative: an with the sun. Such adaptations, or fu-

anchor as a symbol of hope; and vari- sions, of different ideas or images are
ous devices to represent the cross, in- referred to as "syncretistic." Before
cluding an Egyptian ankh, a symbol of 330, Christ appeared as poor and hum-
life. Use of the fish as a symbol was ble, as were his followers, to whom he
early (c. 160-230, used by the theolo- offered an afterlife more promising
gian TertuUian) — the Greek word for than their life on earth. Constantine
fish, ichthus, is a rebus for the phrase changed the status of both the cult and
"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior." The its art, and in 380, under Theodosius,
fish stood for Christian baptism and for Christianity became the official religion

Christ himself. The chi rho (xp) ap- of the Eastern Roman Empire. For-
peared in the 4th century. Representa- merly private and secret. Christian im-

tion of Christ as a man and of scenes agery now became public and official.

from the New Testament may have But The Roman

earlier styles prevailed.

been avoided in deference to biblical BASILICA, for example, was an impor-

prohibitions against images, and per- tant prototype for Old Saint Peter's in
haps because complicity in the illegal Rome (begun c. 320-27, no longer ex-
cult could be dangerous. In addition, art tant). Some scholars argue that tradi-
was associated with pagan luxury. Such tional designs made the new religion
explanations, though, are only specu- seem more familiar and thus more
lative. During the 3rd and early 4th palatable. When Christ acquired a regal
centuries, before the emperor Constan- posture, a throne, and royal robes
tine's 313 Edict of Milan recognized e.g., Christ Enthroned in Majesty, an
Christianity, some figurative images ap- apse mosaic in Santa Pudenziana, Rome
pear, like that in an early-3rd-century (410) —the intention may have been to

cubiculum (chamber, mortuary chapel) gain support for the emperor by associ-
in theRoman catacombs that shows ation, according to some theories. Affil-

Christ as the Good Shepherd. Sur- iation of Christ with imperial power is

rounded by sheep, Christ carries a lamb debated, however, as in the controver-

on his shoulders. The shepherd image sial thesis of Thomas F. Mathews, who
is traceable to ancient Egypt and finds images of Christ that are both
Mesopotamia as well as pagan Greece anti-imperial and motivated, he be-
(e.g.. The Calf-Bearer of c. 560 bce), lieves, by theological disputes. Stories
but the meaning of this one differs in from the Hebrew Bible and the New
that the pagan figures carry a sacrificial Testament were told in church mosaics
offering to the god, while Christ, as (e.g., Santa Maria Maggiore: Parting of
shepherd, protects his flock. A vault Lot and Abraham, The Stoning of
MOSAIC from the Mausoleum of the Moses, Infancy of Christ, Rome, c.
Julii (Rome, 3rd century) shows Christ 432-40), on the RELIEFS of sarcophagi
as the sun god (Helios, Apollo, or the {Junius Bassus, c. 359), and in illumi-
 feCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS 215

NATED MANUSCRIPTS {Vienna Genesis landscape he created in the Great Salt

and the Rossano Gospels, both early Lake in Utah. Walter De Maria's (born
6th century). As progression from pa- 1935) Lightning Field (1977) is a grid
pyrus SCROLL to CODEX Came about, il- of 400 stainless-steel poles, each about
lustrations were derived from pagan zo feet high, arranged in 16 rows and
examples and Jewish art found in li- installed on a flat site in New Mexico.
braries, like the famous one in Alexan- Their effect, when they attract bolts of
dria. The Rossano Gospels shows that lightning at night, is spectacular. An-
by the early 6th century the canon of other pioneering artist is Michael
Christian sacred texts and their cycles Heizer (born 1944), who described
of illustration were established. (See his intrusions in the Nevada desert as
also typology) "dirtwork" to the historian Jonathan
Fineberg. His projects range from leav-
Early Classical ing traces of human transience in the
See classical form of his own motorcycle tracks, to
removing 240,000 tons of material
Early Medieval (Late Antique) forming a 30-foot-wide, 50-foot-deep,
3rd to 6th century • Classical and 1,500-foot-long canyon in Mor-
The was spread by Alexander the
style mon Mesa, Overton, Nevada— Dow^/e
Great in the 4th century bce, and then Negative (1968-70). Earth art is related
by the expanding Roman Empire to to MINIMALISM by its insistence on
places like dura-europos and faiyum. working with materials, not just ideas
It also influenced regions north of (as opposed to conceptualism). Be-

Rome to which Christianity later cause only films or photographs of an

spread. But artists of these regions were earthwork are usually collected or ex-
not very interested in Classical descrip- hibited, it defies art world commerce.
tions of the outside world that endeav- All of these site-specific works move
ored to be true to what the eye saw. into and change the natural world in an
They remained strongly committed to "invasive" way that bears no relation to
their own local traditions, which in- conventional landscape architecture.
cluded hieratic scale (formal and But each artist has created a unique ex-
priestly rather than natural), frontal- perience for the spectator willing to
ITY, rigid symmetry, space in registers, make a pilgrimage to the site, an experi-
and intense gazes (see sub-antique). ence meant to link the human visitor to

By the 3rd century such non-Classical and to natural forces, in a

the earth,
conventions had evolved into a vernac- new way, and with a sense of awe for
ular, popular style known as Late An- the grandeur of the landscape itself.

tique (e.g., the Tetrarchs, 305 ce).

Ecole des Beaux-Arts
Earth and Site art This is the government school in Paris

During the 1960s artists began to trans- that provided tuition-free instruction
form or work with the landscape. One for an international student body as
of the best-known endeavors is smith- The insti-
well as for French nationals.
son's Spiral Jetty (1970), an artificial tution evolved from the Academie
2l6 EDMONDS, FRANCIS WILLIAM

Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture DERGAST. In and subject matter

style

founded by Louis XIV in 1648. Its their works were diverse, and they
name changed with the poHtical winds: never again exhibited as a group;
L'Ecole royale . . . L'Ecole imperi- rather, they were united by their defi-

ale . . . L'Ecole nationale, and so on. ance of the standards, especially those
Competition and entrance examina- of "beauty," upheld by the National
tions to study at the Beaux-Arts were Academy of Design, which had rejected
rigorous. Students prepared for exams, work of their members. Henri was the
and sometimes supplemented their magnet whom
for this group, several of

course of study at Beaux-Arts by work- followed him from Philadelphia to New

ing with independent teachers and pri- York. Hostile contemporary reviews
vate schools such as the academie poked fun at them, calling them "Apos-
JULIAN. Women were denied access to tles of Ugliness," an idea they cultivated
Beaux-Arts until 1897. Studying nude with astute, self-promotional instincts.

models in the life class (to which Some, but not all, The Eight be-
of
women were not admitted until 1903) longed to the ashcan school. Most
was the foundation of artistic training, important about all of these artists was
though students usually had to prepare their determination, despite the Euro-

for it by drawing from casts of classi- pean training many had, to base their

cal or RENAISSANCE sculpture. There subject matter resolutely at home, in the

were also classes in anatomy, perspec- United States.

tive, art history, and aesthetics. One of
the chief advantages at the Beaux- Arts,
available only to French students, was ekphrasis
the opportunity to compete for the prix Ekphrasis means "words about im-
DE ROME. Winners attended the French ages." Ekphrastic text, or discourse, re-
Academy in Rome. The Ecole des garding an image is descriptive,
Beaux-Arts underwent many adminis- frequently invented, and often so elabo-
trative and organizational changes dur- rately particular that a reader or listener

ing the course of the 19th century, but might imagine the topic under discus-
remained committed to traditional aca- sion to be the primary source for the
demic training throughout. image rather than its representation.
PLINY the Elder and philostratus
Edmonds, Francis William were ekphrastic writers through whom
See MOUNT we learn the content of ancient works of
art that have been lost. Where 19th-
egg tempera century readers of these and other an-
See TEMPERA cient writers concerned themselves with
whether and where the paintings they
Eight, The discussed actually existed, theorists and
Refers to artists who exhibited together historians today look into ekphrasis as
in 1908 at New York's Macbeth an opportunity to find layered mean-
Gallery: henri, sloan, glackens, law- ings, for both the original and contem-
son, LUKS, shinn, davies, and pren- porary readers.
 —
ELSHEIMER, ADAM IIJ

Elementarism ease, disaffection and divorce from his

See van doesburg wife, and the loss of his wealth. The
conflicting attitudes toward Elgin's
Elgin Marbles treasure are reflected in contrasting as-
The Turks were in control of Athens sessments of their aesthetic value, and
when the British diplomat and art col- in the heated controversy over return-
lector Thomas Bruce, seventh Earl of ing them to Greece that continues to
Elgin, a Scot, formed his purpose of re- this day.

moving from the acropolis what he

said were "some stones with inscrip- Elsheimer, Adam
tions and figures." With permission 1 578-1610 • German •

from the Turkish government, which painter/engraver • Baroque

tended to regard such classical antiq-
/ have never felt my heart more
uities as the relics of infidels, he began
profoundly pierced by grief than at
doing so in 1801. Consequently, much
this news [of Elsheimer's untimely
of the north, south, and east friezes of
death]. (Rubens, c. 1610)
thePARTHENON, many of the decorative
panels (metopes), and nearly all the Around 1600 Elsheimer settled in
pedimental sculpture, as well as some Rome, where he came under the influ-
other sculpture that was then on-site, ence of caravaggio's expression of
including a caryatid from the mood through dramatic manipulation
Erechtheion, were exported to England, of light and shadow. Elsheimer became
While some praised Elgin for saving the known for translating this effect in
sculpture from neglect and deteriora- paintings on small copper plates. He
tion, others called him a vandal. Ac- had a strong, appealing personality that
cording to legend. Lord Byron carved attracted a circle of artists rubens,
the words "What the Goths spared, the who is quoted above, was among
Scots have destroyed" into the stone of his admirers — and his interest in the

the Acropolis. Byron was the first to Roman campagna, or countryside, in-
suggest the possibility that Elgin, who fluenced Italian landscape painters, the
saw himself as a "patron saint" of an- French claude lorrain, and the
TiQuiTY, had instead robbed the Greeks Dutch landscapists. Those who did not
of their historic heritage. Elgin's self- see his paintings firsthand may have
was an 18 10 pamphlet, "Mem-
defense known them through engravings. Pre-
orandum on the Subject of the Earl of ferring a low point of view, Elsheimer
Elgin's Pursuits in Greece. " In 1 8 1 6 the poetically set dark trees against a bright
collection, known as the Elgin Marbles, sky, achieving a lyrical and delicate ef-

was purchased for the British Museum feet. But the sky is dark in one of his

for £36,000 —£14,000 less than the ex- most wonderful paintings, a nighttime
penses Elgin had incurred. Elgin himself scene called The Flight into Egypt
suffered dire misfortune — imprison- (1609) which is only iz x 16 inches,
ment by Napoleon (who blamed him The darkness is illuminated by a full

for French reverses in its relations with moon reflected on the water, a lantern

Constantinople), a disfiguring skin dis- carried by Joseph, the shepherds' camp-

 —

2l8 EMBLEM BOOK

fire, and a star-filled sky. But his was above all worldly things." Thinking of
not the routine casual sprinkling of life allegorically was deeply ingrained in

stars. Elsheimer seems to have carefully the 17th-century mind.

observed the Milky Way, and even to
have looked at it through a telescope. It encaustic
was the era of Galileo, who was turning From the Greek, meaning "to burn in,"

his "optic glass" to the skies, and who, the encaustic process involves applica-
in seven years, would be condemned by tion of molten wax in which pigment
the Holy Office in Rome for proclaim- has been suspended. In ancient Greek
ing that the earth moves around the art, encaustic painting may have been
sun. used on statues and murals, but al-

though literary texts describe the tech-

emblem book nique, surviving samples are extremely

An emblem is an image with a specific rare. Some Pompeian wall paintings
symbolic meaning. Artists seeking eter- using encaustic, as well as encaustic
nal truths in transient reality see the portraits on mummy cases from fai-
physical world as symbolic, allegorical, YUM, Egypt, c. 160-170 CE, suggest
or emblematic of a higher, transcenden- what earlier paintings may have looked
tal order. Correspondences between the like. Encaustic was generally aban-
natural and supernatural, the temporal doned in favor of tempera and other
and eternal, were found in "emblem techniques. In the 1950s johns used en-
books" such as Andrea Alciati's Em- caustic, often in mixed mediums, espe-
blematum Liber (1531) in which a cially for his target and flag paintings.

motto, a picture, and an epigram serve

for each emblem. Alcati's is the earliest engraving
known emblem book. One of the best- Strictly speaking, engraving refers to
known English emblem books is Geof- cutting into either a metal or a wood
frey Whitney's A Choice of Emblemes matrix with the engraver's tools
(1586). Cesare Ripa's Iconologia burins or gravers — for the purpose of
(1593), an alphabetized dictionary of printing the image thus created. Line
symbols, attributes, and personifica- engraving was the earliest method of re-
tions, was a standard reference used by producing images. The engraving tech-
artists for two Today it serves
centuries. nique was developed in ancient times,
as an interpretive key (see iconogra- as the engraved back of a round, bronze
phy). Bernini's Time Revealing Truth ETRUSCAN mirror of c. 400 bce reveals.
(1647-52) follows Ripa's definition of However, metal surfaces were not used
Truth as "a beautiful nude woman, to impress images until paper came into
holding in her right hand the Sun, at use in the West; the oldest known ex-
which she gazes, and under her foot is amples date from the early 1400s, and
the globe of the world. She is pictured were made by goldsmiths. The term
nude to show that simplicity is natural "engraving" is also widely used to de-
to her. She holds the sun to indicate that scribe a print that is the end product of
truth is the friend of light . . . and the the process. (See also intaglio and
world under her foot denotes that she is woodblock)
 ENSOR, JAMES 219

Enlightenment continually passed on the road. . . .

From its development in Paris during Thirty years ago, long before Vuillard,
the first decades of the 1 8th century, the Bonnard, van Gogh, and the luminists,
Enhghtenment spread throughout Eu- I pointed the way to all the modern
rope and to the United States. It was discoveries, all the influence of light
characterized by belief in rational, em- and freeing of vision.
pirical knowledge over religious faith or

mysticism. The "philosophes" of the Ensor's family owned a souvenir shop

Enlightenment were intellectuals who in Ostend (where he was born, lived,

launched a concerted effort, via the and died), which supplied him with
written word especially —witness Did- many of the ugly, strange carnival
erot's Encyclopedie — to educate the masks he used in his paintings. In his

wider population about such concepts best-known image, Christ's Entry into
as liberty, happiness, nature, and nat- Brussels in 1889 (1888), a grotesque
ural law. Theirs was a campaign for the parody of the contemporary world, the
liberation of mankind (and occasionally masklike faces of the crowd run the
women), including slaves, Protestants, gamut from grinning skull to mon-
and Jews. Besides Diderot's writings strous clown. Christ, in the back-
and those of Montesquieu (1689-1755) ground, is barely visible behind the
and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712- teeming masses of dreadful humanity.
1778), the American Declaration of In- This major opus, more than 12 feet
dependence and the French Declaration wide, is a bitter, depressing view of the
of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen human condition, predominantly in
are Enlightenment documents. The ac- thickly encrusted brown, black, and
knowledged beginning of modern polit- white with some green. Among mes-
ical culture, the Enlightenment is a long live jesus,
sages displayed are
POSTMODERN bete noire, an excuse, ac- KING OF BRUSSELS and long live the
cording to its critics, to exercise imperi- socialist state. The painting is inter-

alist power rather than true equality. preted on many layers, some having to

Its demystification of religion led, they do with the painter's own life, others
believe, to a mythologizing of science with the historical realities of contem-
and technology. Jacques-Louis david, porary Belgium, including labor unrest.
Joseph WRIGHT of Derby, houdon, As REDON had been, Ensor was inspired
GOYA, and JEFFERSON, among others, by the writing of Edgar Allan Poe. He
have Enlightenment connections. was a member of Les vingt, but largely

unappreciated by his contemporaries

for most of his bitter, reclusive life. His
Ensor, James
work was finally recognized (as the
1 8 60-1 949 • Belgian •
191 5 quotation from his writings,
painter/printmaker •
above, indicates) once Freud and the
Symbolist/Expressionist
new SURREALIST movement provided
My unceasing investigations, today grounds for understanding his expedi-

crowned with glory, aroused the tions into the depths of the human
enmity of my snail-like followers. mind.
220 EPSTEIN, SIR JACOB

Epstein, Sir Jacob Chaim Weizmann, and Yehudi Menu-

1880-1959 • American/English • hin, among 1940 he pub-
others. In
sculptor • Modern lished his memoirs. Let There Be
Sculpture, from which the quotation
/ imagine that the feeling I have for
above is taken.
expressing a human point of view,
giving human rather than abstract
equestrian
implications to my work, comes from
Derived from the Latin equus, for
these early formative years.
"horse," in art history "equestrian"
Born to a family of Polish Jewish immi- refers to the representation of a figure

grants on New York City's Lower East on horseback. While such images pre-
side, Epstein studied at the Art Students date roman art, (e.g., the yth-century
League. With the money from his first bce horsemen on the reliefs of the
commission, illustrations for a book palace of King Assurbanipal and those
about the city's Jewish quarter {The on the Parthenon frieze), the bronze
Spirit of the Ghetto, 190Z), Epstein statue Marcus Aurelius, in which the
went to study in Paris before settling emperor addresses his troops (c. 175
permanently in London in 1905. He be- ce), is arguably the most important
came a controversial figure in 1908 statue to survive from Roman times,
when his sculptures (now destroyed) This type of image, of the ruler on
for the facade of the British Medical As- horseback, was a Roman Imperial tra-
sociation headquarters shocked the dition that looked all the way back to
public because some figures were nude Alexander the Great and, before Mar-
aud one was pregnant. Though his cus Aurelius, had been used to honor
ABSTRACT works Were relatively few, Julius Caesar, Augustus, Domitian, and
one of his best known The Rock Drill
is Trajan. Such monumental bronzes were
(19 1 3-14), a voRTiciST concept that placed on a significant site, perhaps
seems to be the torso of a mechanical thetown plaza or square, where they
monster. Most of his sculptures are were toppled as frequently as the men
representational, and the Tomb of they portrayed were discredited or
Oscar Wilde (19 12) in Paris calls to overthrown. Mistaken identity saved
mind ancient Assyrian winged bulls. Marcus Aurelius from destruction by
Epstein had a fine collection of ancient Christians who thought the sculpture
Greek, African, Polynesian, and pre- represented Constantine, the first

Columbian sculptures. After World Christian emperor. Still unrecognized

War I, he again aroused controversy by during the 15th century, and still the
his expressive distortions of form and epitome of courage and leadership, this

his deliberately crude and "primitive" larger-than-life-size bronze inspired

treatmentof religious themes. Through- donatello's Gattamelata (finished in
out his life he cast portraits in bronze. 1453)- Donatello's was not the first
These are characterized by pitting and equestrian representation since Roman
furrowing of the surface that suggests times — equestrian images were com-
the clay from which they were cast. He mon on seals through the Middle Ages,
made portraits of Albert Einstein, and the renowned 13th-century Ger-
 EQUESTRIAN 221

man Bamberg Rider (c.

sculpture monumental bronze equestrian of and
1230-37), at the Bamberg Cathedral, is for Philip IV, based on a design by

also an example —
but it was the first velazquez. Tacca wrote to galileo
bronze equestrian since antiquity, for advice. The solution: Use the horse's

It was a point of reference for verroc- tail as a prop. On two legs and a tail,

CHio's 1479-9Z Bartolomeo Colle-

c. braced internally with iron supports
oni, but where Donatello's grim rider and anchored to the ground, Philip re-

sits rigidly on his stolid, massive steed, mains dramatically poised to oversee
Verrocchio's fierce general swivels in the Plaza de Oriente in Madrid, where
his saddle and stands in his stirrups on the statue was placed in 1844. Such
an animated horse. (Verrocchio's equestrian longevity is an exception to
Colleoni was, in turn, the model for a the rule; the vandalism of the French
much replicated statue of Joan of Arc, c. Revolution, during which all equestrian
1874, by Emmanuel Fremiet.) Hubert monuments of royalty were destroyed,
Le Sueur's 1633 equestrian statue of is more typical.

Charles I, who was beheaded in 1649, Equestrian figures rendered on can-

narrowly missed being melted down vas and paper drew on sculpted prede-
after Cromwell's men found it and sold cessors; one of the most spectacular
it by the pound at "the rate of old equestrian images — though not of a
brass." The brazier who bought it made ruler — is durer's 15 13 engraving
a fortune on fake relics, but kept the known as Knight, Death, and the Devil
statue intact. Charles II rescued and in- (although Diirer called it simply Rider),
stalled it at Charing Cross overlooking which followed Donatello, Verrocchio,
the execution site, where, to this day, and other Italian precedents. In the i6th

every January 30 the Royal Stuart Soci- century, titian observed this tradition
ety holds a wreath-laying ceremony to with his portrayal of Emperor Charles
commemorate Charles I's death. In V (1547) in full armor, lance in hand,
1654, BERNINI compensated for the horse prancing, as did rubens and most
mistaken identity of Marcus Aurelius artists called on to elevate nobility. For

with a marble statue, Constantine. his work at the Spanish court, Velaz-
Bernini sculpted an ecstatic, astonished quez not only painted rulers and a very
rider, mounted on a high-spirited, rear- young prince on their horses, but he

ing horse, who has just seen a vision of also made equestrian paintings of the
the Cross. The problem of a rearing royal ladies, whose brocaded skirts cov-

horse and how to stabilize it had long ered over more than two-thirds of the
tantalized sculptors. Bernini's marble bodies of their mounts. Even more fa-
horse was set in front of a wall and ac- mous than the Charles I by Le Sueur are
tually attached to it. (Leonardo's ear- van dyck's equestrian paintings of
Her design of a rearing horse, for the Charles I, especially Charles I Dis-
SFORZA family, was never cast.) In the mounted (c. 1635), which takes the
mid- 1 7th century, the rearing-horse equestrian honorific a step further:
problem was finally resolved by a Flo- Charles now stands in front of his
rentine sculptor, Pietro Tacca (c. horse, which bows its head deferen-
1 577-1640), who was working on a tially. While most equestrian images of
222 ERGOTIMOS

the 19th century followed earlier con- Ernst launched the Cologne, Germany,
ventions, Jacques-Louis david's paint- dada group using his name to call it
ing of Napoleon crossing the Alps Dadamax. He introduced collage and
{Napoleon at Saint Bernard, 1800) MONTAGE to the Dada vocabulary with
takes on an extraordinary life of its an appropriately non sequitur ratio-

own. Though the painting is basically nale, as explained in the 1936 text
the rearing-horse type, David fills the quoted from above. By using a drawing
canvas with horse and gesturing com- of a beetle upside down to represent a

mander. Napoleon's gold cape is boat in the collage Here Everything Is

whipped by his putative speed, the Still Floating (1920), Ernst plays with
horse's mane and tail swirl in an extrav- metamorphosis as well as nonsense. He
aganza of heroic excess —a vibrantly moved on toward surrealism with the
painted quotation from Leonardo's and quizzical, inexplicable The Elephant

Bernini's equestrian ideas. David's Celebes (1921), a painting in which the

Napoleon seems a melodramatic par- elephant might seem to have the head of
ody, but was not meant to be. The a bull on the end of its tail, if we could
heroic equestrian convention is sub- believe it was a tail and not a trunk, and
verted, however, by the sculptor ma- an elephant, not a machine. It was in-

RiNi, whose naked horsemen on spired by a photograph of a Sudanese

rudimentary steeds, pathetic and some- corn bin raised above the ground.
times humorous, seem to skip back- A strong element of fear, reminiscent
ward from the mid-ioth century over of de CHiRico, added to perplexity
is

the entire history of art to restore the in Ernst's montage Two Children Are
horses painted on the walls of prehis- Threatened by a Nightingale (1924).
toric caves. The painted scene, in garish colors, is

largely sky with a blast of yellow at the

Ergotimos horizon, and small figures of a woman

See FRANgois vase in distress and a man, poised on the roof
of a shed, running with a child in his
arms. Besides the heavy wood frame
Ernst, Max surrounding the picture, elements of the
1891-1976 • German •
painting are constructed of wood, such
painter/sculptor • Dada/Surrealist
as an open gate and the frame of the
A ready-made reality, whose naive shed. In 1925 Ernst experimented with
destination has the air of having been FROTTAGE. The idea came to him at a

fixed, once and for all (a canoe), seaside inn as he studied the floor-
finding itself in the presence of another boards "upon which a thousand scrub-
hardly less absurd vacuum
reality (a bings had deepened the grooves."
cleaner), in a place where both of them Placing a sheet of paper on the boards,
must feel displaced (a forest), will, by he then rubbed black lead over them. "I
this very fact, escape to its naive was surprised by the sudden intensifica-

destinationand to its identity . . . : tion of my visionary capacities and by

canoe and vacuum cleaner will make the hallucinatory succession of contra-
love. dictory images superimposed," he later
 ESCORIAL 223

wrote. He equated the effect of contem- hambra and in the mosque La Mezquita
plating frottage images to that lib- at Cordoba, that he was inspired by the
eration of the subconscious achieved repetitive, overall designs of islamic
by Surrealism's "automatic writing." ART. His own experiments with repeti-
Ernst also used photographs, as well as tion used recognizable figures, such as
images from highly scientific texts, birds and fish. These confound a
as resources, taking from them what viewer's distinction between back-
and as he wished. Ernst was briefly in- ground and foreground. Beyond inves-
terned by the Germans but escaped tigating optical perception, Escher's
from France to the United States in work is concerned with mathematical,
1941. Europe After the Rain (1940-42) scientific, and often philosophical prin-
expresses the post-Auschwitz, post- ciples. His Hand with Reflecting Globe
atomic bomb apocalypse. For it he used (1935), a LITHOGRAPH, is a self-portrait
decalcomania, a Surrealist technique in in which his hand, in the foreground,
which the artist briefly places a sheet of holds a reflecting sphere. He and the
paper or glass on a newly painted sur- room in which he sits are reflected with
face. When the paper/glass is lifted, it the distortion of a convex surface. His
leaves the painted surface textured in face is locked in the exact center of the
unpredictable ways. One of the most globe. Escher said of it, "No matter
celebrated of Surrealist works, Europe how he turns or twists himself, he can-
After the Rain has been called "an al- not get away from that central point:
tarpiece of the deluge." the ego remainsimmovably the focus of
his world." He also commented, "All

Escher, Maurits Cornelius my works are games. Serious games."

1 898-1 972 • Dutch • graphic artist Escher's prints are prized by mathe-
• Optical illusion maticians and scientists.

The border line between two adjacent

Escorial
shapes having a double function, the
Spanish power was at its zenith during
act of tracing such a line is a
the last half of the i6th century. Philip
complicated business. On either side of
II (reigned 1556-98) made Madrid his
it, simultaneously, a recognizability
capital and permanent residence and
takes shape. But the human eye and
built the great monastery-palace com-
mind cannot be busy with two things
plex known as El Escorial (1563-84). It
at the same moment, and so there
is named for the village outside the city
must be a quick and continual jumping
where it is located. Juan de Herrera
from one side to the other. . . . This
(153 0-1597) took over from the origi-
difficulty is perhaps the very moving-
nal architect, changing his bramante-
spring of my perseverance.
inspired design for a more severe,
Escher traveled frequently in Europe, granite structure; Philip had instructed
especially Italy, drawing whatever him, "Above all, do not forget what I

caught his interest. But it was his trip to have told you — simplicity of form,
Spain in 1936, where he made detailed severity in the whole, nobility without

copies of Moorish mosaics in the Al- arrogance, majesty without ostenta-

224 ESTE FAMILY

tion." The rectangular compound, had the effect of spurring the painters

enclosing numerous governmental, reli- to great imaginative efforts." Of the

gious, and other buildings, stresses its Estes, the most imaginative, as far as

horizontality, is enormous in scale, and patronage is concerned, was Isabella.

has exquisite granite stonework. Philip She married Francesco gonzaga and in

had viGNOLA and palladio consulted Mantua, the Gonzaga domain, she had
for the church, and Herrera carried out a "grotta," or cave, built —which was
the design with their classical recom- really a glorified study in which she
mendations in mind. Van der weyden's kept her collections that ranged from
Deposition, also known as the Escorial classical sculptures, gems, coins, and
Deposition (c. 1435-42), is listed in the medals to manuscripts. She assigned
inventories of the Escorial in 1574, and pictures with mythological subjects
Philip also owned paintings by bosch. to PERUGINO, CORREGGIO, BRONZING,
Other major artists whose works were and Mantegna. Mantegna had earlier

collected at Escorial over the centuries painted the illusionistic ceiling of the
include velazquez, ribera, and El Camera degli Sposi for her Gonzaga
GRECO. grandfather-in-law. In one of Man-
tegna's paintings for Isabella, Mars em-
Este family braces Venus while her husband
By the mid- 13 th century, Ferrara, a city gesticulates on the sidelines; historians
in the lowlands of northern Italy near discuss the significance of this portrayal
the Po River, was subject to the power in relation to Isabella's personal affairs.

of the Este family. It remained their Rumor aside, she was a highly edu-
stronghold until 1598. The Este dukes, cated, interesting, and accomplished
especially Niccolo III (1383-1441) and woman.
Lionello (1407-14 50), supported a cul-
tivated court and many artists, includ- Estes, Richard
ing PISANELLO, JaCOpO BELLINI, born 1936 • American • painter •

ALBERTI, PiERO della Franccsca, and Photorealist

MANTEGNA. Even Netherlandish
the
I'm not trying to reproduce the
artist van der weyden worked for
photograph. I'm trying to use the
them. A Ferranese school flourished
photograph to do the painting.
under their patronage, though its artists

are less well known than those listed Using a combination of oil and syn-
above. The three most important are thetic paints, along with photographs
Cosimo Tura (c. 1430-1495), Fran- he has taken himself, Estes zeroes in on
cesco del Cossa (c. 1435-1476/77), and the commercial, urban scene in such
Ercole de' Roberti (c. 1455/56-1496). pictures as Candy Store (1969). Every
According to Frederick Hartt, "The item in this storefront display — boxes
utter flatness of Ferrara and its sur- of popping corn, trays of fudge and
roundings, the absence of anything that peanut brittle, cans of peanuts — is seen
might be called landscape, the compar- through sparkling clean plate glass. The
ative dullness of the wide, straight glass even reflects people passing and
streets and low houses, seem to have cars parked across the street. The style,
 ETRUSCAN ART 225

called alternatelyphotorealism and In soft-ground etching, the artist draws

New Realism, grows out of pop art, on a sheet of paper that is placed over
but as Estes commented in the same in- the coated plate. At the same time that
terview 1972 from which the excerpt
in the pressure of the pencil makes its im-
quoted above is taken, "the trouble pression, so too does the texture of the
with pop was that it made too much paper; thus, the mark on the ground,
comment. A very sophisticated intellec- and consequently on the plate, and sub-
tual game type thing." While perhaps sequently the print, depends on whether
not so politically suggestive, Estes's the paper was fine (giving a sharp, clean
paintings are extremely sophisticated, line) or rough (giving a thicker, grainy
FORMAL compositions in terms of his line).

choice of viewpoint, detail, and colors.

His selection of subjects is thought- Etruscan art
provoking beyond the image presented: Prior to the rise of Rome, the cities of
Candy Store is not merely an accurate Etruria dominated a region of central
depiction of a store front; it is a com- Italybetween Florence and Rome,
mentary on excess. In a sense his paint- named Tuscany after their inhabitants,
ings are 20th-century trompe l'oeils, the Etruscans. The ancient Greek histo-
but rather than fooling the eye to think rian Herodotus wrote that they mi-
it is looking at a real object, the painting grated to Italy from Asia Minor, but
deceives the viewer into thinking it is a scholars disagree about that. Etruscan
photograph. civilization reached its peak in the 7th
and 6th centuries bce when, for a time,
etching they challenged the power first of
This is a form of intaglio printing in Greece, then of Rome. Never unified,
which the metal surface used to print is the squabbling Etruscan cities fell to the
given an acid-resistant coating. Instead Romans during the 5th and 4th cen-
of cutting directly into the metal, the turies bce. was admired and
Greek art

artist draws an image on the coating, imported into Etruria (see fran^ois
thus exposing the metal beneath it to vase) and Greek influence is seen in
penetration by acid. This acid will Etruscan art. But it had its own integ-
"bite" the plate only where the lines of rity and character, recognized in objects

an image are wanted. Gradations in the like the "capitoline" wolf and the
depth of the etched lines are controlled Chimera. Etruscan funerary art and
by "stopping," taking the plate out practices were especially impressive,
of the acid at different times, and var- both for reproducing underground
nishing the lines that have reached the pseudo-domestic architecture with
desired depth to prevent further biting carved replicas of household items and
when the plate is resubmerged. When for decorating the walls of burial cham-
the coating is entirely removed, the bers with painted banquet scenes and
image etched onto the plate remains. In animals. Until recently scholars were
all intaglio printing the hues cut into the primarily concerned with uncovering
plate are filled with ink, which is then what Etruscans derived from Greek
transferred, under pressure, onto paper, works of art and artists, but current re-
226 EUPHRONIOS

search pays attention to ways in which Euthymides

Roman art followed Etruscan models. active c. 500 bce • Greek • vase
painter • Late Archaic
Euphronios
Euphronios never did anything like it.
late 6th century bce • Greek vase
painter/potter • Late Archaic The inscription above is on an am-
phora decorated by Euthymides. It is
We cannot krtow what led Euphronios
usually interpreted as a boast and a
to turnfrom decorating vases to
challenge, a "cry of envy and hate
shaping them. A mishap; change in
wrung from a jealous and despairing
eyesight— there were no spectacles to
rival," as beazley writes. However,
correct such changes; the legitimate
Beazley himself demurs: "I take it rather
desire for a still better living. He may
to be the sort of good-humored vaunt
have actually preferred shaping vases
that a young man gaily tosses to his
to decorating them. Like many other
friend; and I dare say I shall have the
vase-painters he had been trained in
support of those who are young, or
both branches from a boy, was master
have not yet quite forgotten the inso-
of both crafts; and when the
lence of their generous youth." What-
opportunity came, or the blow fell,
ever the tone of the claim, it was made
he dropped the brush and devoted
just before the end of the 6th century
himself to the potter's art.
bce when, like his rival euphronios,
(J. P. Beazley, 1944)
Euthymides explored the red-figure
beazley's commentary on, and specu- TECHNIQUE and investigated human
lation about, the artist who has been poses. On a vase named Revelers (c.

named Euphronios illuminates both the 510-500 bce), Euthymides painted a

complicated process of identifying comic scene of drunken dancers, pre-
anonymous Greek vase painters and the senting them in motion, turning and
historic prejudice, in Western culture at twisting, and as seen from the side,
least, of giving precedence to painters front, and back. (See also pottery)
over craftspeople. That was not neces-
sarily the case in the 6th century bce. As Evans, Walker
Beazley also comments, "That Euphro- 1903-1975 • American •

nios the painter is the same as Euphro- photographer • Social Documentary

nios the potter is not proved, but highly
// am] a penitent spy and an apologetic
probable." Once ground had been bro-
voyeur.
ken by the andokides painter, Eu-
phronios was among the pioneers of the During the Great Depression, the pho-
RED-FIGURE TECHNIQUE. His great tographer Evans and the writer James
strides in the study of anatomy, muscu- Agee were sent on assignment by For-
lature,and movement made him fa- tune magazine to Alabama, where the
mous in his day. The scene on a krater, two lived with a poor farm family and
Hercules Strangling Antaeus (c. 510 documented the family's life in words
bce), is attributed to Euphronios. (See and photographs. Their book, Let Us
also pottery) Now Praise Famous Men, was pub-
 exhibit/exhibition 227

lished in 1941. Like lange, Evans took impressive example, a kylix (drinking
photographs both of people and of cup) decorated with a picture called
empty places that strongly characterize Dionysus in a Sailboat 540 bce) on
(c.

the people who are missing. Washroom the inside surface, shows an important
and Dining Area of Floyd Burroughs' advance in concept: The white sail is

Home, Hale County, Alabama (1936) is painted as if it were actually billowing

an empty room. It is a sophisticated ab- with the force of the wind. Thus, Ex-
stract composition as well as a scene ekias moved beyond rendering a flat,
evocative of the sharecropper's stark symbolic representation of a sail to
life. comment about himself,
Evans's showing a more naturalistic look of
quoted above, was made in connection one. As the historian J. J. PoUitt re-
with a series of subway portraits he marks in the above quotation, such de-
took surreptitiously, with hidden cam- tails from the rigidity
are an advance
era, in 1938 and 1941. He anticipates of conventional archaic representa-
the accusations of exploitation and the tions, adding expression to the scene.
questions of privacy contemporary In this case, the picture seems to illus-
scholars raise regarding photography trate a line of Homer's poem describ-
with a purpose of social documentary. ing a voyage of the god of wine,
Dionysus: "But soon an offshore breeze
ex voto blew to our liking — a canvas-bellying
Refers to an offering donated to a breeze. ..." Also well known among
shrine, usually of a saint, either in Exekias's paintings is Ajax and Achilles
thanks for a favor done or in supplica- Playing a Board Game, the scene on a
tion for divine help. Artists such as vase now in the Vatican.
CHAMPAiGNE and KAHLO have adopted
the ex voto, a form of popular worship, exhibit/exhibition
for their personal expressions. The Latin roots of the word "exhibit"
mean "to hold" and "out"; in other
Exekias words, "to show." Exhibits at a mu-
active c. 550-525 bce • Greek • seum may draw entirely from the insti-

potter/vase painter • Archaic tution's own collections, or, using its

own holdings as a basis, borrow com-

Even in the vase painting of Exekias,
plementary works from other muse-
whose ability to convey dramatic
ums. Some exhibitions open and close
tension setshim apart from most
at a single museum; others travel, both
Archaic artists and links him to the
nationally and internationally. The size
Early Classical period, we do not so
and importance of exhibitions vary
much see the emotional experience of
from a small show of a private collec-
the figures represented as intuit it from
tor's Japanese prints, for example, to a
the subtle brilliance of the
"blockbuster" such as the cezanne ex-
composition. (J.J. PoUitt, 1972)
hibition of 1996 that traveled from
Both potter and painter, Exekias is con- Paris to London to Philadelphia. Exhi-
sidered the greatest of the black- bition themes may focus on a narrow
figure vase painters. His most time period, as did The Search for
 —

228 EXISTENTIALISM

Alexander of 1982-83, about Alexan- dictable, and often hostile world. Exis-

der the Great, or on a single artist, as tentialism, which influenced numerous

did the Cezanne show and that of artists during the 20th century, stresses
HOMER of 1995-96. Each such major the individual's responsibility for his or
exhibition takes years to organize and her choices and actions. Jean-Paul
requires enormous skills of negotiation Sartre (1905-80) was a foremost Exis-
on the part of the borrowers (and often tentialist philosopher.

reciprocal lending or offers of restora-

tion in exchange for the loan). Consid- Expressionism
ering risks of loss and damage, and the Among those termsromanti- (e.g.,

fact that many visitors come specifically cism, impressionism, symbolism, and
to see them, museums are reluctant to realism^) that have different signifi-

lend their most valuable and famous cance depending on whether or not they
objects. However, a successful major are capitalized, expressionism (with
exhibition, well conceived, organized, a lowercase e) describes artistic work
and arranged, with important research that is, indeed, emotionally expres-
informing the catalogue reader as well sive grunewald's horrifying Isen-
as the visitor, is a once-in-a-lifetime oc- heim Altarpiece (1512/13-15) is a
casion to see significantly related works prime example. Modern Expression-
that are usually hundreds of miles, if ism, as a self-conscious movement, is

not continents, apart. The disadvantage traced to the supreme individualism

is that mammoth exhibitions have be- and self-expression of two contempo-
come so popular, drawing such huge rary, albeit very different, 19th-century

crowds (as did the 1996-97 vermeer artists —van GOGH and gauguin. From
show in Washington, D.C.), that it be- the beginning of the 20th century, Ex-
comes nearly impossible to see them pressionism is used most specifically
with contemplative leisure and, consid- to characterize the pre-Nazi era art of
ering Vermeer's small canvases, dif- Germany and Austria. Writers impor-
ficult them at all. (See also
to see tant to the movement were riegl and
CURATOR and catalogue) Unprece- Wilhelm Worringer, who incorporated
dented and promising during the last Riegl's thoughts about subjective, spiri-

decade of the 20th century, "virtual" tual intent with more psychologically
exhibitions become available
have based theories of empathy. Worringer
electronically. They have the advant- became a great supporter of Expres-
age of making temporary exhibits sionist Germany, Die
painters. In
more permanently available, and of brucke, Der blaue reiter, and new
bringing distant collections to one's OBJECTIVITY fell under the umbrella of
own computer screen. (See also salon, Expressionism. Since the intention, or
museum) essence, of Expressionism is to give ex-
ternal form to inner feeling, it follows
Existentialism that individual styles and techniques
An ethical and philosophical point of used for that visible form vary widely.
view that is concerned with the individ- In America, Expressionism came into
ual's isolation in an irrational, unpre- its own as abstract expressionism.
 EYCK, JAN VAN 229

Exquisite Corpse (corps exquis) Altarpiece of the Lamb (c. 1423-32,

A process in which several people con- and also known, from its location, as
tribute to a common text or drawing the Ghent Altarpiece), was not, how-
without seeing what others have done, ever, for the court. It was begun by his

Corps exquis was a conceit of surreal- brother, Hubert, who had died by
ISM devised by Andre Breton, and 1426, and was finished by Jan van
named for an instance in which several Eyck. This was a large, multi-wing
people, unaware of the context to altarpiece that soon became interna-
which they added words, ended with tionally famous. Questions abound re-
the phrase "the exquisite / corpse / shall garding which brother painted which
drink / the bubbling / wine." In the panels, the meaning of its subject mat-
realm of imagery, the practice produced ter, and its intended appearance, for it

unexpected poetic associations that has lost its original frame. While most
could not have been obtained in any of what van Eyck did at court was
other way. short-lived, the paintings that brought
him enduring renown are extraordinar-
Eyck, Janvan ily, meticulously, and miraculously

c.1395-1441 • Netherlandish • detailed works. This is "realism of par-

painter • Northern Renaissance ticulars," rather than the realism of
PERSPECTIVE that Italian artists of the
Als Ich Chan
same period were striving for. Van Eyck
Translated as "I can" or "to the best of achieved "microscopic-telescopic vi-

my ability," the words above are van sion," as panofsky called it, made pos-
Eyck's personal motto. In the early 1 5th sible by his development and mastery of
century, when van Eyck appeared on the oil glaze technique. Though van
the scene, royal courts were still strong Eyck did not invent oil painting, as

and still provided the main patronage of was once believed, he did perfect the use

art in Northern Europe; but they were of transparent glazes that yield rich ef-

changing. In the retinue of Philip the fects of light, color, and transparency.
Good, Duke of Burgundy (now Bel- His approach to painting is consistent

gium), noble courtiers were being re- with the philosophy of nominalism,
placed by functionaries drawn from the which limits human understanding to

generally rising middle classes. As these what humans are able to see. The com-
individuals gained their wealth and plex symbolism in his paintings inspires
power, they enlarged and commemo- lively debate, whether the image is ap-

rated their prestige by supporting the parently secular {Arnolfini Double Por-
arts. As a painter in the Burgundian 1434), overwhelmingly spiritual
trait,

court in Bruges, van Eyck was kept busy (Lucca Madonna, c. 1434-35), or a
with all manner of assignments, from combination of the two {Madonna with
interior decoration to designing proces- Canon George van der Paele, 1436).

sional floats and food extravaganzas. Yet while his jewels and brocades look
Philip even used him as a special envoy bona fide, his spatial relations were ec-

to foreign countries. The first great centric rather than rational. And if his

work of art with van Eyck's name on it, church settings are specifically and in-
230 EYCK, JAN VAN

tricately detailed, they do not corre- Eyck and his patrons were strugghng
spond with any real buildings. "How with a fundamental spiritual paradox:
can we understand something so vividly how to reconcile the importance to the
realized and yet precious, mystical and, Church of material wealth and beauty
ultimately, ideal in its result?" the histo- with the Christian idea that such wealth
rian Craig Harbison asks. Among the and beauty must be renounced in order

answers Harbison proposes is that van to enter heaven.

 F

. Fabritius, Card for his PEEPSHow boxes with their per-

162Z-1654 • Dutch • painter • spective trickery. The little pamting
! Baroque Goldfinch (1654), with its color har-
monies, sense of composition, and con-
Who does not mourn him on bended
fident brushwork, demonstrates why
knee He who loves Fictura, Goddess
I
Fabritius has been called a link between
of Art I He was her favorite darling.
Rembrandt and vermeer.
Dirck van Bleyswijck, 1667

Fabritius's short career began as a stu-

Rembrandt's studio and ended

dent in Faiyum (also Fayum/Fayyum)
when he was just 32 he was killed — portraits
when gunpowder magazine exploded
a In a fertile, cosmopolitan district some
and destroyed much of Delft, and prob- 60 miles south of Cairo, Egypt, called
ably most of his paintings. The lines ex- the Faiyum, classical, Greco-Roman
cerpted above are from a long poem influence merged with local tradition.
which also asks: "Why, Death, did you While the ancient Egyptian practice
have to take him prematurely / When he of covering a mummy case with a rep-
was painting so cleverly with his / dis- resentation of the individual therein
tinguished brushes. ..." His earliest continued, the period of Roman occu-
dated work
from 1642, which means
is pation during the 2nd century ce
that by then he had left Rembrandt's brought a stylistic innovation that is

studio, as pupils were not allowed to seen in an extraordinary body of more

j
sign their own works. He took a great than 1,000 mummy portraits. Unique,
deal of the master's technique with him individualized paintings on wood,
when he moved to Delft in about many in encaustic, these show the
1650 —the broad, fluctuating stroke of NATURALISM of Classical influence, and
the brush and thick paint. But instead of yet the intense gaze of the large, dark
painting a portrait against a dark eyes is non-Classical, perhaps even in-
ground, for example, he would choose a tentionally anti-Classical (see sub-
light one, and his colors were more sil- antique). A late Faiyum portrait titled
very than brown. His treatment of the Septimus Severus, Julia Domna, and
atmospheric effects of clear daylight Their Children, Caracalla and Geta (c.
was another independent step. He was 200 ce) may have been a souvenir of an
highly praised by his contemporaries imperial visit to Egypt. Geta's features
 —

232 fakes/forgeries

have been erased, perhaps because he Falconet, Etienne-Maurice

grew up to be a ruthless dictator. 171 6-179 1 • French • sculptor •
Rococo
fakes/forgeries
The worthiest aim of sculpture—
Fakes must be distinguished from im-
viewed from its moral aspect— is to
ages that were made to emulate the look
perpetuate the memory of illustrious
of a MASTER or a teacher, or to pay
men and to give models of virtue.
—
homage to the past for centuries stu-
When sculpture treats subjects that are
. . .

dents have learned by copying what has

simply decorative and pleasant, has
gone before — and, in many instances,
another,and an apparently less useful
it

from works produced in workshops.

Artists who ran large workshops signed
pictures and sculptures that had been
executed by students according to their
instructions, perhaps adding only the
finishing touch themselves. Fakes
forgeries are works that are made
deceive people, usually for profit. Fa-
aim; but even then it is no less capable
of leading the heart towards good or
evil. Thus a sculptor, like a writer,
merits praise or blame as the subjects
he treats are decent or licentious.
and
to Falconet was chief modeler from 1757
to 1766 at the Sevres porcelain factory.

mous among deceivers is Hans van Founded 1738 and catering to the
in

Meegeren (1889-1947), a Dutch artist luxury trade, Sevres began to set the
who was tried and found guilty of high style in ceramics (see pottery)
forgery in 1947. Van Meegeren devised during the later i8th century. Perhaps
methods of painting over old canvases, under the influence of his mistress,

using the kinds of pigments the origi- Madame de Pompadour, Louis XV was
nal artistwould have used, combining the principal Sevres shareholder in the
elements from two or three different 1750S, and among other artists who
works of the artist he was imitating and worked for Sevres were pigalle,
inventing methods that would give an HOUDON, and clodion. Falconet mod-
antique look and qualities to his paint- ified the exuberance of the baroque
ings. His most notorious success was and the extravagance of the rococo,
with a painting he passed off as Supper giving his figures a more restrained,
at Emmaus by vermeer; was authen-
it CLASSICAL elegance. One of his best-

ticated by a highly esteemed Dutch art known works (carved in marble) is an

historian and collector, Abraham idealized figure of a woman with the
Bredius (1855-1946) —
Bredius was 82 portrait head of Pompadour: Madame
and had bad eyesight at the time de Pompadour as the Venus of the
bought by the Boymans Museum in Doves (1757-66). Falconet was a friend
Rotterdam, and celebrated in The of DIDEROT, who secured for him a
Burlington Magazine, a leading art his- commission for a statue of Czar Peter
tory journal. One of the vexing ques- the Great. From 1766 to 1782, Falconet
tions raised by a forgery is. Why does it worked on a bronze equestrian statue

lose value when it is the same work that of the czar on a rearing horse. During
was praised while its maker was be- his years in Russia, Falconet was the
lieved to be famous? empress Catherine's artistic adviser. In
 FARNESE HERCULES 233

1 76 1 he wrote his Reflections on Sculp- Latour continued for many years. Fan-
ture, and in 1781 his Complete Works tin-Latour met and befriended both
was published. MANET and WHISTLER at the Louvre.
He painted still life flowers with
fancy picture meticulous attention to each petal. One
The word "fancy" as used here refers to composition. The Betrothal Still Life
the imagination. A much quoted letter (1869), he presented to his fiancee,
written by Gainsborough reads, "I'm whom he did not marry until 1876. The
sick of Portraits and wish very much to picture Fantin-Latour is musing about
take my viol-da-gamba and walk off to in the quotation above is Studio in the
some sweet village, where I can paint Batignolles (1870), a large group por-
landskips and enjoy the fag-end of life trait set in an unusually elegant studio
in quietness and ease." His own Going inhabited by eight gentlemen in suits,
to Market (c. 1769-71) is the sort of waistcoats, jackets — one even wears a

picture he was talking about. This idyll, hat.The cast of characters includes
with feathery trees and peasant figures Manet seated at the easel painting a
as decorative as the scenery, is built not portrait; also present are renoir, Emile
from nature but from the imagination. Zola, BAZiLLE, and monet. Renoir is

Fancy pictures were also portrait sub- placed so that his head is enclosed by a
jects dressed in costume, often an aris- picture frame that hangs on the wall be-
tocratic version of a peasant outfit. hind him. Absent are degas, who prob-
ably declined the opportunity, and
Fantin-Latour, Henri Fantin-Latour himself, who was the
1 83 6-1904 • French • painter • least avant-garde among the painters
Academic/Impressionist Circle with whom he associated — working
among impressionists, he remained
/ am giving a lot of thought to a large
true to tradition in his own paintings.
painting . . . showing Manet, at the
The work is also widely known as
center, painting at his easel, his model
Homage to Manet, and it was favorably
posing in front of him, the two of them
received at the salon of 1870. Later in
surrounded by friends, acquaintances,
his career Fantin-Latour became quite
a lot of people in the studio. This
experimental in his musical evocations,
strikes me as a fine, picturesque motif.
especially the operas of Richard Wag-
Fantin-Latour received his artistic train- ner.
ing from his father, starting at the age of
10. He also studied with a little-known Farnese Hercules
teacher, Lecoq de Boisbaudran, whose A gigantic (almost 10V2 feet high) mar-
unusual instruction method was to ble figure of the nude Hercules. It is

focus on the development of memory, considered an early-3rd-century ce

insisting that students concentrate on marble copy by the hand of an Athenian
essentials and details and then repro- sculptor, Glycon, after an original 4th-
duce images from memory. To that end century bce work by lysippos. It is be-

Lecoq sent his students to copy masters lieved to be an enlargement of the

at the Louvre, a practice that Fantin- original, and scholars think that this
 a

2,34 fauve/fauvism

Hercules was taken from Athens to caught on and has continued to refer to
Rome by the emperor Caracalla. The works of artists including matisse,
figure is a weary hero resting on his DUFY, derain, vlaminck, and braque.
club, holding the apples of the Hes- The rationale of Fauve color is its ex-
perides. was excavated from the
It pressiveness, rather than its truth to
Baths of Caracalla in 1540, and the "local" or actual color. However, Ma-
missing hands and legs were sculpted tisse, the central force of the movement,
by Guglielmo della Porta (died 1577) formulated his underlying belief with
at Michelangelo's recommendation. these words: "An artist must recognize
Guglielmo did such a good job that that when he uses his reason, his picture
when the original limbs were later is an artifice and that when he paints, he
found, it was decided to leave the sub- must feel he is copying nature — and
stitutes in place. In 1787, however, the even when he consciously departs from
antique limbs were reattached. An en- nature, he must do it with the convic-
graving (c. 1592.) by Hendrick Goltzius tion that it is only the better to interpret
(1558-1617) of the figure's back, seen her." Thus, while the Fauve palette was
as if from below, dramatically illus- liberated from convention, it was still

trates thesuperhuman strength of the built on the foundation of interest in the

calves, buttocks, and back muscles. natural world. By 1908 the Fauve
This Hercules and the Farnese Bull— movement, as such, came to an end,
pyramid of human figures that seem though its influence persisted.
to be wrestling a bull, also found in

Caracalla's Baths — are named for the Federal Art Project

Farnese family, humanists and art See WORKS progress administration
PATRONS (Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (wpa)
became Pope Paul III in 1534). Their art
collection (now in Naples) was in the Federal Style
Farnese Palace in Rome, designed by Term used to designate American art
Antonio da Sangalio the younger (see and culture from roughly the end of the
SANGALLo) and Michelangelo. Revolutionary War (1783) to about
1830. Even though Britain had been
Fauve/Fauvism their foe, American artists went primar-
It was the violence of their colors and ily to London for instruction in art dur-
their untamed brushstrokes that led to a They brought home the
ing this period.
group of young artists becoming known grand manner of painting that was
as the Fauves, which means "wild rooted in Greco-Roman antiquity and
beasts." Specifically, at the salon d'au- the European old masters, but usually
TOMNE exhibition in 1905 the critic directed it to the glorification of the
Louis Vauxcelles pointed to a statue new nation. However, as artists such as
that looked like a 15th-century sculp- TRUMBULL and vanderlyn discovered,
ture and said, "Donatello among the Americans in general were less enthusi-
wild beasts." (There is speculation that astic about the Grand Manner than
Henri Rousseau's painting The Hungry they were interested in having their por-
Lion inspired the comment.) The name traits painted.
 FEMINIST ART 235

Feininger, Lyonel of like importance. William

. . .

1871-1956 • German/American • Dunlap, the Vasari of early American

painter • Expressionist artists, knew nothing about him.

(Lloyd Goodrich, 1946)

Together let us desire, conceive and
create the new structure of the future,
The American-born successor to smib-
which will embrace architecture and
ERT, but self-taught, probably from
sculpture and painting in one unity,
PRINTS and the example of Smibert's
and which will one day rise toward
paintings, Feke did not, however, have
heaven from the hands of a million
the understanding of composition and
workers like the crystal symbol of a
freedom with brushwork of the Euro-
new faith. (The Bauhaus, 19 19)
pean trained artist. He depended pri-

The son of German musicians, born in marily on his own observations and in
New York, Feininger went to Germany doing so created a milestone of Ameri-
in 1887 to study music. He became an can painting, the first in the colonial
artist instead, and developed an idio- STYLE, Isaac Royall and His Family
syncratic style of CUBISM, expressing (1741). While it is based on Smibert's
architecture, boats, and the ocean Bermuda Group (Dean George Berke-
as faceted, geometric structures. UnUke ley and His Family; 1729), it is more
many of his contemporaries (e.g., carefully attentive to material texture
NOLDE and marc) who used brash and and details of fabric — accurate repre-
bright colors, Feininger built his images sentation of the visual world, not of
with delicately modulated colors. He ideas or feelings. This will become even
was allied with no single school or style more apparent in his successor, the first

of art but borrowed from many. In outstanding Colonial artist, copley.

19 1 9 Feininger became associated with Despite his significance, as the historian
the BAUHAUS. The idea of the cathedral Goodrich comments above, Feke's life

as representative of the Bauhaus Uto- is little known.

pian ideal is synthesized in Feininger's
starlit Cathedral of the Future (19 19), a Feminist art
woodcut that was used as the title page During the late 1960s and early 1970s,
of the first Bauhaus "Manifesto," from what was then called the Women's Lib-
which the quotation above is excerpted. eration Movement brought to interna-
He returned to the United States in tional consciousness the oppression
1937- under which women had lived for cen-
turies. As women gathered everywhere

to break down barriers to their inde-

Feke, Robert
pendence and success, artists and their
1707-1752 • American • painter •
supporters also organized. Different ap-
Colonial
proaches predominated: In the United
Of native-born painters before Copley, States, women on the East Coast con-
Robert Feke was the most centrated on the institutional sexism
accomplished. But less is known about and economics of the art world. Their
him than any eighteenth-century artist efforts included establishing coopera-
236 FEMINIST ART HISTORY

tive galleries devoted to showing the were scrutinized, mendieta, for exam-
work of neglected women (e.g., neel). ple, explored the traditional "mother
Women Artists in Revolution (war), earth" notion of women as closer to
started in New York in 1969, was the and representing nature while men, ra-

first women's art organization. The tional and intellectual, create culture.
critic and artist lippard was an impor- The photographer Barbara Kruger
tant, constructive force in protesting the (born 1945) defied stereotypes with im-
exclusion of women and in increasing ages such as We Won't Play Nature to
awareness of their work in museums Your Culture (1983), showing the head
and galleries. On
West Coast, edu-
the of a woman with leaves over her eyes.
cation and female consciousness were Feminists continue to challenge conven-
foremost: In 1971, Judy Chicago and tional definitions of art and to step over
Miriam schapiro, both teachers, estab- old boundaries of propriety (e.g., see

lished the first Feminist Art Program Annie Sprinkles in body art). In what
in the country to train women at the is called the "second generation" of
new California Institute of the Arts Feminist artists, Mary kelly's work is

(CalArts). They also initiated an un- theoretical and philosophically ori-

usual project, Womanhouse, in 1972, ented. Where first-generation feminists

designed to express women's strongest brought to light the historic and cul-

desires and greatest fears. They rented a tural biases that suppress women
house along the Los Angeles freeway and then sought a female essence, the

that was slated for demolition, and second generation rejects that as "es-

Feminist Art Program members dec- sentialism" and disputes the very
orated it with evocative images: a construction of gender. Kelly, for exam-
macrame web in the hallway, perhaps ple, investigates how the "self" is con-
to signify the way women were trapped structed in social, ideological, and
in their houses; repellent images of eggs psychological terms in order to decon-
turning into breasts on the ceiling of a struct assumptions about it. These
pink kitchen; a mannequin trapped in artistic investigations are paralleled by
the linen closet. Womanhouse lasted developments in feminist art his-
only one month work of art they
as the tory.
had created, but thousands came to see
it and it symbolized a new era. This was Feminist art history
the beginning of an effort that concen- Historical, theoretical, and critical in-

trated, at first, on bringing women into quiries from a feminist perspective

the mainstream. They supported collab- began in1971 with Linda Nochlin's
oration rather than competition among essay "Why Are There No Great
artists. Soon feminists' goals evolved in Women Artists?" She turned attention
favor of challenging and disrupting the to the social and institutional circum-
"mainstream," or "establishment," stances "at academies, systems of pa-
rather than joining it. Initially the effort tronage, mythologies of the divine
was to show that women were "as good creator and artist as he-man or social
as" or "the same as" men, but in the outcast." With Ann Sutherland Harris,
next step stereotypes and differences Nochlin assembled a momentous exhi-
 —

FfeTE CHAMPETRE 237

bition and produced a catalogue enti- theme that became popular, if not ob-
tled Women Artists 1^^0-19^0 (1976), sessive, during the 19th century. The
which serves as a foundation for later femme fatale was beautiful, seductive,
research about women in art. This kind and dangerous. She infiltrated opera
of early work in Feminist art history (Wagner, Massenet, Strauss), theater
was "archaeological," bringing to the (Strindberg, Wilde, goethe), poetry
surface names and works of artists (BAUDELAIRE, Mallarme, Keats), phi-
whose identity had been buried by ne- losophy (Schopenhauer), and art. She
glect since the beginning of art his- was painted in the guise of Salome, Eve,
tory. From this kind of detective work, Lilith (Adam's first wife), even the

Rozika Parker and Griselda pollock Madonna and a sphinx. But she need
turned to question the foundations of not be portrayed as a specific character;
the discipline. Their book. Old Mis- she was as much a general type as a
tresses: Women, and Ideology
Art, particular individual. Fier 19th-century
(198 1 ), examines "the structures and persona was formulated in paint by
ideologies of art history, how it defined members of the pre-raphaelite
what is and what is not art, to whom it BROTHERHOOD, especially rossetti
accords the status of artists and what and burne-jones. Then symbolists
that status means." Using new ap- and painters of the art nouveau move-
proaches that consider gender and ment took up the theme moreau,
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY, they chal- RYDER, MUNCH, KLIMT, and BEARDSLEY
lenged, or "deconstructed," the stan- are examples. Her most powerful 20th-
dard framework on which the discipline century incarnations are in the paint-
was built. Over the decades Feminist ings of PICASSO (especially Demoiselles
approaches to art history have evolved d' Avignon, 1907) and de kooning (his

into a discipline in its own right, intro- Woman series of the 1950s in particu-

ducing numerous and diverse method- lar). This neurotic, obsessive vision of
ologies, ideas, and language to the field woman as simultaneous temptress and
of art and to criticism and theory. Key destroyer finds articulation in the
Feminist writers on art, in addition to psychoanalytic theories of Freud
those above, include Laura Mulvey (see toward the end of the 19th century, at
gaze); Norma Broude and Mary Gar- the same time that it reached its peak in

rard, who edited The Expanding Dis- painting. Historically, it was also the
course: Feminism and Art History period during which women were mak-
(1992); and lippard, author of numer- ing a strong bid for political and eco-
ous critical works. As first- and second- nomic power.
generation Feminist artists disagreed
about how to question the concept of fete champetre
gender and understand the "self," his- From the French, literally a "rustic or
torians divide along similar lines. rural feast," more generally translated
The best-known example
as "a picnic."
femme fatale is giorgione's Fete Champetre (also

This well known phrase, literally trans- known as Pastoral Symphony, c. 15 10),
lated as "deadly woman," stands for a and the second best-known is manet's
238 FEUERBACH, ANSELM

parodic interpretation of it, Le Deje- Marsilio's father was a physician and

neur sur I'herbe {Luncheon on the associate of Cosimo de' medici during
Grass; 1863). a period when the increasing interest in
classical studies was helped by an in-
Feuerbach, Anselm flux of Greek scholars to Italy —a result

1 829-1 880 • German painter • of the conquest of Greek Constantino-

Neoclassicist ple by the Turks in 1453. Cosimo chose
to sponsor the education of Marsilio,
To begin with, as lonely as I may feel, I
an avid student, in Greek language and
still praise loneliness. I have a charming,
literature. After about seven years
elegant little room; my view is over
of study, Marsilio began to translate
trees, the sea, the tower of St. Mark's.
PLATO The book appeared in
into Latin.
Feuerbach studied under couture in print in 1492. In the meantime, Mar-
Paris. He also lived for many years in silio was made head of the Platonic

Italy, as did other German artists. The Academy in Florence, founded by

group, which included bocklin and Cosimo in 1462. As a Neoplatonist
came to be known as the Roman Ger- (i.e., influenced by Plotinus as much as
mans, seemed to express a longing for by Plato), Marsilio reconciled ancient
the ancient Mediterranean world. The pagan texts with Christian dogma; his

quotation above is from a letter to his interpretations were strongly tinged

mother, from Venice, written in 1855. with mysticism, neoplatonic philoso-
Feuerbach painted mythological scenes phy suggested a universal religion of
such as Iphigenia (1862) in the neo- which Christianity may be the ultimate
classical style of his mentor. Iphigenia manifestation but is not the only
was a popular figure for painters, and one. Part of Marsilio's importance
her story seemed to obsess Feuerbach. to artists of the Italian (and event-
She was the daughter of King Agamem- ually the northern) renaissance
non, who, because he had offended the was that rationales such as his enabled
gods, was required by them to sacrifice the introduction of ancient pagan
Iphigenia. In the picture of 1862, his mythology into the repertoire of art.

first on the subject, Feuerbach painted Thus, images such as Botticelli's

his mistress as Iphigenia. She is in a Birth of Venus (c. 1484) could be recon-
dreamy, melancholy mood, gazing off ciled with stories of the Virgin. In Pla-

across the water at some imaginary tonic Theology (1484), Marsilio wrote
place or scene. that man was "almost the same genius
as the Author of the heavens," and such
a concept enabled an artist like
Ficino, Marsilio
MICHELANGELO to Consider himself
1433-1499 • Italian •
divinely inspired, on a level with the
philosopher/humanist
Creator.
This age, like a golden age, has restored
to light the liberal arts that were almost
extinct: grammar, poetry, rhetoric, Field, Erastus Salisbury
painting, sculpture, architecture, music. See FOLK art
 —

FISCHL, ERIC 239

figure/figurative relic (a head of Saint John the Baptist)

Refers to visually recognizable forms from a church, and forced to leave
humans, animals, plants, or objects. Rome. 145 1, Francesco sforza
In
Figurative art is often called representa- called him to Milan, where he worked
tional. While some abstract art is on the castle and the Ospedale Mag-
nonfigurative and nonrepresentational giore and wrote his treatise. In the end,

(e.g., mondrian's geometrical compo- however, he had a falling out with

sitions), not all is. The human forms in Sforza, and dedicated the book to Piero

Picasso's Three Musicians (1921), a de' MEDICI.

defining example of Synthetic cubism,
are figurative. fine art
The term "fine art" reflects an effort to

Filarete (Antonio di Pietro distinguish the work of painters, sculp-

Averlino) tors, and architects from that of "crafts-

c. 1400-C. 1469 • Italian • men," members of a guild.

especially
goldsmith/architect/sculptor • This distinction came about during the
Renaissance renaissance when the "cult of genius"
sought to elevate the intellectual and so-
Images of saints should also conform
cial status of the artist. During the 20th
to their historical character . . . and if
century, efforts to reverse the trend
you are doing a St. Michael slaying the
ranged from the "ready-mades" of
devil, he should not look timid.
duchamp in the early 1900s to the ap-
This artist took the name Filarete be- preciation of outsider art in the
cause, from the Greek, means "lover
it 1990s. Questions remain, however,
of virtue." He was born in Florence and about whether to "raise" the status of
is thought to have been working in people working in metiers such as crafts,
GHiBERTi's studio when the first Flo- photography, film, computer arts, and
rence Baptistery doors were in progress. advertising, or simply to demystify the
Filarete designed and cast the bronze fiction of artistic genius. In any case,
door for Saint Peter's in Rome between judgmental distinctions between "fine"
1433 and 1445. In his Treatise of Archi- or "high" art and "commercial," "ap-
tecture (written 1461-64), he outlined plied," "decorative," "popular," or
some of the virtues he believed to be im- "low" art are no longer tenable.

portant: the rendering of perspective,

the harmony of color, and the propri- First Style
ety of expression and dress for saints, as See MURAL
in the quotation above. In fact, he was
quite scornful of donatello's bronze
Fischl, Eric
doors, about which he wrote, "If you
born 1948 • American • painter •
have to make apostles, do not make
New Realist
them look like fencers, as Donatello did
in 5. Lorenzo in Florence." His love of When viewers have trouble with my
virtue notwithstanding, Filarete was paintings, it's because there's
charged with the attempted theft of a frequently a staring outward at them
 —

240 FISH, JANET

by the subject. It can produce an subject we are unaccustomed to seeing

alarming intimacy. there. Later, in a painting of 1990 enti-

tled Man's Best Friend, Fish's brilliantly

With SALLE and schnabel, in the 1980s colored fruits, flowers, and fabrics have
Fischl became highly visible and highly a similarly aggressive impact on the eye,
controversial. Not only is there a raw and an ironic effect results from a dog
sexuality in his paintings, but also they scratching itself on an Oriental rug, jux-
allude to acts of voyeurism, incest, pe- taposed with the image of a man that
dophilia, and bestiality within a middle- decorates the belly of a vase. This paint-
class, suburban ambience. Moreover, ing is an example of postmodern am-
his canvases are enormous e.g.. Bad — biguity.
Boy (198 1 ), 8 feet long and i^Vi wide,
with a naked woman whose genitalia Flack, Audrey
are fully exposed to a young boy born 193 1 • American •

which makes them that much more painter/sculptor • Feminist/Photo-

confrontational. "A precision of com- realist

position and figuration is what I'm

For me art is a continuous discovery of
working toward," Fischl has said. He
reality. I believe people have a deep
added, "Art should create an experi-
need to understand their world and
ence. This is hard to do in abstraction.
that art clarifies reality for them.
But it's what makes representation rele-

vant and dramatic for me." Flack's large paintings fit into the pho-
torealism category according to defin-
Fish, Janet itions of technique and affect highly —
born 1938 • American • painter • finished, sharp edged, minutely de-
Photorealist tailed — but unlike most Photorealist
work, hers is not cool or detached. On
. . . Janet Fish introduced new subjects
the contrary, it is autobiographical,
into realist painting. (Whitney
Chadwick, 1990)
even confessional — it is about things
and people she cares for. Marilyn (Van-
Fish assembles still life compositions itas), of 1976-77, uses classical symbols
and paints her objects with highly re- of VANITAS compositions of the ba-
flective surfaces that assault a viewer roque period — flower, candle, time-
with something that verges on blinding piece — along with photographs of
light. Three Pickle Jars (197Z), a picture Marilyn Monroe. "We were touched by
of three glass home-canning jars, is an some deep pain and beauty in her,"

example of her hyperrealistic technique: Flack said of the movie star. Included in
The jars are brilliant beyond their real- her painting is a photograph of herself

life counterparts. At the same time, as as a child. In the 1990s Flack changed
an ironic commentary on their late- her focus from painting to large sculp-
zoth-century style, they allude to an ture, all of women as powerful figures.
old-fashioned process of preserving
food. And, as the historian Chadwick Flamboyant style
comments above, they bring to art a See GOTHIC
 1

FLINCK, GOVAERT 24

Flavin, Dan tations of CLASSICAL Greek and Roman

1933-1996 • American • sculptor • designs.John Flaxman began studies at
Minimalist the Royal Academy when he was 15,
and also worked for the pottery. He
. . . the actual space of a room could
was sent by Wedgwood to Rome, where
be disrupted and played with by
some of the company modelers worked.
careful,thorough composition of the
A Chair of Sculpture was created for
illuminating equipment.
Flaxman at the Royal Academy in
A leading Minimalist sculptor, Flavin 1 810. However, his important influ-

moved sculpture from figurative, cu- ence on fellow artists (e.g., Ingres) was
bist vocabularies to definitions of space via his illustrations of works by Homer,
itself in installations. The medium he Aeschylus, Hesiod, and Dante. In each
used was light, usually tubes of fluores- he chose an episode with a moral mes-
cent lamps parallel and adjacent to one sage and made delicate line drawings
another, in varying colors, numbers, that were inspired by Greek vases. He
and sizes. Installed in rooms, their effect fused classical themes with a Christian
was emotional, sometimes striking a pathos that appealed to German artists,

single chord, other times symphonic in especially the nazarenes.

effect. He was generous, if not extrava-
gant, in dedicating his works to every- Flemish art
one from TATLiN, the constructivist, See NETHERLANDISH ART
to the workers who installed them, and
to his golden retriever. Considering his Flinck, Govaert
attraction to light. Flavin recollected 161 5-1660 • Dutch • painter •

being an altar boy "curiously fond of Baroque

thesolemn high funeral Mass, which
In the burgomasters' room, above the
was so consummately rich in candle-
mantelpiece, on the side of treasury, by
light, music, chant, vestments, proces-
Govaert Flinck, ijoo guilders.
sions and incense."
(Contract, 1655)

Flaxman, John During the year he spent as one of Rem-

175 5-1 826 • English • brandt's students in the 1630s, Flinck
sculptor/illustrator/designer • mastered his teacher's technique so that
Neoclassicist some of his paintings were sold as au-
thentic "Rembrandts." In the 1640s he
The lines of Grecian composition
abandoned the master's manner for a
enchant the beholder by their harmony
lighter and more fashionable style. He
and perfection.
became very popular, and acquired
Flaxman's father made casts of plaster commissions from the ruling class that
molds for the Wedgwood Pottery, a escaped (or were not sought by) Rem-
firm founded in Staffordshire, in 1759, brandt. Indeed, Flinck attracted more
that became the most important English patronage, especially for portraits, than
pottery. Their frieze motifs were, and did any of his Amsterdam contempo-
are to this day, refined copies or adap- raries. In 1656 he received the most im-
 a

242 FLUXUS

portant commission awarded to any interchangeably are "vernacular,"

Dutch painter of the 17th century — "primitive," "popular," and "naive,"
series of 1 2 paintings for the new town but they are unsatisfactory to the extent
hall, described in the quotation above. that they bear intimations of lack of
Their subject was the revolt led by skill, education, or knowledge of a
Julius Civilis, leader of the Batavians "higher" art. Folk art is distinct from
(ancestors of the Dutch people), against OUTSIDER ART and ART BRUT in that the

the ruling Romans. This battle was seen latter are often driven by a rejection of
as a metaphor for the recent War of In- tradition or high art, which is not the
dependence against Spain. Rembrandt Folk artist's concern. Most Folk artists
was given only one of the pictures in the of the past were anonymous, but not
project (which was divided among a all. In America, "mourning pictures" of
group of artists that included bol and bereaved family and friends weeping at
LiEVENs). Flinck died before he could the grave of the departed were a popu-
execute his commission. larform of Folk art, and the name of
Eunice Griswold Pinney (1770-1849)
Fluxus stands out among its practitioners.
A loose group of artists formed in
1962 Quilts and other needlework, carvings,
by George Maciunasz, an American, buildings such as barns — and their
with Wolf Vostell, a German, and the decorations — are in the Folk art cate-
Korean-American paik (who later be- gory. American painters known as
came a renowned video artist). Maciu- Folk artists include Ammi Phillips
nasz described Fluxus as "a fusion of (1788-1865) and Erastus Salisbury
Spike Jones, gags, games. Vaudeville, Field ( 1 805-1900), both of whom
Cage and Duchamp." Fluxus was worked on the East Coast. Their por-
founded in Wiesbaden, Germany, but traits are straightforward documents,
Maciunasz, its guiding light, moved to without artifice but with earnest intent.
New York, where the movement HICKS —painter of signs and numerous
peaked between 1962 and 1964. Much variations of Peaceable Kingdom im-
of its activity, like happenings, in- ages — MOSES, and pippin were Folk
volved single performances, for exam- artists. "Nonchalantly saying 'folk art,'

ple, Paik's Etude for Pianoforte (i960), we bring into collision a pair of short
in which he broke off playing a Chopin words heavily freighted with mean-
Etude, burst into tears, and leapt into ing . . . each word reaches back into
the audience, where he cut off John time and pulls into the mind vast bab-
cage's tie and poured shampoo over bles of association," writes Henry
him. In other works, Fluxus stressed Classic, a scholar of American and in-

multiples, printed ephemera, posters, ternational Folk art.

and newspapers as its sources.
Fontainebleau
Folk art A town 37 miles southeast of Paris
There is no agreement regarding the de- where francis i built one of his castles

finition of Folk art. Terms often used in the early to mid-i6th century. Flo-
 formal/formalism/formalist 243

rentine artists rosso Fiorentino and Fontana documented to date, less than
PRiMATiccio directed its decoration, half have been found, but it is still the
bringing Italian mannerist style to the largest oeuvre by a woman artist prior

French countryside, cellini also to the 1 8th century.

worked there in a group that is known
as the School of Fontainebleau. Later formal/formalism/formalist
in the century, a second School of As implied by the word itself, "formal"
Fontainebleau, primarily French concerns the outward form or appear-
painters, worked under King Henry IV. ance of a work of art: its shape, con-
tours, texture, color, composition, size,
Fontana, Lavinia style — all those elements, in short, that
1552-1614 • Italian • painter • can be described by looking at it. A for-
Mannerist malist, in critical terms, is one whose
study of art depends on its formal qual-
If she lives a few years, she will be able
ities. Most writers concerned with art,
to draw great from her painting,
profit
and artists themselves, have been for-
as well as being god-fearing and of
malists in one sense or another: from
purest life and handsome manners.
POLYKLEITOS and Canon (5th cen-
his
(Orazio Sammachini, 1577)
tury bce), to THEOPHiLUS and his in-
Women were admitted to the university struction book. On Diverse Arts
of Bologna as early as the 13 th century, (c. 1 100), to vasari and his aesthetic
and according to city records, in the judgments in Lives (i6th century). In

1 6th and 17th centuries 23 women the 19th and 20th centuries, formalism

were listed as painters, Fontana and underlay the comparative studies of

sirani among them. Fontana studied woLFFLiN and the connoisseurship
in the studio of her father, Prospero of berenson as well as greenberg's
Fontana, as did her husband, Gian view of modernism as vested in ab-
Paolo Zappi, who assisted her in her stract expressionism. Greenberg and
successful practice. Sammachini, a his "school" were determined to
friend and colleague of Fontana, made cleanse art of impurities, that is, any in-

the comment quoted above when fluence from outside its own medium.
Lavinia was 25. She was fortunate to Thus, color — as an optical value and
survive 1 1 pregnancies; however, most fact —was appropriate for painting,
of her children died young. Fontana's but storytelling, or narrative —a literary

best-known work, The Stoning of Saint device —was not. "Formalism ... is

Stephen (1603), was destroyed by fire in clearly the lingua franca of art criti-
1823. She also painted meticulous por- cism," the philosopher/critic Arthur
traits of upper-class women wearing Danto wrote in 1994, "and what is tac-

elaborate jewels and gowns, and often itly appealed to and contested in the

a marten skin hanging from a chain. issue of 'quality' that has lately so exer-
Such animal skins were used to attract cised the art world." Formalism is

fleasaway from the wearer's body either supplemented or refuted by other

and clothes. Of the 135 paintings by approaches, such as iconographical.
 —

244 FOUCAULT, MICHEL

CONTEXTUAL, and HiSTORiciSM, as distinctions of historical periods, Fou-

well as PSYCHOANALYTIC, SEMIOTIC, cault describes the artist as one who cir-
MARXIST, FEMINIST, and numerous culates or promotes the discourse of his

POSTMODERN analyses. Formalism is or her era. The sense of Foucault's ideas

antithetical to new art history. is contained in the passage above, ex-
cerpted from an essay he wrote about
Foucault, Michel Velazquez's Las Meninas (1656).
1926-1984 • French •

historian/theorist Found art

See junk art
In appearance, this locus is a simple
one; a matter of pure reciprocity: we
Fouquet, Jean
are looking at a picture in which the
c. 141 5/20-148 1 • French • painter
painter is in turn looking out at us. . . .

• Early Northern Renaissance

And yet this slender line of reciprocal
visibility embraces a whole complex [He] . . . is not only a more skillful

network of uncertainties, exchanges, painter than his contemporaries but

and feints. also has outstripped all ancient
ones. . . . And to convince yourself that
In his wide-ranging studies Foucault
I am not waxing poetic you may savor
has contributed greatly to the ideas and
a sample [of his art] in our sacristy of
language of the new art history. Fou-
the Minerva . . . the portrait of Pope
cault established a notion of "dis-
Eugene, painted on canvas. (Francesco
course" —large groups of statements Florio, 1477)
as the way which knowledge is ex-
in

changed in society, keeping in mind that Despite Florio's praise, in the quotation
knowledge is associated with power. above, little is know about Fouquet. He
Discourse is articulated and dissemi- may be the same "Fouquet" to whom
nated according to conventions and sys- Pope Nicholas V gave dispensation in

tems. Thus, at a given moment in the August 1449 for having been born to an
history of the United States, for exam- unmarried woman and a priest. During
ple, there will be a particular art histor- the second half of the 15th century,
ical discourse. Things have no meaning Fouquet was the foremost painter in

outside their discourse, though dis- the French court, with his studio in
course can itself be used as tactical Tours. Though facts about Fouquet
means to change discourses. Foucault are scarce, a 2y2-inch-diameter self-
shares some Poststructuralist attitudes, portrait, enamel on copper, inscribed
especially with regard to displacing the with his name, shows him as a young
centrality of "man" in the humanist man in a skullcap with a serious, almost
project, and in undercutting the cult of worried expression. It was originally on
genius surrounding art and artists (see the frame of the now disassembled
STRUCTURALISM and poststructural- Melun Diptych (after 1452). Kneeling
ism). However, in contrast to dismiss- on the side panel of this diptych, facing
ing the power of the author/artist as the Madonna and Child, is Fouquet's
Roland Barthes does, and to rejecting patron Etienne Chevalier. Chevalier
 —
FRANCIS I 245

was the king's treasurer, for whom Fou- commission for The Swing was specific:

quet had also made a lavish book of to show a young man slyly gazing up his
HOURS (c. 1452). The Madonna of the lover's skirts, as she flies above his head
Melun Diptych is presented as a lady of in a swing hanging from the branch of a
fashion: She has a tiny waist and one gnarled and sinuous tree. The patron
high, plump bosom is exposed. It is was a titled aristocrat who posed with
thought to be a portrait of King Charles his mistress for the picture. Fragonard
VII's mistress, Agnes Sorel, for whom was extremely popular, as both a man
Chevalier also carried a flame. She died about town and a painter. He had stud-
just before the diptych was painted ied with chardin and boucher, won
perhaps it is her memorial. This strik- the prestigious prix de rome, and trav-
ingly "dangerous association of eled in Italy, the experience to which he
religious with amatory sentiments" rep- refers in the comment quoted above,
resented, according to the historian J. Though most general textbooks that in-
Huizinga, the "depreciation of sacred elude his work print reproductions of
imagery" as the Middle Ages drew to a The Swing, there is a different genius in
close. "There is a flavor of blasphemous his less renowned portraits, including
boldness about the whole, unsurpassed Denis Diderot (c. 1769) —of the famous
by any artist of the Renaissance," thinker and critic of his age. Fragonard
Huizinga concludes. brushed on paint with verve and was,
according to current opinion, adapting
Fragonard, Jean-Honore himself to his clients' taste for a sketchy
173Z-1806 • French • painter • style. But he was out of fashion by the
Rococo end of his century and died in relative

The energy of Michelangelo terrified

me— I experienced an emotion which I ^ . ,
rrancis 1
could not express; and on seeing the
beauties of Raphael I was moved to -r^, , , , a n • 1

J ; M /- I he legendary phrase All is lost save

tears, and the pencil fell from my
, /-
.

honor
„ .

is
:,
attributed to Francis
,
„ ...
king of
I,
r
J
I
hands. In the end
r , J T
I remamed ;
m a state „ ,

r- J , I I T I I J ,
France from 151 5 to 1547. (what he
of mdolence which I lacked the .

,
„, ^ really wrote to his mother after losing a
strength to overcome. I hen I ^r .1 1
.

J , 7 /- I
battle was Of all things nothing re-
concentrated upon the study of such ,,.r 11 •

J T mains to me ,

but honor and

,

life, which is
painters as permitted me to
;
hope that
/
I r „, . r 1 1 .

.
, J . ; ; T 7
safe. ) As a patron of the arts, he im-
might some day rival them. It was thus i t 1.
^, r, .
r.. I ^ ported Italian artists to France, leo-
that Barocci, rietro da Cortona, 1 . 1 •

c ,. J rr- I , 1
NARDO spent his last days in Francis's
1

Solimena, and liepolo attracted and , , , ,

, ,j palace; cellini, del sarto, and pri-

held my attention.
maticcio worked for him, as did
For his best-known painting, T/7e 5i^^m^ rosso Fiorentino, who became his
(1767), Fragonard has earned the repu- court painter around 1530. Hunting,
tation of being the "paradigm of late- tennis, jewelry, women, and buildings
ROCOCO artifice and venality," as a were his passions. His castle at fon-
2oth-century writer described him. His tainebleau became an art center. For-
 —

246 FRANCIS, SAM

were painted by Jean

traits of Francis found it in an etruscan grave site

CLOUET, probably from life, in 152.5, Etruscans avidly collected Greek pot-
and in 1538 by titian, who worked tery —the vase is signed by the painter
from a medal. ("Kleitias drew it") and the potter ("Er-
gotimos made it"). Signatures on pot-
Francis, Sam tery first appeared in the beginning of
1923-1994 • American • painter • the 6th century bce; the estimated date
Abstract Expressionist of this krater is c. 575 bce. Kleitias
painted more than 250 figures inside
Los Angeles is the best for me for light
parallel bands, or "friezes," that en-
in my work. New York light is hard.
circle the vessel. The theme is the wed-
Paris light is a beautiful cerulean gray.
ding of Peleus, father of Achilles, which
But Los Angeles light is clear and
touched off a sequence of events includ-
bright even in haze. I bring all my
ing the Judgment of Paris and the
pictures here and look at them in the
Trojan War. The animated and de-
Los Angeles light.
tailed decoration presents a virtual
Francis was a Californian who lived pictorial encyclopedia of Greek mythol-
and studied in Paris for about 10 years ogy. While the Francois Vase is Archaic,
and made a world tour that included a traces of earlier styles remain: the geo-
long stay in Japan. He returned to the metric organization of the design into
United States in 196 1. His work was in- strict parallel bands, for example, and
fluenced by the French Art Informel (see an orientalizing influence evident in

TACHiSME and abstract expression- figures of fantastic animals, such as

ism) and also, it is thought, by Japanese griffins. Also notable, the people and
traditions of contemplative art. Fran- objects presented on the vase are identi-

cis's NONOBjECTiVE paintings are struc- fied by labels.

tured by color, dripped or spattered

onto the canvas. Sometimes the color is Frankenthaler, Helen
dense, and at others it floats more born 19x8 • American • painter •
lightly on the surface. Untitled, No. 11 Post-Painterly Abstraction

(1973) is an elegant composition on a

If you have a gift, it is your halo and
creamy ground, with careful spatters
your cross. . . . And what is inherent in
and daubs of red, yellow, black, and
that condition is the loneliness that
green in a controlled, framelike struc-
goes with it.
ture around an irregular empty shape.
The importance of light to Francis is de- By spilling thinned paint onto raw, un-
scribed in the quotation above. primed canvas and allowing the paint to
soak its surface, a process called "stain-
Francois Vase ing," Frankenthaler captures an expan-
A famous black-figure vase with vo- sive feeling of light and air. At first she
lute handles, the Francois Vase is the used oils, but after the early 1960s she
finest surviving krater from the ar- used acrylics, and was able to achieve
chaic period. Named for the man who effects formerly available only with wa-
 FREEDBERG, SYDNEY J. 247

TERCOLOR. Her invention inspired and Freedberg, Sydney J.

influenced numerous painters, louis 1914-1997 • American • art

and NOLAND among them. Once her historian

picture is complete, she lets it suggest a
The Cinquecento was a quarter of the
title; thus, a landscape may be evoked
century away when, close to 147J,
by a totally abstract painting. A work
Leonardo demonstrated the idea of
such as Sea Picture with Black (1959)
what we recognize to be the core of
summons up the impact of crashing
the High Renaissance style.
waves and the vastness of sea and sky.
Unpainted areas allow the picture to Freedberg studied and taught at Har-
"breathe," while at the same time they vard University until his retirement,
remind us of its material substance: pig- when he became chief curator of the
ment on fabric. National Gallery of Art in Washington,
D.C. A legendary figure in the field of

Freake, Elizabeth Clarke and ITALIAN RENAISSANCE art, Freedberg

John, portraits of was the author of comprehensive texts
The Freakes were a well-to-do family including Painting of the High Renais-
who lived in one of the finest homes in sance in Rome and Florence (revised
17th-century Boston. The limner or 1985) and Painting 1^00-1600
in Italy

artist who painted their portraits
anonymous, but the paintings are the
earliest masterpieces of American art.
While there was no class structure
based on heredity in the colony, the in-
dividual's position in society was signi-
fied by wealth, and the wealth of the
Freakes, in Elizabeth Freake and Baby
Mary (c. 1671-74), for example,
is (2nd edition, 1983), from which the
quotation above is taken. Following
that introductory remark, Freedberg
shows the difference between Leo-
nardo's angel and that of his teacher
VERROCCHio in the same painting, The
Baptism of Christ (c. 1475-85). Leo-
nardo painted the angel to show its spir-
is dis- itual and mental state, something not

played in Elizabeth's fine satin dress yet accomplished by his predecessors:

with rich brocade, the ribbons that dec- "... it commands us to feel it to be
orate the sleeves, and the lovely lace col- plausible as no image in artwas be-
lar. All these, as well as her pearls, fore," Freedberg writes. During World
garnet bracelet, and gold ring, were im- War II, Freedberg was assigned to an
ported and served to identify the American Army unit attached to British
Freakes as among the elite as well as the naval intelligence. His love of Italy and
"Elect." The style, while expressing de- its was so strong that he refused to
art

tails of luxury, does so in a distinctly work on projects involving Rome for

understated way, rather than in the fear his research might be used for mili-

manner then current in Catholic coun- tary actions against the city. Neverthe-
tries. This forward-facing (frontal), less, Freedberg was made an honorary
non-expressive presentation is more member of the Order of the British Em-
MEDIEVAL in flavor than the baroque pire (Military Division) in 1946. He
that was then popular in Europe. was also honored by the Italian govern-
248 FREER, CHARLES LANG

ment for his rescue work during the Land of Porcelain. The project created a
flooding of Florence in 1966, and re- scandal, however, when Whistler, out-
ceived the National Medal of Arts, be- raged by the architect's interior, painted
stowed by the president of the United over the cordovan leather walls and the
States. ceiling, transforming the room into a
veritable peacock preserve. When the
Freer, Charles Lang original patron rejected it. Freer bought
18 54-19 19 • American • both the room and the painting. He
collector/connoisseur made four trips to the Far East, and it

was during one of his early trips that he

/ need all the training and coaching I
wrote the letter, quoted from above, in
can get, I don't want to buy
which he expresses doubts about his de-
promiscuously until I know.
cisions. Freer also bought paintings by
Freer's life is a vintage American success the Thomas dewing,
American artists

story. He was born in Kingston, New THAYER, HASSAM, and SARGENT. The
York, and at age 14 he worked in a ce- gift of his collection to the American
ment factory. At 16 he clerked in a gen- public, through the Smithsonian Insti-
eral store. He soon became associated tution, was realized with the Freer
with a man who introduced him to the Gallery of Art on the Mall in Washing-
railroad business, which took him to ton, D.C., where the Peacock Room is

Detroit and in which he made his for- now installed.

tune. On a visit to England in 1890, he

met WHISTLER, and was the first Ameri- French, Daniel Chester
can to buy a painting from him. They 1 8 50-193 1 • American • sculptor •

became close friends, and Whistler Neoclassicist

guided Freer's taste toward Oriental
. . . the tall figure walking the village
art. (In 1901 Freer met Ernest Francisco
street, enveloped in a long black coat
Fenollosa, an expert on Japanese art,
or shawl, and looking as I imagine
who also directed Freer's collecting in
Dante must have looked as he walked
that area.) In 1900, at the age of 46, he
the streets of Florence.
retired from active business. From that
time on he devoted himself to oversee- When French was only 23 years old, the
ing his investments and collecting art. town of Concord, Massachusetts, com-
Freer cared for Whistler when he be- missioned him to sculpt a monument
came ill, and was a pallbearer at for the centennial of the famous Revo-
Whistler's funeral in 1903. Freer owned lutionary War battle there. The result

an immense collection of Whistler's was The Minute Man (1874). That and
work: in all 70 oils, 78 pastels, 48 draw- Abraham Lincoln (1922) at the Lincoln

ings, and 900 prints. He bought the Memorial, Washington, D.C., are the
Peacock Room (1876-77) the entire — two best known of French's sculptures,
dining room Whistler had originally de- and among the most famous in the
signed for the London residence of a country. Both express the expansive na-
shipping tycoon. was meant to show-
It tionalism of the United States in the late
case his painting The Princess of the 19th and early 20th centuries and the
 —
FRIEDLANDER, MAX J. 249

went hand-
cultivation of the arts that finished. Walls were done in patches,

in-hand with the unprecedented growth which meant a day's

called giornata,
of capitaUsm and great fortunes. Both work. Some attempts to mix paints
are also rooted in the art of ancient were made, but not until sebastiano
Greece, Minute Man modeled on poly- del Piombo was the effort to execute a
KLEiTOs's Doryphoros (Spear Bearer; fresco in oil successful. By the middle of
c.450-440 bce) and Lincoln on phei- the 1 6th century, buon fresco was con-
DiAS's Zeus (after 438 bce). French sidered an old-fashioned skill.

produced another important statue

while he was in Concord, a man seated, Freud, Lucian
like Lincoln, but of a more relaxed pos- born 1922 • German/British •

ture and expression. It is about that painter • New Realist

man, Ralph Waldo Emerson, that
. . . portraits [should] be of the people,
French speaks in the passage quoted
not like them. Not having the look of
above.
the sitter, being them.

fresco Not surprisingly, for he is the grandson

The term "fresco" (from the Italian of Sigmund Freud, Lucian Freud's
meaning "fresh") refers primarily to paintings —often nudes and portraits
painting on a plastered wall with pig- are intensely psychological. This ap-
ment suspended in the medium of proach explains his comment, above,
water. The technique called buon fresco distinguishing an interest in physical re-
(good or true fresco), pioneered by cav- semblance from his interest in deeper
ALLiNi and GIOTTO, involved painting currents. His work has been exhibited
on wet plaster. Fresco secco (dry fresco) with that of bacon, and among his own
refers to painting on a dry wall, a tech- very unsettling paintings is a head of
nique practiced in ancient times (e.g., Bacon {Francis Bacon, 1952). It is a rep-

the painted surfaces of Egyptian tomb resentation of the already emotionally

walls were dry fresco). Because oil vulnerable artist (as his own work re-

painting on plaster in a Mediterranean veals) further exposed because he is

climatehad been unsuccessful (as deep in thought so that we, the viewers,
Leonardo's Last Supper made clear), intrude on his privacy, like voyeurs,

buon fresco was the technique of choice without his knowledge. This quality of
for most of the Italian renaissance: seeing people unprotected, in a manner
As the wall dried, the color bonded with of speaking, characterizes Freud's
the lime in the plaster and became ex- paintings.
tremely durable. The first layer of such
a fresco was the arriccio, or rough plas-
Friedlander, Max J.
ter, on which the sinopia was drawn.
1867-1958 • German • art
The second or top layer, the intonaco,
historian/connoisseur
was painted. Fresco painting required
working quickly, before the plaster Art being a thing of the rnind, it

dried, and from the top down to avoid follows that any scientific study of art
the risk of spoiling what was already will be psychology. It may be other
250 FRIEDRICH, CASPAR DAVID

things as well, but psychology it will the wild Baltic coast, which appealed to
always he. the romantic taste of the era. Increas-

ingly reverential, Friedrich's landscapes

Italian art connoisseur Bernard have an awe-inspiring silence and still-

berenson's counterpart in the study of ness: for example. Cloister Graveyard

the northern renaissance is Fried- in the Snow (c. 18 10), among barren
lander, whose major work is the 14- trees in a misty setting, with toppling
volume Early Netherlandish Painting, crosses and the skeleton of a church in

first published between 192.4 and 1937 the snow. In TheMonk by the Sea
(later translated into English). Friedlan- (1809-10) the monk is a small, dark,
der believed that the true connoisseur distant figure at the sea's edge, standing
uses intuition based on experience, not beneath a vast sky that occupies three-
rational analysis, to recognize and quarters of the canvas. The Cross in the

authenticate works of art. The trained Mountains (1807-8) presents an Alpine

eye is superior to any documentation, peak with dark fir trees, clouds glowing
which can, after all, be forged, as far as in the sunset, light radiating as though
Friedlander was concerned. The com- from the ground, and a high crucifixion
ment by Friedlander quoted above is a at the pinnacle of the hill. It appears as
motto that gombrich uses to begin the if to take the place of another tree, and,
introductory chapter oiArt and Illusion in fact, has foliage winding around its

(i960). It is taken from Friedlander's shaft. Friedrich was a Protestant, but

book On Art and Connoisseurship his attitude toward religion transcended
(Von Kunst und Kennerschaft), from sectarianism — T/?^ Cross in the Moun-
194Z. tainswas bought by Catholics and used
as an altarpiece in their private
Caspar David
Friedrich, chapel. Not everyone approved the —
1774-1840 • German • painter • chancellor of the Saxon court and au-
Romantic thor of a treatise on aesthetics de-
nounced the painting as endangering
Why, it has often occurred to me to
good taste and representative of the
ask myself, do I so frequently choose
"calamitous spirit of the present times."
death, transience, and the grave as
subjects for my paintings? One must
frontal/frontality
submit oneself many times to death in
In both painting and sculpture, frontal
order some day to attain life
has a double meaning: One sense is that
everlasting.
the figure portrayed is facing and look-
Like runge, who was three years ing forward; the other is that there is

younger, Friedrich studied with Jens only one way to look at the figure and
Juel(1745-1802) at the academy in that is from the front. Frontality, an
Copenhagen. Friedrich also shared early artistic convention, is clearly
Runge's pantheism, but with a more ob- demonstrable in the rigid statues of an-

jectively based foundation — Friedrich cient Egypt. The was broken

tradition
was a topological draftsman before he in the classical period of Greek art.

devoted himself to painting. He painted Frontality has to do with the intention

 FUGGER 251

and purpose of a work: It represents an through art and the "real" Ufe that we
avoidance of the illusion of reality, and experience from day to day. Fry was
reflects the metaphysical rather than the a founding member of London's
physical, the symbolic rather than the dazzling literary/artistic Bloomsbury
representative, a type rather than an in- Group, along with Lytton Strachey,
dividual, the eternal rather than the Virginia Woolf, and the painters
temporal. Frontality is seen in byzan- Vanessa and Duncan Grant. Clive
Bell

TINE, MEDIEVAL, and ISLAMIC ART, and Bell, Vanessa's husband, also wrote on
is also characteristic of folk art. art and was, with Fry, a great promoter
of POST-IMPRESSIONISM. He used the
frottage term to distinguish painters such as
From the French for "rubbing." Similar cezanne, whom he championed, from
to the popular pastime of taking neo-impressionists such as seurat
"gravestone rubbings," the frottage and signac. Fry organized England's
technique involves laying paper over a first Post-Impressionist show, in 1910,

discernibly textured surface and rub- at the Grafton Galleries in London. In

bing the paper with pencil, charcoal, or 19 13 he founded the Omega Work-
crayon. The impression of the textured shops, a decorative arts company
material is transferred onto the paper, modeled on the ideas of William mor-
ERNST combined frottage and collage ris and ruskin. In contrast to Morris's

—the process interested surrealists, company, however. Fry's was finan-

who used it as a prompt for subcon- cially unsuccessful.As the comment

scious imagery. quoted above suggests. Fry was a for-
malist, paying attention to form over
Fry, Roger content, in his critical writings.
1 866-1934 • English • critic/theorist

- ,
, , , ^ Fugger
we find the rhythmic sequences of u
. . .
'
,
, ,
. , .

As did the medici

,

m ri
Florence, the Fug-
t?

* determinea
chans.e much more by its r r * /- 1

ger family of Augsburg,

i 1
Germany, lent
own internal forces than by j
and bishops and servedj
. . . . . 1 •
1

money to kings
external forces. , ,
,
r u r
•

as broker to the pope 1

for the sale or in-

Fry was a painter, for which he is dulgences.The family were for the most
forgotten, but he remembered as is part merchants and bankers, but the
an important teacher, lecturer, and founder of the line was Johann Fugger,
critic. The quotation above derives a weaver. Following the lead of Jacob
from Fry's belief that, apart from a Fugger "the Rich" (14 59-1 525), who
few historical eras, like the renais- trained for business in Venice, the Fug-
sance, when art and life seem symbi- gershad interests in silver and copper
otic. Western art has a history and life mines and traded in spices, wool, and

of own. This self-containment sup-

its silk in almost all parts of Europe. Fug-

ported his belief in aestheticism, or ger made large loans to the emperor
art for art's sake. It also complemented Maximilian I (see hapsburg), who in

his belief in the clear distinction be- return bestowed land and various privi-
tween the imaginative Ufe lived by and leges on him. Fugger money also sup-
 ,

252, FULLER, R. BUCKMINSTER

ported the ascent of Charles V to the industry" from producing arms to

throne in 15 19, and according to one building shelter was possible, and he
story, when Charles visited Anton Fug- played his part by designing structural
ger in 1530, the merchant dazzled the systems that lent themselves to the erec-
emperor by lighting a fire with an impe- tion of inexpensive housing. Fuller
rial certificate of debt. The Fuggers ex- coined the term "Dymaxion," combin-
panded their operations to the New ing "dynamic" and "maximum," to ex-
World, as well as to Asia, durer, intent press his goal of gaining the greatest
on demonstrating the supremacy of advantage from the least investment of
German artistry while working on a energy. The Dymaxion House is an eas-
commission in Venice, painted Feast of ily assembled and readily movable,

theRose Garlands (1^06), in which the energy-efficient, and entirely self-

entourage of the Madonna and Child contained building. In the 1930s Fuller
includes not only Maximilian and designed a Dymaxion Car with similar
members of the Fugger family, but also, economies of production and efficien-

in the background, a self-portrait of the cies of operation. Working on a mobile,

artist; he is holding a paper on which his flexible shelter system. Fuller developed
signature appears as "Albertus Diirer, the Geodesic Dome (patented in 1954),
Germanus." Although the family were a superstructure able to span vast areas,
extravagant and generous patrons of and one of the most important in-

the arts, their elaborate sepulchral novations of the 20th century. In the
chapel in the Church of Saint Anna at late 1940s a Geodesic Dome was con-
Augsburg whose artist is un-
(c. 1 5 17), structed at black mountain college
known, nevertheless shows a strong in North Carolina. In 1956, the design
Italian influence. Eventually the Fug- was accepted for use by the U.S. Marine
gers were forced to go out of business Corps. Fuller held more than 2,000
when the Hapsburgs defaulted on their Of his 25 or so books, the most
patents.
loans. The Fugger firm was finally popular was Operating Manual for
closed in the mid- 1 600S. Spaceship Earth (1968), from which
comes the phrase "I am a passenger on
Fuller, R. Buckminster the spaceship earth."
1895-1983 • American • architect •
Modern Funk art
,„,, ,,, ., , ,
A visual arts counterpart of the literary
What would happen tt the real ^ w,
... , . ,
r, r-
Beat Generation, Funk art was a West
1

potential of modern industry were to ^ . . .

Coast counterculture movement or the

, 7 ; /
be applied directly to serving,
I

man s ,

needs,
.

say
...
housing,in instead of
, , 1960s.
.
^
Many works ,

were assemblage
1
i

, ,
. and COLLAGE pieces, improvised with
operating as a by-product of ., , , , r. V^ ,1
available materials. Bruce Conner (born
weaponry? ^ .
^.
^

1933), for example, seated a

,

wax figure
In 1927 Fuller devoted himself to re- wrapped with nylon and twine in
search intended to answer the question a child's used highchair. The effect is
he posed in the quotation above. He be- unpleasant, at best. Joan Brown (1938-
lieved that the redirection of "modern 1990) painted a series of funky self-
 FUTURISM 253

portraits; Self Portrait with Fish (1970) eyes looks at her through a parted cur-
is posed against a blood-red back- tain. The mix of eroticism intimations —
ground, a frontal image of the artist of rape and of intercourse with the
in paint-spattered work clothes holding devil —
added new subject matter to
a thick brush in her right hand and painting. First exhibited at the Royal
cradling a large yellow fish in her left Academy London, The Nightmare
in

arm. soon became one of the best-known and

most copied images in history. It has
Fuseli, Henry even been discussed as a source for one
1741-1825 • Swiss • painter • of homer's masterworks, T/7eL//l?Lme
Romantic (1884). Fuseli was a more immediate in-

fluence on BLAKE, who copied the elon-

Life '
is rapid, art
*:
is slow, occasion coy, 111 j j r
gated limbs and exaggerated muscles or
1

practice fallacious and judgment r v, c- n u j

figures as well as the dark
1

. ,
Fuseli s

^ dreams of Romanticism. Fuseli pub-

First a student of literature, then or- hshed a collection of aphorisms on art,
dained as a Zwinglian minister at age one of which is quoted above.
20, Fuseli soon left the Church and his
home in Zurich for England. In Lon- Futurism
don, REYNOLDS sent him on to study in An expressionist approach that ap-

Rome, where he spent eight years be- propriated parts of cubism, but was
fore returning to live in London. Fuseli adamantly independent of it, the Futur-

was influenced by a German literary istmovement began in Italy in 1909.

movement known by the epithet Sturm The leading light was the poet Filippo
—
und Drang Storm and Stress. Its self- Tommaso Marinetti, who issued sev-
expression and emotion are exemplified eral manifestos. It was the Futurist

in goethe's early masterpiece Werther claim that "for the first time" they
(1774), about a man who could literally brought to art the force of motion, the
die for love. Sturm und Drang was "noise" and "power" of the city street
an integral part of romanticism, and and machinery. They put forth the ideas
Fuseli is known as one of its early repre- of "dynamism," of "force lines" adding
sentatives, even though he attacked the movement to the Cubist project of
"romantic reveries of platonic philoso- showing multiple points of view. They
phy" and said that "the expectations of demanded "the total suppression of the

romantic fancy, like those of ignorance, nude" in painting for 10 years, not, they
are indefinite." Fuseli's "gothic" fan- insisted, was immoral but be-
because it

tasies were nightmarish visions, the best cause of its "monotony." Combining
known of which is actually entitled The several modernist styles, Futurism in-
Nightmare (first version 178 1). In this fluenced other movements (e.g., con-
painting a woman sleeps in a posture of structivism) and individuals (e.g.,

self-abandon that calls to mind the bar- weber). Artists who signed and wrote
BERiNi faun, a grotesque, hairy crea- the early Futurist manifestos include
ture sits on her stomach, and the head balla, boccioni, carrA, and sev-
of a horse with bulging, terror-struck erini. Frorh its inception, Futurism eel-
254 FUTURISM

ebrated all forms of violent struggle, in- art is extremely Italian because it is vir-

cluding war, which was considered a ile, bellicose, joyous, optimistic, dy-

purifying experience for the nation as namic, synthetic, simultaneous, and

well as the individual. World War I was colorful. . . . Here is futurist fascist art

a theme in several Futurist works. After in perfect harmony with the . . . tem-
that war, Marinetti was present at the perament of Benito Mussolini." Italian

birth of Italian Fascism, under the lead- propaganda for and during World War
ership of Benito Mussolini. In answer to II is a showcase of the adaptation of Fu-
Mussolini's 1926 call for a bold new turism to totalitarianism.
Fascist art Marinetti wrote, "Futurist
 G

Gabo, Naum (Naum Neemia signed Kinetic Construction^ a single,

Pevsner) motor-driven vibrating rod that was a
1 890-1977 • Russian/American • prototype for later kinetic sculpture.
sculptor • Constructivist Gabo continued making constructions
and explaining the Constructivist idea
Above the tempests of our weekdays, I
("The shapes we are creating are not
Across the ashes and cindered homes
abstract, they are absolute," he wrote)
of the past, I Before the gates of the
even though he left Russia in 1922, in
vacant future, I We proclaim today to
conflict with Tatlin and others over the
you artists, painters, sculptors,
mandate for "Utilitarianism in art." In
musicians, actors, poets . . . to you
Germany he taught at the bauhaus. He
people to whom art is no mere ground
sought to unify sculptural and archi-
for conversation hut the source of real
tectural elements in one unit, a goal
exaltation, our word and deed. The
pursued by his followers. In the 1920s
impasse into which Art has come to in
Gabo began working in plastics. In
the last twenty years must be broken.
the 1940s, after moving from Germany
Gabo went to Munich to study med- to Paris, where he joined the ab-
icine in 1910, and first changed to straction-creation group, and then
mathematics and engineering. Then, in- to London, he began constructing a dis-
spired by an exhibition of Der blaue tinctive sculptural form in which taut
REiTER works, lectures by wolfflin, nylon threads are combined with trans-
his friendship with fellow Russian parent plastic sheets. These give a mag-
KANDiNSKY, whom he met in Munich, ical delicacy to geometric forms. In
and the fact that his brother, Antoine 1946 Gabo moved to the United States.
PEVSNER, was an artist, Gabo changed He became an American citizen and
his direction. He also changed his name taught at Harvard University.
to avoid being confused with his
brother. During World War I he was in
Gaddi, Agnolo
Scandinavia, and he returned to Russia
active c. 1369-1396 • Italian •
after the Revolution of 19 17. He and
painter • Late Gothic
his brother joined tatlin and male-
viCH in their constructivist experi- / was trained in this profession for

ments and they Thecoauthored twelve years by my master, Agnoli

Realistic Manifesto (1920), which is [Agnolo] di Taddeo of Florence; he
quoted from above. In 1920 Gabo de- learned this profession from Taddeo,
256 GADDI, TADDEO

his father; and his father was made fresher and more vivid." Taddeo,
christened under Giotto. (Cennino son and father of Agnolo
artists (see

Cennini, c. 1400) above), was Giotto's godson and

worked under Giotto for more than 20
Son of Taddeo (see below), Agnolo years. One of Taddeo's frescocs (tra-
Gaddi is known for his major work, a ditionallycompared to a Giotto fresco
series of FRESCoes, Legend of the True on the same subject) is The Meeting of
Cross (c. 1390), painted for the choir of Joachim and Anna (1338) in the Baron-
the church of Santa Croce in Florence celli Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence
and adjacent to chapels decorated by (Giotto's of 1305-06 is in the Arena
GIOTTO and his followers earlier in the Chapel, Padua). Critics tend to fault
century. In some scenes Agnolo ignored Taddeo's loose and cluttered composi-
any suggestion of scale and distance in tion and extraneous details, such as an
favor of compressing figures, buildings, elaborate cityscape in the background
and landscape into a meaningful nar- and a distracting hunter. Yet Taddeo's
RATiVE scene, while in others, when city is intriguing in its detail and its per-
fewer people were involved, he demon- spective exploration, and the hunter is

strated that, if he wanted to do so, he an interesting addition to the scene in a

could quite competently provide the il- cultural context. It could also be noted
lusion of depth. In either case, the ele- that Giotto's strong convictions and
gance of his decorations and his color practices were known by his followers,

were appreciated by his student cen- and moreover that Giotto was still alive

NiNi, whose praise of Agnolo is quoted and even involved when in the project

above. Taddeo's Joachim and Anna was

painted. Taddeo is one of the few artists

Gaddi, Taddeo who survived the Black Plague of 1348.

c. 1 300-1 3 66 • Italian • painter •

Late Gothic Gainsborough, Thomas

1727-1788 • English • painter •
Taddeo Gaddi was a pupil of Giotto;
Grand Manner
he was of marvelous talent, he did very
many chapels and very many frescoes; Gainsborough was tall, fair and
he was a very learned master, and did handsome, generous, impulsive to the
very many panels, finely made. point of capriciousness, easily irritated,

(Ghiberti, c. 1450) not of bookish likings, a lively talker.

good at repartee. He was a most

Despite the respect bestowed on Gaddi
thorough embodiment of the artistic
by ghiberti, quoted above, like most
temperament. (William M. Rossetti,
painters in the time period close to that
1911)
of GIOTTO, Taddeo suffered increas-
ingly by comparison with his master. It was said that by the time he was 10
VASARi's commentary a century later years old Gainsborough had "sketched
was that "Taddeo always adopted every fine tree and picturesque cottage
Giotto's manner but did not greatly im- near Sudbury," his birthplace. He was
prove it except in the coloring, which he one of nine children. Unlike the usual
 GALLERY 257

passing of the mantle from father to (1785) is a portrait of the actress (her
son, was Thomas's mother who
it real name was Sarah Kemble). Rey-
painted and who encouraged him. Few nolds had painted her a year earlier as
paintings are more quickly recognized the "Tragic Muse." In Reynolds's pic-
than Gainsborough's Blue Boy (c. ture she is distanced from the viewer
1770). The model is thought to be and gazes theatrically into the heavens.
Jonathan Buttall, son of an ironmonger Gainsborough's Mrs. Siddons is rela-
who owned property in Ipswich, where tively down-to-earth, accessibly close to
Gainsborough lived for a time. Gains- the picture plane; she is fashionably
borough was an admirer of van dyck, attired — in a blue-striped dress. Before
whose formula for portraying English Gainsborough died, at 61, he sought a
aristocracy — typically in shimmering reconciliation with Reynolds. In his
silk, with one arm akimbo, hand on hip, Fourteenth Discourse, Reynolds paid
cane or hat in the other —had lasting ef- "tribute" to his former foe, but it was a
feet. It is thought that Gainsborough mean-spirited dig in which he said that
kept a "van Dyck costume" available in during their last conversation Gains-
his studio. Speculation by an early- borough had "begun to see what his de-
i9th-century writer suggests that Blue ficiencies were."
Boy was painted to dispute Gainsbor-
ough's arch rival, Reynolds, who ar- gallery
gued that a cool color such as blue Originally an architectural term for a
could not dominate a picture. When walkway covered by a roof, especially a
Gainsborough moved to London, he long and narrow passageway. Such a
shared court patronage with west and corridor lends itself to the display of
general favor with Reynolds. He per- works of art, and the use of the Grande
sisted in painting landscapes, which did Galerie at the Louvre for public exhibi-
not sell, but he was an extremely sue- tions constituted the first national "art
cessful portraitist. In 1785 he painted gallery" (see salon). Today the term
the beautiful fifth Duchess of Devon- "gallery" is used to designate a room or
shire, a woman of scandalous sexual rooms within a museum (e.g., American
immorality. The painting vanished in art galleries at the Metropolitan Mu-
1806, mysteriously reappeared in 1841, seum of Art) or the entire museum (e.g.,

was auctioned off in 1876 for $51,540 the National Gallery), as well as a com-
(then the highest auction price for a mercial venture for selling art (e.g.,

painting), and was stolen again by an goupil's gallery). The first art gallery
American who planned to use it for ran- is believed to have been the pinakotheke
som but fell in love with the image of or "picture chest" located in the north
the duchess. It was recovered in 1901 wing of the Propylaia (or gatehouse)
and sold to Pierpont Morgan for on the acropolis in 5th-century bce
$150,000, auctioned off by his heirs in Athens. In villas of ist-century ce
1994, and went for $408,870 to the Rome, the walls of a room were some-
nth Duke of Devonshire. Gainsbor- times decorated with pictures that
ough painted his friends — musicians, were arranged as if framed and hung
dramatists, and actors. Mrs. Siddons there rather than — as they were in
258 GAUDI, ANTONIO

fact — painted directly on the wall's around the corner of a street in undulat-

surface. ing waves. The roof, elaborated with

curves of its own, is surmounted by a se-
Gaudi, Antonio ries of strange, towerlike chimneys that
1852.-19Z6 • Spanish • architect • almost resemble massive human fig-

Art Nouveau ures. Irregularly placed balconies have

wrought-iron designs; inside, rooms
Ornament has been, is and will be
have no straight walls. It is a testimony
colored. Nature does not present us
to the imagination and daring of his pa-
with any object that is monochrome or
trons that they commissioned such fan-
completely uniform in color, neither in
tastic designs. Gaudi's use of variously
plants, geology, topography, nor in the

animal kingdom. There always a

textured and colored materials —stone,
more or less accentuated contrast in
is
brick, glass, and ceramics —to reflect

light is explained in his comment

color and we should always learn from
quoted above. Gaudi believed that light
these examples that we must employ
is "the soul of architecture."
color entirely, or partly, in all
architectural elements.
Gauguin, Paul
Gaudi's father was a coppersmith who 1 848-1903 • French • painter •
made kettles and pots. Antonio himself Symbolist/Post-Impressionist
trained as an ironworker before practic-
From now on I will paint every day.
ing architecture. He invented many of
the building techniques that enabled Gauguin's life was always unconven-
him to realize his ideas, and these ideas tional: Though born in Paris, he lived
were so clever, outrageous, and un- with his mother's family in Peru and
precedented that architectural histori- sailed with the French navy as a
ans have ventured so far as to call them teenager. He was a stockbroker until
"crazy." Combining Moorish, gothic, the 1883 crash, at which point his em-
and sometimes Moroccan elements, he ployers had to fire him. It was then that
incorporated them into his own free- he made the declaration quoted above,
flowing shapes. For his major patron, left his wife and children, and devoted
Count Esebio Guell, he designed the himself to art. pissarro, whom he
Palau GiJell (1886-91) on a narrow called his "professor," sponsored and
street in the old city center of Barcelona. encouraged him. At first Gauguin
Its design makes several allusions to the worked and exhibited with the impres-
Alhambra. It prompted a contemporary sionists, then he traveled: In 1887 he
critic to write that it is "as if by magic stopped in Martinique, went on to
art and by virtue of the wand of some Panama and worked on the canal, went
Scheherazade all the dreams of oriental to Central America and the Caribbean,
tales had taken body, leaving them sud- then went back to Martinique. On
denly materialized and converting them returning to France, in Brittany dur-
into tangible fact." Gaudi's Casa Mila ing 1888 Gauguin began to attract a
(1906-10), also in Barcelona, is a lux- following, sometimes known as the
ury apartment building that wraps PONT-AVEN SCHOOL, as he forged the
 GAZE 259

SYMBOLIST Style for known.

which he is himself sank into ... to think that this
Seeking a new intensity, and working artist cut himself off completely from
closely with Bernard, he began to his European background and con-
evolve the theory of synthetism, sciousness and from the European artis-
which, besides simplification of lines, tic tradition (or that he ever really
colors, forms, and a suppression of de- intended to)," the historian Mark
tail, used the imagination to depart Roskill writes. "He took with him to
from reality, as in The Vision after the Tahiti a whole archive of photographs,
Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with the prints, and other mementos. . .
." In L<3

Angel) (1888). Japanese prints (see Orana Maria (Ave Maria; 1891), Gau-
ukiyo-e) contributed to his interest in guin introduced Christian themes, using
using flat planes of primary colors en- native women in sarongs as stand-ins
closed with dark contour lines (see for biblical subjects. He combined
cloisonnism). flaxman and manet Christian and Polynesian symbols and
had already exploited an outline style rituals. Gauguin never found the per-
that rejects modeling and notions of fect, unspoiled world he was seeking.

PERSPECTIVE, and it found new impetus His personal dismay drove him to at-
in van gogh, Bernard, and Gauguin — it tempt suicide in December 1897, and it
suited their search for the "primitive," permeates his strange picture, painted
unsophisticated values they believed to on burlap. Spirit of the Dead Watching
be genuine. Yellow Christ (1889) exem- (1892). This is yet another unusual in-
plifies Gauguin's simultaneous reduc- terpretation of the reclining female
tion of forms while increasing the nude, the theme that had been given a
complexity of ideas contained in the new look by manet's Olympia (1863)
picture: Christ is colored a golden yel- some three decades earlier. Gauguin's
low with green shading that harmonizes dark-skinned Tahitian woman lies on
with the landscape behind him; three her stomach looking out at the viewer
Breton women in local costume kneel at with an expression that is difficult to in-

the foot of the cross while an ambigu- terpret. The watching —a servant
figure
ous figure climbs over a distant stone in earlier representations — now an is

fence. In his continuing efforts to pene- ancestral spirit shrouded in black. Gau-
trate "the mysterious centers of guin spent the last 10 years of his life in

thought" and to escape the infringe- Tahiti, returning to France only once.
ments of civilization on his creativity, He wrote about his life there in the
on April 4, 1891, after a great and ex- manuscript Noa-Noa, voyage de Tahiti
travagant farewell party, Gauguin set (1897), and also recorded his thoughts
off for Tahiti. The Scottish writer in AvantApres (1903), published
et
Robert Louis Stevenson and Americans posthumously in 1918.
Henry Adams (a historian) and la
FARGE, a painter, had recently returned gaze
from Tahiti. There were also French set- Discussion of "the gaze" in art his-
tlers on that beautiful, balmy island. "It tory has do with the dynamics of
to
is a mistake, however — a form of ro- looking at art and asks questions such
manticizing like that which Gauguin as: Who is the spectator presumed to
 . —

26o GEERTGEN TOT SINT JANS

be? How does he or she interact with look at you, thereby signifying an exis-
the work? What is his/her reaction to it? tence and an authority beyond which
The gaze is often considered in relation you cannot go. . . . [Their gaze] posits

to images of female nudes, recognizing you, implicates you; makes you exist."
that a male spectator is the anticipated The historian Margaret Olin sums up:
audience. The implication is of erotic "A work of art is to look at. Theories of
looking that tends to treat the female as the gaze attempt to address the conse-
objectof desire (and source of fear, as in quences of that looking. Sometimes,
FEMME fatale), and the term "male however, it is important to look at our-
gaze" evolved to designate that kind of selves (looking). We not only need to
looking. The British art critic John 'see ourselves as others see us,' we also

Berger (born 1926) wrote a ground- need to see ourselves seeing one an-
breaking book on the subject: Ways of other. But to visualize looking is not as
Seeing (1972). Recognizing issues of easy as it might appear. What might
power and subjugation, and drawing seem to be a purely visual theory, or a

on the PSYCHOANALYTIC theories of theory of pure vision, has become lost

Freud and of Jacques Lacan, Laura in the mysteries of human relation-

Mulvey gave the term its newly impor- ships."

tant meaning in her essay Visual Plea-

sure and Narrative Cinema (1975). Geertgen tot Sint Jans
Mulvey focused on film, but her ideas c. 1 460-1 490 • Netherlandish •

sparked many others in art historical painter • Northern Renaissance

writing. Interpretations change depend- .
^ . ^/ .1 ^
"^ ^^^
, ,
,

ing not only on the angle of the specta-

,
,

,
I r 1

„ r
n
excellent Albrecht Durer, vtsitmg at
^o great a master that the
^ mi i . r-.- v
tor's looking, but also on "the gaze of ., • 1
Haarlem and looking at^ his works in
, . i , ,

,
- ,

the person within the image: she Is /;

,
. .... .
^ j -r
great amazement, said of him: Lruly he
•
1 1

sleeping, looking in a certam direction, »* a^ ..;•/' d

. •
#
. . , ,
. was ein Maler im Mutterleibe. By
or looking back at the supposed specta- , ^ ^ .1^1
, ,

,
which he meant to say that he was
tor? Not all discussions of the gaze have j • j 7 xt . ;
predestined by Nature or chosen
todo with gender and sexuality. Roland
^
Barthes, for example, wrote about Rem-
' , ,
^1 ^ . ir- 1

before birth to be a painter. (Carel van

Mander,
, ^ 1

c. 1604)
brandt's Syndics of the Clothmakers'
Guild (1662) the group portrait of — The translation of his name — Little

men who look not only at a presumed Gerard who lives at Saint John's
audience within the room in which they refers to the monastery of the order of
are seated but also at "us," their flesh- Saint John in Haarlem where Geertgen
and-blood audience: "It is the gaze that resided. He died at the age of 28. Influ-
is the numen [presiding divinity] here, enced by van der goes, Geertgen's
the gaze that disturbs, intimidates, and Night Nativity (c. 1480-85) is one of
makes man the ultimate term of a prob- the most famous night scenes —the dark
lem. To be stared at by a portrait is is illuminated as if by the interior spiri-

always disconcerting. . . . They [the tuality of the Christ Child and by the
syndics] are gathered together ... to angel in the sky. Mary's face is almost
 GENRE 261

perfectly oval, sweet, and youthful. In ferent" or "other," to discussing the

Burning of the Bones of Saint John the multiplicity of ways of considering gen-
Baptist (c. 1484-94), an altarpiece der, including alternatives to male and
commissioned by the Knights of Saint female. "Needless to say, gender sys-
John in Haarlem and the first group tems or structures are complex, multi-
portrait, Geertgen weaves the busy but ple, overlapping, and unstable at any
solemn narrative in and out of a curi- given time and place and through time
ously rocky landscape. In Saint John the and across place," writes the historian
Baptist in the Wilderness 1490) he (c. Whitney Davis. "The outstanding theo-
presents a paradoxical scene: Wilder- retical issue concerns the origin of gen-
ness though it may be, this gently der systems or structures," he adds.
rolling landscape is both lush and well Within gender studies, a new field of in-
ordered, pleasantly decorated with quiry called Queer Theory is applied to
flowers and wildlife. John sits in intro- nonstandard gender representations.
spective contemplation —a particularly
engaging detail is the idiosyncratic way genre
in which one bare foot rests on the From the French word for "type" or
other — a hand supporting his head, he "class," in art history "genre" usually
gazes thoughtfully at nothing, panof- refers to scenes of daily life among the
SKY points out the resemblance of this merchant or peasant classes, in contrast

work to durer's Melencolia I, some 24 to either religious or courtly images. As

years later, describing both as "spiritual is true also of still lifes and land-
self-portraits," meaning that they scapes, genre painting came into its

record a state of mind, not necessarily a own in Northern Europe during the
physical resemblance. Yet the difference 1 6th and 17th centuries. Why it hap-
is as important as the apparent similar- pened then, not earlier or later, is an in-

ity, for while Diirer's image imparts de- triguing question. It may be simply that
spair, Geertgen's suggests hope, even the growing, powerful merchant class
serenity: Sitting comfortably next to that had previously commissioned
Saint John is a Lamb of God with a halo altarpieces was increasingly inter-

that matches John's own. Despite their ested in pictures of its occupations and
different approaches, Diirer held Geert- preoccupations, albeit within a larger
gen in high esteem according to van socioreligious and ethical context: The
mander, who is quoted above. original (now lost) frame for massys's
genre picture Money-Changer and His
Gender studies Wife (15 14) was inscribed with a bibli-

In contrast to the biological sexes, gen- cal quotation about giving fair weight.
der studies recognize ideas about sexual bruegel's boisterous peasant themes
identification as influenced by society are packed with a mix of secular and sa-

and culture. Led by feminist criticism cred symboUsm. One echo in the back-
and theory, gender studies have evolved ground of genre painting's rise in
from examination of how women are popularity was the Protestant Reform-
portrayed by artists, especially as "dif- ers' rejection of the luxury and patron-
262 GENTILE DA FABRIANO

age of the Catholic Church, in addition acuteness of his perception, combined

to the danger of iconoclasm (see icon). with the innovations of his three pre-
della scenes (see altarpiece), shows
Gentile da Fabriano him to be forward-looking too: He may
c. 1370-14Z7 • Italian • painter • have been the first Italian painter to
Late Gothic/International Style have a real sky rather than a gold back-
drop, and to show a night scene. With
Gentile da Fabriano had a talent suited
canny and naturalistic effect, one light
to painting everything. His skill and
source is actually inside the picture in
thoroughness are especially well-
the form of the Christ child. He radiates
known in painting buildings. . . . They
the kind of illumination and casts shad-
say that Rogier van der Weyden, the
ows that are both poetic and persuasive,
notable painter . . . [was] caught up
and leads a viewer to believe, as the his-
with admiration of the work and
torian Frederick Hartt writes, that Gen-
asking who the artist was, he ranked
tile made a model of his scene and
[Gentile] ahead of the other Italian
burned a candle inside of it to study the
painters, piling up much praise.
effect. Gentile was particularly influen-
(Bartholemeus Facius, 1456)
on PiSANELLO, Jacopo BELLINI, and
tial

Gentile is reputed to have painted a ANGELico. As a member of the next

naval battle that took place on stormy generation points out in the quotation
seas so convincingly that it filled view- above, he was also appreciated by van
ers with fear. That and other recorded der WEYDEN.
works of his are lost, but his master-

piece, the Strozzi Altarpiece in the

church of Santa Trinita in Florence Gentileschi, Artemisia
(commissioned by Strozzi, the richest 1593-1652/53 • Italian • painter •

man in the city; completed 14x3), se- Baroque

cures his place in Italian art. The central
As for my doing a drawing and
panel, The Adoration of the Magi, has
sending it, I have made a solemn vow
an exquisitely delineated and richly col-
never to send my drawing because
ored procession of worshipers making
people have cheated me. In particular,
their way toward the Virgin and Child
just today I found . . . that, having
along a curved path. The clothing of the
done a drawing of souls in Purgatory
kings glitters, while the individualized
for the Bishop of St. Gata, he, in order
faces of the more humble among the
to spend less, commissioned another
multitudes in the procession express
painter to do the painting using my
awe and rapture. Conventionally classi-
work. If I were a man, I can't imagine
fied as an International Style painter
it would have turned out this way.
(see GOTHIC), an old rather than new
style, Gentile seems to have been influ- Despite her exceptional talent and ac-
enced by the limbourg brothers. He is complishments, and her commissions
also retrospective in his lack of interest from important patrons and collectors,

in PERSPECTIVE. Yet the psychological Gentileschi's work was overlooked by

 GEOMETRIC PERIOD 263

scholars until feminist art historians Gentileschi, Orazio

began to retrieve it in 197 1. She was the 1563-1639 • Italian • painter •

daughter and student of a significant Baroque

painter, Orazio gentileschi, whose
For instance, when I had placed a
work was influenced by caravaggio.
picture of the Archangel Michel at S.
Artemisia, too, shows Caravaggesque
Giovanni de' Fiorentini, he [Giovanni
tendencies in her bold, dramatic use of
Baglione] competed with me by
light and shadow. Also like Caravag-
putting a picture just opposite. And
gio's, her work has undercurrents of vi-
this picture which was called Divine
olence. These are sometimes explained
Love he had painted in competition
as the result of her having been raped by
with Michelangelo da Caravaggio's
an artist in her father's studio, Agostino
Earthly Love.
Tassi — there was a trial in 161 2 at
which he was acquitted. The facts of In the comment above, Gentileschi is

this incident remain obscure, and what describing the competition among
seems to have been most at issue, ac- artists in an annual exhibition held in

cording to current scholarship, was Rome under the auspices of the leading
concern about Orazio's property, in- families. Orazio Gentileschi was one of
cluding his daughter, rather than the important caravaggisti and the
Artemisia's personal ordeal. (During father of Artemisia (above). He was
the trial she was submitted to the also one of the few who were actually
thumbscrew The
to test her honesty.) acquainted with caravaggio; it is
distress of Susanna in Susanna and the recorded that Gentileschi borrowed
Elders (1610) is atypical of ways in swans' wings from Caravaggio to use
which other artists (e.g., tintoretto when painting the wings of angels, and
and reni) treated the subject. They tend both artists were named in baglione's
to show Susanna as almost complicit in libel suit of 1603. One of Gentileschi's
the males' voyeurism, but in Gen- key works is Annunciation (1622-23).
tileschi's painting (which may have Its grace and refinement probably re-
been a father-daughter collaboration), flect the taste of his aristocratic patron,
Susanna is clearly being tormented. the Duke of Savoy, and also show his

Artemisia painted several images from style moving away from Caravaggio's
the biblical story of Judith. Judith and influence.
Maidservant with the Head of Holo-
fernes (c. 1625), for example, presents Geometric period
the Jewish hero who seduces and then This is a stylistic term describing ab-
decapitates an Assyrian general who stract geometric figures and patterns
was about to invade her land. Lighted that also refers to a historic era. The
by the flame of a single candle, the scene beginning of Ancient Greece, which
is gory and the atmosphere tense. An roughly coincides with the Geometric
important biography of Artemisia Gen- style, is in the 9th century bce. The
tileschi, by Mary Garrard, was pub- Olympiad, which began in 776 bce,
hshed in 1989. brought together the widespread, in-
264 GERARD, MARGUERITE

dependent Greek-speaking states for temporary women engaged in domestic

competitive games. By the middle of the activities. There are precedents for her
8th century, the Iliad and Odyssey of work in 17th-century Dutch painting,
Homer, oral narratives, had been edited and one direct connection is seen when
and written down. This is the time steen's The Lovesick Girl (early 1660s)
when Athens became a center for pot- is compared to Gerard's Bad News
tery production, notably vases recov- (1804). In each case the young woman
ered from the Dipylon cemetery, is reacting to a disappointing letter she
decorated with geometric motifs. Also has just received, but where Steen's un-
in this century, it is believed the first happy girl is comforted by a male doc-
Greek temple was built, on the Gulf of tor, Gerard's receives smelling salts
Corinth. There are small Geometric from a female friend. Incidental details
bronze and ivory figures of animals of interior decoration and clothing (a
(often horses) and people, but like the more elevated social class in Gerard's
figures painted on pottery, these are case) situate the picture firmly in its

rudimentary and abstract in form. The time and place, and also reflect a sym-
larger human figures of kouroi and pathetic approach to the small human
KORAi were developed in the following dramas and simple preoccupations of
ARCHAIC period. everyday life. Gerard began exhibiting
in the salon when it reopened to
Gerard, Marguerite women in the 1790s, after the Revolu-
1761-1837 • French • painter • tion, and her practice was successful
Rococo and lucrative.

Tall, slender, with a distinguished air,

Gericault, Theodore
her accent gave away her origin; hut in
1791-18 24 • French • painter •
her pretty mouth, was a little
it
Romantic
provincial brogue which suited her
ravishingly; she was in every way an If obstacles discourage the mediocre
accomplished person, whom we loved talent, they are, on the contrary, the
very much and little Papa Fragonard necessary food of genius; they ripen
adored. (Mme. Lecomte, 18th century) and exalt it, where the easy road
would leave it cold. Everything that
Originally from Grasse —the region to opposes the triumphant progress of
which Lecomte refers in the quotation
genius irritates and induces that
above — Gerard arrived in Paris in the
it,

fever of exaltation that overthrows

year 1775. She probably lived with her
and conquers all to produce its
sister and brother-in-law, fragonard,
masterpieces. . . . Unfortunately, the
in their apartments in the Louvre. This
Academy does better: it snuffs out
association enabled her to meet some of
those who have some sparks of the
the major artists of the day and to study
sacred fire.
private collections. Her own subjects
were very different from those of Frago- An admirer of Jacques-Louis david,
nard: She painted genre scenes of con- whom he called "the most distinguished
 GEROME, JEAN-l60N 265

of our artists," Gericault held opinions guillotine) it is difficult to disentangle

on the subject of the academy that re- morbidity from intellectual inquiry. In
sembled those of David. Gericault had another context, Gericault's paintings
both a ROMANTIC and, apparently, a re- of horses are still unmatched for the in-

formist zeal. His best-known work, movement, alarm, and

tensity of their

Raft of the Medusa (1818-19), is a fury. The comment quoted above is

melodramatic representation of a con- excerpted from a manuscript found

temporary event. Afloat in a turbulent among Gericault's effects after his early

ocean, the raft crowded with sur-

is death, at 33, resulting from a riding ac-
vivors of a French ship, the Medusa, cident.

which foundered off the west coast of

Africa in 1816.Mismanagement of the Gero Crucifix
ship, for which the government was Gero, Archbishop of Cologne, was an
deemed responsible, became a political important patron of art during the OT-
controversy, as did Gericault's painting, tonian period. In about 970, Gero pre-

He painted neither the cannibalism, the sented a painted wooden sculpture of

mutiny, nor the final rescue, but instead the Crucifixion, a little over 6 feet high,
chose a moment of high tension and to the Cologne Cathedral. Christ is
false hope — a ship in the distance pass- gaunt and clearly in agony. Moreover,
ing by without seeing the raft. Gericault because the sculpture also served to
interviewed survivors, and his reportor- hold the host in a receptacle in the head,
ial research was unprecedented. Com- to the faithful this image was, literally,

positionally, the figures of survivors thebody of Christ. The Gero Crucifix is

and corpses form an X, with a black an important landmark in Western art,
African waving a piece of white cloth at marking an era when individuals began
the top of one diagonal. Each figure to contemplate the life of Christ and
seems to be matched by another that cultivate a personal connection with
mirrors its pose: a man on his back him. (See also passion and crucifix-
counterbalanced by one on his stom- ion)
ach, the man standing at the peak, wav-
ing his flag, by another at the bottom, ^ ^ ,^ y
Gerome, Jean-Leon
.

, , , ^, .
, , .

sittme despondently. Gericault s inter- „ „ ,

. , rr • 18Z4-1904 • rrcuch •
est in human surtering" also drove him to r 1 i

,
i a j •

painter/sculptor • Academic
, ,

explore the faces of madness

^ .

—the 1

indi-
I-

vidual's loss of reason in an era once. Quick of vision and unmerciful in

but no longer, known as the Age of Rea- judgment, [Gerome] dominated, by a
son. As did goya and others, he visited singular magnetism, the student who
institutions for the insane and studied gladly submitted to his terrible "ce
hospital inmates — he, himself, was a n'est pas ga" [that's not it[ and who
patient for a while. Scientific and artis- scarcely felt elated with the seldom
tic curiosity merged during the Roman- heard "pas mal" [not bad]— such
tic period, though at times (e.g., when confidence he inspired in his sincerity
Gericault studied heads severed by the in holding before us the same high
266 GESSO

Standard of excellence toward which laid on, gesso hardens as it dries.

he also struggled. (S. W. Van Schaick, Thickly applied, drying gesso can also
1889) be sculpted in relief.

Gerome was the favorite student of de- Gestural painting

LAROCHE and learned from his teacher In contrast to highly finished oil glaze

the meticulous study of details; these he painting, in which an enamel-like sur-

used in paintings of scenes arranged as face betrays none of the artist's touch.
though they were theatrical acts. He Gestural painting shows clear signs of
went on to study with gleyre, who had brushwork. tintoretto, rubens, and
several future impressionists among van GOGH are artists who may be de-
his However, Gerome re-
students. scribed as "gestural." The expressive-
mained distant from Impressionism ness of the technique itself usually
with his carefully studied forms, sharp coincides with the mood or meaning of
focus, enamel-like surfaces, and con- the picture on which it is used, and
centration on HISTORY PAINTING. sometimes with the artist's own person-
Gerome's images seem perfectly objec- ality or, at least, personal style, action
tive, descriptive, and photographic so PAINTING is sometimes known as Ges-
that the critic Theophile Gautier wrote tural ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM.
of his painting Ave Caesar {Death of
Caesar; 1859): "If photography had ex- Ghiberti, Lorenzo
isted in Caesar's day, one could believe 1378-1455 • Italian • sculptor •

that the picturewas painted from a Renaissance

photograph taken on the spot at the
/, O most excellent reader, did not
very moment of the catastrophe." The
have to obey [a desire for] money, but
Slave Market (1866), in which a naked
gave myself to the study of art, which
woman is being examined by Arab slave
since my childhood I have always
traders, one of whom looks at her teeth,
pursued with great zeal and devotion.
exemplifies both Gerome's technique
and his affect — a high finish and erotic Ghiberti is one of the four sculptors
undercurrents. Gerome taught at the whose genius marked the beginning of
ecole des BEAUX-ARTS, where he had a the ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. (DONA-
number of American students, one of TELLO, NANNi, and JACOPO della Quer-
whom is quoted above. Another was cia are the others.) Dating that debut is

EAKiNS, who remained ever indebted to quite specific: In the winter of 1400-01,
his teacher and full of praise for his the important guild for finishers and
methods, especially the importance of dyers of wool fabric in Florence spon-
studying the nude from life. sored a contest for the design of bronze
doors for the Baptistery of San Gio-
gesso vanni, generally known as the Florence

Usually made from plaster of Paris, Baptistery. (Andrea pisano had already
gesso applied to a surface prepares it for done the south doors.) Open to "skilled

paint (both tempera and oil) or for the masters from all the lands of Italy," it

application of gold or silver. Wet when was the first competition of its kind.
 GHIRLANDAIO, DOMENICO 267

Each entrant had to submit a zi- by 17- which the quotation above is excerpted.
inch bronze panel illustrating the Sacri- In the third he drew from wide-ranging
ficeof Isaac. Ghiberti won. His and sources, including Arabian scholars, to
BRUNELLESCHi's are the only two sub- discuss the theoretical basis of art.
missions that survive. Brunelleschi's
figures, some of which were cast sepa- Ghirlandaio, Domenico
rately and bolted to the panel, are dra- 1448/49-1494 • Italian • painter •
matic and agitated. Ghiberti worked Renaissance
entirely in relief, producing a digni-
. . . the said Messer Francesco must
fied, fluent, and graceful design. While
give the above said Domenico three
he followed along the lines of Interna-
large florins every month, starting
tional Style (see gothic), Ghiberti was
from I November 148^ and
also attuned to the new taste for ancient
continuing after as And if
sculpture —he himself collected what he Domenico has not
is stated. .

delivered the panel

. .

could —and his nude figure of Isaac was

within the abovesaid period of time, he
modeled after the antique. He also
will be liable to a penalty of fifteen
experimented in suggesting distance by
large florins; and correspondingly if
using higher relief in the foreground
Messer Francesco does not keep to the
than in the background. Ghiberti
abovesaid monthly payments he will
worked for about 25 years on the
be liable to a penalty of the whole
Baptistery doors, which represent
amount, that is, once the panel is
the transitional, Gothic-to-Renaissance
finished he will have to pay complete
moment. He also made some freestand-
and in full the balance of the sum due.
ing sculptures including Saint John the
(contract of October 23, 1485)
Baptist (c. 14 1 2-1 6) for the Florentine
church of Orsanmichele. When the first Ghirlandaio was the leading painter of
set of doors was finished, Ghiberti FRESCOes in Florence from the 1480s
began work on another set. By then he death in 1494 (e.g.. The Life of
until his
was fully cognizant of Renaissance Saint Francis cycle in the church of
style, bronze foundry was a
and his Santa Trinita, 1483-86). However, the
major workshop with michelozzo, contract quoted from above, regard-
UCCELLO, and gozzoli among the ap- ing a PANEL rather than a fresco, was for
prentices. His second doors, completed the Adoration of the Magi (1485-89),
in 1452, were so splendid that Michel- which is still at the Ospedale degli Inno-
angelo called them worthy of heaven; centi in Florence. In fresco painting
they were known thereafter as the Gates Ghirlandaio gave up experimentation
of Paradise. Toward the end of his life with techniques, especially the kind
Ghiberti wrote three commentaries: that had led to disaster in Leonardo's
The first is derived from vitruvius and Last Supper, and returned to the old-
PLINY the Elder; the second contains the fashioned buon fresco prescribed by
lives of 14th-century artists, based on CENNiNi. He may not have broken any
his own learning. Also in the second new ground, but Ghirlandaio was a
is his autobiography —the first by an master of perspective, modeling, and
artist to take a literary form — from elegant detail of dress, as demonstrated
268 GIACOMETTI, ALBERTO

by a portrait believed to be Giovanna continued his studies and in sculpture

Tornabuoni (1488). In her portrait she became associated with the surreal-
is the epitome of breeding, taste, and ists. His most startling work of that

style. She is painted in profile, and a period is Woman with Her Throat Cut
Latin epigram pasted on the wall be- (1932), a dismembered bronze corpse
hind her reads: Art, would that you that looks rather like a crab's carapace.
could represent character and mind! I Expelled from the ranks for his re-

There would he no more beautiful actionary attitude — he thought the

painting on earth. Recalling dona- Surrealists were taking him too far

TELLo's imprecation to his sculpture, from actuality — Giacometti returned to

"Speak, damn you, speak!" the histo- studying the figure pared down to es-

rianJohn Shearman relates this verse to sentials, a process he described in 1947

an ongoing competition between poets in the letter to his dealer quoted from
and painters over whose power of com- above. He developed the strangely elon-
munication was greater. If Giovanna gated, pitted figures with tiny heads for
Tornabuoni might leave the question which he is known. His personal style

unanswered, another of Ghirlandaio's evades categories, yet his friendship

works seems more affirmative of the with the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre
painter's art. Old Man and His Grand- leads one to believe that Giacometti was
son (c. 1485), believed to have been influenced by Sartre's existentialism.
done from a death mask after the His work may be called expressionist
grandfather died, would seem, by in that it embodies the angst of a philos-
bringing a dead man back to life, to ophy that sees "man" as alone and re-

count one up on poetry, since words sponsible for his fate in an absurd world
could say but could not show it. where little is reasonable or depend-
able. Still, one of Giacometti's most
Giacometti, Alberto haunting sculptures is not a person. In
1901-1966 • Swiss • sculptor • Dog (1951), a relatively small bronze of
Modern/Expressionist figuration about 17 inches high, the animal's head
hangs low, its back slumps in a down-
A large figure seemed and ato me false
ward curve, its legs are spidery, and the
small one equally unbearable, and then
whole form is as attenuated and emaci-
often they became so tiny that with
ated as Giacometti's human figures. He
one touch of my knife they
identified with this starving animal: "It's
disappeared into dust. But head and
me," he said. "One day Isaw myself in
figures seemed to me to have a bit of
the street just like that. I was the dog."
truth only when small. All this
changed a 1945 through
little in

drawing. This led me to want to make Giambologna (also Giovanni

larger figures, but then to my surprise, Bologna)
they achieved a likeness only when tall 1 5 29-1 608 • Flemish/Italian •
and slender. sculptor • Mannerist

Giacometti studied in Switzerland and He is the best person one can imagine,
Italy before going to Paris, where he entirely unmercenary, as his poverty
 GIEDION, SIEGFRIED 269

proves, and dedicated only to glory. had endeavored to construct a complex

His dearest ambition is to equal work of art, not to illustrate a story.
Michelangelo, and in the view of many However, there is one meaningful tale

connoisseurs, he has already done so, he did tell in his old age: Born in Flan-

and may surpass him if he lives, (letter ders, Giambologna went to Rome as a
from an agent to the Duke of Urbino, young man. One day he went to see

1 581) Michelangelo with a model, probably

of wax, that he had labored over and
In about 1771, Jefferson chose Gi- brought to a perfect, high finish, co//'^/-

ambologna's Rape of the Sabine ito, meaning "with his breath," as the

Women (1582) as one of 13 sculptures expression goes. Instead of offering en-

he wanted for his home, Monticello. couragement, Michelangelo destroyed
While there is no record that this work the model and remade it as he saw fit,

or a cast of it ever entered his art coUec- telling the young man to learn the art of
tion, Jefferson's choice is interesting, modeling before he learned the art of

Technically and conceptually, this mar- finishing. Perhaps Michelangelo, who

ble group, some com-
13 feet high, is as was paranoid about competition, was
plex as it is powerful. The design draws trying to crush the young sculptor's
—
from ANTIQUITY both the statue of spirit as he had crushed his work. When
Hercules lifting Antaeus off the ground Michelangelo died, Giambologna was
(which may have been in the collection his successor. In his mature work he
of Giambologna's medici patron) and mastered both modeling and finish, and
two of the struggling figures from the he excelled in representing the human
LAOCOON were sources. It also profits form in movement, leaving a heritage to

from lessons Michelangelo taught be followed by bernini.

about the expressiveness of the human
form. Giambologna's three figures are Giedion, Siegfried
constructed as if they revolve around a 1893-1969 • Swiss • architectural
single, central axis, and to fully appreci- historian
ate the work requires walking around
The statement that only posterity can
it, an act that involves the viewer physi-
estimate the true values of a period is
cally as well as visually. Curiously, the
one of those thin excuses behind which
name, which relates to Romulus, the
we shelter to escape our
legendary founder of Rome, had noth-
responsibilities.
ing todo with the sculptor's intent.
(Whether it meant anything to Jefferson Giedion proclaimed himself a disciple
is another question.) According to the of wolfflin, who in turn was a student
ancient myth, when Romulus wanted to ofburckhardt. Giedion's book Space,
increase his power and territory, he had Time, and Architecture: The Growth of
his soldiers kidnap and rape the daugh- a New Tradition ( 1 94 1 w^as a milestone
)

ters of his Sabine neighbors. The title in the discipline of architectural history
of the sculpture. Rape of the Sabine and influenced several generations of
Women, was given to the work by those architects and critics. He followed the
who saw the end result. Giambologna historical approach that had been pio-
270 GIFFORD, SANFORD ROBINSON

neered by his intellectual precursors in and later went to Fontainebleau and

the study of the Italian renaissance, barbizon, where he met millet.
but applied it to recent work. He was an Adding those influences to his love of
apologist for modernism in architec- nature and admiration for cole, he de-
ture, though toward the end of his life voted himself to landscape painting, as
he recognized that one cannot throw the quotation above suggests. The stud-
out all history and tradition. The quota- ies to which he refers were sketches of
tion above suggest his sense of engage- the Catskill and Berkshire Mountains.
ment, as does another comment of his: He also is reported to have said, "The
"The historian cannot in actual fact de- really important matter is not the nat-
tach himself from the life about him; he, ural object itself, but the veil or medium
too, stands in the stream," Giedion through which we see it." For Gifford
wrote. In that stream Giedion encoun- that veil is lucent; his work is character-
tered "the Janus-headed influence of ized by attention to the effect of light in
mechanization" and its effects on the the atmosphere of his sweeping land-
psychological and cultural spirit of the scapes. Sunseton the Hudson (1879), in
time. Giedion was secretary general of which the purple-pink glow on the hori-
the International Congresses of Modern zon shimmers in the still water and
Architecture (CIAM) from 1928 to white sails, is a transcendent tour de
1954. He taught in Zurich and then in force.

the United States, at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology and at Harvard gilt

University. He died a day after complet- A coating of gold leaf (gold beaten into
ing Architecture and Phenomena
the paper-thin sheets) or a gold-colored
of Transition, published in German in paint applied to a surface — for exam-
1969 and English in 1971. ple, a painting, sculpture, architectural

decoration, picture frame, or an illu-

Gifford, Sanford Robinson minated MANUSCRIPT. The precious-
1 823-1 880 • American • painter • ness of gold and its reflection of light
Hudson River School/Luminist made it an appropriate medium for the
background of religious images, espe-
These studies, together with a great
cially inMEDIEVAL art. halos were tra-
admiration I felt for the works of
ditionally shown in gold.
[Thomas] Cole developed a strong
interest in Landscape, and opened my
eyes to a keener perception and more Giordano, Luca
enjoyment of Nature.
intelligent 1634-1705 • Italian • painter •

Having once enjoyed the absolute Baroque

freedom of a Landscape painter's life, I
Because Giordano's father wanted him
was unable to return to Portrait
to acquire the ability to work at great
painting. From this time my direction
speed, he always stood at his side,
in art was determined.
never letting him out of his sight, and
Gifford traveled through Europe, where saying to him every so often, "Luca,
he discovered turner and constable, do it quick." Thus . . . [he] was called
 GIORGIONE 271

"Luca fa presto." (Francesco Saverio known The Tempest (c.

paintings.
Baldinucci, c. 1705) 1509?), Fete Champetre (also known
as Pastoral Symphony; c. 15 10), and
Giordano was prominent during the Sleeping Venus (c. 15 10, left unfinished
final flowering of the baroque period. at his death). Even the artist's contem-
He was from Naples, where he came poraries were baffled by his intentions.
under the influence of the Spanish artist A recent interpretation proposes that
RiBERA (Spain controlled Naples at that The Tempest is a political allegory con-
time). Later he studied under cortona, cerning the Cambrian Wars of 1509.
but he loved Venetian coloring and According to this view, the soldier. For-

the open brushwork of Titian, Tintor- titude, in the painting must be joined
etto, and VERONESE. He traveled often, with Charity, the nursing mother, in
and was even called to work at the times of trouble (see also x-radiog-
Spanish court. Although he was leg- raphy). However obscure their "mean-
endary for his speed and virtuosity, as ings," for nearly five centuries, viewers
the passage quoted above describes, his have understood these works intu-
style varied. He combined the High itively, without fathoming them
Baroque and Baroque Classicism in a intellectually. In his method and experi-
light, airy, decorative manner that mentation with OIL PAINTING, Gior-
presages the rococo. gione was also revolutionary. Instead of
depending on preliminary drawings, he
Giorgione painted spontaneously, laying down
c. I477/78P-I5IO Italian • painter landscape first and then figures, and
• Renaissance changing things as he went along. Such
freedom during the creative process was
A painter is not an intellectual when,
new. However, the three paintings men-
having painted a nude woman, he
tioned above also represent half of
leaves in our minds the idea that she is
Giorgione'sknown oeuvre. He was 35,
going to get dressed again right
at most, when he died of the plague.
away. The nudes of Puvis de
. . .

Some art historians attribute more

Chavannes never get dressed, nor do
paintings to him, but only five receive a
many others belonging to the
near unanimous vote. What is known
charming gynaeceum of Giorgione and
with some certainty is that Giorgione
Correggio. (Odilon Redon, 1888)
was born in Castelfranco, on mainland
Although we have no first-person docu- Venice, and that he worked with Gio-
mentation for Giorgione, in some ways vanni BELLINI, who also explored the
we know what he felt far better than we sensations of natural light and land-
know LEONARDO, who left an excess of scape, but as background rather than
documentation. One tremendous inno- overall effect, as in Giorgione's case.
vation of Giorgione's work is its mood; VASARi describes Giorgione as well
in his pictures mood is almost corpo- liked, something of a hedonist, and a
real, tactile. His subjects seem contin- great lover. Some of his works may
gent on the tangibility of atmosphere have been visual translations of the
and sensuality. Consider his three best- pastoral poetry that contemporary hu-
272 GIOTTO DI BONDONE

MANiSTs SO enjoyed. They were pri- that he persuaded the boy's father to let

vately commissioned by members of him take the child home: "And Giotto
what we might call the avant-garde. grew great in the art of painting," Ghi-
Giorgione's successful building up of berti wrote. IfCimabue did teach
color, tone by tone, especially in The Giotto, his student took a new and en-
Tempest, was achieved by no other tirely independent course, for Giotto
artist except Leonardo, which leads to abandoned the maniera greca. Other
speculation about whether thetwo ever periods and styles are cited as his
met. TITIAN worked with Giorgione and background influence, including the
continued his master's experiments sculpture of the pisanos. Essentially,
with mood and color; it is thought that working in true (buon) fresco (painted
Titian completed paintings that were on wet plaster, adding only finishing
left unfinished at Giorgione's death. touches on the dried surface) and colors
Certainly Giorgione's inventions have that were remarkable for their spring-
withstood time, and have been built on like freshness, Giotto achieved a sense
for centuries: Venus is the prototype of spatial depth and restored natural-
for hundreds of reclining nudes; and ism, simplicity, and restraint to paint-
Fete Champetre, in which two nude ing. He built on the foundation of his

women are in the company of two own sensibility, his understanding of

clothed men, was reimagined by manet human nature, and humor. Dramatic
in Le Dejeuner sur Vherbe {Luncheon productions may have inspired Giotto:
on the Grass; 1863). This correlation He painted stage curtains in his scenes,
prompted the comment by the painter and sometimes portrayed secondary
redon, quoted above, to which he characters with their backs to us, the
added, "But there is one, in Manet's viewers, as they might appear onstage,
Dejeuner, who will hurry to dress her- an innovation that serves both to direct
self, after her boring ordeal on the cold our attention to others in the scene and
grass." to make all observers (inside the picture
and outside) part of the action. These
Giotto di Bondone qualities are present in his best-known
c. 1 266-13 37 • Italian • painter • work, the frescoes (executed 1305-06)
Late Gothic/Early Renaissance of the Arena Chapel in Padua (so

named because it was built on the site of

In a village near the city of Florence,
an ancient Roman arena). Here inci-
called Vespignano, a boy of marvelous
dents from the life of Christ move
genius was born. (Ghiberti, c. 1450)
along, scene by scene, in three rows.
Giotto is a pivotal figure in the history Each picture has its ornamental
of art, and his fame spread during and "frame" painted around it (much as did
after his lifetime. In the century follow- the murals in ancient Roman houses),
ing Giotto's death, ghiberti told the and the action takes place parallel to
story of ciMABUE coming upon a boy and in the front of the picture plane.
who was drawing a picture of a sheep The effect is, again, to draw the viewer
on a rock. Cimabue was so awestruck into the story. The emotional content of
 GIOVANNI DI PAOLO 273

his work is exemplified by a small angel A resident of siena and follower of its

hovering above the dead Christ with style, Giovanni was among those Early
curved wings, straight, rigid arms, Italian renaissance artists who gen-
palms forward, and head thrown back erally rejected the forward-looking in-

to utter a grief-struck wail. Yet among fluence of contemporary Florence,

the Arena images, Giotto's renowned Rather, he followed the lead of his
wit breaks through in pictures of rotund gothic predecessors. Among living
Folly and the antics of sinners in Hell, artists, he was much taken with the

Giotto made both God and humankind work of gentile da Fabriano, who vis-
understandable. Also of importance, in ited Siena on his way to Rome about
the Arena Chapel, perhaps for the first 1425. If Giovanni frequently reverted
time, architecture is secondary to art. to the example of Gentile and others, he
As the John Canaday writes: "The
critic did so with an engaging idiosyncrasy
temples of the ancient world and the that gave his work the personality to
cathedrals of the Middle Ages had sum- which the historian Pope-Hennessey
marized man's ideas about himself and refers above. While his cast of charac-
his gods, with sculpture as a powerful ters are all quite somber, their expres-
corollary and painting as a decorative sive glances are often irresistible: In a
and didactic element. But with Giotto version of The Adoration of the Magi
all this changed —
not because he set out that he painted late in life, Giovanni
to change it, but because as a painter he invents a timid Joseph glancing side-
became the instrument of change. The ways at one of the kings, who, kneeling,
fact that the Arena Chapel is little more is reverentially kissing the big toe of
than a shell providing walls for the fres- the baby Jesus. Even the cow, donkey,
coes becomes symbolic." Artists of the and horses show emotion. He was pri-
High ITALIAN renaissance looked marily a maker of many-paneled or
back to Giotto as their piedecessor. polyptych altarpieces, most of which
"^^'^ disassembled and dispersed, but
Giovanni di Paolo
o T r • through his research Pope-Hennessey
c. 1399-1482 • Italian • pamter • 1 j r
T- , T ,. r. was able to identify and reconstruct re-
1

harly Italian Renaissance

lated panels and even to reunite a num-
Relationships with artists of the past ber of them. After the election of a
are like relationships with living Sienese pope, Pius II, in 1458, Saint
people. They start in a casual fashion, Catherine of Siena was canonized in
they deepen and mature, and you areif 1461. Not many of Giovanni's paint-
lucky you find in old age that you have ings can be dated, but it is reasonable to
a friend for life. . . . Why half a assume that his 10 panels for the Life of
century ago did I settle on Giovanni di Saint Catherine, in which she wears the
Paolo? Because he appeared to me a halo of a saint, date from the 1460s.
substantialand highly personal artist. "Based on a life of the saint written
His paintings spoke, or seemed to by her confessor, Raymond of Capua,
speak with a human voice. (John Pope- they tell the story of her inner life with
Hennessey, 1988) undeviating concentration and incom-
274 GIRARDON, FRANgOIS

parable sensibility," Pope-Hennessey century sculpture. The direct inspira-

writes. tion of Hellenistic work is strikingly ev-
ident . . . and can be accounted for by
Girardon, Francois the fact that the artist paid a special visit
1628-17 1 5 • French • sculptor • to Rome during the execution of the
Baroque group in order to refresh his memory of
ancient sculpture there." It was Girar-
The sun, having completed his course,
don who was asked to revise the eques-
descends of his nymphs are
. . . six
trian statue designed to honor Louis
occupied with serving him, and
after it was decided that bernini's ex-
offering him all sorts of
pressive intensity was too much for
refreshments. . . . One of them,
French taste. Girardon's statue, cast in
kneeling and bent over, holds a cloth
bronze c. 1685, stood in the Place Louis
for washing his feet; another, standing
leGrand (now Place Vendome) in Paris
by his side, pours water over the god's
until it was melted down during the
hands, a third, also kneeling, holds a
Revolution.
pitcher. (Andre Felibien, 1679)

Girardon worked with le brun at Ver- Girodet-Trioson, Anne-Louis

sailles, and his renowned group 1 767-1 824 • French • painter •

Apollo Attended by the Nymphs Romantic Classicist

(c.1666-73) is described by the con-

But as for . . . Girodet, it would not be
temporary architect/writer Felibien
hard to find in [him] a few slight
above. It was part of the propagandistic
specks of corruption, one or two
program linking Louis XIV, the Sun
amusing and symptoms ofsinister
King, to the ancient myths of Apollo,
future Romanticism— so dedicated
the sun god. Appropriately enough,
[was he], like [his] prophet [David], to
Girardon adopted a classical style,
the spirit of melodrama. (Baudelaire,
emphasizing the clarity of the forms
1855)
and their balance, harmony, and
beauty. The figure of Apollo, though As a student of Jacques-Louis david,
seated, resembles the pose of the Girodet held to a neoclassical style of
APOLLO BELVEDERE —head turned, arm painting: His forms are clearly outlined,
extended with his cloak draped over it. carefully shaped, and logically com-
The marble work was for a grotto in the posed, like a tableau in the front of
gardens of Versailles, but it stayed there the picture plane. But the subjects he
only until 1684, when mansart's grand chose to paint, and their emotional
designs for the palace involved the de- fervor, are typical of romanticism.
struction of the grotto and relocating BAUDELAIRE refers to this combination
the sculpture elsewhere. Its original in the commentary quoted above. In
arrangement was altered when itwas The Sleep of Endymion 1 79 1 ), a Greek (

moved again in the i8th century, blunt shepherd is cast into a state of eternal
has written about it as "the most purely slumber for the pleasure of the moon
classical work in French seventeenth- goddess. The erotic charge of this de-
 GIULIO ROMANO 275

fenseless figure, bathed in the eerie hght that Gislebertus worked in Autun from
of a moonbeam, is strangely androgy- 1125 to 1135. Because his dramatic
nous; he is soft, fleshy, and has long narrative style is evident throughout the
curly hair. Endymion is like the BAR- church, the entire decorative program is

BERiNi FAUN in pose and vulnerability, credited to him. Usually a master mason
though less masculine. Fascinated with carried out only the most important fig-

exoticism and sensuality, the Romantic ures, leaving the rest to his apprentices,

temperament toyed with ideas of sexual Some scholars have identified Gisleber-
violence (e.g., fuseli) and, in this in- tus's hand at the monastic churches of
stance, sexual ambiguity. Girodet was a cluny and Vezelay (specifically the
friend of Chateaubriand, whom he central tympanum of the inner doorway
painted as a windswept poet contem- at Vezelay, c. 11 30). Autun's west por-
plating the ruins of Rome. Napoleon tal is crowned by the Last Judgment, a
said that Chateaubriand (out of favor at scene that ranks among art history's
the time) looked like a conspirator who most horrific: Elongated angels claim
had come down the chimney. Actually, the worthy while dreadful, grinning,
in the portrait Chateaubriand has the claw-footed devils grab their due. The
introspective, troubled expression of mouth of hell, on a head that looks like

the prototypical Romantic. In fact, a dinosaur's, disgorges one demon, who

Chateaubriand's book Atala, written in snatches passing souls, while another
1 801 when he returned from America, devilish agent stuffs people into a fur-
glorifying love among the "savages," nace. A line of woeful candidates await
was the linchpin for his own celebrity, their turn in the lintel. The weighing of
for the Romantic movement in French souls depicted here has precedents in
literature, and for a famous painting by ancient Egyptian art, such as the pa-
Girodet, The Burial of Atala (1808), pyrus scroll from the Book of the
which was one of the most popular Dead showing the Psychostasis ("soul-
works of the 1808 salon, raising") of Hu-Nefer (c. 1290-1280
bce).
Gislebertus
active early 1 2th century • French •

sculptor • Romanesque ^. ,. „
Giulio Romano
Gislebertus hoc fecit c. i499?-i546 • Italian •

T . , . , ,
painter/architect • Mannerist
Little IS known about , ,

the sculptor
,

who
carved the words Gislebertus hoc fecit Among the countless pupils of
("Gislebertus created this"), though Raphael, who mostly became
they have pride of place on the ro- excellent, no one imitated him more
MANESQUE Cathedral of Saint-Lazare in closely in style, invention, design and
Autun, France. Gislebertus's signature is colouring than Giulio Romano, nor
beneath the feet of Christ on the tympa- was any one of them more profound,
num (the area between the lintel and the spirited, fanciful, various, prolific and
arch) above the main door. It is believed universal; he also was an agreeable
276 GLACKENS, WILLIAM

companion, jovial, affable, gracious German and Spanish troops, out of con-
and abounding in excellent qualities, trol, went on a rampage.
so that Raphael loved him as if he had
been his son, and employed him. on all Glackens, William
his principal works. (Vasari, mid- 1 6th 1 870-193 8 • American • painter •
century) Impressionist

. . . unique in mind, unique in the

Giuliowas chief assistant in Raphael's
appreciation of human character, with
workshop and took charge when the
an element of humor and an element
master died in 1520. He loved to work
of criticism, always without fear. . . .

in CHIAROSCURO and far exceeded

There is something rare, something
Raphael's example in contrasting ex-
new in the thing that he has to say.
tremes of dark with light. In 1524
(Robert Henri, 19 10)
Mantua at the behest of
Giulio went to
Federigo gonzaga. There, outside the A Philadelphian, student of anshutz,
walled city, in a region called the Te (the and associate of henri, Glackens was
source of the name is unknown), Giulio one of the first newspaper illustrators
designed a stone palace and then its in- whom Henri persuaded to become a
terior wall decorations. The facade of painter. Several of Glackens's canvases

Te breaks with Italian

the Palazzo del were shown at the important exhibition
renaissance conventions of order and of The eight held in 1 908 and at that of

regularity by interrupting symmetry the Independent Artists in 19 10 — he

and confusing visual messages about, was the founding president elected by
for example, whether it is one or two the SOCIETY OF independent artists
stories high. That exterior ambiguity when it was organized in 1917. Henri's
becomes chaos inside, where ancient comments, quoted above, refer to
mythology decorates the walls — in Glackens's work exhibited in 19 10. But
sometimes lascivious detail. And noth- Glackens did not follow suit with the
ing had ever been done before to com- ashcan members who expressed a

pare with the FRESCoes in the Room of Socialist point of view. Rather, Glack-

the Giants (1532-34). As if enclosed in ens enjoyed living and painting the
a Disneyland nightmare, a visitor is sur- "good life," as his best-known work,
rounded by a continuous scene of de- Chez Mouquin (1905), testifies. Chez
struction and slaughter within an Mouquin was a fashionable restaurant
apparently crumbling structure. The where members of The Eight liked to
story is one familiar from ancient dine, and the picture shows the restau-
Greece, the Battle of the Giants, who rant's owner seated at a table with an
launched an assault on Mount Olym- attractive young woman. The scene has

pus. Just as the Greeks used myths as the kind of glitter and is a subject such

metaphors for current concerns, so as French impressionists of the sec-

Giulio's terrible extravaganza would ond empire painted, especially manet
have reminded his contemporaries of and RENOIR, and in fact Glackens
the recent sack of Rome, in 1 527, when helped his friend barnes form a notable
 —

GLEYRE, CHARLES (mARC-CHARLES-GABRIEL) 277

collection of French Impressionist The passage quoted above is from that

works. book. At the end of World War I,
Gleizes became interested in spiritual-
Glasgow School ism and wrote about it in relation to art.
The primary reference of this term is to
the group of art nouveau architects Gleyre, Charles (Marc-Charles-
and designers associated with mackin- Gabriel)
tosh and Frances and Margaret mac- 1 806-1 874 • Swiss • painter •
DONALD. They were also affiliated with Academic
the Glasgow School of Art. Another,
M. Gleyre demands from his students
distinct group known as the Glasgow
a tight, conscientious approach in their
Boys were advocates of painting out-of-
drawings, but he is no and he
tyrant,
doors (PLEiN air).
leaves each one free in thought and
deed. (Paul Milliet, 1863)
glaze
In POTTERY, the glassy coating fired on Gleyre's merits as a teacher are de-
objects to seal and often decorate the scribed above by one of his students.
surface. In oil painting the glaze is a When delaroche closed his studio in
thin, transparent layer of tinted oil 1843, he invited Gleyre to take it over.
paint applied over other colors. These During his career Gleyre taught more
translucent films change and enrich the than 500 artists in classes that ranged
underlying color(s) while adding a di- between 30 and 40 students. Most were
mension of reflectivity to the image. Swiss and French, although there were
10 Americans, whistler among them.
Gleizes, Albert Gleyre's students adopted diverse styles,
1881-1953 • French • writer/painter from NEOCLASSiciSM to realism^, and a
• Cubist number became impressionists, in-
cluding BAZILLE, RENOIR, MONET, and
The word "Cubism" is here employed
sisley. In his own work, Gleyre special-
merely to spare the reader any
ized in HISTORY PAINTINGS based on reli-
uncertainty as to the object of our
gious, classical, and modern
inquiry; and we would hasten to
declare that the idea which the term
particularly Swiss — subjects. Le Bain
{The Bath; 1868), in which two ideal-
evokes— that of volume— cannot by
ized nude women are bathing a baby in
itself define a movement which tends
what looks like a large marble birdbath,
toward the integral realization of
is one of his works. He painted with
Painting.
tight brushwork and achieved a pohshed

Though his paintings in the new man- finish. As were Delaroche and couture,

ner broke no new ground, Gleizes's Gleyre was known as an artist of the
tract On Cubism (191Z), written in juste milieu, that is, one who operates
collaboration with Jean Metzinger between the extremes of academic and
(1883-1956), provided the important ROMANTIC tendencies: He took the sub-
theoretical foundations for cubism. ject matter that would interest a Roman-
278 GOES, HUGO VAN DER

tic and rendered it in a style approved by bright white garments, is a beautiful

the academy. STILL LIFE of flowers in front of a bound

sheaf of wheat. Each element is realisti-

Goes, Hugo van der cally painted in scrupulous detail —the

c. 1440-1482 • Netherlandish • work of van eyck had a powerful hold
painter • Northern Renaissance on him —and each detail has important
symbolic meaning. The wheat, through
. . . we can speak of two possible
the sacrament, represents Christ's flesh;
assumptions concerning the illness of
clusters of grapes decorating the Span-
our painter-brother converse. The first
ish earthenware vase are symbolic of
is that it was a natural one, a kind of
Christ's blood. A stalk of columbine
frenzy. . . The second possibility of
.

represents the Holy Spirit; carnations,

explaining this disease is that it was
known as nail flowers, stand for nailing
sent by Divine Providence. (Caspar
Christ to the Cross. Yet the overall im-
Ofhuys, c. 1509-13)
pact of Hugo's creation, his perhaps un-
Hugo suffered severe depressions, dur- bearable genius, combined with his
ing one of which he attempted suicide. great compositional skill, expresses
Some aspects of his paintings seem to mysticism as well as the religious and
show the effects of looking into the political anxiety of the time and place in

chasm of despair. The Portinari Altar- which he The texture

lived. of suffering
piece (c. 1473-78), an extremely large in his works leads some to believe that
TRIPTYCH, is Hugo's masterpiece. It was he belonged to the cult of Imitatio
commissioned by a wealthy Italian Christi (Imitation of Christ), whose
businessman, Tommaso Portinari, who members found mystic ecstasy by medi-
was the head of medici bank in
the tating on the pain of Christ. Hugo en-
Bruges (for Bruges, see memling). The tered a monastery about the same time
central, interior panel, a Nativity, is a that he painted the Portinari Altarpiece.
haunting portrayal of that event. It has One of his confreres at the monastery,
a hierarchical arrangement with the Caspar Ofhuys, who is quoted above,
Virgin, in the center, larger in scale than speculated on Hugo's illness, attribut-

everyone else except Joseph, who is off ing it to self-doubt —that he would be
to the left. Grim angels and dour shep- unable to fulfill his commissions — and
herds surround the Virgin and infant to drunkenness. How much malice and
Christ, who lies naked and isolated on a how much truth is contained in

bare stone floor. This bone-chilling iso- Ofhuys's assessment is uncertain, but
lation, combined with the winter bleak- Hugo died, of causes unknown to us, a
ness of the surroundings and solemn year after his failed attempt at suicide.
expressions on bystanders' faces, con-
tributes to how this painting works on
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
and troubles the mind. In addition, a
1749-1832. • German •
hardly visible image of the devil lurks in
poet/philosopher/theoretician
the shadows of the stable. Anguish is

sharpened by a dichotomy: In the fore- Foolishly as a people which calls

ground, next to a kneeling angel in barbaric the entire unknown world, I
 —

GOGH, VINCENT VAN 279

named Gothic that which did not fit troductory quotation is his enchant-
into my system. . . . And so as I went I ment and brief flirtation with GOTHIC
shuddered as before the sight of a architecture, inspired by a visit to the
misshapen, curly-bristled monster. Strasbourg Cathedral (late 13th cen-
tury). He had gone to Strasbourg
Productive in many fields — he was a expecting to find the embodiment of
poet, novelist, dramatist, scientist, the irrational — a "curly-bristled mon-
philosopher, statesman, and even artist ster" — and found instead "a sensation
— Goethe led and embodied romanti- of wholeness, greatness [that] filled
cism in its commitment to emotion, my soul. . .
." His impassioned appre-
self-examination, and imagination. He ciation sparked a Gothic revival in
was also devoted to reconciling the sci- Germany, an example of which is
entific interests of the enlightenment schinkel's war MEMORIAL. (Such a
with the Romantic sensibility because revival had already begun in England
the scientist could not, he believed, find see WALPOLE.) Goethe's followers be-
nature's deeper truths while detaching came ardently nationalistic in their
himself from nature and approaching it interest in restoring Gothic cathedrals
with abstract or mechanical objectivity. and castles. While Goethe's enthusiasm
Goethe's influence was vast: "I have no sparked this revival, Goethe himself re-

other wish than a close fusion with na- turned to his interest in classical style
ture, and I desire no other fate than (ac- while acknowledging his emotional, or
cording to Goethe's precept) to have Romantic, approach to the Classical.
worked and harmony with her
lived in
laws," MONET wrote in 1909, when he Gogh, Vincent van
was nearly 70. Goethe's influence on 1853-1890 • Dutch painter
art stemmed also, in part, from his Post-Impressionist
explorations of color theory. In this
/ am feeling well just now. ... 7 am
context Goethe wrote, "Single colors
not strictly speaking mad, for my mind
affect us, as it were, pathologically, car-
is absolutely normal in the intervals,
rying us away to particular sentiments.
and even more so than before. But
At times they elevate us to nobility, at
during the attacks it is terrible— and
others they lower us to vulgarity. ..."
then I lose consciousness of
Goethe's insistent belief that ultimate
everything. But that spurs me on to
truth resides in direct sensory experi-
work and to seriousness, as a miner
ence led to some mistaken ideas, such as
who is always in danger makes haste
a belief in the indivisible purity of white
in what he does.
light. This brought him into conflict
with Isaac Newton's explication of the Thus, as quoted above, in October
physical nature of the spectrum, its in- 1889, less than nine months before he
terdependence and continuous state of killed himself, van Gogh described his

instability and change, turner read state of mind. But it is important to

and was affected by Goethe's Color stress that van Gogh's mental illness

Theory (18 10; English translation neither distinguishes nor explains his
1840). What Goethe describes in the in- painting. What it did was to interrupt,
28o GOGH, VINCENT VAN

and ultimately end, his work. In that royal blue of the water to the blue of the
work van Gogh expressed the politi- forget-me-nots, cobalt." As the critic
cal and social concerns of the time in hughes writes, van Gogh's work from
which he lived, in addition to his sharp Aries "offers one of the most moving
and sensitive aesthetic vision. "These narratives of development in Western
people, eating their potatoes, in the art: a —and, needless to repeat,
painter
lamplight," as van Gogh himself wrote a very great one — inventing landscape a

about The Potato-eaters (1885), "have that invents him." Van Gogh's stylistic

dug the earth with those very hands explorations were as fully contem-
they put in the dish, and so it speaks of porary as many of his subjects. In re-
manual labor, and how they have hon- action to the IMPRESSIONIST blurring of
estly earned their food." His apprecia- outline, for example, he (as well as Gau-
tion of peasant life allies him with guin and Bernard) restored the delin-
REALISTS. That connection is confirmed eation of form, stressing contour in a
in The Sower (1888), a painting that style called cloisonnism. Such distinc-

shares title and subject with one by mil- tion, or reductiveness, of form is con-
let, whom van Gogh admired tremen- nected to the beginnings of modernism
dously. Van Gogh's was painted the in art, though van Gogh wrote: "My at-
year after Zola's novel La Terre was tention is so fixed on what is possible
published. Turning workers on the land and really exists that I hardly have the
into heroes was paralleled by seeking desire or the courage to strive for the
out the unspoiled rural landscape. This ideal as it might result from . . . abstract
encouraged the growth of 19th-century studies." After intervals at the hospital
artists' colonies (e.g., barbizon), and in Aries and in the asylum at Saint-

van Gogh, who lived in Paris with his Remy, Van Gogh spent his last two
brother Theo (see goupil's gallery) months in Auvers, under the care of Dr.
from February 1886 to February 1888, Paul Gachet, whose portrait he painted
went to Aries for solace in the landscape in 1890. In the picture, Gachet's elbow
and brilliant sun. He wrote to persuade rests next to two novels by the
his friends Bernard and gauguin to goncourts. (That portrait was sold in
join him. was during Gauguin's two-
It 1990 for $82.5 million, claiming the
month visit, and the first of a series of record for the highest price ever paid at
breakdowns, that van Gogh mutilated auction for an art work.) Also during
his ear and painted a self-portrait of his those two months van Gogh, who
bandaged head. In a letter to his brother painted in extraordinary bursts of cre-
he described how, in late spring, "the ativity, completed about 75 paintings.
landscape gets tones of gold of various He died virtually unknown; his work
tints, green-gold, yellow-gold, pink- had rarely been shown in public. With
gold, and in the same way bronze, cop- his first major retrospective, in 1901,
per, in short starting from citron yellow which initiated the influence he would
all the way to a dull, dark yellow color have on succeeding generations, prices
like a heap of threshed corn. And this for his work started to soar and coun-
combined with blue — from the deepest terfeiting of his paintings began. In the
 1

GOLUB, LEON 28

late 1990s scholars began to question was Golden Section (or Mean).
the
seriously the authenticity of many pre- Aristotle saw it as an ethical metaphor,
viously "secure" attributions. and, later, medieval scholars called it
"divine." During the Italian renais-
Golden House of Nero (Domus sance, it became the subject of intense
Aurea) study and speculation: Leonardo drew
The emperor Nero (ruled 54-68 ce) had illustrations for a mathematical tract on
a new palace built after Rome's great the subject, and piero della Francesca
fire of 64 CE destroyed his old one. Part wrote a thesis, in Latin, entitled "On
of an enormous and luxurious scheme, the Five Regular Solids," that was pub-
it overlooked an artificial lake that was lished in Italian, in 1509, in a treatise
later drained for the colosseum. The entitled Divine Proportion. The Court
entire compound was eventually built of the Lions at the Alhambra palace
over, and the Baths of Trajan covered (1354-91) in Granada, Spain, is pro-
part of it. That is where excavations, in portioned according to the Golden Sec-
the 1480s, uncovered a number of tion, and the cubist sculptor lipchitz,
rooms in Nero's buried palace. Some among others, based many of his works
still had signs of their rich decoration, on it. seurat and archi-
Painters like
with marble paneling and painted and tects like LE CORBUSIER made reference

gilded stucco. These decorations had to the Golden Mean. In essence the
great influence on artists of the Italian Golden Mean depends on dividing a
RENAISSANCE, bringing the use of gold line into two segments so that the ratio
back into vogue in many imaginative of the smaller segment to the larger one
ways, from botticelli gilding the is the same ratio as the larger segment to
blond hair of Venus, to sparks under the the whole. The concept is most easily
cauldron in which John is being boiled visualized in terms of the proportions of
in Filippino lippi's Martyrdom of Saint a rectangle. However, the mathematical
John the Evangelist (1490s). Excavation value concerned cannot be expressed in
discoveries also brought about a passion whole numbers. The closest numerical
forGROTESQUE decorations, which soon expression of the Golden Section ratio
began to appear on FRESCOes, even in- is about 8:13 or 1:1.6180339 . . .

corporating raised reliefs (see pin-

TURiccHio), as well as on architectural Golub, Leon
detailing. born 1922 • American • painter •

Neo-Expressionist/political
Golden Section (Golden Mean)
. . . attempt to reinstate a
The ancient Greeks were philosophi-
contemporary catharsis, that measure
cally and aesthetically absorbed with
of man which is related to an
the concept of perfect proportions, and
existential knowledge of the human
were intent on devising canons to ex-
condition.
press such relationships (see poly-
KLEiTOS and ideal). One ideal ratio, Golub (who is married to spero) was a
supposed to express visual harmony, member of the Chicago Monster Roster
282 GOMBRICH, ERNST

(which included Cosmo Campoli, born During the last quarter of the 20th cen-
1922). German expressionism, psy- tury, Gombrich's ideas, expressed in

choanalysis, and existentialism were Art and Illusion (i960), were chal-
important influences on their work, es- lenged by writers of the new art his-

pecially the existential ideas expressed tory and by bryson in particular. The
by the theologian Paul Tillich, then reason for this is hinted at in the subtitle
teaching in Chicago. Golub's descrip- of Gombrich's book— A Study in the

tion of his work, quoted above, articu- Psychology of Pictorial Representa-

lates such concerns. In the series tion—and in Gombrich's effort to, as he
Mercenaries, which he began around wrote, go "beyond the frontiers of art
1980, Golub painted images of strange, to the study of perception and optical il-

arrested violence, of uncertain cause lusion." He also wrote, "It is almost as

and result. On enormous canvases if the eye knew the meanings of which
he painted soldiers, some double life- the mind knows nothing." Missing
size, wearing miscellaneous uniforms; from this "perceptualist" account, in

their direct gazes suggest undercurrents which artists endeavor to record and
of illicit pleasures in which the viewer is transmit to the viewer accurately tran-
made to feel complicit. Golub's implied scribed images, is, according to Bryson,
antiviolence and anticorruption mes- "that it leaves no room for the question

sages, and politics, elicit strong reac- of the relationship between the image
tions. HUGHES describes Golub's work and power," and a relationship played

with the power it deserves: "... the size out through the activation of "codes of
of Golub's figures seemed justified and recognition" that are socially learned.
even necessary. Only by monumentaliz- Nevertheless, Gombrich's concern with
ing their documentary content could he ideas of cognition, perception, and
give it the fixity and silence it needed, optical truth broaden art historical

and only in that way could he strike his knowledge and continue to have wide
peculiar balance between the sacrificial influence, answering, to the satisfaction

and the banal and so get rid of that sus- of many, the question he himself posed
picion of pornography that attends im- in the quotation above.
ages of extreme violence."
Goncharova, Natalia
Gombrich, Ernst 1881-1962 • Russian •

born 1909 • Austrian/English • art painter/designer • Rayonist

historian
Time should be divided over a long
Why is it that different ages and period in such a way that there should
different nations have represented the be enough for painting and work for
visible world in such different ways? the theatre— these are, of course,
inseparable, but painting is an inner
Born in Austria, Gombrich has lived in
necessity for theatrical work, and not
England since 1936 and has taught in
vice versa.
America as well as in England. He is

best known for The Story of Art (1950), In 87 1 the Russian Academy of Arts
1

which is translated into 13 languages. was opened to women, and during the
 a

GONZAGA FAMILY 283

next decade art schools were estab- liberalism, we asked ourselves whether
lished in majorand attracted fe-
cities what one calls "the lower classes"
male students. Goncharova began her have no right to the Novel.
studies in Moscow in 1892, and in 1906
her work was included in Diaghilev's The Goncourt brothers were very influ-
WORLD OF ART exhibition. She was re- ential on the art of the 19th century,

bellious in behavior as well as ideas, They collaborated on novels the pas- —

masquerading and posturing: She made sage quoted above is from the preface to
several public appearances bare- Germinie Lacerteux (186$), a story oi
breasted with abstract designs painted —
servant girl published a journal, and
on her body. With larionov, whom wrote books that looked back to i8th-
she married, and others, Goncharova century French art {L'Art du dix-
pursued an interest in native Russian ^w/Yz^mesz^c/e; 1859-75) and studies of
arts and crafts, especially the bright col- Japanese artists. These texts promoted
ors of peasant art, fabrics, and icons, a the popularity of both the rococo and
field plowed by vrubel and cultivated Japanese prints (see ukiyo-e). Van
for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Gon- gogh's Portrait of Dr. Gachet {1S90)
charova's Haycutting (19 10) is an ex- contains an allusion to them: Two of
ample of her interest in Russian peasant theGoncourt novels are on the table
life. She and Larionov went to Paris in where the doctor rests his elbow. The
1915 and worked on designs for Di- Goncourts regarded their own age, cyn-
aghilev. She made wooden dolls, pup- ically, as being without values or moral
pets, and marionettes, often drawn structure, and they provided a spark to

from Russian mythology. But other im- the social consciousness of realism^ in

pulses and explorations also ran both painting and literature. They
through her career. In 1913, for exam- themselves were independently rich,
pie, she painted a picture that combined The historian Linda Nochlin demurs re-

analytical CUBISM and speed-obsessed garding their intentions: "Those fastidi-

futurism. Aeroplane over Train. Dur- ous snobs, the de Goncourts, as jealous
ing the last decades of her life Gon- of their particule as of their recherche
charova painted images inspired by the art collection, no less than the democra-
exploration of space. After the Soviet tic, ultimately socialist Zola, sought
launch of Sputnik in 1957, she pro- their documentation in the seamier
duced a series of paintings on the theme sides of Parisian life —though their mo-
of the cosmos that were exhibited in tives may be questioned." One perhaps
Paris in 1958. less ambiguous result of their privileged

lives was the bequest of the support for

^
Cjoncourt,
„
hdmond TT
,
Huot 1 J
de
an annual prize
_
in literature, the Prix

, , , J Goncourt.
(1822-1896) and Jules de
(1830-1870) • French • r^
.
,,
Gonzaga ctamily \

writers/collectors „,..,. , ^ , j l
This Italian family may be traced back
1

Living in the nineteenth century, in a to the early 13 th century, when Luigi I

time of universal suffrage, democracy, wrested control of the northern terri-

 .

284 GONZALEZ, JULIO

tory of Mantua from his brother-in- instrument of an overly mechanical

law. The first notable art patron was science. Today the door is opened wide
the second Marquis of Mantua, Lu- for this material to be— at last!—
dovico II (ruled 1444-78), who made forged and hammered by the peaceful

MANTEGNA his official court painter in hands of artists.

1459. In the same Camera degli Sposi of
the Gonzaga palace where he painted a From a Barcelona family that forged or-

humorous, illusionistic ceiling open to namental iron for three generations,

the sky, Mantegna painted a fascinating Gonzalez went to Paris in his 20s. There
FRESCO, Ludovico Gonzaga, His Family he continued working in the craft until
and Court (completed 1474). This he turned 50. Then, inspired by sculp-
informal family portrait might be sub- tors, including picasso, who employed
titled "A Day in the Life at Court." his welding, forging, and soldering
Francesco Gonzaga II (ruled 1484- skills, Gonzalez began to create his own
1519), grandson of Ludovico, married body of work. His techniques of weld-
the brilliant Isabella d' este, and they ing iron opened a new era, enabling a
continued to support Mantegna and move from closed to open form.
other artists. Mantegna's death in 1 506 Most of his creations, such as the bristly
was considered a family tragedy by the Cactus Man (1939-40), are abstract
Gonzagas. (He is buried in Mantua, in creations, but his best-known work,
the church of San Andrea, designed by Montserrat (1937), is figurative, repre-
ALBERTi.) Francesco and Isabella's son, sentational, and symbolic: A larger-
Federigo II (ruled 1519-40), was made than-life-size peasant woman, she
a duke in 1 530 by his ally, the emperor stands for the Spanish resistance to Fas-
Charles V. It is for Federigo that giulio cism.
Romano designed the Palazzo del Te
(1527-34) and the outrageous frescoes Gorky, Arshile
ior its Room of the Giants (i^^z-^ 4). 1904-1948 • Armenian/American •

Federigo was an avid horse breeder, and painter • Surrealist/Abstract

another of the rooms in the palace, the Expressionist
Camera dei Cavalli, is decorated with , . .. ^ a •>,••*
It IS some ancient Armenian spirit
as if
portraits of his favorite horses. Before ... j
within me moves my hand to create so
;

Gonzaga patronage came to an end . . j .; ^ r , ; ;

? f^^ from our homeland the shapes of
with the sack of Mantua m 1630,
, r ,

^, , , ,

nature we loved in the gardens,

RUBENS and van dyck were among the ^ , , j , r , ,
wheatfields and orchards of our
artists who served the ducal family. ... . r^; l r^ ;
Adoian family in Khorkom. Our
beautiful Armenia which we lost and
Gonzalez, Julio which I will repossess in my art.
1876-1942
/ ^^
• Spanish
^ • sculptor
^ • .^,. ^
When Gorky was ,
.
u u-
four years old, his fa-
£

Abstraction , J ., •
^ ^u
ther avoided conscription into the

The age of iron began many centuries Turkish army by fleeing their home in

ago. It is high time that this metal eastern Turkey for the United States. As
cease to be a murderer and the simple Christians persecuted by the Islamic
 GOSSAERT, JAN (MABUSE) 285

Turks, in 191 5 Gorky and his mother haunted by discombobulated references

and sisters set out on foot from their to some jagged shapes in picasso's
home to Caucasian Armenia. They Guernica (1937). The title is as much a
were part of a "death march" in which play on meanings as are the painting's
stragglers were killed; before it was forms; for example, "liver" may mean
over, one and a half million Armenians one who is living as well as an organ.
had been slaughtered. His mother died The last years of Gorky's life were shad-
of starvation. A year later Gorky ar- owed with tragedy and depression his —
rived at Ellis Island. He created, or re- work was lost in a studio fire, he was
created, himself in America, beginning operated on for cancer, then his neck
with his name: Arshile refers to the was broken in an automobile accident.
mythological Greek hero Achilles, He ended it in suicide, leaving a note
Gorky means "bitter" in Russian, and is that read "Goodbye, my loveds" on the
also the pseudonym for the writer wall of the woodshed where he hanged
Maxim Gorky. This prompted the critic himself.

Harold Rosenberg to write, "In making

someone else's alias his own name, Ar- Gossaert, Jan (Mabuse)
shile involved himself in the higher c. 1478-153 2 • Netherlandish •
mathematics of pseudonymity." He cul- painter • Northern Renaissance
tivated other eccentricities in creating
Quentin Massys and Jan Gossaert are
and changing his biography, behavior,
virtuosi. They exhibit their mastery as
and identity as he went along, con-
a personal performance. We hear how
structing his own reality in surrealist
they speak before ive perceive what
fashion. But he opposed the Surrealist
they say. Quentin's emotional
use of automatism, a process of encour-
debauches are no less artificial than
aging and expressing spontaneous
Gossaert's acrobatics. (Max
thoughts, saying, "I do not believe in
Friedlander, 1949)
anarchy in art. There must be some
structure. ..." Part of what structured Philip of Burgundy (see valois) es-

hiswork were his memories: The Artist corted his protege Gossaert to Rome in

and His Mother (c. 1926-36) is based 1508, and if the patron's intention was
on a photograph taken when he was to Italianize the artist, the outcome
eight years old, and Garden in Sochi (c. was ambiguous. Rather than studies
1943) is ^ free-form image of the past. of perspective, or of Michelangelo's
"For me, art must be a facet of the works, Gossaert returned home with
thinking mind . . . unrelenting spon- elaborately detailed drawings of an-
taneity is chaos." Also in the 1940s, tique helmets, sandals, and sculpture.
when he made comment about Ar-
the In Gossaert's well-known painting
menia quoted above, he painted The Dana'e (1527), the subject is seated in a
Liver Is the Cock's Comb (1944), a tower, surrounded by finely rendered
6-by-8-foot canvas of brilliant colors marble columns through which can be
and strange, indefinite forms. Figures seen a fantastic cityscape combining
emerge but disappear again just as both classical and gothic elements.
their identity seems within grasp. It is She has the chubby, rosy cheeks of a
286 GOTHIC

northerner, and her blue robe falls se- with elegant and exaggerated folds. The
ductively from her shoulder, localizing International Style was a courtly art
and distancing Gossaert's work from and is exemplified by work such as that

the ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. Gossaert's of the LiMBOURG brothers, who painted

Madonnas and secular portraits (e.g., with exquisite, rich color and elaborate
Madonna and Child, c. 1525-30, and renderings of the materials and plea-
Portrait of a Merchant, c. 1520-25) are sures of life, from brocaded fabrics to

characterized as typical of Northern fabulous feasts.

MANNERISM, yet they can also be seen as Although this period is known as

reviving the meticulous attention to sur- Gothic, it has nothing to do with the
face, light, and detail from the work of Germanic people called Goths. Italian

van EYCK almost a century before. In writers of the i5thcentury first used the
addition, they have the virtuosity that term to disparage an art that they con-

FRIEDLANDER comments on in the quo- sidered crude, as in the manner of the

tation above. Goths. During the i8th and 19th cen-

turies, French,German, and English
Gothic scholars recognized and studied it.
140-1500, the final period of me-
c. 1 "Both Romanesque and Gothic art still
DiEVAL ART. Subdivisions within the make a powerful impact on the mind
Gothic era are: and the emotions of the viewer. How-
Early, c. 1 140-1200, an experimen- ever, the final impression created by

tal style (e.g., the Cathedral of Notre Romanesque art is one of naked power;
Dame, Paris, begun 1163). that of the Early Gothic of humanized
High, c. 1200-1300 Reims (e.g., force. The Romanesque artist seemed to
Cathedral, begun 1211). Rayonnant expect the Apocalypse; Gothic artists

(radiant) is a style of High Gothic. It is hoped and the joys and

for salvation

characterized by walls of stained splendor of paradise," writes Marilyn

GLASS, and figures that curve sinuously Stokstad. The Gothic period witnessed
(called the S-curve). increasing urbanization, the growth of
Late, c. 1 300-1 500. The Flamboy- universities, and a new middle class. A
ant, named for its flamelike architec- great, distinctive architecture began
tural tracery, appeared during the Late on the Ile-de-France and spread to cities
Go^/jz'c period, at the end of the 1 400S. throughout France and the rest of
The International Style is also a Late Western Europe. Gothic architecture
Gothic development: was introduced
It came to be characterized, especially
in Paris c. 1375, flourished in AVIGNON, in France, by walls of stained-glass
and is so named because it drew artists windows, and both windows and ma-
from France and Italy to Avignon and sonry decorated by tracery ornamen- —
then spread through Europe. The /n?er- tal stonework. Elaborate, pointed
national Style was characterized by an ARCHes, rib vaults (masonry ribs inside

attention to observed detail

— "realism the vault for support as well as decora-
of particulars" directly perceived by the tion), and exterior wall buttresses (to

senses (see nominalism) —approxima- shore up the structure) — especially dec-

tion of believable space, and drapery orative "flying buttresses" — were also
 GOUJON, JEAN 287

characteristic. A belief in the sanctity of images, or symbols, from which he de-

Hght God) was accom-
(as representing veloped his own pictographic lan-
panied by an ever more ambitious reach guage —the images to which he refers
to the sky that led, ultimately, to the in the comment quoted above. He
vault collapse at Beauvais Cathedral painted grids of irregular squares and
(begun 1247). Increasing the height of rectangles as a framework or "win-
the cathedral seemed an obsession of dows" which to present his picto-
in
French builders, and at Beauvais they graphic symbols (e.g., Pictograph No.
hoped to surpass their predecessors 4, 1943). Imaginative and evocative,
with a height of 157 feet. how-
In 1284, they sometimes suggest faces, some-
ever, the Beauvais vault crashed. The times birds, or ancient symbols of flight.
abbot suger's building program for the Much as earlier artists had objectified
Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, under and romanticized Middle Eastern cul-
way by 1137, had launched the Gothic tures, Gottlieb and other abstract
era; the cathedral at chartres was a expressionists looked for truth —of
chronicle and measure of Gothic archi- human nature — in non-Western "prim-
tecture, sculpture, and stained-glass itive" and "archaic" cultures. Gottlieb
artistry. expressed his motivation, a phenome-
non of post-World War II angst:
Gottlieb, Adolph "Today when our aspirations have been
1903-1974 • American pamter • reduced to a desperate attempt to es-
Abstract Expressionist cape from and times are out of
evil,

joint, our obsessive, subterranean and

The images appeared at random, then
pictographic images are the expression
they established themselves in a new
of the neurosis which is reality. To my
system. That was why all those years I
mind, so called abstraction is not ab-
was able to use very similar images,
straction at all. On the contrary, it is the
but by having different juxtapositions
realism of our time."
there will always be a different
significance to them.
gouache
Seeking an alternative to prevailing and An opaque watercolor paint. In con-
competing modes of painting in Amer- trast to transparent watercolor in which
ica during the 1930s (such as social the paper (ground) contributes to the
REALISM and regionalism), Gottlieb picture's color, gouache depends on
found inspiration in the work of foreign white PIGMENT for its high value. In
artists. These included not only major general, opaque paint is dull and looks
European painters like picasso, mon- chalkier than transparent paint.
drian, miro, and klee, but also a
Uruguayan, Joaquin Torres-Garcia
Goujon, Jean
( 874-1949), who incorporated Pic-
1
c. 1510-C. 1568 • French • sculptor
TOGRAPHs, or symbols, in his work.
• Mannerist
Gottlieb was interested in pre-
Columbian, African, and Native Amer- [He is] the artist who dominates
ican objects, and in these he discerned French sculpture in the middle of the
288 goupil's gallery

sixteenth century. Goujon created the Goupil's opened in New York in 1846.
style current in Paris and widely By the end of the 1860s, with several
imitated in the provinces, and invented galleries as well as the printing shop in

a form of Mannerism as exquisite as Paris, it was a worldwide business.

the finest production of the school of (Michel Knoedler, who had founded
Fontainebleau in painting and the New York establishment for
decoration, but flavoured with a Goupil, bought him out, and Knoedler
personal type of classicism. (Anthony & Company continues its operation to
Blunt, 1953) Through family ties, Vincent
this day.)

van GOGH worked for just under a year

Both the beginning and the end of Gou- at Goupil's, starting in May 1875. I"
jon's hfe are a mystery: He is first 1878 Vincent's younger brother, Theo
known as the carver of columns for the van Gogh, was put in charge of the
organ loft of Saint-Maclou at Rouen small Goupil gallery on the boulevard
( 1 541 ) when he was a mature artist, but Montmartre. (The establishment was
there is great uncertainty about his ca- actually named Boussod & Valadon,
reer from 1562 until his death. In 1544 though it was still known as Goupil's.)
he was in Paris, where his most cele- Theo's taste for impressionism was
brated works were done. These include more avant-garde than that of his em-
the sinuously curving, elegantly draped ployers, and his competitors at the time
nymphs in a relief for the Fontaine des were the substantial gallery of durand-
Innocents (1547-49) and the four Cary- ruel and the later arch rival Georges
atids (1550-51) at the Louvre. The who ran an endeavor expansively
Petit,

CARYATIDS, probably inspired by a de- named Expositions Internationales.

scription in editions of vitruvius, or Theo van Gogh fought the battle on be-
perhaps by its illustrations, were novel half of Impressionist artists, and his

The architect with whom

in France. struggles and successes have been docu-
Goujon worked on the Louvre was mented by the art historian rewald,
Pierre Lescot (c. 1 500/10-1578), and who shows "Theo as the friend in need
the assessment of the collaboration by he was not only for his brother, but also
BLUNT (who is also quoted above) is for the many artists with whom he came
that "... Lescot's architecture was per- into contact, even those with whom he
fectly conceived to display sculpture, did not form a close relationship." It

and Goujon's reliefs or caryatids were was both Vincent's and Theo's hope
planned to decorate a building, so that that Theo would be able to open his
the two men worked in full harmony, own gallery. Financially, Theo took
almost as one mind." care of a wife and child as well as his
brother. But it all ended badly: After
Goupil's Gallery shooting himself, Vincent died in his

A 18x7 on the
business, founded in brother's arms on Tuesday, July 29,
boulevard Montmartre by Adolphe 1890. In October that year Theo also
Goupil, published high-quality en- had a breakdown, and in January 1891
gravings after paintings. Goupil's he, too, died. Goupil's — or Boussod &
daughter married chrome. A branch of Valadon —went out of business on
 GOYA, FRANCISCO DE 289

March 3, 19 19, selling off works by withdrawn, and Goya was denounced
COROT, DAUBIGNY, Theodore Rous- before the Inquisition. Powerful friends
SEAU, and others — but not a single Im- protected him, and the king, accepting
pressionist. The auction was held, with the plates as a gift, granted a pension to
full-blown irony, at the gallery of the artist's son in return. Goya became
Georges Petit. the court painter; Family of Charles
(Carlos) IV (1800) refers to velaz-
Goya, Francisco de quez's Las Meninas of 1656 in that the

1746-1828 • Spanish • artist at his easel is included in the

painter/printmaker • Romantic scene. But Goya lines up his overdressed

„, . .
/I and ineffectual royal family across the
i he artist is convinced that censuring , , , ,

respect but much

,

canvas with little

,
human errors and
I
vices
•

— though 7 »

It _,
, ri- i-
, . ,
mockery. Ihe range or his subiects was
seems the preserve of oratory and . .... .' .

poetry—may also be the object ofr

. . , r 1
, ,

I
, , .

. ...
vast: royalty, nobility, intellectual re-
formers, witches, giants, prostitutes, the
,

painting. He has chosen as appropriate n •

1 1

, .
r I I I t I
insane, prisoners, milkmaids, and, in
subjects for his work those he has
, r ,

deemed most pt to provide an occasion

. . .

n r^-
,

another series of prints, warfare the

w, t^ i-
r

/-
<-

— 1

r 7- , , ,
so-called Disasters of War. Regarding
for ridicule and at the same time to ^ . . . ,

... „ , war, few works have more impact than

exercise his imagination ... On sale at ^ ., ^, _, ^,.
.,„,,, , . . . ,

-^ ~ 1 r Goya s oil painting The Third of May

N. I Lalle de Desengano, the perfume
, , r ' 1 r 1808 (1814). rrench forces had occu-
shop, at the price of ^20 reales for ri r 1

.^ , pied Spain from 1808 to 18 14, and

each set of 80 prints. z. . . . , ,

Spanish resistance was mercilessly sup-

The words above were written by Goya pressed. Goya's painting records the
to accompany the sale in Madrid, be- moment when French troops executed
ginning on February 6, 1777, of his Spanish prisoners, a massacre we see al-
satires of Spanish life and mores known most as though we are witnessing it in a

as the Caprichos. (The perfume shop television news clip: The soldiers are
was in the building in which Goya had lined up with their rifles as the civilians
lived for many years.) Goya sharply at- walk up the stairs to be killed, one by
tacked everything from child-rearing one, at point-blank range. Fear, sur-
practices to prostitution, but the best- prise, and horror are all palpable. The
known image, Capricio 4^, is entitled current victim, illuminated as if by klieg
The Sleep of Reason Produces Mon- lights, has thrown up his arms; a refer-
sters. In this picture the artist has fallen ence to the Crucifixion is implicit. Yet
asleep while a lynx, wide-eyed with unlike The Death of Marat (1793), by
alarm, watches as a covey of owls and Goya's contemporary, Jacques-Louis
bats surround him. The meaning is de- david, in which the figure of Christ is

bated now as it was then, but it seems a invoked to suggest the victim's heroism,
direct reference to the rationalism of the there are no heroes, and there is no
ENLIGHTENMENT and the dangers in morality in Goya's picture. The dark-
store when reason has departed. The 8c ness of Goya's vision is also found in his

ETCHINGS were on sale for just a few "Black Paintings," which reject any
days. Only 27 sets sold before they were semblance of a comprehensible world.
290 GOYEN, JAN VAN

In A Dog (1820-23), the small, pitiful were based on subtle contrasts of warm
head of a dog appears in a vast empti- and cool tones. Views, such as View of
ness of undefined landscape. More fa- Dordrecht (1653), portray a world of
mous is Saturn Devouring His Son sky and water where clouds shift,

(1820-23): The giant, pop-eyed mon- change shape, and dissolve and sails

ster devours the small-scale torso of a billow with the breeze. His light brush-
strange, bloody body. In 1824 Goya left work itself suggests mutability. The
the oppressive political situation in windmill is a symbol of mechanical
Spain, which doubtless inspired his power and commerce, while the
Black Paintings, and lived mainly in GOTHIC church is a familiar landmark
Bordeaux, France. His last great paint- of his paintings. Characteristic of his
ing, The Milkmaid of Bordeaux (c. landscapes, and those of his Dutch con-
1827), is a freely rendered picture of a temporaries, is a lowered horizon,
lovely young woman. In its background which had the effect of unifying fore-
the ghost of a face almost emerges to the ground, middle-, and background. Van
surface of the canvas — it is either some- Goyen's interests were wide ranging.
thing painted over from an earlier use of While he may have had the melancholy
the canvas or a purposely ambiguous disposition described above by fried-
image. This phantom face tilts up lander, nevertheless he traveled fre-
toward the milkmaid's as if to kiss her. quently throughout the Netherlands,
acted as an appraiser and seller of art,

Goyen, Jan van sometimes arranging auctions, and he

1596-1656 • Dutch • painter • also speculated in the market for every-
Baroque thing from tulip bulbs to houses. He
worked in The Hague for some 25
If van Goyen with unswerving
years, rose to be president of his guild,
singleness of vision prefers cloudy
and was man who owned
a prosperous
skies and dull weather, it is not enough
land and houses when he died. His
to point to meteorological phenomena
daughter, Margaret, married steen.
as the basis of his preference; we must
rather infer a certain sort of feeling
that was harmony with the
in
Gozzoli, Benozzo
lusterless and melancholy atmosphere.
c. 1420-1497 • Italian • painter •
The expression of the countryside was
Renaissance
always changing, but only with just
this expression did it become, for him, / would have come to talk to you; but
pictorial and (artistically) worth this morning I started to apply the

looking at. (Max J. Friedlander, 1949) light blue and I cannot leave it. The

weather is very hot, and the glue spoils

A pioneer in Dutch landscape painting
quickly.
of the 17th century, van Goyen sensi-
tively embraced every nuance of light It is said that Gozzoli was the most pro-
and clouds. His colors were so subdued lific painter of his time, that he never
as to be nearly monochrome, yet they turned down a commission, and that he
 GRANDMA MOSES 29I

painted for everyone, from obscure those of painting. . . . Painting must

country priests to the medicis. The do for the eyes what poetry does for
peak of Gozzoli's long career was a the ears." The painter in the Grand
commission to paint the walls of the Manner needed acquaintance with
chapel in the Medici-Riccardi Palace sacred, profane, and "fabulous" his-
(see MiCHELOZZO) 1459 (completed
in tory, geography, geometry, perspective,

in 146 1 ). It is a small chapel, and Goz- architecture, and physics. "Unless he

zoli decorated it with a continuous has some knowledge of the part of oral
panorama. Procession of the Magi. This law which teaches us of the passions,"
sinuous procession had formed the Coypel asked, "how can he draw the
background of gentile's earlier, mag- visible images of these movements of
nificent altarpiece, for which Virgin the soul?" In his third and fourth Dis-
and Child were the focal point. Here, courses, Reynolds urged artists to look
however, Gozzoli detailed the luxurious back both to the antique and to the
excesses of the Magi's finery with its Italian renaissance for models. He
spectacular richness as an end in itself, extended the Grand Manner from His-
Along the curving route are castles and tory Painting to his own metier of por-
villas that belonged to his patrons, and traiture.

members of the royal train are thought

to be Medici family portraits. During Grand Tour
the summer, Gozzoli had vexing prob- From good part of
the late 1600s into a
lems in applying blue paint because of the 19th century, well-to-do young
the heat, as he wrote in the letter to his British, Northern European, and, later,

PATRON, Piero de' Medici, quoted from American "gentlemen" (and sometimes
above. "ladies") traveled to visit the cultural
sights of France and Italy. These sights
Grafton Galleries included museums, Roman ruins, and
See FRY the scenery of the Alps. The enduring
allure of Rome, Florence, Venice, and
Grand Manner Naples often attracted colonies of expa-
Pertains to history painting and its triates, from the 17th-century bamboc-
lofty themes promoted by the academy cianti to the group of American
as the noblest kind of art. Though women sculptors whom Henry James
REYNOLDS is usually Credited with artic- called "the white marmorean Imarble]
ulating the Grand Manner in his Dis- flock" (see hosmer and Edmonia
courses at the Royal Academy in 1770 lewis). Local artists (e.g., canaletto,
and 77 1, Antoine Coypel (1661-
1 guardi, panini, and piranesi) profited
1722) had addressed the same topic half by selling paintings and prints of popu-
a century earlier. Coypel said, in part, lar sights, scenery, and events to Grand
"The painter in the grand manner must Tour visitors,

be a poet; I do not say that he must

write poetry . . . but he must of necessity Grandma Moses
know its rules, which are the same as See moses
292. GRANT, DUNCAN

Grant, Duncan whose verses we can only dimly recall."

See FRY Graves describes his work as "figura-

tive," meaning that it is always related

graphic art to the human figure, the "us" to which
Derived from the Greek word for "writ- he refers in the quotation above. A
ing," combined with "art," the term sense of whimsy and an interest in color

historically refers to drawing, and im- characterize his buildings. On the

ages derived from drawn lines, espe- Greek TEMPLE-like facade of the Team
cially for PRiNTMAKiNG. Graphic art Disney Building (1987) in Burbank,
today includes commercial art, and is California, he uses the Seven Dwarfs as

applied as well to much art produced on if they were caryatids. Such playful
computers, especially that destined for parody is another Postmodern device.
print media. The brick Denver Public Library
(1993), in contrast, is a composite of
Graves, Michael cylinders, rectangles, squares, and a

born 1934 • American • sharp triangular roof, unadorned, but

architect/designer • Postmodern colored in shades of red, blue, wheat
yellow, and light green. The expressive
It's not that one has softened today,
architecture of ledoux is an influence
but the manifesto much more gentle
is
in Graves's work.
now. I would not say we are not
reformers, however. We are, in the best
Graves, Nancy
sense of the word, re-formers. We are
1 940-1 99 5 • American •
trying to establish form as it relates to
sculptor/printmaker/painter/filmmaker
us more than to the machine. . . .

• Surrealist/Postmodernist
Designs by Graves for buildings and
When I think of Nancy Graves I come
DECORATIVE ARTS take a POSTMODERN
up with a series of action verbs. She's
turn in their rejection of rational utili-
as fast as light and luminous as she
tarianism and stylistic limitation or pre-
goes. (Trisha Brown, 1996)
scription, as well as in their attention to

the importance of the "enclosing mem- In the late 1960s Nancy Graves exhib-
brane." He borrows or alludes to motifs ited and became known for her witty,

from various periods — a classical life-size sculptures of camels. She also

COLUMN, a modernist cube —with pur- constructed whimsical shapes from
poseful disregard for rules of consis- found objects that she laid out on the
tency that previously governed their floor and then assembled, without pre-

use. "In Cubist fashion he assembles meditation, in trial-and-error fashion.

fragments which, changed in scale and She identified her work with surreal-
function and placed in unexpected con- ist ideas of spontaneity, and usually
texts, acquire new and potent mean- painted her constructions in bright col-
ings," wrote Helen Searing in 198 1. ors. In1972 Graves worked on abstract
"Graves's recent projects have a haunt- paintings based on maps and charts.
ingly poignant quality, like a poem Later she shaped objects in handblown
 )

GREEK ART 293

glass and bronze. From 1994 to her ated figures and strong, artificial color,
death 1995, she used bones, leaves,
in often with metallic and acidic hues. The
and giant flowers, combined with do- Burial of Count Orgaz (1586-88) is a
mestic artifacts like colanders and base- masterpiece that illustrates how impor-
ball bats, as well as antique heads and tant it is to understand a work in its in-

musical staffs; cast them in bronze; and tended setting: The painting, which
defined them by the application of dif- shows the body of the count being low-
ferent PATINAS, which yielded a range of ered into a tomb, was made for an al-

greens and golds. The recollection cove in a church above the count's
above, from a friend, the dancer Trisha actual final resting place. The lower sec-
Brown, alludes to Graves's often men- tion of the picture, where the earthly
tioned energy, the ebullience of which is burial is portrayed, uses earlier artistic
borne out in the artist's oeuvre. conventions, with the figures more or
less linedup across the canvas. The
Greco, El (Domenikos upper two-thirds, showing the count
Theotokopoulos transported to heaven, uses the exag-
c. 1541-1614 • Spanish • painter • geration of Mannerism. Thus, as one
Mannerist stood in front of the grave itself, one
would look at a painting that Unks the
/ was greatly surprised— forgive me
temporal and the eternal. Though he
this anecdote which I am not relating
had little influence on his own century,
out of envy— when, having asked
or indeed for the next three, in the 20th
Dominico Greco in the year 161 1:
century echoes of El Greco's style are
"Which is the more difficult, drawing
found in the work of picasso. He
or coloring?" he answered:
also became a point of reference for
"Coloring." (Francesco Pacheo,
EXPRESSIONISM. The oddness of El
1649)
Greco's figures was once attributed to a
Because he was from Crete, which was presumption that he had distorting
under Venetian rule, Theotokopoulos, eyesight (an astigmatism). Today it

who trained in Venice, was called El is understood to have derived from

Greco —the Greek. After 10 years in the artist's early study of byzantine
Venice he went to Rome, and then, art.

around 1576, settled in Toledo, a major

center of learningand of the Catholic Greek art
Counter-Reformation. Mysticism per- For important Bronze Age antecedents
meates his works, tremors of an ethe- (c.3000-1200 bce), see cycladic, mi-
real and visionary spiritualism echoing noan, and mycenaean. The regions to
the Spanish priest Saint Ignatius of Loy- which we now look for Aegean and
ola,founder of the Jesuits in 1534 and Greek art endured invasion and up-
a Counter-Reformation leader. This heaval during what are characterized as
emotional content, though not charac- the Dark Ages, c. 1 200-1 000 bce, and
teristic of MANNERISM, El Greco uses the Proto-Geometric era, c. 1000-800
with many of its conventions: attenu- BCE. Little notable art has been recov-
294 GREEK REVIVAL

ered from these periods. For other peri- ment quoted above. Her subjects were
ods in Greek geometric, ar-
art, see mainly young girls, children, flowers,
chaic, CLASSICAL (Early, High, and and landscape.
Late), and Hellenistic.
Greenberg, Clement
Greek Revival 1 909-1 994 • American • art critic

In architecture, styles that refer back to

There is nothing in the nature of
ancient Greece. The distinction between
abstract art which compels [its
Greek and Roman buildings was not
superiority]. The imperative comes
known in the West until the mid-i8th
from history. . . . Abstract art cannot
century. A fashion for Greek art and ar-
be disposed of by a simple minded
chitecture began around the 1780s and
evasion. Or by negation. We can only
reached its peak in the 1820s. Among
dispose of abstract art by assimilating
architects who worked in Greek Re-
it, by fighting our way through it.
vival were ledoux, soane, schinkel,
JEFFERSON, and Alexander Jackson When he rose to prominence after
DAVIS. World War II, Greenberg was the most
important art critic the United States
Greenaway, Kate had produced. He maintained that
1846-1901 • English • illustrator
1 quality and purity in art resides in its as-
Aestheticist sertion of the shape and flatness of the
canvas and the properties of paint. He
Kate Greenaway dressed the children
was the supporter of and theoretician
of two continents. {Encyclopaedia
for ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM, and
Britannica, 191 1)
brought that movement, especially the
Greenaway made illustrations for greet- paintings of Jackson pollock and the
ing cards and for children's books — in- sculpture of David smith, into focus
cluding The Birthday Book (1880), and prominence. Influenced by lectures

Mother Goose (1881), and a series of of hofmann on modern aesthetics,

Kate Greenaway's Almanacks between Greenberg called Hofmann's ideas "the

—
1888 and 1897 and became extraor- core of the artistic sensibility and intelli-

dinarily popular and wealthy. She sin- gence of our age." He promoted the
gle-handedly created a revolution in FORMALIST assessment and the aes-
illustration with her signature style of thetic approach to art. He believed
freshness, simplicity, and humor as well that painting and sculpture should
as delicacy and grace. She was praised never try to be representational, or cre-
by RUSKiN and by leading art critics ate illusions, that they should, rather,
around the world. Greenaway was pursue the cultivation of their own
elected to membership in the Royal In- medium, their own self-consciousness
stitute of Painters in Water Colours in and self-definition. By i960 Greenberg
1890, and exhibited at the gallery of the had inspired young critics,
a school of

Fine Art Society. Her contribution to including Michael Fried and Rosalind
fashion was the revival of early- 19th- Kraus. They all stood in opposition to
century costume, leading to the com- the developing trends of happenings
 .

GREUZE, JEAN-BAPTISTE 295

and POP ART, and to its theoreticians, Greuze, Jean-Baptiste

such as CAGE. (Cage's book Silence and 1725-1805 • French • painter •

Greenberg's Art and Culture were both Romantic

pubHshed in 1961.) Greenberg's doctri-
Should [Greuze] meet a head which
naire positions are generally rejected
strikes him, he would willingly throw
today, especially his distinctions be-
himself at the feet of the bearer of that
tween "high art" and debased "kitsch."
head to attract it to his studio. He is a
In his denunciations as in his praise,
ceaseless observer in the streets, in the
Greenberg lived up to Baudelaire's
churches, in the markets, in the
mandate that a critic be "partial, pas-
theaters, in the promenades, in public
sionate and political."
assemblies. Meditating on a subject, he
is obsessed by it. . . . Even his
Greenough, Horatio
personality is affected: he is brusque,
1 805-1 852 • American sculptor
gentle, insinuating, caustic . .

Neoclassicist
according to the object he is rendering.
Resolved, that the President of the (Diderot, c. 1765)
United States be authorized to employ
Greuze arrived in Paris from the prov-
Horatio Greenough, of Massachusetts,
inces in 1745, and by the 1760s he was
to execute, in marble, a full length
the dominant personality in the salons.
pedestrian statue of Washington. (U.S.
The genre that made him famous was
House of Representatives, 1832)
modest household scenes of the provin-
Greenough studied in Rome and in Flo- cial — humble but honest,
bourgeoisie
rence, where he lived for 23 years. His poor but pious — akin subject matter in

most important commission was also a to the bourgeois melodramas written by

first: 1832 the government of the
In DIDEROT. The elderly father with shoul-
United States, which had never before der-length gray hair, reading the Bible
tapped an American artist, asked Gree- or admonishing one of his many chil-

nough for a statue of George Washing- dren, is usually the focus of a picture.
ton to be placed in the center of the There is an underlying allusion to
rotunda of the Capitol building (the Protestantism, forbidden in France
statue was completed in 1840; Wash- at that time. His work resembled the
ington had died in 1799. Greenough dramatic tableaux that hogarth por-
chose houdon's bust of the president trayed, but Greuze treated his charac-
as his model, and he based the seated ters with sympathy rather than satire.

marble figure of Washington on phei- The Village Bride (1761) exemplifies

DiAs's colossal ivory and gold Zeus
(after 438 bce). This neoclassical
pretension was not at all in tune with
Americans' evolving self-image. The
sculpture was so disdained by the public
that it was taken from the rotunda and
left outside in the weather. Today it is in
the National Museum of American Art.
the type:The family is gathered in the
kitchen for a wedding and an ex- —
change of documents and money. The
inclusion of a hen and her brood alludes
to the anticipated increase in the human
family. When the picture was exhibited,
it could barely be approached for the
rapturous crowds that surrounded it.
296 GRIS, JUAN

Yet Greuze's fortunes changed when he ambiguity, from a single point of view,
unveiled Septimus Severus Reproaching At the same time, Gris confounds in-

Caracalla in 1769. He had been ac- side/outside by continuing elements

cepted as a painter of everyday genre from the street (window shutters, a
scenes, but he aspired to be a History lamppost) on the interior walls of the
Painter. In the hierarchy of the acad- room. Of the Cubists, Gris seems — al-

EMY, only certified History Painters beit unintentionally — most prescient of

could be professors or hold any position the irony and indeterminacy of post-
of honor; to present oneself as a History modern thought.
Painter, as Greuze did, without having
been admitted to academic membership grisaille
in that category, and to do so in a sur- Painting, or stained glass designs, in
prise move, led to rejection and humili- shades of one color, usually gray {gris is

ation. Even his greatest supporter, French for "gray"), pucelle's manu-
Diderot, whose appreciation is quoted script illumination was in grisaille. Gri-
above, became dismissive: "... the pic- saille was often used on the outer panel

ture is worth nothing," he said. Greuze of an altarpiece, seen when its wings
was reduced to poverty by the Revolu- were closed. It is notable that as altar-
tion, changes in taste, and divorce. (See pieces and illuminated manuscripts
also history painting) gained in popularity, they displaced
sculpture to a great extent; perhaps the
Gris, Juan grisaille, a kind of imitation of marble
1887-1927 • Spanish • painter • sculpture, was the painter's challenge.
Cubist or tribute, to stone carvers. Van eyck's
Ghent Altarpiece (c. 1423-32) and
/ try to make concrete the abstract. . . .

van der goes's Portinari Altarpiece

Cezanne turns a bottle into a cylinder,
(c. 1473-78) have grisaille fronts.
but I make a bottle— a particular
bottle— out of a cylinder.
Grooms, Red
A fellow Spaniard, Gris joined Pi-
born 1937 • American •
casso's circle in Montmartre. His inno-
painter/performer/sculptor
vations in cubism were also very
Installation
important; one step he took was to
combine the variegated, complex, I'm against violence and war. Artists
faceted Cubist views with the tradi- are traditionally liberal on these issues,
tional perspective of the Italian re- and I certainly am. Yet there's a part of
NAissANCE. This is apparent in a me that looks at all the horrors of life,
painting such as La Place Ravignan, of history, with a kind of existential
Still Life in Front of an Open Window fatalism. Violence occurs and it

(191 5). Planes representing the objects wouldn't make much sense to me as an
in front of the window are sliced, tilted, artist to ignore it. The only thing you
and overlaid on each other in a typical can try to do is defuse it, maybe.
Cubist manner, yet the street scene Laugh at it. But not just laugh at

"outside" the window is seen without violence and everything in life that is
 GROS, ANTOINE-JEAN, BARON 297

troubling and difficult to deal with. synthesized developments of architec-

The artist has to confront it in a work ture to date with the socioeconomic

of art. behef that improving the workers' envi-

ronment would increase production.
A producer and star of happenings in Fagus was a purely functional building
the 1950s, Grooms developed an indi- with an undecorated cubic shape and a
vidual style in his three-dimensional glass "curtain wall" (non-load-bearing
"stick outs," scenes rather like large, walls) construction.Founder of the
permanently fixed pop-up books. His bauhaus in 19 19, Gropius left Ger-
people are caricatures; there is a slap- many after Hitler rose to power. In
stick effect to them that carries over 1937 he began to teach at Harvard,
into his paintings as well as his large in- where he was made chairman of the De-
STALLATiONs, such as Chicago (1968), partment of Architecture. "My inten-
in which he has a cartoonish elevated tion is not to introduce, so to speak, a
train riding its tracks, a horse-drawn cut-and-dried 'Modern Style' from Eu-
wagon racing in front of it, and other rope, but rather to introduce a method
miscellaneous, carnivalesque creations, of approach which allows one to tackle
One work that contains the
serio-comic a problem according to its peculiar con-
confrontation and humor described in ditions," Gropius insisted. He formed
the quotation above is Shoot-out The Architects' Collaborative (TAG) in

(1980-82): awagon in which a seated Boston, a group of younger architects

Indian and cowboy are in a face-off. who, working with him, designed the
This is a large, 27-foot-long work of Harvard Graduate Center (1948-50),
cast and fabricated aluminum painted among other projects,
in vivid colors, silly enough to make us
laugh, but also to make us question the Gros, Antoine-Jean, Baron
stereotypes they represent. 1771-1835 • French • painter •
Baroque Romantic
Gropius, Walter
Gro5 and Gericault, without
1883-1969 • German • architect
possessing the finesse, the delicacy, the
Modern/International Style
sovereign reason or the harsh austerity
It is true that the creative spark of their predecessors, were nevertheless
originates always with the individual, generous temperaments. (Charles
but by working in close collaboration Baudelaire, 1846)
with others toward a common aim, he
A favorite student of Jacques-Louis
will attain greater heights of
DAVID, Gros was as dazzled by
achievement through the stimulation
Napoleon as was his teacher. He
and challenging critique of his
painted several pictures that glorified
teammates, than by living in an ivory
the emperor, swept up in the romanti-
tower.
cism sparked by Napoleon's travels to
With his design for the Fagus factory in exotic places. To his dismay, Gros was
Alfeld, Germany (1911-13), where included on only the Italian campaign,
shoe trees were manufactured, Gropius Leaning more toward the baroque
298 GROSZ, GEORGE

than to David's neoclassical style, in havior during and after World War I, in

Napoleon at Jaffa (1804) — for which which he was twice called to serve and
he used another artist's sketch — Gros twice discharged as unfit, echoes in his
portrays Napoleon visiting plague drawing Fit for Active Service (19 18):

victims in North Africa. He shows In a room of awful self-satisfied offi-

Napoleon touching the sores of one of cers, a doctor examining a skeleton pro-
the stricken, drawing parallels between nounces it "OK" for military service.
Napoleon and Christ the Healer. When Outside the windows, smoke billows
the painting was shown at the salon of from factories, a caustic reminder of the
1804, it was wreathed with laurel by military-industrial complex Grosz so
admiring younger artists and praised by hated. He was part of the Berlin dada
David. After Napoleon's demise, David group and in the 1920s worked in the

went into exile and left the direction of surrealist mode of de chirico, but
his studio to Gros. Comparing Gros his work fits most appropriately into
and GERICAULT to David in the quota- the form of Social Realism called new
tion above, baudelaire found the two objectivity. His painting Republican
wanting, though he went on to write, Automatons (1920) is a satirical image
"There is a sketch by Gros at the exhi- of faceless, mutilated robots in an urban
bition [of 1846] . . . which is very ar- landscape. It evokes cold estrangement.
resting and strange. It reveals a fine Grosz denounced all aspects of German
imagination." To art historians, Gros is corruption and obscenity, and was him-
a transitional figure, a bridge between self frequently denounced by the au-
the Neoclassical David of the i8th cen- thorities, and even prosecuted for
tury and the Romantic delacroix of blasphemy and obscenity. He fled the

the 19th. In his own mind, Gros had Nazis in the 1930s and settled in the
satisfied neither ideal, and in fact felt United States. The joking comment
guilty for having brought about the de- about his departure, quoted above, is a

cline of David's leadership. Overcome mild example of Grosz's dark humor.

by melancholy in his old age, Gros com-
mitted suicide. grotesque (grotteschi)
A potentially misleading term,
Grosz, George "grotesque" in art does not have un-
1893-1959 • German/American • pleasant connotations. Rather, it refers

painter/draftsman • New Objectivity to particular ornaments used in antiq-

uity: medallions, vines, foliage, lamps,
/ left because of Hitler. He is a painter,
urns, masks, human figures, and imagi-
too, you know, and there didn't seem
nary creatures such as sphinxes. The
to be room for both of us in Germany.
root word for grotesque is grotte, which
A caricaturist and political satirist in refers to subterranean Roman ruins
the tradition of hogarth and dau- where the kind of ornamentation de-
mier, Grosz had a dark side that scribed above was found during the
emerged when, to help support his stud- 15th century (see golden house of
ies, he drew scenes of Berlin's seamy nero). Filippino lippi used grotesques
nightlife. His disgust with human be- in his Strozzi Chapel frescocs (1497-
 —

GRUNEWALD, MATTHIAS 299

1502), and along with ghirlandaio the country will be a real home for its

was among the first Italian renais- people." The seven artists of the group
sance artists to do so. pinturicchio were Franklin Carmichael (1890-
followed suit in his Piccolomini Library 1945), A. Y.Jackson (1882-1974), J. E.

frescoes {1503-08). In 1518-19 Ra- H. MacDonald (1873-1932), Lawren

phael used grotesques as a complete Harris (1885-1970), Arthur Lismer
decorative design scheme in the Vatican (1885-1969), Frederick Varley (1881-
Loggie. But for the addition of figures 1969), and Tom Thomson (1877-
e.g., humans, monkeys, and sphinxes 1917), a founding member who died
grotesques resemble arabesques. In before the exhibition took place (Frank
1612a writer called grotesques "an un- Johnston, 188 8-1949, took Thomson's
natural or unorderly composition for place at the 1920 exhibition). Each
delight's sake, of men, beasts, birds, painted the Canadian landscape, most
fishes, flowers, etc. without (as we say) often with bold strokes and thick,
Rime or Reason." By then they had sometimes brilliant, sometimes murky,
spread to every medium, and they be- colors.The organization of the group
came an integral part of rococo deco- was loose; members met only once or
ration. twice a year to discuss forthcoming ex-
hibitions and the admission of new
ground members. They disbanded in 1933,
Refers to the prepared surface on which making way for the more broadly based
paint or other mediums are applied. Canadian Group of Painters. The
Thus, wet plaster is the ground for largest selection of their works is on dis-

fresco painting, gesso on wood is the play just north of Toronto, at the
ground for panel painting, and the un- McMichael Canadian Collection in

dercoat of paint on canvas, when it is Kleinburg, Ontario. The museum is lo-

used to minimize fabric absorbency cated in the region where these artists
(i.e., primed), is the ground for oil painted.
painting. In transparent watercolor
and in color field painting, where
Griinew^ald, Matthias
paint is directly applied to untreated
c. 1475/80-1528 • German • painter
surfaces, the paper or canvas itself is the
• Northern Renaissance
ground. When it is not the ground, it is

called the support. It is regrettable that the works of this

outstanding man have fallen into
Group of Seven oblivion to such a degree that I do not
In the catalogue of their first joint exhi- know of a single living person who
bition at the Art Museum of Toronto in could offer any information
1920, the artists wrote, "The group of whatsoever, be it written or oral, about
seven artists whose pictures are here ex- the activities of the master. I shall,

hibited have for several years held a like therefore, compile with special care
vision concerning Art in Canada. They everything that Iknow about him, in
are imbued with the idea that an Art
all order that his worth may be brought
must grow and flower in the land before to light. Otherwise, I believe his
 —

300 GUARDI, FRANCESCO

memory might be lost completely a joyous Annunciation, Incarnation, and

few years hence. (Joachim von Resurrection were revealed, brilliant
Sandrart, 1675) with color and, the latter panel espe-
cially, ecstatic in mood. This is not
During the period from 1470 to 1500, Griinewald's only identified work, yet it

the chapel at the Monastery of Saint powerfully eclipses the others. His own
Anthony in Isenheim, along the Rhine background is uncertain, but it is

River between Basel and Colmar, known that he moved to Frankfurt in

w^as rebuilt, and Griinewald received 1526 and is recorded as a designer of
the commission for a new chapel fountains. Although the subjects of his
ALTARPIECE, the Isenheim Altarpiece paintings were Catholic, the contents of
(151Z/13-15), as it became known. a chest belonging to him and invento-
Saint Anthony was believed responsible ried after his death include writings by

both for causing the plague and for Martin Luther.

healing, and he is linked to skin diseases
that were treated in a hospital attached Guardi, Francesco
to the monastery. One such disease was 1712-1793 • Italian • painter •

called Saint Anthony's fire. Of enor- Rococo

mous size (almost 18 feet wide), the
. . . very spirited, much in demand,
Isenheim Altarpiece had many scenes
perhaps because nothing better is to be
within its wings, but in its closed posi-
found. But as you know this painter
tion shows the Crucifixion. This is,
it
worked for a daily stipend, bought
arguably, the most tormented and trou-
canvases not only second hand but
bling CRUCIFIXION image in history:
bad, prepared with the thinnest of
The sky is black; the background is bar-
primings, and used oily colors. (Pietro
ren, flat, and stony; Christ is dead
Edwards, late i8th century)
rigor mortis has set in. Most unsettling,
even repellent, is that Christ's body has Painting views of Venice for the tourist
pieces of wood and thorns, or splinters, trade, resident foreigners, and local pa-
knitted into the flesh. This emphasis on trons was Guardi's primary activity in

the flesh must have represented the late 1750s. In 1784 he was ap-
Griinewald's idea of the pain experi- pointed Professor of Perspective at the
enced by patients at the hospital as Venetian Academy. He was also em-
much as that endured by Christ, and ployed by the government to record
praying in the chapel must have shored state occasions, such as the visit of Pope
up the Whether the
priests' will to help. Pius in 1782. The Fire at S. Marcuola
patients themselves became more or less (1789-90) is probably his best-known
hopeful of being healed by looking at image. The canal is ablaze from burning
the painting is uncertain, but they may oil. On its far side figures pour water on
at least have felt hopeful for their souls' tile roofs, while on the near side watch-
salvation. The interior panels were ers are lined up with their backs to us.

opened on Sundays and special feast Some of Guardi's views have a melan-
days, and in contrast to the outside, the choly air leading to speculation that he
 GUERRILLA GIRLS 3OI

was mourning the dying Venetian Re- iot. Behind her the personification of
pubhc; however, that interpretation is Day floats in, and at the opposite end of
challenged. Never as popular as the room Night lurks with her children,
CANALETTO, to whom he was often dis- Sleep and Death. The topic, conceived
paragingly compared, Guardi had his in response to reni's Aurora painted
defenders who praised the movement, eight years earlier, becomes far more
color, vivacity, and sparkling light of daring here, using perspective trick-
his paintings. Yet the reservation with ery, including radical foreshortening. In

which his work was praised is exempli- addition to painting, Guercino culti-
fied by the criticism of his contempo- vated drawing as an art form, and his
rary Pietro Edwards, quoted above, pen and wash drawings were avidly
Edwards served as an adviser to art col- collected by patrons as well as artists,
lectors. The Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew
(1636), a study for a painting commis-
Guercino, II (Giovanni Francesco sioned by the church of San Martino in
Barbieri) Siena, is in pen and brown wash. It

1591-1666 • Italian • painter • shows executioners flaying the martyr's

Baroque skin with knives, and is an example of
the taste for cruelty and bloodshed
[Guercino] refused to accept, as he did
found in Baroque art (see also ribera.)
not want to have dealings with heretics
Although at the beginning of his career
and thus contaminate his angelic
Guercino's style was influenced by car-
character; nor did he want to
AVAGGio, over the course of his life it
undertake such a dreadful journey in a
became more restrained and classical.
climate so different from that of his
In the Burial and Reception into
own country. (Carlo Cesare Malvasia,
Heaven of Saint Petronilla 623 ), there
( 1
1678)
is already a hint of the Baroque Classi-
What Guercino refused, according to cism that will soon be favored over the
MALVASIA, was the effort of King more violent, earlier style.
Charles I to lure him to England — al-

most as soon as he ascended to the Guerrilla Girls

throne in 1625, Charles attempted to A group of professional women in New
bring a leading Italian painter to his York founded a collective organization
court, and Guercino was his first they named Guerrilla Girls in the wake
choice. In the second generation of oi a 19S4 International Survey of Con-
BAROQUE painters, often called High temporary Art exhibition held at the
Baroque, Guercino is best known for Museum, of Modern Art. They were
Aurora (1621), a fresco that covers outraged at the absence of women and
ceiling and walls with illusionistic ar- minority artists in the exhibition. They
chitecture (seequadratura) as well as appeared in public wearing rubber go-
an allegorical scene. Looking up, the rilla masks, and they produced con-
spectator sees Aurora, or Dawn, racing frontational leaflets and posters to get
across the sky in her horse-drawn char- their point across. Do Women have to
302 GUGGENHEIM, PEGGY

be naked to get into the Met. Museum? was called "Fantastic Art, Dada, and
(1989) oneof their posters. It is a par-
is Surrealism," and the catalogue included
ody of iNGREs's naked odalisque, a history of Surrealism by Breton as
with the substitution of a gorilla's head. well as essays by mondrian and arp.
The question in the title is inscribed The Abstract section held works by
across the top of the poster, and grim leading cubists and futurists. Jack-
statistics run along the bottom: "Less son pollock flourished under her
than 5% of the artists in the Modern sponsorship: "Pollock became the star
Art Sections arewomen, but 8 5 % of the of the gallery and for five years I sup-
nudes are female." They have contin- ported him and launched him by selling
ued to make acidly witty posters and his paintings, which in those days was
appear in their gorilla masks (their very difficult," she later wrote. In 1947
"mask-ulinity"), and to mount antidis- she closed her gallery and returned to
crimination campaigns. Europe, choosing to settle in Venice.
Peggy Guggenheim's father, Benjamin,
Guggenheim, Peggy drowned in the sinking of the Titanic in
1898-1979 • American • 19 1 2. Her uncle Solomon Guggenheim
patron/collector/dealer was the founder of the Solomon R.
Guggenheim Foundation and of the
I wore one of my Tanguy earrings and
museum in New York also named for
one made by Calder, in show
order to
him, and designed by Frank Lloyd
my impartiality between Surrealist and
WRIGHT.
abstract art.

Guggenheim played an important role guild

in introducing artists to one another During the medieval period, associa-
and in encouraging both surrealism tions of artisans and merchants formed
and ABSTRACT art. Before World War II, to regulate production and prices in the

Guggenheim was advised in her own rapidly growing commerce and indus-
purchases of art by duchamp, read, try of an increasingly urbanized civiliza-

and Petra von doesburg, Theo's
widow. Guggenheim was instrumental
in helping European artists make their
way to the United States as the war
began, and in that context met Andre
Breton (see surrealism) and ernst, to
whom was married for a time. The
she
comment quoted above was made
tion. These guilds became monopolies,
but they also set and maintained high
standards of workmanship (see mas-
terpiece and workshop), and moni-
tored the education and welfare of
members as well as providing social ser-
vices for them. Confraternities, formed
under the aegis of guilds, had their pa-

about the opening in 1942. of Art of tron saints for whom they supported
This Century, a combined sales gallery chapels and commissioned altar-
and museum in New York City that she pieces. For example, it is believed that
founded. The list of artists exhibited antonello's Sebastian is the wing of
there is a litany of the foremost Euro- an altarpiece commissioned by a con-
pean and American painters of the zoth fraternity. The evangelist Saint luke be-

century to date. The Surrealist section came the patron saint of artists, and
 GUSTON, PHILIP (PHILIP GOLDSTEIN) 3O3

guilds throughout Europe were named strange landscapes and accompanied by

after him. odd mechanical contraptions that may
look like insects or the rear end and tail

Guillebon, Jeanne Claude de of a horse. These shoe soles bring to

See CHRiSTO mind a moving painting by van gogh
of worn old work boots (Three Pairs of
Guston, Philip (Philip Goldstein) Shoes, 1886-88), in which the bottom
19 1 3-1980 • American • painter • of one boot is visible. Probably more
New Image than any other piece of clothing, old
shoes express their owner's life, and
My whole life is based on anxiety,
perhaps the anxiety that Guston speaks
where else does art come from?
of in the comment quoted above. Gus-
Guston moved from painting poHtical ton's art of the 1970s was disdained by
murals in the 1930s to abstract ex- many, but as the critic Michael Kimmel-
pressionism in the 1950s, and in 1970 man wrote in 1996, "times change,
to FIGURATIVE imagery with references and . . . the '70s paintings look differ-
to history, political events, literature, ent. Actually they now seem among the
and art history itself. These references best art to come out of the decade: un-
appear in figures with Ku Klux compromising, independent, darkly
Klan-type hoods, the soles of their funny and even tragic."
shoes studded with nails, assembled in
 —

Haacke, Hans Hagia Sophia

born 1936 • German/American • Hagia Sophia means "Holy Wisdom,"
nonobjective • Conceptual/political and is the name of the palace church of
Constantinople. Its architects were an-
An artist is not an isolated system but
THEMius OF TRALLES and Isidorus of
must constantly interact with the
Miletus; it was built from 532 to 537.
world around him.
When the emperor Justinian entered
To Haacke the artist is almost an inter- Hagia Sophia for its dedication, he is re-

active exhibit of a conceptual theme. ported to have exclaimed, "Solomon, I

He or she is also defiant and controver- have surpassed you!" His reference was
sial. For example, at an exhibition at to the builder of the FirstTemple in
the Museum Modern Art (MOMA)
of Jerusalem (see temple). The dimen-
in New York City, Haacke balloted sions of Hagia Sophia are awesome
visitors about Gov. Nelson Rocke- some 270 feet long and 240 feet wide,
feller's support of President Nixon's with a dome 108 feet in diameter rising
Indochina policy {Proposal: Poll of 1 80 feet above the floor. The interior of

MOMA Visitors, 1970). MOMA was the DOME is embellished with gold mo-
founded by the rockefeller family saics; the stone and marble walls are of
and Nelson was a principal trustee. many colors, including green, white,
(The results of the poll were two to one and purple; and the windows are col-
anti-Rockefeller, which, Haacke com- ored glass. But, above all, literally and
plained, the museum did not properly figuratively, is the "necklace of light"
report.)The following year the director from 40 windows at the base of the
of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Mu- dome. As the historian Procopius wrote
seum, also in New York, canceled an when the church was still quite new,
exhibit in which Haacke planned to these windows made it seem as if

document the slum real estate holdings ". . . the place were not illuminated
of various museum trustees. (The cura- from the outside by the sun, but that the
tor resigned in protest.) As were stu- radiance originated from within, such is

dent demonstrations of the decade, the abundance of light which is shed

much of the art of the 1970s was simi- about this shrine." The architects
larly confrontational, devoted to politi- spanned the great central space with a
cal action challenging the status quo. shallow DOME on four pendentives (the
 —

HALS, FRANS 3O5

inward-curving triangular sections of ranging from an undefined lumines-

masonry built between the arches), cence to gold lines that radiate toward a
Two half-domes cover circular niches visible or invisible circumference, like
that flank the central dome. The plan spokes on a wheel, and from the well-
of Hagia Sophia successfully unites its known and widely used flat gold plate
longitudinal axis with the vertical axis (medieval) to one that appears as a
of its domed space, thus fusing the di- ring, that is, with an empty center (re-
rectional focus on the high altar and its naissance). Sometimes the halo is

ceremonial function with the upward- shown as if it were floating above the
soaring, spiritually symbolic signifi- wearer's head rather than framing it (as

cance. Domed ceilings were metaphors in caravaggio's Death of the Virgin,

for the roof of heaven, and as such the 1605-06). God the Father may wear a
dome of Hagia Sophia is more divine triangular halo to symbolize the Trin-
than most. After the Turkish conquest ity; contemporary, living people (e.g.,

of Constantinople in 1453, the building the pope, an emperor, or a donor) were

became a mosque, which explains the sometimes given a square halo. Between
four minarets around the building and the square halo and the circular one
calligraphy on the interior. Today it is a might be a polygonal halo, used per-
museum. haps for an allegorical figure such as
one of the Virtues. Though less used
halo after the baroque era,
was not the halo
The halo is an aura of light usually sur- forgotten: Witness gauguin's Self-
rounding the head of a holy, deified, portrait (1889), in which he portrays
blessed, or otherwise singular individ- himself torn between vice, represented
ual. Representing the illumination of by a snake and apples, and virtue, signi-

the sun, halolike disks appear as early fied by a halo. (See also aureole and
as ancient Egyptian art. Ancient gods of mandorla)
India and China were sometimes shown
with halos. There is a clear line of de- Hals, Frans
scent from the halo-crowned heads c. 1581/85-1 666 • Dutch • painter
of pagan gods —
Apollo/Helios/Sol In- • Baroque
victus/Mithras —to that of Christ, who ...
,
, 1-111
began to be portrayed with a halo
.^^

,r
,
Hals was
,^ ,
,

,
. . . somewhat merry
r ^
,

,
tn hts

, , , ^ ///e. (Matthias Scheits, 17th century)

sometime around the 5th century. In
Christian art the halo was at first given The assessment by Hals's contemporary
only to the three persons of the Trinity, quoted above is part of the bon-vivant
Later apostles, saints, and others, in- reputation that has attached to the
eluding Roman emperors, were also artist, partly from the pictures he
shown with halos. Sometimes a halo painted and somewhat from hearsay
would even be attached to the individ- Scheits studied under a man who had
ual's symbol or attribute; thus, the been Hals's student. The sitters for
lamb on the altar of the van eyck Ghent Hals's many portraits gaze out to meet
Altarpiece (1432), representing Christ, our eyes with a twinkle in theirs; a smile
has one. The halo takes many forms, plays at the edges of their mouths. The
 —

306 HAMILTON, RICHARD

spontaneity in Hals's pictures is also re- or working methods not a single —

fleeted in his method of painting: He drawing, etching, or engraving by
was one of the earliest European his hand is securely known. Records do

painters to work directly on the canvas show that he was sued by his butcher,

without underpainting alla prima, baker, and shoemaker, suggesting that

Hals's first masterpiece — called the first he was a poor financial manager. His
monumental masterpiece of 17th- first wife died, and his second, who
century Dutch painting was a group — gave birth nine days after the marriage,
portrait oi a dozen men, Banquet of the got in trouble more than once for
Officers of the Haarlem Militia Com- brawling. Five of his sons were among
pany of Saint George (1616). The men his pupils, as were leyster, van os-
are all seated or standing around a tade, and brouwer. The originality of
table, and react as if interrupted in the his approach is most apparent when a

midst of their banquet — it is the same canvas is looked at from close range,
"candid camera" effect pioneered by where it seems a mass of disparate,
MASSYS 100 years earlier and taken up loose, irregular strokes and daubs of
again by rembrandt in Syndics of the paints. But stepping back from the can-
Clothmakers' Guild (1662). The indi- vas brings it coherence. Hals's popular-
viduality of each man seems bolstered ity and importance as a portraitist
by a current of optimism, which may be declined in the 1640s as Dutch taste
attributed to the new Dutch Republic turned to a more refined and aristo-
that these militiamen had helped secure, cratic style. Yet his most sensitive and

Hals himself was a member of the com- penetrating representations of a wide

pany. When juxtaposed with a render- range of personalities also date to his
ing of the same militia company, also last decades. In 1664, when he was
gathered around a table, painted several about 80 years old, he painted Regent-
years before by Cornelis van Haarlem esses of the Old Men's Home. In por-
(1562-1638), the works serve well to il- traying these five elderly women Hals
lustrate wolfflin's point-by-point showed the range of both his psycho-
contrasts between the art of the renais- logical and his painterly skill. Neverthe-
sance (ITALIAN and northern) and less, his influence declined and it was
that of the 17th-century baroque. Hals not until Hals was admired by the Im-
also introduced a new measure of vital- pressionists (the American chase in-
ity to pictures of the working classes, eluded a reproduction of Malle Babbe
whom he represented with frankness, in one of his own works) that his paint-
affection, and sometimes wicked ings were rediscovered, and then sold
humor, as in Malle Babbe (c. 1633-3 5 )= for huge sums of money.
A disreputable-looking woman holding
a huge tankard of beer, an owl on her ^j ..
u j
,

,
,

.
,

shoulder, seems to be laughmg and

shoutmg at once. Observers tend to
c c
inter smcenty from a spontaneity 01
^11
,
, , , ,
Hamilton, r>'
,

born 1922
_
Pop Art
.
Richard
•
t-
tnghsh
1 1

• pamtcr •

manner such as that of Hals, but little is Journalism, Cinema, Advertising,

known about his character, personality. Television, Styling, Sex symbolism,
 HAPPENING 307

Randomization, Audience at the time. His subjects are ordinary

participation. Photographic image, people: a boxer, a plumber, and an
Multiple image. Mechanical conversion overweight woman perhaps sunbathing
of the imagery. Diagram, Coding, or, inSupermarket Shopper (1970),
Technical drawing. pushing a loaded shopping cart. Her
hair is in large curlers, a cigarette dan-
In 1956, with a group of other artists, gles from her mouth, she bulges un-
Hamilton built a pop art fun house pleasantly in her clothes that fit too
for an exhibit at a London gallery, tightly — she is the epitome of 20th-
Called This Tomorrow, it included Is century excess and overindulgence. Al-
films, a live microphone for audience though work might be categorized
his

participation, a working jukebox, and as new realism, Hanson differentiates

a 14-foot-high blowup of Robby the himself from the standard definition of
Robot carrying off a swooning woman, that style as objective. During the same
Hamilton was a member of the English 1972 interview in which he made the
Independent Group, and he is best comment quoted above, he said, "To
known for his own, small collage, me that wasn't enough. ... I feel that I

Just what is it that makes today's home have to identify with those lost causes,

50 different, so appealing? (1956). Us- revolutions and so forth. I am not satis-

ing commercial design techniques and fied with the world. Not that I think
cutouts from magazines and other pop- you can change it, but I just want to ex-
ular sources, he composed an interior press my feelings of dissatisfaction."
scene that catalogues the materialism of
"modern culture." It is a composition happening
that illustrates the list of concerns he A development of the late 1950s, pio-
enumerates in the quote above. neered by cage at black mountain
COLLEGE and introduced as a move-
Hanson, Duane ment in art by kaprow. Happenings
1925-1996 • American • sculptor • were part of an effort to surpass ab-
New Realist stract expressionism and its dynamic
„ between the physical activity of the
„
Sometimes
, ,
II
,
buy clothes
,

;
, 7

, especially
I
.
,,

artist
...
and its representation on the can-
. ,

when you have something as large as t 1 1 1 1 1

• • • 1

, r 1 t 1 T 7
vas. It did this by eliminating the canvas
that fat lady over there. 1 have to go to . .
. , t- , . ,

, , , , „ ^ altogether. And where Abstract hxpres-

great lengths to buy them. Iwenty-five . .
111
J „ r w 1 , , ,
sionists expanded the picture PLANE so
dollars tor her bathing suit. You can t . , • 1 , , 1 1

-r _, , , . , ,
wide as to include a viewer s peripheral
just go to a thrift shop. This lady . , . , .

, ,
_,
vacuuming is my aunt. I hose are the
,
clothes she actually wears. She gave
,, „,
,

me
vision
,
and more or
or her into the work, in happenings
. ,
less
11 incorporate him

, . , • ,• ,. ,•

,
the inclusion was achieved by audience
those.
participation. Kaprow's first public
Using polyester resin to form his fig- happening was 18 Happenings in 6
ures, which are made from body casts. Parts (1959). "A Happening is gener-
Hanson dresses them in clothes appro- ated in action by a headful of ideas for a
priate to the persona he is creating flimsily-jotted-down score of 'root' di-
308 HAPSBURG (HABSBURG)

rections," Kaprow explained. Other summit of their power, backed by the

artists inspired to create happenings wealth and commerce of the Nether-
were Oldenburg and grooms. "Hap- lands and of Spain and the Spanish
penings were definitely the 'in' thing for colonies. In 1556 Charles, who had
a period. Everyone sensed the excite- stood in opposition to Martin Luther
ment and vitality of a genuine revolu- and the Reformation, abdicated and re-
tion in the definition of art. Yet because tired to a monastery.
they did not leave museum objects
and their life span was short, they may Hard Edge Painting
seem less important in retrospect than Refers to paintings that contain forms
they actually were," writes the historian with ruler-sharp (although not neces-
Jonathan Fineberg. performance sarily straight) contours or outlines.
ART shares some characteristics with The style was named in 1959 by the art
happenings, but is distinct. (See also critic Jules Langsner. It was developed
FLUXUS) during the 1960s by artists like

Ellsworth KELLY, noland, and Frank

Hapsburg (Habsburg) STELLA. Often an extension of color
Dating back to the loth century, the FIELD PAINTING, Hard Edge rejected the
Hapsburg dynasty was one of the oldest artist's involvement as characterized by
and most important in European his- ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM: Many Hard
With the marriage of Maximilian I
tory. Edge paintings look as though they
(1459-15 19) to Mary of Burgundy in have been created by machines, espe-
1477, the Hapsburg line joined and cially because their colors and lines are
then superseded that of the Burgundian so precise and even. In this they may be
VALOis, and Maximilian increased his related to the neo-plasticism of mon-
power vastly, durer is known
best DRiAN as well as the precisionism of
among the artists employed by Maxim- sheeler.
ilian. The Hapsburgs ruled the Low
Countries (Holland in the north and
Hardouin-Mansart, Jules
Belgium in the south) for almost a
1 646-1 708 • French • architect •
century. Maxmilian's son Charles V
Baroque
(1500-15 58) held not only Austria and
all of Spain —
as a grandson of the Span- Having come to see the construction
ish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella by his thatwas to decorate Place Vendome, it
maternal descent — but extensive Span- happened that Louis X/V's glance fell
ish possessions in Italy and America as on the young Mansart who was
well. Pieterbruegel the Elder was pa- occupied in carving a stone. The
tronized by the Hapsburg court, and graceful figure of this youth, his
Charles (Holy Roman Emperor, as was pleasing appearance, and even more
his father) is best known, visually, the ardor and dexterity with which he
through his portraits by titian, espe- worked held the attention of the great
cially the heroic equestrian Emperor King who . . him kindly, and
. spoke to

Charles V (1547) in full armor. Under learned that he was the nephew of
Charles, the Hapsburgs reached the Frangois Mansart. His Majesty had
 HARLEM RENAISSANCE 309

just asked for a drawing of a particular 1699. He installed de piles as chief the-
architectural detail, and young oretician of the French Academy with
Mansart, seeing that the architect to the mandate of formulating the "infalli-

whom the King addressed the request ble principles" by which it would be
had not promptly complied, himself governed.
sketched the figure with a pencil, and
erased it almost immediately fearing Haring, Keith
the envy of his companions, and 1958-1990 • American • painter •
perhaps the jealousy of the Master Graffiti
under whom he worked. (Abbe
See, when I paint, it is an experience
Lambert, 17th century)
that, at its best, is transcending reality.

When it is working, you completely go

There are several stories, or legends,
into another place, you're tapping into
about how Hardouin-Mansart
Jules
things that are totally universal, of the
was introduced to the king, and the
total consciousness, completely beyond
quotation above is one of them. Ac-
your ego and your own self. That's
cording to Abbe Lambert's history of
what it's all about.
the reign of Louis XIV, the mansart
family could be traced back to ancient The New York City transit authority
Rome, but had been established in pasted black sheets of paper over sub-
France for almost 800 years, and, Lam- way system advertisements after their
bert wrote, "had occupied successively rental time expired, and Haring used
and almost without interruption the those blank surfaces as his "canvas."
roles of architect, painter and sculptor His anonymous, cartoonlike figures be-
to the king." Jules was
nephew of
the came familiar to underground travelers,
Francois Mansart. He showed a sure as well as to gallery-goers, who recog-
sense of the grand manner lofty and — nized and began to look for them. His
—
impressive that was wanted for the humor was a gloss on a disturbing un-
glorification of the Sun King, Louis dercurrent of violence and political
XIV. The Galerie des Glaces {Hall of commentary. Haring's pictographs, a
Mirrors; begun 1679) displays the ele- language of his own invention, follow a
gance and refinement of this endeavor, tradition that winds from prehistory to
A long hall, it has a procession of high artists such as klee and Gottlieb in the
mirrors opposite windows that, with 20th century. Haring died of aids at the
their views, were reflected in them. Mir- age of 3 1:
rors, and the illusions they create, were
a favorite conceit of the baroque pe- Harlem Renaissance
riod. (The ceilings were by le brun.) As After World War I a massive migration
fine an accomplishment as the Galerie from the rural South to urban centers
des Glaces was, it required changes began. The black population of New
to the outside that ruined the integrity York City increased from 91,709 in
of the design by Louis Le Vau (c. i6iz- 1910 to 327,706 in 1930. Harlem was
1670). Hardouin-Mansart took over as fondly called "the black capital of the
superintendent of royal buildings in world." Postwar optimism about new
 .

3IO HARNETT, WILLIAM MICHAEL

possibilities led to the term "renais- came a gathering place for artists from
sance," and the period is generally all disciplines, poets, dancers, and ac-
called the Harlem Renaissance. While tors included, promoting a vibrant
artistic ferment was great in Harlem, it sense of community.
also flourished among the African-
American populations of Philadelphia, Harnett, William Michael
Chicago, Boston, Baltimore, and San 1 848-1 892 • American • painter •
Francisco. The artist most closely asso- Trompe I'oeil

ciated with the Harlem Renaissance

/ want my models to have the
was DOUGLAS. Augusta Savage (1892-
mellowness of age . . the rich effect
1962), "brilliant, friendly, fierce, and
that age and usage gives.
difficult at times even for her friends,"
as described by bearden and Harry Harnett became the most successful
Henderson in A History of African- trompe l'oeil painter of still lifes in
American Artists (1993), was both a America. It is written that he began
sculptor and a supporter of young black painting objects because he could not
artists in New York. She was, they add, afford human models, but that does not
"one of the most significant leaders explain why, with financial as well as
of black artists to emerge in the 1920s. artistic success, he continued to paint
She was perhaps the first who could them. He invested these things, his
be identified as a black nationalist." "models," with personality or, perhaps,

The first large exhibition of work by pried loose the character they had accu-
African-American — nearly 200
artists mulated, through usage, over time. It

paintings and sculptures — was dis- has been suggested that we look at Har-
played in the Harlem branch of the nett's subjects within the context of the
New York Public Library in August and materialism of America's Gilded Age,
September 1921. But postwar optimism but it is well to keep in mind that it was
vanished during the Depression. Frus- also a time when Americans were nos-
tration and anger caused, as an official talgic for the antebellum past, which
investigation found, by the "resent- Harnett's paintings may also conjure
ments of the people of Harlem against up. The objects he arranged for display
racial discrimination and poverty" led were resolutely masculine: thick, old
Harlem in March 1935. Dur-
to a riot in leather books; money; newspapers; and
ing the same month Douglas, Savage, pipes, often with still-glowing embers in

and Charles Alston (painter, sculptor, their bowls. The best-known work is
and teacher, 1907-1977), with nearly After the Hunt (1885), a large, almost
100 influential black New Yorkers, 6-foot-high arrangement of a battered
formed the Harlem Art Committee. old hat, hunting horn, powder horn,
Later that year the works progress rifle, dead hare and birds, and other ob-
ADMINISTRATION gave work to numer- jects that are nailed on a wooden door
ous black artists. Alston converted an with beautiful brass hinges, all dark-
old redbrick stable at 306 West 141st ened, burnished, and mellowed by time.
Street into a studio for his WPA classes. After studying at the Pennsylvania
"306," as it was known, quickly be- Academy of the Fine Arts and the Na-
 HASSAM, CHILDE 3II

tional Academy in New York, Harnett expecting the welcome of the prodigal,
spent four years studying in Munich. and be glad of it.

Hartigan, Grace As a protege of stieglitz, who dis-

born 192Z • American • painter • patched him to Europe, Hartley ar-

Abstract Expressionist rived in Paris, where he became

acquainted with the avant-garde mod-
/ spent most of my childhood sitting in
ernists. Then, in 19 13, he was in
an apple tree looking at Gypsies
Berlin, where he found an empathetic
camped in a field next to our
community, including kandinsky
house. . . . Living on the Lower East
and marc. He was fascinated by the
Side of New York, I found the same
trappings of German militarism and fell
thing. Pushcarts. Jewish peddlers.
in love with a youngman whose death,
Barrels of pickles. So I took the
early in World War I, he commemo-
"overall"manner I learned from
rated in his most renowned painting.
Hofmann and painted my "City Life"
Portrait of a German Officer (19 14).
shows of 'j4 to '^8.
This ABSTRACT work, built up of
Among wave of abstract
the second strongly colored and thickly painted
EXPRESSIONISTS whose subjects were ribbons, diamonds, and triangles, is
figures, Hartigan uses rough, expressive coded with mementos such as initials
forms that, while barely hinting at and military regalia that signified his
people, she manages to endow with lost friend. Hartley returned to Amer-

emotionally expressive attitudes. Both ica, and later, seeing abstraction as too
her colors and manner are bold, and derivative, painted forceful landscapes

while a scene such as that of River of the Maine coast, of which he speaks
Bathers (1953) may at first look like a in the quotation above. He also painted

thicket of paint strokes, it resolves itself a series of moving elegies to a Nova

into distinguishable individuals with Scotia fishing family with whom he
presence and purpose. At the end of the had lived. He felt especially attached
1960s, Hartigan began to free herself to one of their two sons both were —
from earlier influences, like that of hof- lost at sea. At a moment when folk

mann, mentioned above, as well as ART was coming into favor. Hartley
worked
KLINE, GUSTON, and others, and painted this family in the frank, two-
in a style that sometimes combined dimensional, forward-facing folk man-
collage with painting and included ner: Fisherman's Last Supper— Nova
history and memoir. Scotia (1940-41), for example.

Hartley, Marsden Hassam, Childe

1 877-1943 • American pamter 18 59-193 5 • American • painter •
Modernist Impressionist

And so I say to my native continent of His most memorable subject . . . was

Maine, be patient and forgiving. I will the American flag. . . . Monet, Pissarro,
soon put my cheek to your cheek. and Manet had all painted Parisian
312 HEADE, MARTIN JOHNSON

Streets decked with banners. . . . Heade, Martin Johnson

Hassam purpose was
's different. He 1819-1904 • American • painter •
wanted his flags to be entirely legible Hudson River School/Luminist
as flags, because hewas constructing
The artist [Heade] evidently looks on
images of American patriotism and of
nature with a poet's eye, and transfers
Allied cooperation: he wanted to
his emotion to the canvas. (Boston
symbolize the good guys' power to
Transcript, Feb. zy, 1861)
win. (Robert Hughes, 1997)
Little personal information about
Hassam's career began as an illustrator. Heade survives other than that he was
He made a tour of Europe in 1883, and born in Lumberville, Pennsylvania, the
before going back to study in Paris son of a well-to-do farmer, that he stud-
(1886-89), he returned home to Massa- ied with folk artist hicks, that he first
chusetts, where he painted Rainy Day exhibited in Philadelphia in 1841, and
in Boston (1885). In this well-known that he traveled avidly until he married
picture Hassam captures the mood, col- in 1883, at the age of 64, and settled in

ors, and slick pavements —the look of a Saint Augustine, Florida, where he died
vital city. However, it was not the fash- at 85. Heade was entirely forgotten
ionable Back Bay residential neighbor- until 1942, when his painting Thunder-

hood, as many commentators believe; it storm, Narragansett Bay (1868) was

was the middle-class South End, where found in a Larchmont, New York, an-
Hassam himself lived. The tonal quali- tique store. Unique, not only in Heade's
ties in Hassam's work changed after his oeuvre but also among marine paint-
studies in Paris, as did his address. He ings of any era, the mood of the picture
moved to New York City and became is dark, eerie, and ominous. In the lu-
the consummate watcher and recorder MiNiST style, Heade's technique is hard-
of its daily, uptown life. Under the in- edged and his brushstroke is invisible.

fluence of French impressionism, his Unappreciated during the artist's life-

colors were brighter, his brushstroke time, as was Heade himself. Thunder-
more broken, with the one-stroke dex- storm is now being examined with new
terity Impressionists used to render ideas about the artist's intention vis-a-
form. Yet looking closely at Hassam's vis the history of slavery, the Civil War,
canvases, one still sees forms that are and industrialization. Although he
more congealed than those of his painted portraits earlier in his career,
French counterparts, something that after i860 people appear only as small,

holds true for mostAmerican impres- symbolic presences in the landscape.

sionists. Not until he was nearly 60 Besides his maritime scenes, during his
did Hassam begin to paint what the long career Heade painted a few themes
critic Hughes, in the quotation above, in perhaps obsessive series: humming-
describes as his "most memorable sub- birds, magnolias, and more than 100
ject": the American flag. Its message, as pictures of salt marshes. The latter call

Hughes interprets it, was "Buy Liberty Ecclesiastes to mind: "Vanity of vani-
Bonds." ties; all is vanity. ... All the rivers run
 HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH 313

into the sea; yet the sea is not full; unto after his trip, van Heemskerck pro-
the place whence the rivers come, duced an interesting Self-portrait before

thither they return again." theColosseum (1553). In fact, on close

examination van Heemskerck, whose
Heckel, Erich likeness is in the foreground, paints not
See Die brucke just the remains of the colosseum but
includes another artist in the distance as
Heemskerck, Maerten van well, seated before the ruins and also
1498-1574 • Netherlandish • painter recording the scene. Van Heemskerck's
• Northern Renaissance/Mannerist interest in ancient ruins and his double
self-portrait (as it is presumably his ear-
With his unusual zeal, Maerten
lier experience that he is painting) fur-
practiced so much that finally he
ther connect him to the spirit of the
surpassed the master . . . who was
ITALIAN renaissance, which combined
afraid that his reputation was at stake,
its fascination for antiquity with ab-
in the opinion of some people, [he]
sorption by a cult of the artist.
sent his pupil away; for he was jealous.
(Carel van Mander, c. 1604)
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
The master referred to above was van 1770-183 1 • German • philosopher
SCOREL of Utrecht, and his student de-
The history of the world is none other
parted in 15Z9. By 1532 van Heems-
than the progress of the consciousness
kerck was accepted as a master in the
of freedom.
painters' guild of Haarlem, and that
same year he painted Saint Luke Paint- Hegel founded a philosophical system
ing the Virgin, whose theme both con- based on the principle that ideas (not
firms the authority of painting religious material possibilities) underlie all forms
subjects and shores up the role of the of reality. Ideas were expressed in what
artist (see Saint luke). He then took a he called the spirit (Geist); and he be-
trip to Italy, as his teacher had done be- lieved this spirit realized itself more
fore him, and stayed there more than fully with each successive age. The his-
three years. When he returned home, tory of art may thus be studied as part
his style was greatly changed. He added of the sequence, the "progress" of ideas
scenes of pagan mythology to his rep- in the context of consciousness referred
ertoire, as was current in Italy. Also, in- to in the quotation above. Hegel defines
fluenced by the muscularity and stages of art starting with the Symbolic,
physical energy expressed by both especially seen in ancient Egyptian art,
MICHELANGELO and GiULio Romauo, which endeavors to but does not suc-
and adapting a Mannerist approach, his ceed in deciphering the spirit. The sec-

paintings became exaggerated and ond phase is classical, beginning with

highly emotional (see mannerism). The Greek art of the 4th century bce. For
Crucifixion he painted in 1543 ex- Hegel this is a more successful stage,
plodes with writhing, anguished figures being more rational and using the
and unnatural color. Some zo years human body to reveal spirit. In the third
314 HELLENISTIC ART

phase of Christian art and German in323 BCE. The narrow, polis-centered
ROMANTICISM, the balance between na- Greek worldview was then infused with
ture and spirit changes; spirit —of na- a new spirit of travel, migrations, and
tion —
and of the age is transcendent. political realignments. Whether art of

While Hegel changes the Aristotelian the new era was a continuation of the

march of progress toward the ideal to preceding Late classical style or

that of a realization of spirit, he still sees whether it merits a new definition is not
a sort of spiral evolution. It is based on agreed upon by scholars. It is true that
the perpetual struggle of thesis and an- the dissolution of Athenian power had
tithesis leading to synthesis, which, it- already been accompanied by the dissi-
self becoming thesis, continually renews pation of many earlier artistic conven-
the dialectic. (This is, in other words, a tions, particularly those of moderation
teleological struggle in which the end of and restraint. Certain attitudes, or
a sequence is implicit in its beginning.) states of mind, that do seem to color the
The ultimate goal, through successive spirit of the new era have been enumer-
ages, is self-realization, burckhardt ated by J. J. Pollitt: "an obsession with
writes that Hegel "develops the funda- fortune, a theatrical mentality, a schol-
mental idea that history is the record of arly mentality, individualism, and a cos-
the process by which mind becomes mopolitan outlook."" There seems to be
aware of its own significance; according an unprecedented interest in ethnic
tohim there is progress towards free- types as well as in suffering, both of
dom." Hegel's ideas were communi- which are expressed in the dying caul.
cated in a series of lectures given Theatrical extremes of suffering (lao-
between 1823 and 1829 that were pub- coon), as well as sensuality (barberini
Ushed posthumously as Aesthetics, Lec- faun), are found, while Classical devo-
tureson Fine Art (1835). They were tion to the ideal is supplanted by inter-

developed by riegl and extremely in- est in specific types, from market
on everyone from Marx (see
fluential women to boxers.
marxism) to foucault. panofsky hu-
morously described Hegel's all- Hemessen, Caterina van
consuming effect by calling him a "boa 1528-after 1587 • Flemish • painter
constructor." • Northern Renaissance

/, Caterina van Hemessen, painted

Hellenistic art
myself in the year 1548. Her age zo.
331-323 BCE
The triumphs first of Philip of Macedon Van Hemessen learned how to paint
and then of his son Alexander the Great because her father was an artist, as
changed the experience of the ancient was usually the case for renaissance
world. Alexander carried Greek influ- (northern and Italian) women. As
ence as far as India; it was his conquest also proved true all too often, once she
of the Persian Empire that inaugurated married, in 1554, she put aside her
the Hellenistic Age. Alexandria, which artistic ambitions. The signed works of
he founded 33 1 bce, became the Hel-
in hers that remain are small portraits.
lenistic empire's capital after his death Among the most engaging is a self-
 .

HEPWORTH, DAME BARBARA 315

portrait of 1548; she sits at her easel on while he retained the "slashing" brush-
which, oddly enough, is a fully framed stroke and dark tones, it was his subject

though nearly blank panel —the outline matter and ideas that signified most and
of a head she seems to be in the process prevailed. Henriwas the center, first in
of painting is in the upper-left-hand cor- Philadelphia and then in New York
ner. In her left hand she holds a small City, of the renegade and Socialist
palette and a long maulstick, with artists of The eight and the ashcan

which she steadies her right hand. Van school, sloan, glackens, luks, and
Hemessen has a round face, wide- shinn followed him from Philadelphia
spaced dark eyes, and she has a serious to New York. It was Henri who, as a

but gentle expression on her face. She is juror, dramatically resigned when his

dressed in a beautifully rendered bur- friends' paintings were slighted for

gundy velvet shirt. Her claim to and an exhibit at the National Academy
pride in her profession are clearly repre- of Design. The life of the city was
sented, and are reinforced by the in- Henri's subject, and he embraced it, em-
scription, quoted above. Van Hemessen bracing also, in portraits, the vitality
was employed by Mary of Hungary, sis- of its new immigrant population.
ter of Charles V of Spain. The rapid, coarse energy of his work
matched the bold energy he saw in their

Henri, Robert faces and in the street scenes he

1865-1929 • American • painter • recorded. Henri taught first, along with
Realist chase, at the New York School of Art

^, , , , _ ,
(which Chase founded), and after 1909
The subject can be as it may, beautiful .
,
... ,

'
on upper
,

3t a school he started himseir

,
or ugly. The beauty of a
, ^ ,
work of
r
art is ^ .,
. ...
Broadway. He was an mspirmg teacher
,

in the work itself.

— bellows, hopper, macdonald-
Because his father, John Jackson wright, and Stuart davis were among
Cozad, was a riverboat gambler who his students. In 19 10 Henri organized
killed a man and became a fugitive from an exhibition in which some 200 artists

justice, the family name was changed joined The Eight, and their works were
and the son became known as Robert democratically hung in alphabetical
Earl Henri. He trained in Philadelphia, order. Crowds thronged to the show,
at the Pennsylvania Academy of the and police were summoned when a riot
Fine where the influence of
Arts, seemed imminent.
EAKiNS, who had just recently been
fired, was still strong (and whose paint-
'
^ ^, TT ,.
yy ^u
Hepworth, Dame o
i-v u
Barbara
mg the Gross Clinic Henri called the
. .

...
most wonderful painting he had ever
. . 1903-1975
. , , ,.,
•
t- r- 1

English • sculptor •
1

, , ,
Modern/Abstraction
seen). His teacher at the academy was
ANSHUTZ. Henri also had academic In the contemplation of nature we are
training in Paris, where he took note of perpetually renewed, our sense of
impressionism, but he was even more mystery and our imagination is kept
impressed by the old masters hals, alive,and rightly understood, it gives
velAzquez, and goya. Ultimately, us the power to project in a plastic
3l6 HERBAL

medium some universal or abstract setting. Hepworth died tragically in a

vision of beauty. fire in her Saint Ives studio, which is

now a museum devoted to her work.

Hepworth studied first in England,
then —awarded a scholarship— in Flo- herbal
rence and Rome. Nicholson (her
She, Books about plants, herbals are usually

second husband), and moore became concerned with their medicinal proper-
the center of Unit One, the abstract ties. The term "herbal" was first used
movement in England. Both Hepworth during the early i6th century, but the
and Nicholson joined the abstrac- tradition to which it refers began with
tion-creation group on one of their civilization itself. While the earliest ex-

sojourns in Paris. As a new means of tant copy of the Papyrus Ebers dates
defining emptiness, Hepworth experi- from about 1550 bce, it contains mate-
mented with the use of taut strings rial originally written from 500 to
drawn across the opening of a sculpted 2,000 years earlier. A Sumerian tablet
form. Unlike gabo, who used threads from around 3000 bce has about a
within a transparent material, Hep- dozen prescriptions with ingredients
worth used strings that reached across that include herbs. Circa 2700 bce the
open space. Wave (1943-44) is an or- Chinese emperor Shen Nung wrote out
ganic, wooden shape that curls deli- some 100 herbal remedies. In the West,
cately over itself, as if it had a head and sources of information for herbals were
tail. The natural wood on the outside is ancient Greek texts rather than direct
highly finished; stretched across the observation. Pedanios Dioscorides' c.

curved interior void, which is painted 65 CE De materia medica was the au-
white, tight strings, spreading like a fan, thoritative source for more than 1,500
accent and define the space they cover. years. In his 37-volume Natural His-
From covering, interrupting, or defin- tory, PLINY the Elder also devoted sub-
ing emptiness she went on to create it: stantial text to medicine obtained from
Later in her career, she began penetrat- plants. Herbals were often but not nec-
ing solids with holes. The startling ef- essarily illustrated. However, one col-

fect was to reveal how an abstract form lection of colored drawings in a

is changed, the "inside" and "outside" manuscript now at the British Library

confounded, and mass and balance rad- (MS Add. 29301) includes 68 English
ically altered by creating such openings. herbs unaccompanied by text. They are
The shapes with which Hepworth presented in three registers per page, be-
worked are organic rather than geomet- ginning with Avence (wood avens, herb
ric. Sometimes she carved a group of bennet) and ending with Cromyll
small, thin, and transparent figures of (gooseberry). In her survey of illumi-
finished marble; sometimes she worked nated manuscripts in the British Isles

with roughly textured stone or bronze. from 1390 to 1490, codicologist (one
One of her late works. Ancestor II: who studies the history and physical as-
Nine Figures on a Hill (1970), is an pects of a book) Kathleen Scott specu-
amusing stack of blocklike, hollowed lates that the apparent randomness of
forms, almost 9 feet high, in an outdoor their sequence "may reflect an arrange-
 HESSE, EVA 317

ment by order of disease in a treatise Paradise, I am putting the twelve gates

formerly coupled with the drawings in of the heavenly Jerusalem above the
earlier copies." It is estimated that more twelve apostles, and the Virgin Mary,
than 100 manuscripts with treatises on through whom the door was opened to

herbs were produced in England during us.

the 15th century, but only two of them

contain drawings of the herbs. Jacquemart was the leading manuscript
painter in the court of the Duke of Berry
Herculaneum from about 1384, preceding and over-
Founded by Hercules, according to leg- lapping with the LiMBOURG brothers,
end, this small town at the foot of who arrived around 1404. The duke
Mount Vesuvius was destroyed by vol- owned two masterpieces by pucelle,
canic eruption in 79 ce. Unlike pom- whose influence on Jacquemart was
PEii, which was buried in stone and ash, great. Jacquemart absorbed the ideas of
Herculaneum was drowned by a river his predecessors and added an interest

of boiling mud that encased it as if in a in landscape and seasonal changes, as

time capsule. Tunneling into the city well as an innovative, diagonal version
and looting its treasures began in the of Pucelle's space-defining cubicle. On a
early i8th century. In mid-century, less elevated plane, Jacquemart was in-

wiNCKELMANN was important in calling volved in a lawsuit in 1398, accused of

attention to the destructive, nonscien- breaking into another painter's strong-
tific manner inwhich excavation was box to steal various paints and patterns.

carried out. Both Pompeii and Hercula-

neum became attractions along the aris- Hesse, Eva
tocratic GRAND TOUR. Among the 193 6-1970 • American • sculptor •
important discoveries unearthed at Minimalist/Process
Herculaneum are wall paintings that
Everything is process . . . I never
refer to Hercules and a still life.
thought of it for any other reason than
Peaches, that reveals attention to the ef-
the process was necessary to get where
fect of light on objects such as a clear
I was going.
glass jar containing water, mosaics
were also uncovered, including a mas- During the last decade of her life, Hesse
terpiece on the wall of the House of moved from conventional drawing to
Neptune and Amphitrite. This richly making three-dimensional sculpture. In

colored picture combines idealized some of her experimental works she

human figures with elaborate decora- used soft, flexible materials, such as
tive details and patterns. latex over rope, and hung them in front

of a wall, so that the sculpture ended up

looking very much like drawings in the
Hesdin, Jacquemart de
air (e.g.. Untitled [Rope Piece], 1970).
active c. 1384-after 14 13 • Franco/
Hesse's comment, above, explains that
Flemish • Medieval/International style
her interest was in ideas about the ma-
And since the articles of faith are the terials, their form, and how and where
way and the gates to enter into they would be hung or placed. This dis-
3l8 HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER

tinguishes her endeavor from process pictures have very much the effect of
ART, which is devoted to the integrity of nature, seen in a camera obscura. (Sir
procedure, at least in shifting the em- Joshua Reynolds, 1781)
phasis from the artist in action to the
work. What Hesse managed to accom- In his book Journey to Flanders and
plish was an almost impossible seeming Holland (written 1781, published
feat: She gave character, sexuality, and 1797), quoted from above, Reynolds
gender to the bare bones of Minimal- spoke of van der Heyden's paintings as
ism. Accession II (1969) is a gray steel- bringing thecamera obscura to mind,
mesh box without a lid. It is lined with During the next century, when the cam-
hairy-looking threads of gray plastic era as we know it was invented, ob-
tubing that make it as disconcerting a servers thought of photography when
work as is the fur-lined teacup by op- they looked at van der Heyden's scenes.
PENHEiM. The total image, Hesse said But his recording of detail goes beyond
of her works, had to do with her own the mechanics of either device to a near
complex personality and the "absurdity obsession with detail, it almost seems,
of life." She said this in 1970, the year so that one might begin to count the
she died of cancer. It was the end of a bricks on the facades of van der Hey-
brief, tragic life. She and her sister, Ger- den's buildings. He painted mainly in
man Jews, had escaped to Amsterdam Amsterdam, and his interest in the mi-

in 1939. Their parents rescued them croscopic, or at least the manipulation

from an orphanage there and took them of sight, is reminiscent of the "realism
Then the parents
to the United States. of particulars" in van eyck's painting,
divorced and her mother committed It may be related to van der Heyden's
suicide. In an incomprehensible contin- business of making and selling mirrors,

nation of this tragedy, Eva's husband which were often used in artists' stu-
left her in 1965 and her father died in dios. He was also a civic-minded indi-

1966. Her own early death seems al- vidual who is thought to have invented
most preordained. But before that hap- the fire hose —he wrote and illustrated

pened she produced what the historian The Fire Engine Book (or Description
Ellen Johnson "some of the mas-
calls of the Newly Discovered and Patented
terpieces of contemporary American Fire Engine Hose and Her Way of
Sculpture." Putting Out Fires) in 1690. Van der
Heyden primarily painted town views.
not only of his native Amsterdam; he
Heyden, Jan van der
also traveled to the southern Nether-
1 637-1712 • Dutch • painter •
lands and Germany. His work of com-
Baroque
bining architecture and townscape was
A View of a church by Vender Heyden, an inspiration to 18th-century painters
his best; two black friars going up like canaletto.
steps. Notwithstanding this picture is

finished as usual very minutely, he has Hiberno Saxon

not forgot to preserve, at the same Hibernia, the Latin name for Ireland, is
time, a great breadth of light. His derived from the word for "winter."
 HILDEGARD OF BINGEN 319

Saxon refers to Germanic tribal origins. ples. After 800 the Irish no longer
MEDIEVAL ART from Scotland and played a significant role in Europe's cul-
northern England as well as that from tural life, which was then in the midst of
Ireland is known as Hiberno Saxon. the carolingian period, with its
The terms "Celtic" (from the ancient in- ROMAN orientation, and the Hiberno
habitants) and "insular" (to distinguish Saxon/Celtic Church rapidly declined.
it from Continental European) are also
often used for this culture. The Hiberno Hicks, Edward
Saxon Church was rural and monastic 1780-1849 • American • painter •

in contrast to the more urban Roman Fantasy/Folk Art

Church. The specific origin of Hiberno
. . . how awful the consideration: I
Saxon practice is not known, but there
have nothing to depend on but the
is speculation that it may have begun
mercy and forgiveness of God, for I
with 5th- and 6th-century churchmen
have no works of righteousness of my
from Britain or Gaul escaping "barbar-
own. I am nothing but a poor old
ian" invasions (see migration), and
worthless insignificant painter.
perhaps Greek churchmen from the
eastern Mediterranean who followed Hicks was a Quaker minister who deco-
trade routes to Ireland during the late rated carriages and made signs as well
6th and early yth centuries. The latter as the paintings for which he is famous:
would have brought both their lan- numerous renderings of the Peaceable
guage and texts, not found elsewhere Kingdom. These illustrate a passage
in Medieval Europe, and that would from Isaiah: "The wolf also shall dwell
explain the Irish scholars' singular with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie

knowledge of Greek; if a churchman in down with the kid; and the young lion
Western Europe knew Greek, during and the fatling together; and a little

the 7th to 9th centuries, he was as- child shall lead them." Hicks repeated
sumed to have come from Ireland. Irish this theme in a number of settings and
monks were zealous missionaries who alternative groupings, but always with
founded monasteries in Italy, Switzer- great sensitivity and charm, in the style
land, Germany, and France and es- ofFOLK ART. His lament, quoted above,
tablished footholds on the British was written toward the end of his life.
mainland. They were intensely devoted
to education, and theirs were the pre-
Hildegard of Bingen
eminent centers of learning in Western
1098-1179 • German • painter •
Europe in the early 7th century. The
Medieval
IrishSCRIPTORIUM produced illumi-
nated manuscripts of extraordinary In the year 1141 of the incarnation of
complexity and beauty that combined Jesus Christ the son of God, when I
animal style figures, Celtic, and in- was forty-two years and seven months
terlace design with some naturalistic of age, a fiery light flashing intensely,
and didactic images. The Lindesfarne came from the open vault of heaven
Gospels (c. 698) and the book of and poured through my whole
KELLS (early 9th century) are two exam- brain. . . . And suddenly I could
320 HIGH ART

understand such books as the Psalter, high art

the gospeland the other catholic In contrast to "low art," which is syn-
volumes of the Old and New onymous with the artifacts of popular
Testament actually set forth. CULTURE, high art implies works of ele-
vated status, traditionally belonging to
With the words quoted above, and a the CANON and with classical ances-
picture illustrating the event described, try. Like FINE ART, high art presumes an
Hildegard introduces her visionary elitism that was increasingly rejected
book of knowledge, the Scivias (1142- during the 20th century.
52). The "fiery light" is represented by
flames emanating from her head. Born High Classical
into an aristocratic German family, See CLASSICAL
Hildegard entered a convent as a child.
In about 1147 she founded a new con- Hilliard, Nicholas
vent near Bingen. She had had divine vi- i547?-i6i9 • English • painter •

sions, as she understood them, since Late Renaissance

childhood, and with the assistance of a
. . . for the lyne without shadows
monk, who is also portrayed in the il-
showeth all to good judgment, but the
lustration discussed above, she began to
shadowe without line showeth
record them. The book's title, Scivias, is
nothing.
from the Latin scite vias lucis, meaning
"know the ways of the light." It consists Renowned especially as a painter of
of 35 visions relating and illustrating MINIATURE portraits, Hilliard was ap-
the history of salvation. It is generally pointed goldsmith, carver, and portrait
believed that Hildegard closely super- painter to Queen Elizabeth, and he en-
vised the text and illustration of the graved the Great Seal of England in

book, and recent scholars point out that 1586 (see seal). He was also favored by
it shows she was familiar with the King James I, who in 16 17 granted him
works of Saint Augustine and Boethius sole license for royal work for 12 years.

as well as contemporary scientific and (Although he died before the contract

philosophical writings. This is all the ran out, his son, Lawrence, also a
more remarkable in that "[women] miniature painter, fulfilled its terms.)
were excluded from the intellectual life Among the miniatures for which
of cathedral schools and universities in Hilliard is known are portraits of Eliza-
which students were legally clerics, a beth, Sir Frances Drake, and Sir Walter
rank not open to women," as the his- Raleigh. A portrait of Shakespeare was
torian Whitney Chadwick writes. "In- attributed to him, but that is now
stead, they turned increasingly to doubted. One of his best-known works
mysticism and, through vivid imagery is Young Man Amid Roses (1588),
and inspired commentaries, were influ- an oval ^Va inches high. The young
ential in an alternative discourse, man in question, in white tights, short

though one certainly not unique to jacket, and with a lace ruff at his neck,

women." leans against the trunk of a tree amid

 HISTORIOGRAPHY 32I

lacy greenery — the archetype of an works are less grandiose in conception

Elizabethan gentleman. Milliard used than Hokusai's, and are noted for their
opaque color, sometimes embellished strong diagonal lines. An example is

with gold. He preferred to outline his Rain Shower on Ohashi Bridge: The
figures and use flat color rather than bridge arcs gently across the lower part
shading, as the quotation above de- of the picture, slanted sheets of rain pelt
scribes. It is taken from Milliard's trea- down, and a small boat in the middle
tise The Arte of Limning. distance cuts across the water, making
its own horizontal line and wake. While
Hine, Lewis portraying movement, Hiroshige simul-
See Riis taneously creates balance and captures
stillness.

Hiroshige, Ando
1 797-1858 • Japanese • Historicism
printmaker/painter • Tokugawa There are distinct senses in which this

period term is used. Generally, in architecture

and the decorative arts, "histori-
/ leavemy brush in the East I And set
cism" refers to a revival of the styles of
forth on my journey. 1 1 shall see the
various historic periods. More specifi-
famous places in the Western land.
cally, historicism denotes the style of
Hiroshige had been so impressed by architectural revivalism predominant
hokusai's great success with his series from the end of neoclassicism (around
of Mount Fuji landscapes that he pro- the early 19th century) to the beginning
duced his own The Famous
series. of art nouveau (about 1880). The term
Views of Edo (c. 1826) and The Fifty- was coined in the 1880s to describe a
three Stations of Tokaido (1833-34). preoccupation with history, and was a
The "Western land" to which Hi- negative assessment of efforts to develop
roshige refers in the poem above is theories of history; was used dismis-
it

specifically the paradise of the Buddha sively against ideas based on hegel.
Amida; however, the poem as a whole Today historicism has a new signifi-

suggests the trip he took for his Tokaido cance altogether: It refers to the practice
album. About that he wrote, "These of interpreting the arts in reference to a
pictures are not realistic. I took the gen- multivalent context that includes aes-
eral idea [from the actual scene] . . . but thetic, cultural, and historical informa-
otherwise the landscapes came out tion. Called "cultural materialism" in
of my head." Though he was 37 years England, the approach is known as new
younger than Hokusai, Hiroshige's historicism in the United States,
popularity eclipsed that of his predeces-
sor. Besides their landscapes, both historiography
artists painted birds, flowers, and leg- As the discipline of art history con-
endary scenes using the woodblock cerns the study of art and artists, histo-
color printing process perfected by the riography studies the discipline of art
Japanese (see ukiyo-e). Hiroshige's history itself.
322 HISTORY PAINTING

history painting tional style of modern architecture.

The term refers not only to portrayal of His book on Frank Lloyd wright, In
topics from the past, but also to bibli- the Nature of Materials (1942), was
cal, mythological, and classical and is the foundation for subsequent
themes. Generally text-based, history studies. Hitchcock's approach to his

painting was long held in the highest es- discipline is expressed in the quotation
teem, especially at the academy, where above, and his own accomplishments
the hierarchy of subject matter was are listed by his colleague Helen Sear-
clearly established. In fact, as van man- ing, who wrote in 1982: "Museum di-

DER insisted, history painting was con- rector, traveler, curator, collector,

sidered more than a mere subject supporter of the avant-garde in music

category, as it included and subsumed and theater as well as in art and archi-

all the other skills that were expressed tecture, reviewer of Marcel Proust, Vir-
in specialties such as still life, land- ginia and 1928 Woolf, movie
scape, and genre. Van Mander and magazines, epicure and chef . . . de-
other Northern art theorists promoted signer and dandy. Professor Hitchcock
specialization in art, and this encour- is . . . la] stimulating teacher, intrepid
aged the sort of collaboration that be- critic, and esteemed historian."
came prevalent in Flemish art of the
17th century. Deference toward history Hobbema, Meyndert
painting lasted into the 19th century. Its 1638-1709 • Dutch • painter •

grip began to loosen as artists, follow- Baroque

ing
° theexample
^ of WEST, treated con-
.
.,
He ,
pleases with inviting countrysides,
•#. . j

temporary events as ir they were ... j , i j •

i ^ r
_ . . „ mills embedded in luxuriant masses of
^ ^ ° *

trees. . . . With his sensuality, the pomp

_-.

\
,

Hitchcock, Henry-Russell
1903-1987 • American •
, XT r. 11
1,1
and panoply of his summer
he
,,
won the hearts of art-lovers
/
r

; ^;
,

r
ripeness,
and
; /
,

collectors, particularly the tnglish.

architectural historian , . t- •
ji- j
Max J. t
rriedlander, 1949
. . . / have made no attempt at a cold, ^ . j ir
Hobbema was 1

a student
1
and hreiong
1

semantic precision of statement and I r r r^,,

The painting rtor
. . • •

;
friend of ruisdael.
even doubt whether any matter 1 •
-m 4 r •
i 1

which he is best known, i he Avenue of

1 i

connected with the arts can be

- .;
^
Trees at
,xjj;;
Middelharnis
/^o\ is a (1689),
,, , , /
profitably discussed without warmly rn
t^

connotative
' "
III
words and phrases.
masterpiece, unlike any or
111
...

j 1
ll
Hobbema
icc
>
s

earlier landscapes, and also very dirrer-

Hitchcock's reputation as a historian ent from paintings by anyone else,

was established with his books Modern Three-quarters of the canvas is sky.

Architecture: Romanticism and Reinte- lightly covered with clouds. The ground
gration (1929) and Architecture: Nine- is flat; a road in the center of the picture
teenth and Twentieth Centuries (1958). vanishes to a point on the flat horizon.

He defined, wrote about, and with Though there are tiny figures in the
Philip JOHNSON and barr mounted an painting, the real cast of characters con-
influential exhibition of the interna- sists of two rows of extremely tall.
 —

HOCKNEY, DAVID 323

spindly trees that border the avenue. work is simultaneously confusing and
They face each other as if partners in a fascinating: The viewer's eye moves
minuet. Some even bow shghtly. (The through a chaos of heads (often on dis-

courtly minuet, danced to music in a 3/4 proportionately small bodies), wheels,

rhythm, is an exercise in polite deport- crowds, and animals as if being rapidly
ment that became extremely popular shuttled through a threatening, night-
around 1650 at the court of Louis XIV. marish world. Hoch was the only
Despite political conflicts between woman associated with the Berlin Dada
France and Holland, the influence of Club, and was sidelined because of her
French taste remained strong.) In 1668, gender. However, as she was also ro-
when he married and received a well- mantically involved with a prime mover
paid position, Hobbema seems to have in Berlin Dada, Raoul Hausmann, and
given up painting. The Avenue was exe- he threatened to withdraw his own con-
cuted after more than 20 unproductive tributions if hers were refused, Hoch's
years.With this work, as friedlander, work was shown at the first Dada exhi-
who is quoted above also comments, bition in Berlin, in 1920.
—
"great talent becomes for once ge- —
nius." Hockney, David
born 1937 • English • painter •
Hoch, Hannah Modern/Figurative
1889-1978 • German •
Vve still got a lot of the child in me. To
collage/photomontage • Dada
be still thrilled by the world is like

Our whole purpose was to integrate being a child.

objectsfrom the world of machines
Hockney has gone through several
and industry into the world of art. . . .

stages or styles in his work, but he is

In an imaginative composition, we
best known for his strangely still, pre-
used to bring together elements
cisely rendered forms and flat, pure pas-
borrowed from books, newspapers,
posters, or leaflets, in an arrangement
tel coloring — salmon, turquoise and

that no machine could yet compose.

yellow — in paintings such as A Bigger
Splash (1967). This is one of a series of

One of the originators of dada's pho- swimming-pool pictures in which the

tomontage technique, Hoch was a spray of a diver, a foamy white explo-
member of the Berlin Dada group. She sion, seems frozen in space. In paintings

used pictures taken from the sources such as this, Hockney synthesizes both
mentioned in the quotation above the superficiality of Hollywood, and the
mechanical reproductions —and assem- idea of that superficiality. Hockney
bled them in disconcerting juxtaposi- has also made a series of photographic
tions. Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife COLLAGES. He might cut and reassem-
Through the Last Era of the Weimar ble a scene so that it becomes an ob-
Beer Belly Culture (1919) illustrates viously re-compiled, or re-collected,
both the compositional process de- panorama. With The Grand Canyon
scribed and the political/social situation Looking North, Arizona, September
in post-World War I Germany. The 1982 (1982) he composed a complex
324 HODLER, FERDINAND

mosaic by photographing and assem- of next-door neighbors, but their ordi-

bUng numerous images of the same nariness is behed by the fact that they all

vista. Hockney is constantly experi- levitate a foot or so above the earth.

menting and perpetually inspired by Hodler drew inspiration from Sw^iss his-

artists of previous eras (cubism echoes tory and the Swiss landscape. Though
in his photocollages). Born in England, not all his subsequent work was so ap-
he studied at the Royal College of Art. parently Symbolist as Chosen One, he
He is a longtime friend of kitaj, whom did exhibit in the salon de la rose +
he quotes: " [Kitaj] said, 'Why don't you croix.
paint all the things you talk about?' So I

did —the politics, the vegetarianism, the Hofmann, Hans

gay thing." The "gay thing" is a well- 1880-1966 • German/American •

known part of Hockney's life as an ex- painter • Abstract Expressionist

patriate on the West Coast (the reverse ,, .
,, , ,,
T- jv TT- • 1
I have students all over the world,
of Kitai's expatriatism in England His
.
.

many thousands , 1

of
r 11
them who have
,

eccentricity also proclaims itself in that, j r j r

^ ,
... .
,
,
become ambassadors for the spread of
; #

after hearing a television commercial

my basic ideas, andj every one ofr^,
j ,
them
pronouncement that blonds have ... < j
^
more
.

fun,
, ,,,,,• ,

he colored his dark hair a

doing
IS It in his
,
own individual way.
1

shade of bright yellow. In addition to Born Germany, Hofmann studied in

in

painting and making collages Hockney Paris for 10 years as the fauve move-
designs sets for the theater. ment gained 1934 he settled
strength. In
in America. Avid about color and the
Hodler, Ferdinand importance of the picture plane, Hof-
1853-1918 • Swiss • painter • mann pioneered in experimenting with
Symbolist the application of paint by gesture
. rather than brushing in the traditional
,
The mission of the '
,
artist
,
. . . is to give
,
..
j
manner. He splashed, splotched, and
j 111 1 1

expression to beauty, the external , . . ., , . ,

dripped long before Jackson pollock,

element of nature: to extract from .. , t ,ri- r-rr
although with different motives, tffer-
nature essential beauty. , , .
1 r 1

vescence (1914) is an example or nis

In the 1890s Hodler's fairly

early work that might be called abstract ex-
unimaginative work changed, showing pressionist before the fact. Hofmann
a new affinity with the values of sym- was a teacher of tremendous inspiration
BOLISM, its mysticism, and its synthetic and influence. Among his students were
style. Part of this change may be attrib- krasner, frankenthaler, marisol,
uted to a vision he had when his son motherwell, rivers, and grooms.
was born. He represents the event in He taught drawing and lectured on pic-
Chosen One ( 1 893 ) in which he painted torial structure, handling paint, and the
his son as a new Christ child, naked in expressive value of materials. He had a

the Swiss landscape, accompanied by thick accent and was hard of hearing,
six plain but pleasant-faced angels, which made interaction difficult but
Their benevolent faces look like those nevertheless gave his pronouncements a
 1

HOKUSAI, KATSUSHIKA 325

certain omnipotence. Rectangles are training was in engraving). The first of

among the signature shapes on his own the series was A Harlot's Progress (pub-
paintings. He moved cutout, colored lished 1732). In six scenes he shows the

rectangles around his canvas until they downward spiral in the life of a prosti-

looked the way he wished, then traced tute, expanding on the genre topic of
them and painted them in. "The artist's the brothel that was popularized in

technical problem," Hofmann wrote, NETHERLANDISH art of the BAROQUE

"is how to transform the material with and examining its social consequences.

which he works back into the sphere of The series was an immediate success:
the spirit." Bits of it were reprinted on fans, cups,

and saucers. It was also pirated, which

Hogarth, William led to Hogarth's efforts on behalf of in-

1697-1764 • English • cluding prints in the Copyright Act, a

painter/printmaker • Rococo satire protection finally passed by the British
Parliament in 1735. (I^ ni^Y have inhib-
/ therefore turned my thoughts
ited the plagiarism, but it did not end
to . . . painting and engraving modern
it.) The Harlot's Progress bares the per-
moral subjects. . . . I have endeavored
ils of the lower class; A Rake's Progress
to treatmy subjects as a dramatic
(1735) looks facetiously at the newly
writer; my picture is my stage, and
prosperous middle class; and Hogarth's
men and women my players, who by
masterpiece, a series of eight paintings
means of certain actions and gestures,
entitled Marriage a la mode (1743),
are to exhibit a dumb show.
caustically portrays upper-class society

At the beginning of the 1 8th century, al- of the 1 8th century. Hogarth subverted
though there were top-quality silver- the decorative niceties and artifice of the
smiths, cabinetmakers, and architects, ROCOCO to degrade rather than roman-
Hogarth was the only outstanding En- ticize. As we follow his cast of charac-

glish-born painter. (There were still no ters through their exaggerated gestures,
significant sculptors.) For important it is — as Hogarth suggests above —as
commissions, painters such as rubens though we are watching scenes in a play.

and van dyck were brought over to During the i8th century, theater was of
England from the Continent. Hogarth central importance to all the arts and to
examined the mores and activities of all philosophical discourse.
economic classes and might as well have
written the words of his contemporary Hokusai, Katsushika
John Gay (1688-1732), the author of 1760-1849 • Japanese •

the popular Beggar's Opera (1728): painter/printmaker • Tokugawa

"Life is a jest; and all things show it. / period
thought so once; but now I know it."
If Heaven would grant me five more
Hogarth used the bite of satire (as did
years, I would become a real painter.
his friend Henry Fielding) in his series
of "moral works," which were painted Born in Edo (now Tokyo), he used some
initially and then engraved (his early 50 names, but the one that endures is
326 HOLBEIN, HANS, THE YOUNGER

Hokusai, which means "Star of the settle in Basel, Switzerland, around

Northern Constellation." He also lived 15 14. Basel was also home to Erasmus
in more than 90 mov-
different houses, of Rotterdam, the great Catholic hu-
ing, it is said, when the mess on the manist, who became Holbein's friend,
floor, where he threw his drawings, got In 1521/zz, probably as the predella for

too deep. Stories abound about Hoku- a large altarpiece, Holbein painted a
sai's eccentricities: He is said to have macabre Christ in the Tomb (Dead
pleased a crowd outside a temple by Christ): a life-size cadaver laid out hori-

drawing an enormous picture of Bud- zontally, at eye level. Holbein spared

dha using a broom-sized brush. Accord- none of death's horror, including a lurid

ing to another legend, he drew birds in coloring of the corpse and the look of
flight on a single grain of rice. Hokusai rigor mortis. He brings mantegna's
is known for his Thirty-six Views
best notorious Dead Christ (c. 1500) to
of Mount Fuji (183 1), a series from mind — it is as though Holbein decided
which the most famous single image is to move the viewer from the end of the
The Great Wave. This colored wood- stone slab where Mantegna stood to an

BLOCK print has reappeared, over time, uncomfortably close position, almost
in everything from vodka advertise- inside the sarcophagus. Contemplating
ments to political cartoons, impres- such images of Christ, indeed, to "dwell
siONiSTs especially were intrigued by wounds of Christ," as Thomas a
in the

the off-center composition, diagonals, Kempis recommended, was a popular

flat planes, and radical cropping of ob- form of mysticism, the devotio mod-
jects and figures that characterized erna (modern devotion), of the 15th
Japanese prints in general, of which and early i6th century. As Protestant
Hokusai's works are outstanding exam- influence spread and Church commis-
ples. One historian believes that the sions declined, Holbein concentrated
American realist Winslow homer was on portraits and then, in 1526, left for

inspired by The Great Wave in his paint- England with a letter of introduction

ing The Life Line (1884). Hokusai's from Erasmus to Sir Thomas More,
modesty is as renowned as his drafts- More's response is quoted from above,
manship, and the comment quoted Holbein's portraits of both men are
above is reportedly what he cried out on among his best known. More became
his death bed. (See also ukiyo-e) lord chancellor in 1 529 but resigned the
post 1532 because he could not con-
in

Holbein, Hans, the Younger done King Henry VIII's wish to divorce.
1497/98-1543 • German • painter • In 1535, More was beheaded for his in-

Northern Renaissance transigence. In the meantime, Holbein

had been receiving commissions from
Your friend is a wonderful artist. (Sir
members of the court and by 1537 he
Thomas More, c. 1526, writing to
became court painter. He made several
Erasmus of Rotterdam)
portraits of Henry, and was sent on
Hans the Younger trained with his fa- missions to paint likenesses of the king's
ther in Augsburg, Germany, then left to prospective brides. Holbein's meticu-
 —

HOLT, NANCY 327

lous, microscopic details and his evoca- Dijrer's, but Holbein's skull is seen
tion of rich, deep Ught and texture are from a more radicalmore com-
and far

compared with van eyck's. Also like plex perspective. This perspective and
van Eyck, Holbein used elaborate sym- metaphorical play of skull and (broken)
bolism, especially in The French Am- lute offers absorbing interpretive chal-
bassadors of 1533, a full-length portrait lenges to art historians.
of two friends, one a cleric, the other a
wealthy nobleman. Every element in Holt, Nanq^
this large work (almost 7 feet square) is born 1938 • American • sculptor •

charged with meaning: A nearly hidden Site works

crucifix suspended in the upper left cor-
Time is not just a mental concept or a
ner reminds one of the uncertain status
mathematical abstraction in the desert.
of the Catholic Church during the pe-
The rocks in the distance are ageless;
riod; celestial and terrestrial globes
they have been deposited in layers over
bring to mind that Holbein was paint-
hundreds of thousands of years. Time
ing in the great Age of Exploration.
takes on a physical presence.
More ambiguous, and certainly sugges-
tive, are a lute with broken string, a Holt was born in Massachusetts. Her
book of hymns open to a page of songs first trip to the was made
Nevada desert
by Martin Luther, and, most famously, in 1968 with her husband, smithson,

an exceedingly strange object on the and with Michael Heizer (born 1944),
floor. It is an anamorphosis (from a another innovator in earth and site
Greek word meaning "transform"), a ART. Unlike the two men, who changed
trick of PERSPECTIVE: When seen at an the look of the landscape. Holt finds
acute angle, its true form — that of a nonintrusive ways to watch and be-
skull — is revealed. A
was the per-
skull come part of nature. She builds or in-
sonal emblem of one of the noblemen stalls places, or things —there is simply
in the picture. It also relates to the no generic term for what she makes
ICONOGRAPHY of the Crucifixion, pic- that allow people to look at the sky or
tures of which, beginning in the 9th cen- the land with a unique perspective. Her
tury, often showed "Adam's skull" on first outdoor Site work, Views Through
the ground below the Cross. In addi- a Sand Dune (197Z), in Narragansett,
tion, the name Holbein actually means Rhode Island, was on a secluded beach.
"hollow bone," which can be inter- She dune that
set a single pipe in the

preted as "skull." Skulls have several blocked an ocean view. Looking

other symbolic meanings, but with his through the pipe, the ocean and sky be-
anamorphic rendering Holbein may came visible. She set four Sun Tunnels
have been enjoying a game of one- (i973~76), huge, i8-foot-long concrete
upmanship at the expense of his con- pipes with openings 9 feet in diameter,
temporary DiJRER. Diirer invented a on the ground in the Great Basin Desert
perspective drawing system for which in Utah. Through holes bored in the

he used a lute as an illustration. Hol- concrete, sunshine casts changing pat-

bein's lute is foreshortened, as was terns on the inside of each tunnel.
328 HOLZER, JENNY

Moonlight casts different lights. Holt's Homer, Winslow

creations allow a personal, direct en- 1836-1910 • American • painter •

joyment of nature. Many also have Realist

connections with prehistoric sites, like .,
„ ,
-T-i 11 I- I 1
If a man wants to be
,
an artist
Stonehenge. Ihey are ail links to the , , , , , ,
^^ should never look at
.
, r
idea or eternity:
.
,/t,
1 m interested in con-
1 •

. .
r 1 1
pictures.
juring up a sense or time that is longer
than the built-in obsolescence we have Homer was an exceptionally taciturn
all around us," Holt explains. man whose rare comments about art,
such as the one quoted above, might
sound more doctrinaire than he proba-
Holzer, Jenny bly meant them to be. His point here
born 1950 • American • language • was that an artist should look to nature,
Conceptual/Postmodern rather than tradition or convention.
That what he did in his own career,
is
PROTECT ME FROM WHAT I WANT. i i i r •
i i
•

which began with drawing tor maga-

The words above are among Holzer's zines, especially Harper's Weekly. Dur-
messages that have appeared in print, ing the Civil War, Homer reported on
on billboards, engraved into benches, life just behind the front lines, the
and on an advertising display board in wounded soldier writing home, and
Times Square, where, during 1977-79, poignant moments, such as that shown
Holzer installed a continuous sequence in his oil painting Prisoners from the
of provocative phrases. Her sentences. Front (1866), in which a group of Rebel
sometimes incomplete, are enigmatic soldiers surrenders. Homer went to
enough to invite speculation: Is she re- France after the war and came home
ferring to emotional or social want, sex- with a lightened palette and a preoccu-
ual or material desires? It is ironic (and pation with leisure activities such as the
postmodern) that, in Times Square at French impressionists were painting,
least, she is able to use an advertising Yet his concerns also seemed particu-
medium to call advertising into ques- larly American and often focused on the
tion. Holzer was inspired to make this new generation: Snap the Whip (1872)
kind of art as a result of a course in the shows young, barefoot boys holding
history of contemporary art that she hands in the familiar game of that
took at the Whitney Museum of Ameri- name. They go faster until momentum
can Art in New York. The course in- breaks the chain —of friendship, inno-
cluded readings in theory, such as cence, or whatever one chooses to
SEMIOTICS, in which language — its con- read — and throws each child, sepa-
structions and effects — is challenged, rately, to the ground. He painted
Other of her messages include "Any schoolhouse scenes, and a lovely
Surplus Is Immoral," "Morality Is for teacher whose model was supposed to

Little People," "Abuse of Power Comes have been his romantic interest. How-
as No Surprise," and "Murder Has Its ever, his career, and subsequently his

Sexual Side." style, was interrupted in the 1880s by a

 HONTHORST, GERRIT VAN 329

two-year sojourn on the British sea- Honthorst, Gerrit van

coast, prompted, some think, by disap- 1592-1656 • Dutch • painter •

pointed love. Others incHne toward Baroque

attributing his departure to dismay with
. . . his gay, light-hearted
the character of America during the
gatherings . . . set a precedent for
Gilded Age. In England, the power of
. ,, I- • 1 similar scenes done in the 1610s at
and human vulnerability
1 I

the sea in the .^ j. , ,

, c
face or nature absorbed him.
, 1 1 1 ^
On his 1
•

re-
,
Utrecht. Utrecht artists favored the
i- ,

. , , .

erotic rather than the ascetic side of

turn to the United States, Homer settled
Baroque art. (Jakob Rosenberg,
on the coast of Maine, and there his
Seymour Slive, and E. H. ter Kuile,
work acquired a sense of high drama, in
1966)
seascapes and landscapes that both in-
clude and exclude people and animals. Believed to have been in Rome about
Homer had a mastery of design and 1610, Honthorst was a Dutch follower
composition that allowed him to exper- of caravaggio and brought home to
iment with extraordinary perspectives. Utrecht the drama of the Italian's
In The Life Line (1884), he shows a chiaroscuro. Honthorst's study of ar-
dangerous rescue at sea from a per- tificially lighted night scenes earned him
SPECTIVE that seems as if the artist were the nickname Gherardo delle Notti
also suspended above the roiling water. (Gerrit of the Night) while he was still

The point of view is even more vertigi- in Italy. Cardinal Scipione borghese
nous m Right and Left {1^0^), irw^hxch was one of his patrons. The Merry
it seems as if the artist, and therefore the Company (of 1 620; also known as Sup-
viewer, is flying high above the water per Party), to which the quotation
with two doomed ducks, one of which above refers, is a scene in which a group
has just been shot. The hunter is in a of candlelit revelers interact around a
small, open boat located far below. We table. On one level it is a typical genre
can barely see him or the spot of red and scene with laughing faces boldly high-
puff of smoke coming from his gun bar- lighted against the background of a
rel. Interpretations of this picture's shadowy darkness. But on another level
theme have ranged from sporting to it may be read as an allegorical por-

metaphysical (especially considering trayal of the senses, a theme popular

that it was painted about a year and a among baroque painters. In this case
half before Homer died). His oil paint- the lutenist specifically represents hear-
ings are accompanied by a rich collec- ing; other figures symbolize eating,
tion of watercolors, a medium of which touch, and so on. Such pictures might
he was the consummate master. It is a also be related to the biblical story of
fact rarely mentioned but certainly of the Prodigal Son (who squandered his
significance thatHomer's mother was inheritance on riotous living), in which
an accomplished watercolorist. He had case their moralizing subtext takes
almost no formal education, and his the form of a warning against
mother's influence must have been im- overindulgence. Not all art historians
portant. accept these interpretations, prefer-
330 HOOCH, PIETER DE

ring to see Dutch art as forthrightly Hoogstraten, Samuel van

descriptive rather than symboHc or alle- 1627-1678 • Dutch •
gorical. painter/theoretician • Baroque

/ say that a painter, whose work it is to

Hooch, Pieter de
fool the sense of sight, also must have
1629-1684 • Dutch • painter •
so much understanding of the nature
Baroque
of things that he thoroughly
. . . a new type of genre painting with understands the means by which the
unprecedented spatial order and eye is deceived.
naturalism. (Peter C. Sutton, 1998)
A student of rembrandt during the
As contemporaries and residents of 1 640s, Hoogstraten painted biblical
Delft, de Hooch and vermeer may subjects in his teacher's style, as well as
have influenced each other, but it is in- GENRE, PORTRAIT, and TROMPE L'OEIL.
teresting to compare their works for He was particularly interested in illu-

their differences. While both painted in- sion achieved by perspective and by
terior domestic scenes, for example, using the camera obscura. In 1678 he
Vermeer directs the viewer to the subtle published a treatise on painting in

effects of light on the presence and ac- which he describes erecting a camera
tivities of people and things, whether obscura. He wrote, "I am certain that
musical instruments or a pitcher of vision from these reflections in the dark

milk. In a painting by de Hooch, the can give no small light to the sight of the

light is warmer, sunnier, and often plays young artists; because besides gaining
against dark shadow. He is also more knowledge of nature, one sees here
interested than is Vermeer in moving what main or general [characteristics]
the viewer through space, as the art his- should belong to truly natural paint-
torian Peter Sutton comments above: ing." Hoogstraten was just as well
We see through doorways and passages known for his peepshow Boxes, with
in both interior spaces and outdoors, al- their perspective tricks. In addition to

most as if de Hooch were showing us his interest in painting as deception, he

the interior of one of hoogstraten's also — and somewhat contradic- in

PEEPSHOW Boxes. There is a quiet tion — promoted writings the im-

in his

serenity and dignity to his portrayals of portance of biblical, mythological, and

women and children at their chores. allegorical subjects.

After he moved
Amsterdam, in the
to
late 1 660s, de Hooch's style changed,
Hopper, Edward
becoming more pretentious. It was the
1882-1967 • American • painter •
period when French taste and culture
American Scene/Realist
were beginning to permeate Europe and
interest in the simple life of the Dutch / never tried to do the American
middle class declined. De Hooch died in Scene. . . . I always wanted to do
the Dolhuis —an insane asylum. myself.
 HOSMER, HARRIET 33 I

Hopper was a student of henri, and crowded designs such as those of Me-
had the social consciousness of the ash- dieval ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS.

can tradition. His work developed an

unmistakable individuality character- Horta, Victor
ized by pervasive, oppressive isolation, 1 861-1947 • Belgian • architect •

loneliness, emptiness, and gloom, often Art Nouveau

in an urban setting. Even before the
If it is true that logic underlies the
Great Depression, Hopper's scenes
most elemental reasoning of creatures,
were stark and seedy. During and after
I consider that it need not prevent us
the 1930s the mood simply persisted, as
from dreaming of "charm," that
the artist became ever more sophisti-
delicate luxury that is often added to
cated at conveying the discomfort of
base necessity.
impending though undefinable disaster.

As in the work of sloan, we see many The avowed nouveau,

intention of art
of Hopper's tableaux through win- as with the arts and crafts move-
dows, which compromises us as ment, was to erase the distinction be-
voyeurs; on the other hand, many of his tween "fine" and decorative arts and
subjects stare blankly, unemotionally, crafts. This is evident in the designs of
out of a window, imparting a feeling of Horta, whose ironwork turns metal
impotence and entrapment. Often there into sinuously curved plant forms.
is an underlying erotic charge: In Eleven In his interior stairwell for the Hotel
A.M. (1926) a naked woman in a third- Tassel in Brussels (1892-93; now the
rate hotel room, wearing just her shoes, Mexican Embassy), the wrought-iron
sits in an armchair by the window, banister coils gracefully in S-curves that
gazing at the geometric forms of sur- are repeated in designs on the floors and
rounding buildings. We cannot see her walls. It has been called Art Nouveau
face: We
do not make eye contact with architecture at its boldest.
Hopper's people, nor do they look
at one another. Nighthawks (1942),
Hosmer, Harriet
said to be reminiscent of, if not in-
1 830-1 908 • American sculptor
spired by, Ernest Hemingway's 1927
Neoclassicist
story "The Killers," has the ambience
of that story's diner, in which two J grant that the painter must be as
killers await their victim. The garish scientific as the sculptor, and in general

fluorescent lighting adds to the lugubri- must possess a greater variety of

ous atmosphere. Hopper is rarely sur- knowledge, and what he produces is

passed in his ability to set the stage for more easily understood by the mass,
despair. because what they see on canvas is

most frequently to be observed in

horror vacui nature. In high sculpture it is not so. A
Literally translated, the term means great thought must be embodied in a
"fear of empty space." It refers to great manner, and such greatness is not
332. HOUDON, JEAN-ANTOINE

counterpart in everyday preserve the form and render

to find its
imperishable the image of men who
things.
have achieved glory or good for their
After her mother and three sibhngs died country.
of tuberculosis, Hosmer's father deter-
mined to build up her endurance Houdon's comment, quoted above,
through outdoor activities, including neatly packages the combined moral
mountain climbing. In addition to phys- and didactic intentions of his work. A
ical fortitude and daring, she developed primary example is his heroic, life-size
an independence of character and style. marble statue of George Washington
Hosmer studied in Rome and became
(1788). Washington was an interna-
famous not only for her work but for
and Houdon,
tional celebrity by then,
her unconventional behavior as well. who had already made busts of Jeffer-
For example, she loved to ride horse- son and Benjamin Franklin, was
back outside of the city at midnight. brought to America from Paris at Jeffer-
Several American women sculptors son's recommendation. He then spent
joined Hosmer in Rome. They worked two weeks modeling and drawing at

in marble and sometimes in bronze, in a Mount Vernon. Washington wanted to

NEOCLASSICAL Style. Included in Hos- be portrayed in his military uniform
mer's circle were Vinnie Ream Hoxie rather than in the typical neoclassical
(1847-1914), Margaret Foley (1827- toga, but the statue's symbolism is

1877), Edmonia lewis, and Anne nevertheless from ancient Rome, espe-
Whitney (1821-1915), who competed plow behind him. It draws an
cially the
anonymously and won an 1875 compe- analogy between Washington and the
tition for a statue of Charles Sumner. 5th-century bce Roman soldier Cincin-
(The committee rescinded after discov- who relinquished his military
natus,
ering the winner was a woman. In
command in favor of farming. Less
190Z, when Whitney was 80, her model formal, as were the works of many late-
was cast and placed in Harvard Yard.) i8th-century portraitists when repre-
Often at the center of controversy, Hos- senting their friends, Houdon's bust
mer shocked her contemporaries when Diderot (1771) is a more candid and
she attended an all-male medical college lively portrait. The bust shows diderot
in Saint Louis in order to study answer a ques-
turning his head as if to
anatomy. Her belief in the superiority
tion.
of sculpture over painting is expressed

in the quotation above, excerpted from Hudson River School

a letter she wrote to her patron just be-
The name given to American landscape
fore leaving for Rome. painters followed after cole in
who
recognition of the region where Cole
Houdon, Jean-Antoine developed his style. (Neither Cole nor
1741-1828 • French • sculptor • ex-
his successors painted in that locale
Neoclassicist
clusively.) The roster of Hudson River

One of the finest attributes of the School painters includes artists who

difficult art of sculpture is truthfully to went West to paint the landscape, as

 humanism/humanist 333

well as the luminists, who often place our own dreams, thoughts, and
painted harbor scenes and marine- desiresalongsidethoseof others, so that
scapes, especially on the East Coast. solitudes can meet, to their joy some-
times, or to their surprise, and some-
Hughes, Robert times to their disgust. When you boil it

1938- • Australian • art critic all down, that is the social purpose of
art: the creation of mutuality, the pas-
As was reading the papers a few
I
sage from feeling to shared meaning."
weeks ago, hoping to find out what
some deranged car salesman in San ^^ . ,^^
^. .
, , , r 1., Humanism /Humanist
Diego might have paid for Mrs.
Term coined by 19th-century scholars
Kennedy's diaphragm, I had a small
to describe what they understood
revelation.
to have characterized the intellectual
Hughes's revelation, described in pre- preoccupations of the Italian renais-
senting an award to the national en- sance. The origin of humanist phi-
DOWMENT FOR THE ARTS in 1996, had losophy is 5th-century bce Greece;
only passingly to do with the auction of humanists emphasized the study of an-
Jackie Kennedy's estate. Its main topic cient Greek and Roman literature,

was public commitment to the arts, but ideas, and art. Artists studied ancient
the humor and the irreverent tone are relics, and when these were not at hand,
vintage Hughes. His own, private com- they read about them in texts (see
mitment takes the form of critical essays ekphrasis). Basic to Humanism was
he has written for Time magazine since the concept of man at the center and as

1970. Hughes won the College Art As- the measure of all things. Humanists
sociation award for distinguished criti- also supported the ancient Greco-
cism and has published several books Roman belief that history is cyclical, in

on art including The Shock of the New, contrast to the Judeo-Christian concep-
1981; Nothing If Not Critical, 1990; tion of linear development. Thus, hu-
and American Visions, 1997. Hughes's manists could believe in their own era
writing is not only exceptionally bold as a "rebirth," or renaissance, from
and challenging, but it is also extremely what they considered the darkness of
learned and extraordinarily interesting, the Middle Ages, petrarch and boc-
Both The Shock of the New and Ameri- caccio were the preeminent theorists
can Visions were serialized for televi- of the Humanism that flourished in
sion. Hughes concluded his remarks Italy, where the rich, urban middle class

about the NEA by explaining that "to was acquiring power in both secular
make and experience art is an organic and religious realms; the medici family
part of human nature, without which is a prime example. Lorenzo de' Medici
our natures are coarsened, impover- was among the great humanists and pa-
ished,and denied, and our sense of trons of art. Giovanni Pico della Mi-
community with other citizens is weak- randola (1469-153 3) summed up the
ened. ... I know it in my heart, my combined spirit of neoplatonism and
sometimes mean and irritable writer's Humanism, especially with the publica-
heart. The arts are the field on which we tion of his Oration on the Dignity of
334 HUNT, RICHARD MORRIS

Man in 1496. The influence of Human- ject was so vast that the Vanderbilts
ism on Italian art was greater than on needed their own wharf, warehouse,
that of the northern countries, where and ID-ton derrick to get them ashore.
the impact of nominalism was more The Vanderbilt home in Asheville,
direct and enduring. North Carolina, Biltmore (1888-95),
also by Hunt, is an example of "cha-
Hunt, Richard Morris teau" (castle) style. The palace at fon-
1 827-1 89 5 • American • architect • TAiNEBLEAU was his primary point of
American Renaissance reference. Built of limestone, with 255
rooms, Biltmore has steeply pitched
If they want you to build a house
roofs sheathed with slate. As chairman
upside down, standing on its chimney,
of the Board of Architects, Hunt was in
it's up to you to do it and still get the
charge of the architectural plans for the
best possible result.
1893 World's Columbian Exposition in
Brother of the painter William Morris Chicago, an extravaganza that was
HUNT (below), both sons in a prosper- named the Great White City because its

ous Vermont family, Richard spent plaster buildings resembled the marble
more than a decade studying in France ones of antiquity. A minority of archi-
and was the first American to receive tects, with SULLIVAN in the forefront,

the architecture diploma from the dissented from the scheme of Hunt and
ECOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS. When he re- his partisans because it neglected, and
turned to the United States to practice rejected, the development of an indige-
architecture, his clients were members nous architecture.
of the new American aristocracy of the
Gilded Age, and his attitude, according Hunt, William Holman
to the comment him andattributed to 1 8 27-19 ID • English • painter •
quoted above, was accommodating. Pre-Raphaelite
From about 1885 to 1920, American
. . . another subject which I am
industrialists saw themselves as coun-
sanguine about . . . I wonder it has
terparts of European merchant princes
never before been done, it is so full of
of the 1 6th and 17th centuries. The
meaning (one reason however against
Vanderbilts, Morgans, and Fricks
it) and it is so simple— The scapegoat
wanted public buildings and homes that
in the Wilderness by the Dead Sea
looked like medieval, renaissance,
somewhere, with the mark of the
and BAROQUE palaces, and Hunt was
bloody hands on the head.
eminently qualified to provide them.
Fifth Avenue in New York City had a Throughout his career Hunt remained
dozen of his mansions, and he designed faithful to the meticulous, hard-edged,

"cottages" too, such as Alva Vander- hyperreal technique (reminiscent of van

bilt's Marble House (1888-92) in New- eyck) that characterized the early paint-
port, Rhode Island. The volume of ing of the PRE-RAPHAELITE "brothers."
carvings, rare marbles, and other ob- He also maintained his interest in reli-

jects imported from Europe for this pro- gious, moralizing themes, albeit with
 HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS 335

extremely individualized approaches, poem of Keats: Isabella is worshiping

His Awakening Conscience (1853-54) at a shrine she has erected in her lov-
is about a "fallen" young woman: She er's memory. Hunt returned to Eng-
rises from the lap of her lover, who is land, traveled again to Florence and
seated at the piano, as from the sudden Jerusalem, and in 1872 married his sis-

realization of the error of her ways. The ter-in-law. The wedding took place in
clutter of objects in the picture all have Switzerland because marriage with a
symbolic meaning, from a cat torment- deceased wife's sister was then illegal in

ing a bird under the table to a mantel England,

clock that shows high noon just mo-
ments away, ruskin wrote a letter to Hunt, William Morris
The Times praising this picture. When 1 824-1 879 • American • painter •

Hunt traveled to Palestine he was in- Realist

spired to paint The Finding of the Sav- ,.,,, . t r
™ ; / n ^ N r.
when I
, ,
look at nature I think of
, ,

lour in the lemple (18^4-60). because

'

,^.,, _ ,

f Millet, Corot, and sometimes of

,

the purpose or his

r

work was 1

question- p, ;

able to them, he had a difficult time

convincing Jewish models to pose for As Hunt's comment, quoted above,
him in Jerusalem; he had to find his sit- suggests, he was strongly affected by
ters when he returned to London. The painters of the barbizon school. That
other painting he conceived in the Holy followed a period of studying sculpture
Land was The Scapegoat (1854-55), ^^ the art academy in dusseldorf,
which he wrote about to his friend, pa- where he learned to fix on detail, and of
tron, and business adviser, Thomas instruction in painting in Paris with
Combe, in a letter that is quoted from couture, who placed strong emphasis
above. This is a strange scene, with a on the importance of the rough sketch,
rainbow arching into the water where or ebauche, which remained visible on
the goat stands looking out at the the canvas despite thick paint and layers
viewer. The source of the picture is of glaze. On visiting and working with
Leviticus 16, in which the Day of millet. Hunt took up the Barbizon-
Atonement ritual is described. After inspired interest in peasant subjects.
i860. Hunt remained the only artist of His best-known work. The Belated
the group faithful to the Pre-Raphaelite Kid (1857), is in the Barbizon mode of
ideals, continuing to paint biblical and painting directly from nature, painting
modern life subjects in his highly outdoors, rather than in the studio, and
wrought style. In Florence with him, in giving a rural subject the sense of quiet,
September 1866 his wife gave birth to religious dignity. This tranquil picture
their child, became ill, and died in De- shows a barefoot girl holding a kid
cember, after they had been married while its mother nuzzles it. Return-
just a year. /safee//(3 awcf ?/7e Fo^o/^B^s// ing home in 1855, Hunt introduced
(1866-68), a picture on which Hunt French painting to America and be-
had been working, became a memorial came Boston's most prominent artist,
to her. It was probably inspired by a teacher, and adviser to collectors. His
336 HYPERREALISM

Students included la farge and both thusiastically received. Depressed,

William and Henry James. Things went Hunt died by drowning in November
badly for William Hunt during the 1879. His younger brother was the ar-
1870s, however. The Boston fire of chitect Richard Morris hunt.
1 872 destroyed his studio, and he and
his wife separated the following year. Hyperrealism
Five years later his work for the New A synonym for both Superrealism and
York State Capitol in Albany was unen- photorealism. See realism^
 I

icon prompted by contemporary efforts to

Derived from the Greek word for reunite Orthodox and Roman Chris-
"image," an icon generally is something tianity. In the 1 6th century, during the
emblematic or symbolic. Saint luke, Protestant Reformation and later dur-
one of the four evangelists, was popu- ing the Counter-Reformation (peaking
larly supposed to have painted portraits in the 1560-70S), religious images once
of the Virgin, and images or icons of again came under attack, and icono-
Christ, the Virgin, and the saints were clasts destroyed multitudes of works of
said to follow from this tradition. These art. Prior to the Reformation, in 1500,
sacred icons were important in Byzan- DURER painted one of the most contro-
tine where they were censed and
art, versial self-portraits in history, an icon-
venerated. Confessions often were like image in which he assumes the
made before them. An icon served as a persona of Christ.
substitute for the divine presence it rep-
resented. With their inexpressive faces iconoclasm
and large "all-seeing" eyes, Byzantine See ICON
icons have stylistic antecedents in paint-
faiyum mummy portraits.
ings like the iconography
Some icons were endowed with miracu- The study of the meaning of a visual

lous power —
a famous example is the image rather than its form, based on the
12th-century Byzantine-Russian paint- assumption that a work of art conveys
ing The Vladimir Madonna. It is cred- a message through the signs and sym-
ited with saving the cities of Vladimir bols it contains. A broad iconographic
and Kazan, and later all of Russia, from discussion of holbein's French Am-
invasion. In the Hebrew Bible the use of bassadors (1533), for example, names,
icons is forbidden by the Second Com- describes, and identifies the two men
mandment and Deuteronomy, and portrayed, the room in which they
icons have been controversial in Chris- stand, and the objects that surround
tianity: A violent conflict broke out in them. To take the meaning further
the 8th century and resulted in wide- involves iconology. (See also panof-
spread iconoclasm —destruction of sky)
icons. During the 15th century Byzan-
tine icons were imported to the West, iconology
where they were honored and copied by panofsky is the art historian responsi-
artists, a practice that may have been ble for the interest in iconology during
338 ICONOSTASIS

the 20th century, and it is he who dis- could not have chosen more
tinguishes between iconology and painstaking craftsmen. (Finley Hooper,
ICONOGRAPHY. Although the terms are 1967)
sometimes used interchangeably,
iconology goes beyond iconography, Ictinos was the leading architect of Per-
according to Panofsky, and investigates iclean Athens and most notably of the
the deeper meaning or "hidden symbol- Parthenon, on which Callicrates
ism" in a painting. An iconological (Kallikrates) collaborated. Ictinos is

study of Holbein's French Ambas- also believed to have designed the Tem-
sadors (1533) would, for example, dis- pie of Apollo at Bassae (c. 430-400
cuss objects on the table, such as the bce), constructed on a wild, primitive
globes and navigational instruments, mountain site at the edge of a deep
and associate them with exploration gorge. The historian scully speculates
contemporary to the early 1 6th century, that the unusual placement of a door
scientific advances of the period, or lit- into the temple on the side rather than
erary accounts that might be pertinent. the end of the building may have en-
abled the cult statue within to have a
iconostasis clear view of sacred Mount Lykaion.
A screen separating the sanctuary from One of Scully's students tested his hy-
the public or congregational part of the pothesis by sleeping in the temple on the
church in byzantine churches. During eve of Apollo's feast day and "was
the 9th and loth centuries, the rituals of awakened by the sun rising exactly on
the Orthodox Church became increas- the summit of Lykaion as seen between
ingly complex and mysterious. The ritu- the columns," Scully writes. Another
als were hidden from the congregation of Ictinos's innovations at Bassae was
even more than they had been —the to place parallel Corinthian columns
choir screen growing, finally, in the (not used before) in the interior of the
14th century, to a high, solid wall with temple. With its foliage capital, the
three doors leading to the altar area. Its Corinthian column might theoretically
surfacewas covered with icons, thus symbolize the tree beneath which
the name "iconostasis." The Katho- Apollo was born,
likon, in Hosios Loukas, Greece loi i- (

iz), has an example of an iconostasis ideal

with painted icons. The concept of a transcendent, arche-
typal principle that embodies the ideal
characterized the worldview of ancient
Ictinos (Ictinus/Iktinos)
Greece. This may be seen in Greek art as
active 5th century bce • Greek
early as the archaic period, when
architect • Classical
artists tried to hone a concept of perfec-
Pericles, a careful observer and visitor tion in architectural design and in fig-

to artists' workshops, knew where the ural composition, rather than to create
talent was. He commissioned Ictinus functional space or to show true-to-life

and Callicrates as architects and he individuals. The possibility of human

 —

IMHOTEP 339

achievement approaching the ideal decorations of illuminated manuscripts,

seemed closest at hand during the High or illustrations, are called miniatures.
CLASSICAL period in Athens. It may be As early as the 5th century, artists
no coincidence that the decline of worked under instruction from a lit-
Athenian primacy, beginning in 430 erate adviser. Medieval manuscripts
BCE, was accompanied by a shift from were produced in the scriptorium of a
idealizing to naturalizing and individu- monastery and in royal court work-
alizing in Greek art (see naturalism). shops before they became, along with
Thiswas well established by the time of urban and middle-class growth, part of
PLATO (427-347 bce), who censured secular commerce. Even then, excep-
art as imitation mimesis of that — tionally beautiful books, made for the
which is already one step removed from princely or merchant nobility, remained
the ideal prototype. To Plato, because expensive. In France, where they flour-
the artist's production dealt with ap- ished during the late Middle Ages, the
pearance, "his is the world of illusion, best illuminated manuscripts ranged
the world of mirrors that deceive the from 100 to 600 francs, more costly
eye," as gombrich writes. Neoplaton- than the most expensive horse. Besides
ists were less acerbic than Plato about gospels, psalters, books of hours,
art's pretensions, and in subsequent and specific liturgical texts, illuminated

Classical revivals, especially during the manuscripts included bestiaries and

ITALIAN renaissance and the 17th cen- HERBALS.
tury, both practice and theory restored
respect for artistic pursuit of the ideal. illusion/illusionistic
(See also neoplatonism and golden See mimesis
section)
Imhotep
illuminated manuscript active 2600 bce • Egyptian •
c.

Both "manuscript" (written by hand) architect • Old Kingdom/3rd Dynasty

and "illumination" (reflecting light)
The political system of the Egyptian
now have broader meaning than their
state may have been founded by
The term "illuminated
strict definitions.
warrior kings, bearing such significant
manuscript" usually refers to books
names as Scorpion, Fighter and
produced from the 5th century, when
Serpent, but Egyptian high culture was
the CODEX of parchment replaced the
the creation of a sage, Imhotep, to
papyrus scroll, to the early i6th cen-
whom end of its long history a
at the
tury, when PAPER and the printing press
Greek pharaoh kneels in supplication
took over. As early as the 3rd century,
on the walls of the temple of Kom
luxurious vellum pages were stained
Ombo. (Cyril Aldred, 1980)
with a rich purple dye, and their texts
were inscribed in gold and silver, which Figuratively speaking, Imhotep's repu-
reflected light (though most medieval tation is as colossal as his most famous
manuscripts were practical, serviceable achievement, the Stepped Pyramid of
books with no gold or silver). Pictorial King Zoser at Saqqara, c. 2600 bce.
340 IMPASTO

This burial mountain set the standard the visible contemporary world. But
for Egyptian building over the next they intensified the real-time immediacy
2,500 years. Itwas the first large build- of their focus, objectivity, and an inter-
ing in the world made entirely of quar- est in monitoring and understanding
ried stone, and Imhotep is the first the eye's perceptions. Yet, as recent
architect/artist we know of whose name scholars stress, theirs is also a very per-
was actually recorded for posterity it — sonal visual perception; emotional
appears on a statue of the king, where reaction to visual stimuli links Impres-
Imhotep's titles of Chancellor, Prince, sionism to romanticism, it is argued,
High Priest of Heliopolis, and Sculptor rather than (or in addition to) Realism.
were also recorded. Imhotep's authority Impressionists modified their tech-
was so great that he was deified after his niques to accommodate their inten-
death and became a god of healing, as- tions: Unmixed color applied with
sociated in Greek times (when he was shortened, quickened brushstrokes
called Imuthes) with Aesculapius, god approximates the flickering impres-
of healing and patron of physicians. sions they meant to record. Realists had
already lightened the palette of the
impasto barbizon landscape painters; Impres-
Paint thickly applied either with a sionists maintained the high-key color.
"loaded" brush or with a palette knife. Known for working in plein air, be-
Sometimes impasto is so thick that it sides pure landscapes and figures in the

stands up from the surface of the pic- landscape. Impressionists painted por-
ture in lumps, rembrandt and Tin- traits, nudes, still lifes, and various
toretto used impasto for emphasis scenes of modern life. In many respects,

and texture. The impasto on many of as they painted leisure activities of

van gogh's paintings defines his brush- Parisians, they were celebrating the
strokes. urban projects —parks, racetracks,
gardens, widened streets, and pictur-
Impressionism/Impressionist esque perspectives —promoted by Louis-
With urbanization and the growth of Napoleon during the second empire.
the railroad, new recreation centers By 1 868, as Impressionist concerns coa-
flourished near Paris, and artists went lesced, interest shifted from the subject
there to paint. Boating, fishing, swim- presented on the canvas to the means
ming, picnicking, and dancing were of representation. Japanese art was a

among the pastimes they recorded, and strong influence on Impressionist

the spontaneity of those activities is re- painters. With flat, unmodulated paint
flected in the apparent spontaneity of surfaces and disregard for one-point
their painting. In some ways the origins perspective, Japanese art introduced
of the movement are firmly embedded radical cropping and empty fore-

in REALISM^: Impressionists, as Realists, grounds. UKIYO-E prints also presented

rejected the restrictions of traditional artists with a new range of colors and
subjects (e.g., religious, ideal, imagi- sometimes a tilted picture plane.
nary, literary, and historic) in favor of Among signature paintings of Impres-
 INGRES, JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE 34I

sionism were views of the same water- Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique

front scene,La Grenouillere, painted by 1780-1867 • French • painter •

both RENOIR and monet in 1869. The Romantic Classicist

painting that gave the style its name was
. . . drawing is the first of the virtues
Monet's Impression, Sunrise (1872).
for a painter, it is the foundation, it is
An alternate label for Impressionism is
everything; a thing well drawn is
New Painting. When it was exhibited in
always well enough painted.
the first group show of the new-style
paintings in 1874, a derisive critic Ingres studied in Jaques-Louis david's
coined the term "Impressionists." The studio. Then, having won the prix de
last Impressionist group show was in ROME, he went to Italy in 1806 and re-
1886, by which time the reactionary mained there for 18 years. Of the two
group of POST-IMPRESSIONISTS had theoretical currents that again divided
formed. artists' —
camps drawing vs. painting
(or —
LINE VS. color) Ingres allied him-
Indiana, Robert (Robert Clark) self with the drawing/line camp. That
born 1928 • American • painter • does not mean he was a poor colorist, as
Pop Art anyone looking at the skin and fabric
tones of his famous Odalisque (1814)
Pop is everything art hasn't been for
quickly realizes. Rather, it means that
the last two decades. It is basically a
he was more interested in the contours
U-turn back to a representational
of a form or figure. Art historians find
visual comtnufucation. . . . It is the
numerous sources for Ingres's style, in-
American Dream, optimistic, generous
cluding the decorations on archaic
and naive. . . . Pure Pop culls its
Greek pottery. Decorations on such
techniques from the present-day
vases were linear in the most basic
communicative process.
sense of the term. Ingres told his stu-
Clark took the home state
name of his dents, "Study vases, it was with them
to sign his work "Indiana." He was fas- that I began to understand the Greeks."
cinated by word and number images, RAPHAEL, another influence, was the
and generally used them to critique con- master whom Ingres most admired.
temporary culture. He did this by writ- While working in a classical vocabu-
ing, with stencil-like lettering, words lary, Ingres was inevitably influenced
such as ERR, DIE, HOG, EAT, USA in clash- by the romantic spirit of his time, a
ing colors. Nothing is more ironically spirit intrigued with the exotic {odal-
symbolic of its age than the commer- isque is the Turkish word for "harem
cialization of his painting LOVE slave girl") and with emotional states.

of 1966, with the L and O on one line, Though he did not express rousing, dri-
V and £ below. It showed up on rugs, ving emotion in the manner of his ac-
ashtrays, key chains, rings, posters, pil- knowledged rival DELACROIX, Ingres
lows, and multitudes of other com- was sensitive to the mood and character
modities, as well as millions of red, of his subject, as his portraits show. Ro-
emerald, and violet postage stamps. mantic Classicist is the commonly used
342 INKHUK (institute OF ARTISTIC CULTURE)

term to describe Ingres, in contrast to rather than the wilderness, and his pic-
Delacroix, whose style was Romantic tures might seem to celebrate industry
Baroque. and progress, yet they also seem to have
a certain wistful or nostalgic ambiguity,
Inkhuk (Institute of Artistic seen in details such as the figures of
Culture) small poets contemplating the trees
Notorious organization in the Soviet that have been felled, and a covered
Union that, when charged in 1921 with wagon trundling along in the wake of
formulating a role for art in a Commu- the locomotive. Or in Delaware Water
condemned easel painting
nist society, Gap ( 1 8 61 ), on the eve of the Civil War,
as "outmoded." (See also construc- the broken rainbow may be read as a
tivism, RODCHENKO, and tatlin) symbol of the imminent break between
North and South. His travels in France

Inness, George acquainted Inness with the barbizon

1 825-1 894 • American • painter • SCHOOL. Its influence loosened his vi-
Barbizon influence/impressionistic sual approach and his brushstroke,
softening color and contour. Born in
/ love [the civilized landscape] and
New Jersey, Inness was frail, epileptic,
think more worthy of reproduction
it
reclusive, melancholic, and volatile. In
than that which is savage and
the mid- 1 8 60s, he became a follower of
untamed. It is more significant. Every
the 18th-century mystic Emanuel Swe-
act of man, every thing of labor, effort,
denborg, and his landscapes seem in-
suffering, want, anxiety, necessity, love,
creasingly to be filtered through the
marks itself wherever it has
dematerialized spiritual world in which
been . . . every thing in nature has
he was immersed. While his scenes of
something to say to us.
this era, such as Home at Montclair
In the beginning of his long career, (1892), may appear impressionistic in a
George Inness painted in the scrupu- general sense of the word, he had no tol-

lous, tight, detailed style of the Hudson erance for the movement: "Impression-
RIVER SCHOOL and composed pictures ism is the sloth enwrapped in its own
with attention to the classical Claudian eternal dullness," he wrote. Recogni-
conventions (see claude lorrain). tion did not come until Inness reached
Specificity in his early landscapes al- his 50s. He was a transitional figure

lowed the viewer to recognize a particu- whose life was divided by the Civil War
lar bend in the river, grazing cattle, the and whose work was a bridge between
settlement in the distance, a round- the old and the avant-garde.
house, and even the lettering on the en-
gine of a train, as in The Lackawanna installation
Valley (1855), commissioned by a rail- Refers to works that are assembled
road company. This painting, now or constructed in the gallery or land-
canonical, was rediscovered by Inness scape or other space in which they are
himself, many years after he had exhibited. It is a loose term that may be
painted it, in a junk shop in Mexico applied equally to sculptures of mini-
City. He painted the civilized landscape malists like Robert morris and hesse

4
 INTERNATIONAL STYLE (MODERN ARCHITECTURE) 343

and the personalized expression of a for his work in this demanding, exact-
work by Ann Hamilton (born 1956) ing medium,
such as Malediction: In a New York
City gallery, in December 1991, Hamil- intensity (also saturation)
ton sat at a long table continuously One of the three variables that define
putting wads of dough in her mouth, pigment (value and hue
the quality of a
taking them out, and placing them in a are the other two). The intensity de-
wicker container. She was surrounded scribes the relative purity or visual

by signs of housekeeping chores —to strength of a pigment. It is a measure of

approach her a visitor stepped over a vividness. For example, bright orange
floor strewn with rags —and for sound has a high intensity (saturation); beige
and atmospheric woman's
effect, a has a low intensity (or saturation). (See
voice monotonously read Walt Whit- also color)
man's Song of Myself and Body Elec-
tric. Hamilton's Malediction was both interlace
PERFORMANCE ART and Installation. A style especially characteristic of the

MIGRATION period, interlacing de-

intaglio scribes the process of weaving lines and
One of the four basic processes for designs over and under and in and out
making a print. From the Latin meaning of each other. Interlacing reached one
"to cut," intaglio is a procedure in pinnacle of complexity in hiberno
which the lines of the image that will be saxon manuscripts, such as the Lindes-

reproduced are engraved or etched into fame Gospels (c. 698). Interlacing is

the surface of a metal plate such as cop- also intrinsic to islamic art in vegetal

per or steel. When lines are cut into the arabesques — sinuously curving plant
surface with needle-sharp steel points, forms —and with words and letters. The
the process is called drypoint. Drypoint Ottoman (Turkish) sultan's imperial
prints are freer than those made by en- tugra — the equivalent of his signature
graving, and their lines have softer or coat of arms —combined the two.

edges, more like drawing with a pencil The tugra interwove calligraphy with
or crayon than with a pen. pascin flowers, trees, scrolls, and leaves, pre-

worked in drypoint. The quality of a dominantly blue and gold, all flowing
line—thickness or darkness, for exam- together in minutely exquisite splendor,
pie — determined both by the tools
is

and by the amount of pressure used to International Style (modern

make the cuts. Intaglio processes in- architecture)
elude mezzotint and aquatint. To Known in Europe as International
produce a print, the plate is inked, then Architecture, the term "International
its surface is wiped clean. Ink remains in Style" was coined by hitchcock and
the lines of the image that is cut into Philip johnson for their 1932 exhibi-
that plate. Pressure is applied to transfer tion at the Museum of Modern Art
ink from the plate onto paper. Intaglio in New York City — The International
printmaking began in the first half of Style in Architecture Since 1922. Devel-
the 15th century. DiJRER is renowned oped during the 1920s, especially in
 —

344 INTERNATIONAL STYLE (PAINTING, SCULPTURE)

Holland, Germany, Russia, and France, Intricate/Fourth Style

the International Style spread to other See mural
countries, including the United States.
Promoted at the bauhaus, its propo- Isidorus of Miletus
nents advocated functionalism, mass Codesigner of hagia sophia. (See also
production, and the marriage of archi- anthemius of tralles)
tectural design and technology without
historical references or ornamentation. Islamic art
As did Russian constructivism, the Islam was born in Arabia in 622 when
International Style espoused the con- the prophet Muhammad left his home
cept of "truth to materials" and a struc- in Mecca and settled in Medina, where
tural system that was neither hidden he preached and attracted followers to
nor disguised. International Style was hisnew faith. In three generations,
also allied to the geometric, rectilinear Muhammad's religion, which drew on
discipline of De stijl. Leading Interna- the Judeo-Christian tradition, spread
van der
tional Style architects are mies faster and farther than Christianity had
ROHE, LE corbusier, and GROPius in its first 300 years. Unlike the term
and his partner, until 1941, breuer. "Christian art," which refers to reli-

Gropius's design for the Bauhaus build- gious subject matter, what is known as

ing in Dessau (1926) embodies ideas of the art of Islam includes both secular
the International Style. The Philadel- and religious subjects. It is thus perhaps
phia Savings Fund Society Building more accurately seen as Arabian, Per-

(1929-32), designed by the American sian, Egyptian, Turkish, Indian, North

George Howe
(1886-195 5) in collabo- African, and Spanish art. In terms of
ration with the Swiss-born architect religious subject matter, the Islamic
William Lescaze (1896-1969), was the prohibition against figurative, or repre-
first important International Style sky- sentational, art in places of worship en-
scraper in the United States. The pre- couraged a repertoire of incomparably
eminent American practitioner of beautiful abstractions, designs, and col-

the International Style for many years ors. Some of these were based on the
was Philip Johnson, who had collabo- written word. Others were foliate
rated with Mies van der Rohe on the flower and leaf forms; ornamental
Seagram Building (1954-58). Johnson arabesques and patterns on textiles,
is renowned for The Glass House pottery, tiles, and other decorative
(1949) he built for himself in New arts; and illuminated manuscripts.
Canaan, Connecticut, perhaps the earli- (The prohibition against representa-
est building designed entirely by an tion, though explicit in both religions,
American architect working in the In- was not strictly followed in either Is-

ternational Style. lamic or Jewish art.) As was true of

much medieval Christian art, early Is-

International Style (painting, lamic book illustrations were not de-

sculpture) signed to present reality; they were
See GOTHIC flattened and symbolic, showing a land-
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 345

scape, for example, as elaborately pat- corpse of her husband lies. Both
terned with trees and flowers rather pictures are masterpieces, I think.

than invested with perspective. Over (Vincent van Gogh, 1885)

the centuries, the impact of the art
created in countries where Islam pre- A Jewish painter whose father was a
dominated on that produced in pre- money changer, Israels studied in Ams-
dominantly Christian countries, and terdam and Paris. He painted in a real-
vice versa, has been substantial. It can IST^ vein, showing the harsher aspects
be seen in the multitudes of northern of rural life in Holland. A founder of
and ITALIAN renaissance (and several The Hague school, he was the most
early American colonial) paintings important Dutch painter of his century,

that have Oriental carpets as part of his reputation eclipsed later only by van
their setting. During the 19th century, a GOGH, quoted above, who admired him
passion for orientalism, as it is now greatly. Growing Old (1878), a well-

called, swept Europe and America. This known work, shows a lonely old
interest in the countries where Islam woman warming herself in front of a
flourished is seen in paintings of fire. Its sentimentality is not character-
DELACROIX, textile designs of William istic of Israels's works. The flat Dutch
MORRIS, and even the style of church's landscape and peasant life were preoc-
home Olana (c. 1870) in New York cupations of Israels, but his pictures of
state. MATISSE was greatly affected by Jewish life are now well appreciated
exhibitions of "Islamic art" in Europe after having been largely overlooked,
and went to Algeria in 1907. He took Only four, or perhaps five, of these
his interest further than other Western paintings are known. One, The Son of
artists: Where Delacroix, for instance, the Ancient Race (1889), shows a weary
painted things and events he had seen in peddler sitting on a doorstep and is
Algiers, Matisse showed French domes- painted in dark brownish tones reminis-
tic scenes, including those of his own cent ofrembrandt. Important in Eng-
family, using an Oriental vocabulary of land, France, and America as well as
flattened perspectiveand forms, rich Holland, Israels had more than 40
but unmodulated coloring, and the dec- works in an individual exhibition at the
orative patterning of Persian minia- 1910 VENICE BiENNALE. His funeral in
tures. 191 1 was the occasion for national
mourning in Holland.

Israels, Jozef
Italian Renaissance
1 824-19 1 1 • Dutch painter
c. 1400-c. 1520. Unlike the northern
Realist
RENAISSANCE, the Renaissance in Italy

In Amsterdam I saw two pictures by was strongly influenced by texts and

Israels, The Fisherman of Zandvoort, works of art from ancient Greece and
and— one of his very latest— an old Rome. Not only was the Greco-Roman
woman huddled together like a bundle world part of Italy's heritage, but
of rags near the bedstead in which the ANTIQUITY also was accessible, espe-
346 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

cially in Rome, where many monu- youth when he moved to Florence, but
ments were still standing and many arti- he spent much of his career elsewhere.
facts awaited discovery. Through the That was true too of Raphael, who
wealth and patronage of the medici was, however, a skilled artist when he
family, and largely as a result of the went to Florence from his home in

writings of VASARi in the i6th century Urbino. He Rome in 1508.

left for
and BURCKHARDT in the 19th, Flo- MICHELANGELO, who grew up and
rence's reputation as the source and worked in Florence, spent the last 30
center of Renaissance art gained cur- years of his life in Rome. As the Renais-
rency. Today this preeminence is chal- sance progressed, the initial interest in

lenged by scholars who point to other realism frequently evolved into highly
important Italian centers —Rome, Pisa, animated and expressive figures (e.g.,

Milan, Mantua, Ferrara, Urbino, and POLLAIUOLO and Michelangelo), which

VENICE. Unprecedented realism^, espe- in turn became attenuated and exagger-

cially in observation of the human ated by MANNERISM. Mastety of per-

form, and a new understanding and use spective led artists to imagine and
of PERSPECTIVE are developments that portray ever more extraordinary and
characterize the Renaissance. In Flo- extravagant illusionistic scenes, espe-
rence, GHiBERTi's winning panel in the cially on ceilings (mantegna, Raphael,
1 401 competition for the bronze doors and coRREGGio), in turn extended by
for the Cathedral Baptistery, the archi- the Mannerist giulio Romano to an
tecture and theories of brunelleschi, entire room. During the course of the
donatello, and the
sculpted figures by Renaissance, perhaps inspired by schol-
paintings of masaccio traditionally in- arly humanists (although art histori-

troduce the period. In the second half of ans disagree on the degree to which they
the century, not only did artists like Do- participated in artistic endeavors),
natello travel to other cities, but also artists added themes from pagan
ALBERTi was working in Mantua, Rim- mythology as well as portraiture to
ini, and Rome; piero della Francesca in their repertoire of biblical subjects.
Urbino, Ferrara, and Rome; and Giu- Also, themedium of painting changed
liano da sangallo and botticelli from primarily tempera to oil paint-
were also in Rome. Leonardo was a ing.
 —

Jack of Diamonds by Vasari in the quotation above is one

See LARiONOV of the most celebrated sculptures in
Italy. When the hated lord of Lucca was
Jacopo della Querela ousted, the tomb was nearly destroyed,

c. i374?-i438 • Italian • sculptor • but according to legend it was so beau-

Early Renaissance tiful that even his enemies spared it.

On the base of a tomb [for the wife of

Japonism
the lord of Lucca, Paolo Guinigi,] he
Refers to the profound and expansive
executed some marble putti carrying a
influence of Japanese art and artifacts
garland in so polished a fashion that
on Western artists and architects begin-
they seemed made of flesh. (Vasari,
ning after the mid- 19th century, la
mid- 1 6th century)
FARGE and whistler are among the
Jacopo, who was from was one
siena, first American artists who incorporated

of the four sculptors whose genius pictures of objects from Japan in their

marked the early Italian renaissance, paintings, as well as Japanese ideas of

(donatello, ghiberti, and nanni di composition and themes, sargent's
Banco were the others.) He was among magnificent painting The Daughters of
the unsuccessful competitors to design Edward Darley Boit (1882) includes
the Baptistery doors in Florence two huge blue-and-white Japanese por-
the jobwas won by ghiberti. Jacopo's celain vases that are taller than the four
most important commission was in little girls of the title. Ernest Francisco
Bologna, where from 1425 to 1439 he Fenollosa (1853-1908), the American
completed a number of sculptures for expert on Japanese art, was a catalyst

the main door of San Petronio. His fig- for the collecting of freer, who was
ures, carved in stone in low relief, are also inspired and advised in his collect-

vigorous and well built, looking for- ing of Oriental art by Whistler. Freer
ward to the work of Michelangelo, bought several of Whistler's paintings
who was much impressed by their dra- in which the artist used Oriental princi-
matic intensity and expressiveness. Ja- ples to express Occidental feeling, in-
copo's The Expulsion from the Garden cluding Caprice in Purple and Gold:
of Eden (c. 1430) captures the anxious The Golden Screen (1864). In this pic-
fear and humiliation of Adam and Eve ture Whistler's mistress, dressed in a ki-
as an angry angel virtually pushes them mono, examines a print by the Japanese
out of the Garden. The tomb described artist HiROSHiGE. Four years later man-
348 JAVACHEFF, CHRISTO

et's portrait of Emile Zola shows the beautiful, if not the most beautiful and
noveHst seated near a Japanese screen, a precious morsel of architecture left us

print of a Japanese wrestler on the wall by antiquity.

above his head. In Paris and London
during those years artists gathered at Jefferson was educated at William and
shops that sold imported Japanese and Mary College in Virginia, which had,
Chinese art (see chinoiserie). Japanese at the time, the most architecturally
UKiYO-E prints in particular brought sophisticated buildings in the colonies
into the Western artists' vocabulary —they may have been constructed ac-

ideas of asymmetry, flat rather than cording to plans provided by wren. Jef-

MODELED surfaces, the forward-tilting ferson's later travels in Europe gave him
PERSPECTIVE, outlined forms, and un- firsthand knowledge of the neoclassi-
modulated color. They inspired interest cal buildings he used as prototypes for

in subjects such as the sybaritic "float- his designs. Their appeal was idealistic

ing world" of Japanese pleasure seek- as well as aesthetic, as they represented

ing. IMPRESSIONISM was particularly to Jefferson the style associated with the

indebted to Japonism. (See also hoku- first democracy in ancient Greece. The
SAi) In 1916 Frank Lloyd wright com- Maison Carree, to which he refers in the

pleted his commission for the Imperial letter quoted above, is a small Roman
Hotel in Tokyo, and when he returned temple of c. i-io ce. Jefferson had only
home, subtle references to Far Eastern seen pictures of the Maison Carree
architecture could be detected in his when it became his inspiration for the

designs. United States Capitol, but when he saw

the actual building,some 12 years later,
Javacheff, Christo the wisdom of his choice was con-
See christo firmed. Jefferson's well-known archi-
tectural projects include his own house,

Jazz Modern/modeme Monticello (c. 1767-1809), and the

See ART DECO plans for the University of Virginia
(1817-26) at Charlottesville (where he
also designed the curriculum). As presi-
Jefferson, Thomas latrobe
dent, Jefferson appointed sur-
1743-18x6 • American •
veyor of public buildings.
statesman/president/architect •
Federal
Jewish art
/ received this summer a letter from Although still largely bypassed in art

Messrs. Buchanan and Hay, as history texts, the existence and signifi-

Directors of the public buildings, cance of Jewish art is gradually being

desiring I would have drawn for them, taken into account. In his 1988 assess-
plans of sundry buildings, and, in the ment "On the State of Medieval Art

first place of a capitol. . . .We took for History," published in The Art Bulletin,
our model what is called the Maison Herbert Kessler wrote: "And since the
Quarree of Nismes, one of the most unearthing in 1932 of the synagogue at
 JOHNS, JASPER 349

Dura-Europos, which is widely ac- Paris, where she Hved a quiet, reclusive

cepted as a bridge between Roman and life. Her subjects were mainly women
medieval art, Jewish art is now seen churchgoers, nuns, and children. She
more as a parallel manifestation within simplified the forms of her figures, and
the intricate configuration than as a for- presented the women in three-quarter-

mative precursor. Drawn from the same length, often seated poses (e.g.. Seated

pictorial repertoire, Jewish art seems to Girl Holding a Book, c. 1922). Her
have stimulated the expansion of Chris- colors are subdued, reminiscent of
tian imagery as an aspect of rivalry be- whistler, from whom she took lessons
tween Judaism and Christianity; in in Paris. She liked the rapidity and
turn, it may have been influenced by spontaneity of drawing and considered
Christian art." (dura-europos was a her finished drawings as important as
town in Syria, founded by the end of the her paintings. Over 1,000 of her draw-
2nd century bce; the synagogue dates ings and watercolors are in collections

from c. 245 to 256 CE.) Broader dis- around the world,

course on Jewish art is often compli-
cated by discussions of definition about Johns, Jasper
whether "Jewish" is a cultural, reli- born 1930 • American • painter •

gious, ethnic, or national reference. Pop Art

/ decided to do only what I meant to

John, Gwen
do,and not what other people did.
1876-1939 • British • painter
When I could observe what others did,
Modern
I tried to remove that from my work.
My religion is my art; for me it is My work became a constant negation
everything in life. of impulses had a wish to
... 7

determine what I was what I. . .

Born in Wales and educated London

in
wanted to do was to find out what I
with her brother, Augustus John
did that other people didn't, what I
( 1 878-1961), who is best remembered
was that other people weren't.
as a portraitist, Gwen John spent most
of her life in France. She was almost un- In the spring of 1954, when he met
known during her lifetime, though she rauschenberg and cage, Johns, at 24,
did once exhibit jointly with Augustus, became part of the New York art scene,
and she had work at the ARMORY SHOW. He moved away from abstract ex-
Her brother predicted that she would pressionism by, as he comments in the
someday be considered a better artist quotation above, doing what others did
than he was, and he proved to be not. He did paint objects — flags, tar-

correct. Unfortunately, her renown fol- gets, letters, and numbers. He did not
lowed her death. Where he was outgo- use oil paint, or even the alternative ma-
ing and flamboyant, she was retiring terials of some of his contemporaries
and shy. For a time she was rodin's (e.g., the house paint of kline); rather,
mistress, but in 19 13 she converted to he used the ancient encaustic tech-
Catholicism and moved outside of nique, mixing heated wax with pig-
350 JOHNSON, EASTMAN

ment. Although his method of painting are in constant demand, and

with encaustic did create a rich, tex- purchased before they leave the easel.

tared surface in a work such as Three (Henry T. Tuckerman, 1867)

Flags (1958), his images are not painted
for the expressiveness of the surface, as
are those of other artists. Instead they
are painted as expressions of the object
in itself, bringing to mind an idea cur-
rent at the time, that "the medium is
message." The largest of the Three
Flags is the full size of the painting; the
other, smaller flags are set within
Rauschenberg and Johns were cele-
brated as the founders of pop art, but
Johns adamantly refused the label,
While his early works have a cool de-
tachment, after the dissolution of his
close relationship with Rauschenberg, a
strong emotional expressiveness en-
tered Johns's art. He acknowledged
that change in 1978: "In my early work
I tried to hide my personality, my psy-
chological state, my emotions but . .
Johnson studied in dusseldorf. The
Hague, and Paris, and when he returned
home to Washington, D.C., in 1855, he
was the best-trained painter in the
the country. His painting entitled Negro
Life at the South (also known as Old
Kentucky Home; 1859) shows the at-
it. tention to detail and the high surface
finish he learned in Diisseldorf.The
theme, while reminiscent of Dutch
genre topics, was freighted with con-
temporary American concerns on the
eve of the Civil War. Set in the yard of a
tumbledown African-American house
in the District of Columbia, not Ken-
tucky, next door to Johnson's own
house, the family portrayed is both
stereotyped (banjo player, child danc-
. ing) and treated affectionately (a flirting

eventually it seemed like a losing battle, couple, mother and child). At the edge
Finally one must simply drop the re- of the painting, a well-dressed white
serve." Johns sometimes used words woman, followed by her black maid, is

with his paintings and, considering that entering the scene. Both pro- and anti-
he was an avid reader of philosophy, it Abolitionists interpreted the painting to
is tempting to connect current ideas of serve their own convictions. The histo-

SEMiOTics with his work. rianJohn Davis makes a strong argu-

ment in favor of Johnson's anti-slavery
T 1 r sympathies. A touch of nostalgia and
Johnson, Eastman r r
,

sense of ambiguity lurks in

. .
many or
18Z4-1906 • American • painter
Johnson's subsequent works, and also
Realist/genre
a celebration of uniquely American
works we find vital
In all his agrarian pursuits: He painted maple
expression, sometimes naive, at others sugaring and cranberry harvesting, and
earnest, and invariably characteristic; these latter paintings especially show
trained in the technicalities of his art, the influence of couture, with whom
keen in his observation, and natural in Johnson had studied in France, in the
we have a genre painter in
his feeling, brushstroke and attention to the dignity
Eastman Johnson who has elevated of the working class. Johnson's popu-
and widened its naturalistic scope and larity is described above in the words of
its national significance. His pictures Tuckerman, an important writer on
 JOHNSON, WILLIAM 35 I

American art and a contemporary of paintings for I am no ordinary

Johnson. American Negro painter. I am
recognized by known Americans
Johnson, Philip and Europeans as a painter
born 1906 • American • architect •
of value so I must demand
Modern/Postmodern respect.

People think of me as a chameleon. . . .

It's true.
A poor African-American from South
The outstanding American practitioner Carolina determined to study art, John-
of the INTERNATIONAL STYLE, JohnSOn
son moved to New York City in 19 18
was associated with mies van der and worked as a stevedore. He endured
ROHE on the Seagram Building. He was great hardship to earn money enough to
the first head of the architecture depart-
help feed the family, but in three years
ment of the Museum of Modern Art, had saved enough to study at the Na-
where in 1932, with the museum's di- tional Academy of Design. His teachers,
rector BARR and architectural historian
who later included luks, encouraged
HITCHCOCK, he organized the major and supported him and helped him go
exhibition The International Style: Ar-
to Paris in 1926. Despite his bold decla-
1949 Johnson
chitecture since 1922. In
rations, such as the one quoted above
designed the Glass House, in New
from a letter to Mary Beattie Brady,
Canaan, Connecticut, which is usually
recognition eluded Johnson. Brady
cited as his major work. During his
worked for the Harmon Foundation,
long career he has tried various ap-
which was established in the 1920s to
proaches — as his comment quoted provide Negro Achievement Awards. In
above concedes — including postmod-
1930 Johnson had won the Harmon
ernism. That is seen in the AT&T gold medal and the $400 first prize.
Building (1979-84; now the Sony But it was later, when he began, as he
Building), a New York City skyscraper
says, "to give, in simple and stark form
with a keyhole opening where the
the story of the Negro as he has ex-
pitched roof should peak. While com- isted," that Johnson's method devel-
monly described as a "Chippendale" without
oped: simplified, spatial
detail, after a style of furniture, John-
accuracy, but with bright, expressive
son's actual source of inspiration was color in an emotional, stylized "folk"
BOULLEE. The critic Brendan Gill en-
approach that was influenced both by
capsulated Johnson's long and contro-
pippin and Jacob lawrence. He
versial career and personality with the painted street musicians, bicyclists,
words "defiant cheekiness."
baptisms, churchgoers — the ordinary
life of black Americans — with sympa-
Johnson, WilHam
thy and humor. Going to Church
1901-1970 • American • painter •
(1940-41) is such a picture, and in ad-
Modern/Expressionist
dition to the GENRE theme, is a sophisti-
/ must say to you that you shall cated composition of bold forms and
demand a higher price for my strong colors.
352. JOHNSTON, HENRIETTA

Johnston, Henrietta insuperable obstacles in the pursuit of

P-I728 • American • painter • his studies, it is highly gratifying to
Colonial him to make assurances of his ability
to execute all commands, with an
. . . on April
170s were married
ii,
effect and in a style, which must give
Gideon Johnston and Henrietta
satisfaction.
Deering. (records of Saint Andrews
Church, Dublin, Ireland) .. , ,.
r » r •

He was the rirst artist or Arrican ances-

Johnston was America's first well- try to gain public recognition in the

recognized female portraitist. She was United States, but information about
born in either England or Ireland, and Johnston's early life is sparse. He may
when she and her husband moved to have been the slave of a portraitist from
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1708, the West Indies, but as a free man, his

she brought her supply of pastels with professional credentials are established
her. The church record quoted above by his being listed in the Baltimore di-

secures the date of her marriage to rectories as a portrait painter or a lim-

Johnston, a clergyman who already had ner between 1796 and 1824. While
two children. more is known
Very little most of his commissions came from
about her life. Charles Town, as it was wealthy, white, slaveholding families,
then called, was reputedly the most ex- Portrait of a Cleric (c. 1805) is of an
citing and bustling southern metropolis African-American. Johnston's style is

of the pre-Revolutionary era. Its popu- typical of the colonial approach to

lation was around 12,000 and whether portraiture: stiff figures arranged in a
it was a sophisticated city, as some in- line across the front of the picture
sisted, or a primitive village with muddy plane, with great attention paid to such
lanes and mosquitoes, as others said, is details as lace collars and coat buttons.
debatable. After Reverend Johnston In The Westwood Children (c. 1807),
came down with malaria, a mosquito- the three boys are joined by a small
borne disease, his wife was able to sup- black dog in profile that proudly carries
plement his income, if not support her a large bird in its mouth. They all have
family, by making portraits of notable heads slightly too large for their bodies,
local people. To the best of our knowl- including the dog. The words quoted
edge she worked uniquely in pastels, above are from Johnston's first adver-
and the pictures she did of her doctor's tisement in the Baltimore Intelligencer,
family may well have been in payment December 19, 1798.
for services rendered.

Jones, Inigo
1573-1652 • English •
Johnston, Joshua
architect/stage designer/painter •
active c. 1 789-1 824 • American
Baroque
painter • Colonial
/ find no pleasure other than learning.
As a self taught genius, deriving from
nature and industry his knowledge of Jones worked on stage designs for Ben
Bei

the Art; and having experienced many Jonson, probably knew Shakespeare,
 JORDAENS, JACOB 353

and was a friend of, as well as architect with him, explained to me the how
for, King Charles I — his title was Sur- and why of his manner and completed
veyor of the King's Works. He traveled the teachings I had received from
to Italy in 1613 and was inspired by Boudin. From this moment on, he was
CLASSICAL buildings and by palladio's my true master, and it is to him that I
treatise on architecture. The Banquet- owe the final education of my eye.
ing House (1619-22) for the royal (Claude Monet, 1900)
palace of Whitehall in London is his

masterpiece: The two-story stone fa- The fame of the painter who spoke the
cade is harmonious, symmetrical, and words quoted above far outshone that
elegant. Seven windows on the top floor of the man he wrote about so apprecia-
match seven on the bottom, and each is tively. Jongkind left home for Paris
bracketed either by engaged (i.e., non- in 1846 and studied with both a marine
structural, attached) columns or by pi- painter (Eugene Isabey) and a fig-
lasters (which have the appearance of ure painter (Francois Picot). His first

flattened columns). Alternate windows commercial success was a series of

on the first floor are surmounted by etchings. Six Views of Holland
curved or triangular pediments that call (1862). He, boudin, and monet be-
Palladio to mind. While the windows came painting companions in the
on the second story have no pediments, 1860s. Jongkind's luminous and fluidly
there is a delicate stone garland just painted harbor views, especially in Nor-
below the roofline. Inside is one long mandy, impressed both younger men,
room, with ceiling paintings by rubens and Monet also commented that
that were installed in 1635. These show Jongkind was "the only good painter of
a series of royal triumphs culminating marines that we have." His work was
with the king's exalted rise heaven- pre-iMPRESSiONiSM and, as is that of
ward. Charles admired the ceiling so boudin, is often described as natural-
much that he moved entertainment to ism.
another building rather than chance
that smoke from lighting fixtures might Jordaens, Jacob
ruin it. 1593-1678 • Flemish • painter •

Baroque

Jongkind, Johan Barthold The degree to which Jordaens was

1819-1891 • Dutch • truly censorious in delivering his moral
painter/printmaker • Naturalist message . . . is unclear; like other great
moralists before and after him, such as
His painting was too new and too
Jan Steen, he comically conscripted
artistic in tone to be rightly
vice in defense of virtue. (Peter C.
appreciated in 1862. Also, no one „
Sutton, 1993)
knew
, ,
less
,
than he
,
how
,
to
,
show one s
,

qualities. He was a good man, very At the age of 14, Jordaens became an
simple, speaking very bad French, and apprentice to the painter Adam van
very shy. . .He asked to see my
. Noort, with whom rubens had also
sketches, invited me to go to work studied. (Jordaens later married his
 —

354 JUDAICA

teacher's daughter.) He worked in

also ses. Jordaens was raised a Cathohc (he
Rubens's studio as a collaborator. With had a sister who was a nun and a
Rubens and van dyck, Jordaens was brother who was a priest), and although
one of the three most renowned Flemish he painted numerous altarpieces for
painters of the 17th century. In contrast Catholic churches, toward the end of
to theirs, his patrons were mostly the his life he became a fervent Protestant.
Flemish bourgeoisie and clergy rather
than members of the court. He painted Judaica
portraits with the high quality and Usually refers to ritual objects, like the

strong color and lighting that also char- menorah, but includes books and
acterized Rubens's painting. Jordaens's ephemera of all kinds.
Young Married Couple (c.
Portrait of a
1621-22) was attributed to Rubens be- Judd, Donald
fore stylistic analysis of particulars such 1928-1994 • American • sculptor •

as a rougher, more vigorous brush- Minimalist

work, florid skin tones, and other dis-
Three dimensions are real space. That
tinctive touches secured Jordaens's
gets rid of the problem, of illusionism
authorship. He painted biblical and
and of literal space, space in and
mythological history paintings and,
around marks and colors — which is
most marvelously, a series of illustra-
riddance of one of the salient and most
tions of a popular saying, "As the old
objectionable relics of European
ones sing, so peep Ising] the young."
art. . . . The use of three dimensions
These bore the message that the older
makes it possible to use all sorts of
generation should set a good example
materials and colors. Most of the work
but didn't. However, the boisterous
involves new materials, either recent
scenes with which he conveyed the mes-
inventions or things not used before
sage seem more humorous and bawdy
in art.
than cautionary, as the comment by
Sutton, quoted above, acknowledges. Judd's simple, boxlike forms, first ex-
The aphorism about setting an example hibited in 1963, helped launch the min-
was among those in the emblem book imalist movement. He had studied
of the Calvinist poet Jacob Cats. After painting at the Art Students League in

Rubens died, Jordaens succeededhim New York City and philosophy and art
as the leading master of the Antwerp history at Columbia University. His
School, and once relations between the Minimalist goal was to rationally order
Northern or United Provinces and the shape, volume, color, light, and mater-
Flemish or Southern Netherlands had ial with no illusionistic, symbolic, or re-

been restored with the Peace of Miinster alistic references at all. Thus his works
in 1648, he was commissioned to paint were not only untitled, but to avoid
an apotheosis, or allegorical deification them being seen in a historic sequence,
— The Triumph of Prince Frederick they were also unnumbered. Among
Henry (1649-52) — in a house near the his best-known sculptures is a stack of
Hague. Jordaens tried to but could not shiny, stainless-steel, shelflike units,
surpass Rubens's earlier, epic apotheo- each one precisely measured at 9yi6 x
 JUNK ART (found ART) 355

40V16 X 31V16 inches— Untitled (1967). which often included the work of
later,

At his death, Judd was working on de- rauschenberg, had as its more partic-
signs for a fountain in Winterthur, ular goal the intention of breaking the
Switzerland, and a facade for a railway barrier between everyday objects and
station in Basel. so-called high art.
1955 the sculp-
In
tor Richard Stankiewicz (192Z-1983)
Jugendstil said that using junk was, for a New
See ART NOUVEAU York City artist, equivalent to a South
Sea Islander using shells. For him and
Julius II for other sculptors who used junk (e.g.,

See MICHELANGELO and bramante Mark di Suvero, born 1933, and John
Chamberlain, born 1927), the materials
Junk (Found art)
art they employed were appropriate to the
Although DADA artist schwitters and industrial world: crushed automobile
others had incorporated discarded ob- bodies, girders, and miscellaneous parts
jects, the Junk art of the 1950s and of machinery, for example.
 K

Kahlo, Frida pean (Jewish) and native Mexican her-

1907-19 54 • Mexican painter itage. In this double self-portrait, she

Surreal/Folk/Feminist sits on a bench in almost identical

poses, but one figure wears a prim
/ paint my own reality. The only thing
white Victorian dress and the other a
I know is that I paint because I need
peasant costume the colors of earth,
to, and I paint always whatever passes
sky, and sun. Most unsettling and sym-
through my head, without any other
bolic, the women's hearts are painted
consideration.
outside their clothing, attached by an
Kahlo associated herself with the pre- artery that starts in a small picture
Columbian and revolutionary history of RIVERA, Kahlo's husband, held by
of her country. Ignoring her 1907 birth the self in native costume, and ends in

certificate, she listed her birth year as the hand of the other. The artery is

19 10, the year of Mexico's rebellion stanched with surgical scissors. She and
against dictatorship. As a child she had Rivera were divorcing at the time the
polio, and was left with one weak leg. picture was painted, though they later
At 18 she was in a bus and trolley colli- remarried. Their relationship was diffi-
sion that broke, twisted, and crushed cult and complex throughout their as-
her entire body, and as a result, sociation, and while Rivera's fame and
throughout the course of her life she en- support of her work allowed her entree
dured more than 30 operations. When into the art world, she lived in his
she died, at age 47, Kahlo left more than shadow despite her own stunning origi-
200 works, mostly self-portraits in na- nality. European artists claimed Kahlo
tive Mexican dress in the folk art tra- as a SURREALIST and showed her work
dition. Her paint is flat, she used little in Paris. As in the quotation above,
MODELING, her figures are forward fac- however, she protested that she painted
ing (frontal), without expression, and her own reality, not dreams. Her work
stare straight ahead. At times she is rich not only with cultural national-

adapted the small, Mexican ex voto ism but also with her personal experi-
painting on tin, popular since Colonial ence and pain, both emotional and
times, as her medium. One of her most physical. In several self-portraits, an
powerful and puzzling works. The Two image of Rivera's face is painted on her
Fridas (1939), shows her dual Euro- forehead. The Broken Column (1944)
 KALF, WILLEM 357

refers to her injury: Body pierced by with natural light. Kahn had many stu-

nails, her spine replaced with a multiply dents and other disciples for whom his

fractured column, her torso is strapped comment, quoted above, was a kind of

into a white brace. Kahlo also painted mantra.

previously unexplored subjects ofmen-
struation, abortion, miscarriage, and Kahnweiler, Daniel Henry
sexual rejection with forthright candor, 188 4- 1976 • German/French art

long in advance of feminist art. Kahlo dealer

and Rivera were political radicals in-
This new language [of Cubism] has
spired by Communism; she had an af-
given painting an unprecedented
fair with Leon Trotsky during his stay
freedom. It is no longer bound to the
in Mexico. Kahlo's standing and repu-
more or less verisimilar optic image
tation began togrow in the 1970s along
which describes the object from a
with the feminist movement, and her
single viewpoint.
extraordinary innovations and contri-
butions continue to build her expand- Best known as a series of overlapping,

ing reputation. tilted planes of geometric shapes in del-

icate browns, grays, pink beiges, and
Kahn, Louis I. cream colors, Kahnweiler was the sub-
1901-1974 • American • architect • ject of one of Picasso's most renowned
Modern examples of Analytic cubism, a portrait
painted in 19 10. Born in Germany,
Form is what. Design is how.
Kahnweiler moved to France in 1907,
International recognition came to Kahn opened a small art gallery, and became
rather late in life, celebrating his mu- Picasso's exclusive dealer — until the be-

seum designs, the most innovative of ginning of World War I, when his pos-

which is the Kimbell Art Museum in sessions were confiscated by the French
Fort Worth, Texas (1967-72). Kahn government. (He became a French citi-

spoke of what a building "wanted to zen in 1937.) Kahnweiler supported

be," that is, the form that was appropri- FAUVEs and cubists in his gallery in

ate for the building's purpose; for ex- Paris,was also friend and biographer of
ample, as he said, "a school is an GRis, and wrote an autobiography. My
environment of spaces in which it is Galleries and Painters (1971), as well as
good to learn." His projects began as The Rise of Cubism (1949), quoted
abstract, philosophical concepts from from above.
which the building emerged. In the case
of the Kimbell, five long parallel gal-
Kalf, Willem
leries look very much like Roman barrel
1619-1693 • Dutch • painter •
vaults (see arch). Kahn also said, "My
Baroque
mind is full of Roman greatness and
the vault so etched itself in my mind One must see this picture [by Kalf] in

that . . . it's always ready." The vaults order to understand in what sense art
have skylights to illuminate the galleries is superior to nature and what the
358 KAMARES WARE

Spiritof man imparts to objects. was the winner of the competition be-
For me, at least, there is no question tween painter and craftsman.
that should I have the choice of a
golden vessel or the picture, I Kamares ware
would choose the picture. (Goethe, See POTTERY

1797)
Kandinsky, Wassily (Vassili)
The Netherlands was the first European 1 866-1944 • Russian/German/French
society to experience weahh far beyond • painter • Expressionist/Der Blaue
its needs and dreams. From 1608, when Reiter
it broke from Spanish rule, until the late
Painting is the vast, thunderous clash
1 660s, when it was surpassed by rival
of many worlds, destined, through a
powers (especially Britain), the Nether-
mighty struggle, to erupt into a totally
lands was the richest nation the West-
new world, which is creation. And the
ern world had ever known. This was the
birth of a creation is much akin to that
"Golden Age" of still life painting,
of the Cosmos. There is the same vast
and the period of Kalf's life. He devel-
and cataclysmic quality belonging to
oped a new and unique type of
that mighty symphony— the Music of
pronkstilleven or banquet still life: the
the Spheres.
arrangement of extremely expensive,
lavishly wrought and decorated silver, Kandinsky's paintings are highly
porcelain, and glass objects with a few charged with color and feeling. They
pieces of fruit. This differed from most are entirely nonobjective; the discov-
still lifes with fruit in that was the ob-
it ery that he needed no identifiable object

jects, rather than the edibles, on which but only bright color patches was nearly
he lavished attention. And these objects an epiphany to him. In 1896 he left a ca-

were masterpieces of their kind: exquis- reer of teaching law in Russia to study

ite silver serving pieces, rare painted painting in Munich. In Germany he im-
Chinese porcelain, the finest Oriental mersed himself in avant-garde move-
rugs, superb Venetian glassware. As the ments, including ART nouveau and the
historian Svetlana Alpers writes, "Kalf Berlin Sezession (see secession). In
seems to have been competing with 1909, rebelling against the Munich
other human craftsmen rather than Sezession, he formed the neue kun-
with nature. His works make the claim STLER VEREiNiGUNG (nkv). Two years
that he could paint with his craft a later, with munter and marc, Kandin-
finer silver plate or glass goblet than sky left the NKV (which had rejected
the silversmith or glass blower could one of his works), and with them
make. . . . Such a painter lays claim to founded Der blaue reiter, a group
being supreme among human crafts- that was named after Kandinsky's own
men. And he paints his pictures for illustration for the cover of their publi-

wealthy Dutch merchants who are buy- cation. He was spokesman for Der
ing expensive illusions of expensive Blaue Reiter and the author of an in-

possessions." It is clear from the quota- fluential book. On the Spiritual in Art
tion above that in goethe's eyes, Kalf (191 2). Kandinsky's writings are as
 KAPROW, ALLAN 359

exuberant as his paintings. His aim ways in which historians, theoreticians,

was to remove from his art all traces and critics think about art. The intellec-

of the physical world, and to express tual challenge of Kant's time, in the
his spirituality. He was influenced by wake of the enlightenment, was a res-

Theosophy, a popular mysticism that olution of the dichotomy between ratio-

anticipates the end of the material nalism and empiricism. To meet the
world, leaving behind "essence" peo- challenge, Kant developed theories
pled by elect souls who communicate in about the fundamental structure of the
abstract and ideal "thought forms." human mind and its operation. His con-
Kandinsky's art is well described by his clusion is that the world we know does
comment quoted above. Sketch I for not exist outside of our mind's ability to
Composition VII (19 13), for example, know it (though our mind can never
has "thunderous clashes," "eruption," know itself). The laws of nature ob-
a "cosmic" and "cataclysmic" quality served by the intellect are, in fact, laws
in vibrant streaks of reds, golds, and that reflect the mind's own unconscious
blues that burst and collide. Kandinsky organization. Similarly, the source of
felt great affinity for music, the most our perception of beauty is in our minds
immaterial and ethereal of the arts. (the "eye of the beholder"). Kant sys-
Kandinsky left Germany during World tematically connected beauty with plea-
War I, returned to Russia, then returned sure in his formulation of a theory of
to Germany. He exhibited and was im- aesthetics. He also distinguished the
portant to art and artists of both coun- philosophy of art from other philoso-
tries. In I9ZZ he began teaching at the phies and insisted that it be judged by its

BAUHAUS and had a close working asso- own standards. His ideas led to aes-
ciation with KLEE. He became a German THETiciSM and a formalist critique of
citizen in the late 1920s, then left Ger- art, such as that practiced by fry.
many for France in 1933, the year Hit-

ler became chancellor and assumed Kaprow, Allan

dictatorial powers, and the Bauhaus born 1927 • American •

closed. Kandinsky was among artists performance • Happenings

whose work was shown in the Nazis'
But what do we do now?
exhibition of degenerate art in Mu-
nich in 1937, the year he became a In 1 9 5 8 , faced with what he understood
French citizen. to be the preemptive effect of Jackson
pollock on art, Kaprow asked the
Kant, Immanuel question above: "What do we do
1724-1804 • German • philosopher now?" Pollock had so challenged art
that later artists, seeking to make their
The beautiful is that which apart from
original mark, often felt compelled to
concepts is represented as the object of
move out of the painting tradition en-
a universal satisfaction.
tirely. In struggling to overcome or sur-
Very little of Kant's writings was di- pass Pollock,Kaprow copied one of
rectly concerned with works of art, but Pollock's methods and made it his
his ideas have had great influence on the means: Where Pollock used his whole
360 KATZ, ALEX

body and gestures in painting canvas, and emotional sense characterizes the
Kaprow got rid of the canvas, the paint, everyday scenes he paints. Yet, almost
and the permanence of art. His body it- in the vein of hopper, his people seem
self, and those of other participants, be- doomed to isolation, whether they
came his artistic medium. Part theater, know it or not. Supper (1974), for ex-
part improvisation, part conceptual ample, is set in the painter's dining
ART before that became a distinct defin- room, or kitchen, and he seems to have
ition, events were staged by Kaprow as just stepped away — his vacant place at

a one-time-only affair, a happening, the table is obvious — to record the

Happenings such as Words (1962), in scene. Although it is clearly a casual
which participants added phrases to gathering of good friends, several de-
what had been written, exist only in vices disconnect them from each other:
photographs or verbal descriptions. In a different kind of empty glass at each
Environment (i960), a multitude of old person's place mat, lack of eye contact,
tires were strewn on the gallery floor, the distinct void around each figure,
and for those stepping through the tires This is a commentary as much on the
it was like being inside a Pollock paint- pretensions of intimacy as on the steril-

ing, not just mentally but also physi- ity of late-20th-century social inter-
cally. These Happenings were much course,
like the throwaway culture of America,
but paradoxically, they were also like Kauffman, Angelica (also
religious rituals throughout history, Kauffmann/Kaufmann)
from pagan sacrifice to Native Ameri- 1 741-1807 • Swiss • painter •

can sand painting, that end or are de- Neoclassicist

stroyed once they serve their purpose.
,. , .
„ ;
Her heroines
#
are herself. (\on\\
ir ,^ ^ ,-,
Henn
Kaprow had
, ,

studied with
,

hofmann
,

and was painting

... in an abstract ex-
t^
ruseli,
,.
1
„ ,
8th century)
.

pressionist style when he began to Born in Switzerland, Kauffman spent

take courses with the musician cage, a her early years in Italy, where she stud-
pioneer of Happenings. ied and copied the old masters. In 1766
she went to England and lived there for
Katz, Alex 16 years. Despite women's difficulty in

born 1927 • American • painter • enjoying full-fledged participation in

New Realist the art world, Kauffman was able to

work successfully in London along with
I'd like to have style take the place of
REYNOLDS and WEST, and was one of
content, or the style be the content. . .

two women among founding members

I prefer it to be emptied of meaning,
of the Royal Academy in 1768. (The
emptied of content.
other woman, also Swiss, is Mary
Katz adapted the flat paint and adver- Moser, 1744-1819). In a portrait of
tisementstyleof pop ART to paintings of Royal Academy members painted by
people in his personal world, especially Johan Zoffany c. 1772, Kauffman's
his wife, Ada, who is often seen wearing (and Moser's) likeness appears as a pic-
black. A shallowness in both the spatial ture on the wall, rather than among
 KELLY, MARY 361

Other members. Because the painting in- Kelly, Ellsworth

cludes a nude male model, it was con- born 1923 • American • painter •
sidered indecorous for females actually Post-Painterly Abstraction
to be present. To the historian Griselda
. . . a shape can stand alone.
POLLOCK, this event signals the moment
that the distinction "woman artist" was Kelly's work is called hard edge
made. That is, men were artists, defin- PAINTING because of the clean, sharp
Kauffman and other
ing the term, while contours of the forms he painted. The
females were differentiated from the shapes have both straight and curving
profession by the modifying term: silhouettes, and they are in colors as
"women" artists. Kauffman's commis- strong, clean, and pure as their edges.
sions were mainly for portraits of These have a powerful effect on the
wealthy patrons, decorative paintings, eye — and the —
mind which is com-
and she designed numerous prints for pelled to see them as distinct, shapes
the contemporary market, often after that stand alone, as Kelly says above,
her own paintings. But she also wanted and yet cannot resist the appeal of the
to do HISTORY PAINTING, epic scenes, colors both in themselves and in rela-
often with biblical or mythological tion to one another (e.g.. Blue, Red,
themes, as these ranked highest on the Green, 1962-63). Unlike that of ges-
hierarchical, academic scale of impor- tural ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISTS, the
tance. Her Zeuxis Selecting Models for brushwork or motion of coloring on
His Picture of Helen of Troy (c. 1765), Kelly's canvases leaves no trace; there is
illustrating the legendary anecdote from thus no record on their surfaces of the
the life of zeuxis, is one such work. act of their creation.
History Paintings required knowledge
of both important subjects and tech- Kelly, Mary
niques (e.g., anatomy and perspective) born 1 94 1 • American • mixed
that women were not ordinarily trained media • Feminist/Conceptual
in. Moreover, History Paintings were
(age 3.8) CIS FOR CAKE. This is the
usually painted on large canvases, also
only letter he doesn't describe. He
outside the "feminine" realm. Kauff-
writes it backwards.
man was highly accomplished, and
when her scenes included women, she In protest against conventional repre-
often, as fuseli remarks in the quota- sentations of women, and even against
tion above, painted her own portrait as some feminists' expropriation of those
one of the historic figures. She does so images for their own purpose (see

most forthrightly in The Artist in the CHICAGO), Kelly rejected any direct rep-
Character of Design Listening to the In- resentations of women in her work. In-

spiration of Poetry (1782). Here we see stead she uses and images to
text
her persona absorbed into that of the indirectly argue, expose, and explore
Muse, a clear sign of how strong her the issues, especially of sexuality, that
identification with her profession was, interest her. In 1979 she exhibited the
despite the academy's formal differenti- first part of her 165-part Post-Partum
ation. Document, which she had begun in
362 KELMSCOTT PRESS

1973. The subject is her son's early hfe scene is divided into rocks and vegeta-
and her relationship with him. The tion in the foreground, the still waters
work is steeped in psychoanalytic the- of the lake in the middle ground with
ory and the ideas of foucault, espe- two small islands eccentrically placed at
cially hisargument that sexuality is the left, and majestic hills in the back-
determined by social and institutional ground. The hills enclose the water
discourse. The quotation above is a de- while defining the sky, which, heavy
tail of Documentation VI from Post- with clouds, occupies almost half of the
partum Document. The carefully picture. The historian Wayne Craven
printed words on black board are sur- describes Kensett's paintings as "land-
mounted by what look like a child's ef- scape of essences." The quotation
forts to write in white chalk. Discussion above, from Kensett's journal, explains
of C goes on with fanciful associa- what he hoped to accomplish when he
tions
— "C FOR ALLIGATORS CATCH-
IS left to study in Europe in 1840. He
ING COLDS. C IS FOR A COW PUSHING A stayed for seven years and, it cannot be
CART FULL OF CUPS PAST A CAT WITH A doubted, fully achieved his goal.
CAMEL ON A CHAIN." And in typescript
below Kelly writes about looking for a Kiefer, Anselm
nursery for her son. Her work is central born 1945 • German • painter •
to the study of Feminist art. Neo-Expressionist

. . . in order to understand the

Kelmscott Press
madness.
See William morris
Born in the final weeks of World War II,

Kensett, John Frederick Kiefer has seemed to put images of the

1 816-1872 • American • painter • destruction wrought by that war, along
Hudson River School/Luminist with the entire history and mythology
of German antagonisms, into his art.
. . , from the simplicity of indigence
For March Heath (1984) he used oil,
and ignorance to the simplicity of
ACRYLIC, and shellac on burlap, browns
strength and knowledge.
and black that intimate barrenness and
In contrast to the crowded harbors of desolation. In 1990 he constructed
LANE and the nearly flat vistas of Breaking of the Vessels, a bookcase
HEADE, Kensett's quiet coastal scenes with three steel shelves on which sit
include large, looming masses, some- 15,000 pounds of "books" with lead
times rock and sometimes hills. He was pages. The floor is covered with shards
much more low-key than other lumin- of glass. His reference is to a mystic
iSTs, with a subtly poetic vision, a re- Jewish text, the Zohar, and its ritual

strained range of color, and relatively symbolism. The shattered glass alludes
few elements in his composition. Lake to both the broken dome of heaven and
George (1869), a late work, is not an to Kristallnacht, the November night in
accurate picture of the scene — he left 1938 when rampaging Nazis all over
out some small islands — rather, it pre- Germany smashed the glass of Jewish-
sents landscape as a state of mind. The owned businesses. The thread of mor-
 KIRCHNER, ERNST LUDWIG 363

bidity and German romanticism that hospital room, or a Victorian room in

historians identify in Kiefer, and, in which an old lady waits to die. Back
fact, in the great majority of German Seat Dodge '3S (1964), in which a cou-
artists, may or may not be present. Cer- ple appear to be copulating, angered
tainly he appears to have a long-term Los Angeles city officials, who de-
obsession with Fascism: At the age of nounced the work as pornographic.
24 he compiled a book of photographs Mild by later standards, it, along with
of himself giving the Nazi salute, "Heil all of his other work, has an essentially
Hitler!" in front of monuments in Italy moralistic core.
and France. Was it to understand the
elation of conquest? An expression Kinetic art
of guilt by association?As with most From the Greek kinetos for "moving,"
contemporary art, Kiefer's is am- the term is used to describe machine-
biguous. He is generally labeled neo- driven works (e.g., tinguely's Homage
EXPRESSiONiST, yet his work seems less to New York, i960), as well as those
emotional than intellectual. Whether it driven by air currents (e.g., calder's
awakens notions of social responsibility mobiles). Paintings that use optical
is also difficult to determine, though techniques to give the illusion of move-
such an idea has support in that beuys ment (op art) are sometimes also con-
was his teacher. sidered a branch of Kinetic art (e.g.,

works by riley). In the 1890s, a "kine-

Kienholz, Edward toscope" was invented to project the se-
1927-1994 • American • sculptor • quences of time-lapse photographs
Found objects taken by muybridge to study motion.

All of my work has to do with living

Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig
and dying, and fears of death.
1 880-193 8 • German •

After his funeral in 1994, Kienholz was painter/printmaker • Expressionist

buried in his beloved 1940 Packard
With a profound belief in growth, a
coupe. In the backseat was
box con-
a
new generation of creators
belief in a
taining the ashes of a favorite dog, and
and appreciators, we summon the
in the glove compartment, a bottle of
younger generation— and as the youth
193 1 vintage Italian wine. Embalmed,
which carries within it the future, we
he wore black pants, a checked shirt,
wish to provide ourselves with a
and a turquoise bracelet, and in his
sphere of activity opposed to the
pocket was a deck of cards and a dollar
entrenched and established tendencies.
bill. The tape deck played Glenn
Everyone belongs to us who portrays
Miller's "In the Mood" and other tunes
his creative impulses honestly and
to which he had been dancing the night
directly.
before he died.The scene was as bizarre
as the ASSEMBLAGES or tableaux he usu- An architecture student in Dresden,
ally constructed from found objects: Kirchner was one of the founders of Die
strange, disturbing scenes from a Las BRiJCKE. Although many influences of
Vegas brothel, the operating table in a the period can be seen in his work, espe-
364 KITAJ, R. B.

cially CUBIST volume and fauve color, tion. "Kitaj draws better than almost
it is German expressionism, and the anyone else alive," hughes has written,
sharp, jagged lines associated with me- Kitaj also relies on literary or textual
DiEVAL German woodcuts (see wood- references, to which his quotation
block), that is most strongly felt, above alludes. If Not, Not (1975-76),
Kirchner not only made woodcuts, but for example, is a meditation on T. S.

he also carved and painted wood sculp- Eliot's poem The Waste Land. The
tures. He is best known, however, for Holocaust began to haunt many of his
his paintings of upper-class men and pictures in the form of death camp
women, bedecked in furs and top hats, chimneys and guardhouse gates. Other
who exude wickedness and an aura of Jewish themes include The Wedding
transgressive sexuality. In Dodo and (1989-93), based on his own religious

Her Brother (1908-20), for example, a ceremony, of 1983, at which hockney

combination of crass and acrid colors, was best man. For the painting, his wife
roughly applied, shows Dodo holding modeled herself after Rembrandt's
her pink fan, in a black-gloved arm, Jewish Bride: Kitaj was always contro-
over her pubic area. Her brother flashes versial, and when a retrospective of his

a demonic grin, and the picture reeks work was savagely reviewed in London
with intimations of incest. As emotion- during 1994, the lacerating attack was
ally troubled as his paintings suggest, analyzed on both sides of the Atlantic,
Kirchner suffered long crises of depres- and there were accusations of anti-
sion and illness that ended with his sui- Semitism and chauvinism. His wife died
cide in 1938. the same year, and during an interview
in 1997, Kitaj told a reporter of his con-
Kitaj, R. B. viction that the criticism in 1994 of his

born 1932 • American • painter • work precipitated his wife's death.

Modern/Figurative

Some books have pictures, and some Klee, Paul

pictures have books. 1879-1940 • Swiss/German •

painter • Expressionist/Abstract
Kitaj has lived as an expatriate in Lon-
fantasy
don since 1959. Supported by the GI
Bill, he studied at the Royal College of Art does not reproduce the visible;

Art and, in 1976, introduced the term rather, it makes visible. A tendency
"School of London" to designate his in- toward the abstract is inherent in
terest in figurative art and that of his linear expression: graphic imagery
colleagues — including bacon, freud, being confined to outlines has a fairy-
Frank Auerbach (born 1931), Leon like quality and same time can
at the
Kossoff (born 1924), and Michael An- achieve great precision. The purer the
drews (1928-1995). Though all paint graphic work — that is, the more the
the human form, their individual styles formal elements underlying linear
are entirely different. Kitaj uses hard, expression are emphasized— the less

sometimes sketchy outlines, often with adequate it is for the realistic

hard colors that affect a tense presenta- representation of visible things.
 ,

KLEIN, YVES 365

Klee proves to be among the most diffi- Germany, becoming a German citizen,
cult of MODERN artists to describe, for He was drafted into the German army
in a single work he may be both figu- during World War I and later taught at
RATivE and ABSTRACT, delightful to the bauhaus. He and kandinsky knew
look at and difficult to interpret. "In- each other well and interacted profes-
ventive" is the adjective almost uni- sionally, personally, and through their

formly resorted to, and while true, it art. They were, Mark Roskill writes,
neither describes nor explains his pic- "... like a musical partnership — pi-

tures. These are so individual and so im- anist and violinist, vocalist and accom-
mediately identifiable, it is as if he panist . . . even while their 'styles' of
expressed himself in a language of his performance and commentary re-

own invention, with different dialects mained entirely different in cast." Klee

but a root grammar and vocabulary, leftGermany in 1933, and in 1937 his
The key to his language may be the work was exhibited in the Nazi exhibi-
comment in the same text, Creative tion of degenerate art (as was
Credo (1920), quoted from above: Kandinsky's). Klee's last years of illness
"The formal elements of graphic art and disappointment —he was denied his

are dot, line, plane, and space — the request for French citizenship — were
last three charged with energy of vari- nevertheless productive, and successful
ous kinds." In contrast to Cezanne's in that he was exhibited internationally,

proclamation that art has form via

cylinder, sphere, and cone, Klee's fanci- Klein, Yves
ful shapes and colors are as likely to in- 1928-1962 • French • painter •
volve flat circles, triangles, diamonds, New Realist

rectangles, and squares (e.g.,

1 •
Postcard
11 r-
.
^ espouse the cause of lure Color,
, m ^ ;

no. 4, 1924) as they

,

would
,

wirelike tig- ,,,

which has been invaded and occupied
, j j j j
, , ,
, ,

ures with bird heads (Twittering

,

Ma- , r ,, , -^

...... j, •
, ,
guilefully by the cowardly line and its
chine, 1922). There a devotion to
is t •/;
, .
'
^,. ... , manifestation, drawing in art. I will
much
play in
J .

during the later years,

.
,
,
of his work, especially
,,11
when he devel-
,
defend
^

•,,
will lead
i
,

color,
j •

It
,
andj
^7
r

to final triumph.
;; j
I will deliver
/•

;
-^
it, andj r
I

oped ideograms or pictographs, per-

sonalizing his language in fact as well as When he was 20, Klein became inter-
effect. Two of these contrast his sense of ested in the teaching of Rosicrucians
play with his premonitions of disaster: (see salon de la rose -i- croix). That
In Park Near Lu(cerne) (1938), thick led to his absorption with color, blue in
black lines robed in color allude to particular, which to him embodied a
plants and trees, while in Death and new age in which spirit would be liber-
Pire (1940) a few heavy lines and mo- ated. He painted canvases with a single
rose colors represent human beings, color, uniformly applied from each end
Soon after Death and Fire, Klee died of of the canvas to the other. He saturated
the rare skin disease scleroderma, from sponges in paint. He burned blue, pink,

which he had suffered since 1935. Born and gold pigment — a Rosicrucian tril-

in Switzerland, Klee studied in Munich ogy of the colors of fire into asbestos —
and worked for a good part of his life in in Fire Painting (1961-62). He had
366 KLEITIAS

women cover themselves with paint and have to say something about myself or
make marks on the ground in what he my work. Even when I have a simple
called Anthropometries. He himself letter to write I am filled with fear and
"flew" out of a window— Leap into the trembling as though on the verge of
Void, near Paris, October 23, i960 — being sea-sick.
which was recorded by a photographer.
Altered to remove the tarpaulin on The quotation above, from an undated
which he landed, the photograph of his typescript called Commentary on a
feat appeared on the front page of a non-existent self-portrait, is the only
newspaper that he created and distrib- record of Klimt's view of himself. In
uted on Sunday, November 27, i960. about 1 89 1, his previously straightfor-

Klein's writings and his work are filled ward style changed. His new paintings
with ecstatic prophecy and mysticism, had brilliant decorative patterns and
but toward the end of his life, before he strong colors that seem to overwhelm
died of a heart attack, he found himself the people swathed in and surrounded
portrayed as a bizarre eccentric rather by these bold patterns. The figures often
than a prophet. float, embrace one another, and seem

transported with erotic pleasure or

Kleitias longing. But an observer feels a perva-
See FRANgois vase sive angst, a nervous tension, perhaps
because space becomes unfathomable,
and perhaps from an impulse to dis-
Klimt, Gustav
entangle what seems real and three-
1 862-191 8 • Austrian • painter •
dimensional (e.g., faces) from what is
Modern/ Art Nouveau
flat, abstract design (e.g., The Kiss,

/ can paint and draw. I believe as much 1907-08). If Klimt's experiments in

myself and others also say they believe submerging people in patterns are remi-

it. But I am not sure that it is true. niscent of vuiLLARD, and his femme
Only two things are certain: FATALE types call to mind those of
MOREAU, his mood of pre-World War I
1. 1 have never painted a self-portrait. I despair and decadence is like that of
am less interested in myself as a MUNCH and ensor. With the formation
subject for a painting than I am in of the Vienna secession in 1 897, Klimt
other people, above all women. But became its leader and began to earn
other subjects interest me even more. I an international reputation as an ART
am convinced that I am not NOUVEAU painter. The group's ex-
particularly interesting as a person. hibitions introduced Vienna to the
There is nothing special about me. I work of MACKINTOSH, the French im-
am a painter who paints day after day pressionists, and post-impressionist
from morning until night. Figures and art. Klimt ended his brief self-analysis

landscapes, portraits less often. quoted above with the comment,

"Whoever wants to know something
2. / have the of neither the spoken
gift about me —as an artist, the only notable
nor the written word, especially if I thing — ought to look carefully at my
 KOKOSCHKA, OSKAR 367

pictures and try to see in them what I and white, it could hardly be more inac-
am and what I want to do." curate. The rapid, slashing, successive
layers of his wide marks on the canvas
Kline, Franz are nothing like the careful, precise, del-
1910-1962 • American • painter • icate elegance of calligraphy. Kline used
Abstract Expressionist commercial paint from a gallon can and
a broad-bristle house painter's brush.
Since 1949 ... I've been working
Needing a hard surface to absorb the
mainly in black and white paint or ink
pressure of his brushstroke, he tacked
on paper. Previous to this I planned
his canvas on a wall. Although his
painting compositions with brush and
forms look spontaneous, Kline ex-
ink using figurative forms and actual
plored shapes and ideas in a multitude
objects with color. The
work in
first
of ink studies before committing them
only black and white seemed related to
to canvas. In the 1950s Kline intro-
figures and I titled them as such. Later
duced color to his paintings, as in Com-
the results seemed to signify
position 19^3, where, on looking very
something— but difficult to give
closely, one discovers shapes or spots of
subject or name to, and I find it

impossible to make
. . .

a direct, verbal
color — red, yellow, green, silver. A
great talker and storyteller, Kline was,
statement about the paintings in black
however, reticent when asked to ex-
and white.
plain his paintings. He once quoted the
KHne grew up in Pennsylvania's coal bandleader Louis Armstrong, who said,
country. In some ways his paintings re- "Brother, if you don't get it, there is no
semble marks made by scraping chunks way I can tell you."
of soft coal on a white wall. They may
also reflect his interest in trains — his fa- Kokoschka, Oskar
ther was a railroad foreman — in the 1886-1980 • Austrian/English •
sense of the speed and movement of his painter • Expressionist
brushstroke. He worked in black and
The state of awareness of visions is not
white, as he says in the quotation
one in which we are either
above, dark and light sometimes collid-
remembering or perceiving. It is rather
ing and clashing, sometimes blending,
a level of consciousness at which we
in a variety of tones. Unlike his friend
experience visions within ourselves.
DE KOONING, Klein totally abandoned
the figure in his abstract expression- Kokoschka moved from an early en-
Kooning (and Jackson
ism, but like de counter with ART NOUVEAU, in Vienna,
pollock) he was an Action painter to the enduring influence of expres-
whose physical movement, energy, ex- sionism, especially after he went to
erted in the very act of painting, be- Berlin in 1910. The Bride of the Wind
comes part of the image (see action (1914), painted two years after he
painting). The term "calligraphic," al- wrote the essay "On the Nature of Vi-
luding especially to Chinese calligra- sions," from which the quotation above
phy, is frequently applied to Kline's is taken, is both a romantic vision and
paintings, yet except for the use of black an ecstatic image of his three-year love
368 KOLLWITZ, KATHE SCHMIDT

affair Alma Mahler, widow of the

with began when she was at the Berlin
composer Gustav Mahler. They float School for Women Artists, in which she
together between dream and memory, enrolled at the age of 17. Her parents
against a background of the night sky were Socialists,and she joined the So-
and a mountain landscape. They are cialist Democratic party. Her husband,
surrounded by a swirl of thick paint a doctor, was also a member of the
strokes, their bodies, too, built up of party. Kollwitz was the first of the Ger-
heavy impasto strokes. When Alma man SOCIAL REALISTS who developed
Mahler left him for gropius, Ko- out of EXPRESSIONISM during and after
koschka had a doUmaker fabricate a World War I. (Others were dix and
life-size effigy of her. During the day the GROSZ.) She worked in several types of

doll accompanied him about town, it PRINT mediums, and in one of her major
slept in his bed at night, and it appears series.The Peasants' War (1902-08),
next to him in Self-Portrait with Doll she combined the techniques of aqua-
(19ZO-21). After a drunken revel he tint and soft ground etching. This
"murdered" the doll and threw it onto a group of seven prints shows moments in
garbage truck. Kokoschka had served a peasant rebellion of the i6th century

and been seriously wounded in World and commemorates the leadership of

War I. He began to travel in the 1920s, "Black Anna," who, in The Outbreak
painting dynamic urban scenes with the (plate #5 in the series, 1903), is shown

emotions they provoked. He opposed from the back, forcefully leading the
work was confiscated
the Nazis, and his peasants' advance. Her strength is not
by them and shown in their exhibition only in the energy of her own form, but
of DEGENERATE ART. In 1937, the same is reflected in the faces of the surging
year of the exhibition, he painted a self- mass of protesters as well. It shows the

portrait entitled Portrait of a "Degener- power of people who share a common

ate Artist." He moved first to London, cause, and Kollwitz said she modeled
where he became a British citizen, and the figure of Anna on her own. Her
then to Switzerland, where he contin- commitment to social action is ex-
ued to paint in the Expressionist mode. pressed in the comment quoted above;
she was also a feminist (founder of the
Kollwitz, Kathe Schmidt Women's Arts Union [Frauen Kunstver-
1867-1945 • German • band] in Berlin in 191 3), and a pacifist.

printmaker/sculptor • She lost her son World War I and

in her
Expressionist/Social Realist grandson in World War II. She was ab-
sorbed throughout her career by the
One can say it a thousand times, that
concept of death; it was the subject of
pure art does not include within itself
her last cycle of large-format litho-
a purpose. As long as I can work, I
graphs, begun in 1934. Call of Death
want to have an effect with my work.
(1934) is a self-portrait made with the

Kollwitz expressed her concern with the thick lines of the lithographic crayon; it

suffering of the poor in prints, for shows her darkly shadowed head turn-

which she isknown, and in sculp-

best ing toward a hand that touches her on
ture. Her interest in the downtrodden the shoulder.
 KOSUTH, JOSEPH 369

Komar and Melamid (Vitaly tions their telephone callers asked a

Komar, born 1943, and Alexander sampling of 1,001 Americans. Amer-
Melamid, born 1945) ica'sMost Wanted is the picture that re-
Russian • painters • Social sulted from their survey. It is a vast

Realists/Conceptual landscape with gentle mountains, a

lake, and two deer, an American family,
The most important thing in art isn't
and, in the middle foreground, George
line or paint or brushwork but power.
Washington. "I must confess it's not the
That's what art is about. Since we
best picture in the world," Melamid
know what people want, we can even
said apologetically. Eventually, Komar
and
rule the people. All great leaders
said, they will create "the painting of
great artists know the people. (Komar
humanity." He added, "We're quite
speaking for his collaborator and
ambitious." In 1997 their project was
himself)
documented in an ironic, mischievous
Komar and Melamid immigrated to book. Painting by Numbers.
America (via Israel) from the former So-
viet Union in 1978. They had exhibited kore, korai (pi.)

their unappreciated "dissident" work in From the Greek meaning "maiden,"

the USSR in 1972, the famous outdoor "kore" refers to the sculpted, standing,
"Bulldozer Show" was destroyed
that clothed female figures of the archaic
by the secret police, who beat and ar- period in Greek art. (See also kouros)
rested many of the artists. Success came
to them in New York. They ridiculed Kosuth, Joseph
Russia's political scene with pictures born 1945 • American • installation

and the Muses (1981-82),

such as Stalin • Conceptual

which, mimicking art of the grand

The art itself, which is neither the
MANNER, poses a heroic Stalin with the
props with which the idea is
Greek goddesses of creative inspiration.
communicated, nor the signed
Clio, goddess of history, hands him a
certificate, is only the idea in and of
large tome on which to make his mark.
the work.
Komar and Melamid named their ab-
surd satire "Sots" art, combining so- A pioneer of conceptual art and an
cial REALISM and POP art. If art was advocate of its intention to dematerial-
controlled by the state in Russia, then ize the art object, Kosuth proclaims that
painters, critics, historians, and mu- one does not need a painting, sculpture,
seum officials, as well as rich collectors, or even a found or manufactured ob-
they discerned, dominated art produc- ject to create art. The intention of the
tion in America. So in 1993 the two Conceptual artist is to engage the
artists decided to collect information "viewer's" or audience's mind directly,

about what "genuine people" —the rather than her or his visual, auditory,
American public —would want if their or tactile sensations. There are, in fact,
taste were polled. "Would you rather objects in Kosuth's One and Three
see paintings of outdoor scenes or in- Chairs (1965): A real chair sits on the
door scenes?" was one of the 102 ques- floor, a full-size photograph of a chair is
370 KOUROS, KOUROI

on the wall, and next to it is a printed turies. Kouroi and korai represented
definition of the word "chair." But they aristocratic young women and men at
are not important. What matters is that the peak of their beauty and strength,
a work such as this may raise questions They replaced vases as grave markers,
that include the meaning and role of and stationed around temples, were
language (see semiotics), the relation- used as votive offerings to the gods. The
words and things and images,
ships of human form was the primary focus of
Kosuth also uses quotations from the Greek art, and the kouros and kore,
German cultural critic Walter ben- which were originally painted, were
JAMIN in his textual works. At a dinner ideal, generic types rather than indi-
party held in honor of Kosuth's 50th viduals. An upturned mouth, known as
birthday, an unblinking neon sign the "archaic smile," appears in many
mounted on the wall bore one of his ex- mid-6th-century statues,
hortations: self-describe self-
define. Kraft, Adam
active 1490-1509 • German •

kouros, kouroi (pi.) sculptor • Late Gothic/Early

Kouros is Greek for "young man" and Renaissance
refers to the sculpted, standing male fig-
The forenamed master Adam has
ures of theARCHAIC period in Greek art.
promised to complete this work,
. . .

The FRONTAL kouros pose probably

with God's help, within more or less
owes its origin to the ancient Egyptian
.
,,..„,
sculptural tradition. 1 hrough trade and
, ,
. the next three years, as counted
, ,
, , . , ,
from
,

T-. r-
the date Of this contract, and for such
settlement in the Nile Delta, Greek
1
arti-
work shall not have the right to
. . .

sans learned stone quarrying and cut-

ask more than seven hundred guilders
ting techniques from the Egyptians.
altogether (contract, 1493)
They adopted the rigid, frontal, expres-
sionless appearance, as well as the un- In 1493, Kraft and his workshop cre-

forgiving symmetry and domineering ated an enormous stone sculpture for

monumentality of the Egyptian proto- the church of Saint Lorenz in Nurem-
type. They also imitated the pharaonic berg, Germany — a shrine more than 60
posture: straight arms with clenched feet high — for storing communion
fists, one stiff leg advanced in front of wafers. This eucharistic tabernacle is

the other. The Greek figure, however, interesting on grounds other than its

was sculpted of marble, instead of the elaborate and skillful carving: An un-
hard nephrite or diorite of Egyptian derstanding of contractual practices
work; its arms were not of a piece with comes from reading the agreement be-
the sides of its body, as the Egyptian tween Kraft and his wealthy patrons,
was; and the Egyptian's standard back the Imhoff family, quoted from above,
support was removed so that the Greek It stipulates details such as completion

statue might be freestanding. Most dis- date, quality of materials, and payment,
tinctive, the kouros is naked (see nu- The structure itself includes elaborately
dity). The female statue, the kore, carved scenes of the life of Christ. But at
remained clothed for another two cen- the base of the towering shrine, appear-
 KYLIX 371

ing to hold up the entire structure, is guage, that is, the connection between
something of a surprise: three life-size language and other cultural phenom-
human figures, contemporary in ap- ena, such as folk tales — a combination
pearance. One, kneeling, is a well-built of the visual and the verbal. Krasner
man with a tightly curled beard. He studied with hofmann and married
wears a workman's costume and holds Jackson pollock, whose work over-
the tools of his trade. This is believed to shadows hers and whose turbulent life
be Kraft's self-portrait, a highly signifi- made hers chaotic.
cant symbol in that the sculptor in-
cludes himself in the purpose and krater
meaning of the work, occupying a low A tallbowl with a wide mouth for mix-
but absolutely critical and supportive ing wine and water, the usual drink for
position. The other two figures under Greeks. Also used for grave site offer-

the base may be Kraft's assistants. ings. (See also pottery)

Krasner, Lee Krimmel, John Lewis

1911-1984 • American pamter • See NEAGLE and rush
Abstract Expressionist
Kritios Boy
/ think it does suggest hieroglyphics of
See CONTRAPPOSTO
some sort. It is a preoccupation of
mine from way back and every once in
kylix
a while it comes into my work again.
A shallow drinking cup on a stem, often
Fascinated with writing — Hebrew, decorated with Dionysian (pertaining
Kufic (an ancient Arabic script), as well to Dionysus, the Greek god of wine)
as hieroglyphs —Krasner incorporated themes, e.g., Dionysus in a Sailboat (c.
them in her paintings, usually in dense, 550 bce) by EXEKiAS. (See also pot-
overall images that imply metalan- tery)
 L

La Farge, John 1 861 he painted a small still life, 2.2

183 5-19 lo • American painter/ inches high by 12 wide, Agathon to

designer • Aestheticist Erosanthe, A Love Wreath, based on a
greek tradition of leaving a wreath of
Rembrandt would be happy here [in
flowers as a token of love outside the
Samoa], especially in the evenings,
home of the beloved. The background
when the coconut fire . . . makes a
for this wreath appears to be a plain
center of light.
white wall, yet it is anything but plain
La Farge grew up in New York City, or white. The paint is thickly applied,
where his French emigre parents pro- dragged roughly across the surface, and
vided highly cuhivated, privileged sur- interlaced with pinks, blues, grays, and
roundings. He first studied law, but a creams. Not only is the texture almost
trip to Europe 1856 changed his di-
in tactile, but so too is the strong light that
rection. He was briefly in couture's strikes the subtly and impressionisti-
studio, then in that of William Morris cally painted circle of flowers and laurel

HUNT in Newport, Rhode Island. His leaves. It is unlike any other still lifes

circle of friends included artists as being painted at the time. Later, La

diverse as homer and bartholdi, Farge led a revival of mural art in Amer-
along with the lettered elite: He became ica. In 1876, the architect richardson
good friends with Henry and William put him in charge of the interior decora-
James while they, too, studied with tion of Trinity Church in Boston, for
Hunt, and the historian-philosopher which he designed and executed murals
Henry Adams was his travel compan- as well as stained glass windows. Ac-
ion. La Farge and Adams visited cording to legend. La Farge began ex-
Japan — La Farge had already been perimenting with stained glass in the

among the first Westerners to collect 1 870s after noticing how light struck a

Japanese art, which, along with many blue bottle on the windowsill while he
other styles and ideas, he absorbed was in bed, recuperating from an ill-

and reflected — and subsequently went ness. Although tiffany is often given
around the world starting from San credit, it was La Farge who invented
Francisco and stopping in Hawaii, opalescent glass — several colors fused
Samoa, and Tahiti. His high level of so- together to create an irregular texture
phistication and wide range of accom- and expressive shadings. Flower designs
plishments in a variety of mediums were among his most beautiful glass

contribute to making La Farge essen- creations, and peonies among his fa-

tially uncategorizable. For example, in vorite i\owers — Peonies Blown in the

 LABROUSTE, HENRI 373

Wind (1878-79), for example. Not essentials, and in his later works they
only is the peony rich in Oriental sym- appear almost to be reduced to geomet-
bolism, but La Farge also framed his de- ric surfaces reflecting light as pure, sim-

sign to resemble a Japanese hanging plified forms. He seems able to distill

scroll. At the same time he worked with emotion through purified form. In

glass, La Farge began painting in wa- paintings such as The Cheat with the
TERCOLOR — flower and landscape stud- Ace of Diamonds (two versions, both
ies, and cultural studies from the South before 1630), the light is harsher, and
Seas islands, to which he voyaged. the wily subjects wear elaborate, low-
cut gowns and brocaded silks. The
La Tour, Georges de theme is believed to be a moralizing
1593-1652 • French • painter • one: The man duped by card players
Baroque is likely a metaphor for the biblical

Prodigal Son. Along with the stylistic

Scratch almost any great seventeenth-
influence of the Dutch Caravaggisti,
century painter except Poussin, and
an actual painting by Caravaggio, The
tracesof Caravaggio will appear. . . .

Cardsharps (c. 1595-96), may have

The best French painter to fall under
been the inspiration for La Tour's
Caravaggio's spell was Georges de La
example of innocence deceived. The
Tour. (Robert Hughes, 1987)
theme of repentance, a popular
Although it is not known how the influ- Counter-Reformation subject, is often
ence of CARAVAGGIO reached him —ap- seen in La Tour's work — in images of
parently he never went to Rome — it is penitent saints (e.g.. Saint Jerome,
clear from his dramatic use of light and 1 6 20-25, and Saint Peter, 1645) ^^'^

shadow Tour was among the

that La many versions of Mary Magdalene
CARAVAGGiSTi, as HUGHES points out in from the 1630s and '40s.

the quotation above. His personal inter-

pretations of the prototype were by
Labrouste, Henri
night scenes in which the flame of a
1801-1875 • French • architect •
candle selects and illuminates the sub-
Romantic Rationalist
ject with a spiritual glow. Christ and

Saint Joseph in the Carpenter's Shop (c. Henri Labrouste is without doubt the
1645), for example, is a unique depic- architect of the middle nineteenth
tion of Joseph, who bends over his car- century whose work possessed the
pentry work while the young Christ most significance for the future. His
kneels next to him holding the candle. time, of course, dictated the use of
Light is shed on what is important: Renaissance or classical shapes, and he
Joseph's strong arm and high forehead; used them with the greatest artistic

Christ's face, which is even brighter distinction. But it was in his methods,
than the flame; and Christ's hand, in the way he analyzed and executed a
which, next to the candle, is nearly task in building, that he stood far in
transparent. His hand is also in the fa- advance of his times and of his
miliar gesture of blessing. La Tour colleagues. (Siegfried Giedion,
pared down the elements in a picture to 1941)
374 LACHAISE, GASTON

Labrouste won the grand prix when lowed her to the United States. He was
he was 23 and spent five years in Rome, devoted to sculpting the female form,
but he was more interested in solving especially that of his beloved Isabel
contemporary problems with new ideas Nagle, whom he represents as hyper-
than with those established by the voluptuous, Amazonian in form with
ACADEMY. He opened his own atelier, or gigantic arms, breasts, and thighs. In
school, in which rationalism includ- — concert with the enormity of his con-
ing his belief that "form must always ceptualization, the bronze figures them-
be appropriate to the function for selves are larger-than-life: Standing
which it is intended" —was part of the Woman (1932), for example, is more
controversial teaching method. His op- than 7 feet high. Lachaise's credo,
position to the academy contributed quoted above, describes his volumetric,
to Labrouste's lack of significant com- bulging, smoothly polished forms.
missions until, in 1843, he was given
the design of the Library of Sainte- Laer, Pieter van
Genevieve in Paris. This library was the 599-1642?
c. 1 • Dutch • painter •

first important public building to use Baroque

cast-and wrought-iron construction
Every day he would paint pictures of
from the foundations to the roof. The
varying size but with small figures,
iron does not here substitute for exte-
about one palm [about 9 inches]
rior masonry, as it later will do; rather,
high — never any bigger. (Giovanni
it serves for interior structural support:
Battista Passeri, 1772)
columns, and roofing. La-
beams,
brouste's masterwork is the Biblio- Van Laer went to Rome from the
theque Nationale, or National Library, Protestant town of Haarlem in 1625,
in Paris (1858-68), in which he takes and he was one of an association of
another step with iron, using gridiron NETHERLANDISH painters called the
floors that allow natural light to pene- Bentveughels or Birds of a Feather. He
trate the stacks on every level. Com- —
was credited with and accused of in- —
bining innovation and logic is the troducing a new subject to Italian art:
approach for which giedion com- the everyday life of working-class
mends Labrouste in the quotation people, beggars, shepherds, and the
above. poor of various occupations and pre-

occupations — GENRE paintings. Van

Laer's stunted physique gave him, and
Lachaise, Gaston
the movement he initiated, the slang
1882-193 5 • American • sculptor •
name bamboccianti, a term describing
Modern
a malformed doll or puppet. He sold his
Simplify and amplify: amplification genre scenes at fairs, to dealers, and
and simplification. anywhere else he could find a buyer,
for he was most unlikely to attract a
Born in France and a student at the patron. Ironically, van Laer became
ficoLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, Lachaise fell in popular and expensive, as well as con-
love with an American woman and fol- troversial, and he was despised by
 —

LANDSCAPE 375

artists of the establishment. The de- in 15Z0, he described the paintings

scription quoted above is by an art of patinir. A household inventory in
chronicler of the 1 8th century. Venice, c. 1524, listed "landscape
paintings," and in 1530 giorgione's
landscape Tempest (1505-10) was described as a
A wall painting from the Neolithic landscape even though it has prominent
town of Qatal Hiiyiik in Anatolia (c. foreground figures, thus complicating
6150 bce) may be the first known the definition. Italians (e.g., Federigo
"pure" landscape —that is, one stand- Pericles) what were called
collected
ing on its own merits, not as back- landscapes. Both collectors and con-
ground for a narrative scene. It is noisseurs looked to Northern Europe
believed to show the town, an erupting for landscape expertise; three Flemish
volcano, and a mountain. From the late painters were employed in titian's
Bronze Age, minoan paintings on the workshop for their landscape painting
walls of houses on the island of thera skills. If Italians were happy to relin-
have remarkable scenes (c. 1500 bce): quish the landscape to northerners, it

hills and lilies in one; the sea filled with was because they claimed the more
ships, the shoreline, hills beyond, and highly valued history paintings,
incidental activity in the other. During which were dependent on classical
the ist century bce Roman walls were scholarship, for themselves. Mean-
painted with idealized landscapes, while, in the northern countries during
PLINY the Elder wrote about a land- the i6th century, landscapes also be-
scape painter who "... painted villas, came a distinct interest. Their appeal
porticos and parks, groves, copses, drew in part on people's travels and
hills, fishponds, straits, rivers, shores, also on the fact that a newly enriched
as anyone could wish." A medieval middle class became able to buy both
manuscript, Carmina Burana (early land and pictures of it. Interest in the
13th century), contains a poem to landscape was then also inspired by de-
spring illustrated with an ornamental, scriptions brought back from the New
stylized representation of a landscape. World —reports of its virgin and primi-
and like its predecessors it makes no tive resources directed attention to the

pretense of recording a factual topogra- shrinking local forests and countryside,

phy. Both idealized and realistic land- Moreover, the Protestant Reformation,
scapes decorated the backgrounds of discouraging church adornment, served
MEDIEVAL and renaissance art em- — to encourage landscape painting. In
bellishing on Pliny, alberti wrote: 17th-century Holland, landscape
"Our minds are cheered ... by [paint- quite independent of human figurative
ings of] the delightful countryside. ..." interest — became its own raison d'etre,
But it is during the i6th century that the the full orchestra and orchestration of
landscape background became increas- the work, with matchless mood and re-

ingly detailed and important, leading to finement (e.g., segers, van goyen, van
the concept of landscape as a specialty ruisdael, and hobbema). It was the
in its own right, durer was one of the century of mapping and exploration,
first to use the term "landscape" when, what has been called the Age of Obser-
376 LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN

vation, and those artists describe the markable ambidexterity: It was re-

world observed. barbizon(See also ported that he performed the feat of si-

SCHOOL, NORWICH SCHOOL, HUDSON multaneously drawing a stag's head

RIVER SCHOOL and PLEiN air) with one hand and the head of a horse
with the other. He was Queen Victo-
Landseer, Sir Edwin ria's favorite painter and the most fa-
1 802-1 873 • English • painter • mous of 19th-century animal painters.
Romantic He was given a state funeral and a tomb
at Saint Paul's Cathedral, alongside
[Concerning] a dog of Edwin
REYNOLDS, LAWRENCE, and TURNER.
Landseer . . . the outward texture is
The animals scattered around his paint-
wrought out with exquisite dexterity
ing Windsor Castle in Modern Times
of handling, and minute attention to
{Portrait of Victoria, Albert and the
all the accidents of curl and gloss
which can give appearance of reality;
Princess; 1841-45) are domestic — four
while the hue and power of the
dogs — and the only sign of raw nature
is the collection of dead birds that
sunshine, and the truth of the shadow,
Prince Albert has brought home from
on all these forms are neglected, and
the hunt. To ruskin, quoted above, and
the large relations of the animal, as a
to later critics, Landseer fell into a num-
mass of colour, to the sky or ground,
or other parts of the picture, utterly
ber of faults — triviality, sentimentality,

and distortion. An example of that is

lost. This is realism at the expense of
Dignity and Impudence (1839), in
ideality; it is treatment essentially
which a large and a small dog peer out
unimaginative. (John Ruskin, 1843)
of the doghouse. Despite its sentimen-
In the ROMANTIC repertoire, when tality, it was the most popular picture of
man confronted nature, the awesome the 19th century. His portrayal of black
power of nature prevailed (see sub- and white Newfoundland dogs led to
lime). This is the theme of Landseer's Newfoundlands of that coloration
strange painting, Man Proposes, God being named "Landseers." The four
Disposes (1863-64). It is based on an great lions at the base of Nelson's Col-
actual expedition to find the Northwest umn in Trafalgar Square, executed
Passage that ended in tragedy in 1855. from Landseer's models, are his best-

News about the discovery of the Arctic known works. His last years were,
shipwreck in 1857 inspired Landseer's according to a biographer, "full of suf-

portrayal of a glacial landscape with fering, mainly of broken art and shat-
two ferocious polar bears who explore, tered mental powers."
with apparent rage, the evidence of
man's incursion into their domain. One
Lane, Fitz Hugh
of the bears may be chewing on the re-
1 804-1 865 • American pamter •
mains of a human rib cage. This picture
Romantic/Luminist
was disdained by some critics for its

"occult pathos." Landseer became a Standing on the bare ground— my

celebrity known for the speed with head bathed by the blithe and
air,

which he could paint and for his re- uplifted into infinite space— all mean
 LANGE, DOROTHEA 377

egotism vanishes. I become a a year in Naples where he had a house.

transparent eyeball; I am nothing; I see In Rome he had a vineyard at San
all; the currents of the Universal Being Pancrazio with a villa which he and his

circulate through me; I am part or friends painted. (Bellori, 1672)

parcel of God. (Ralph Waldo
Emerson, 1836) Lanfranco was born in Parma, where
coRREGGio's Ceiling FRESCoes in the

Emerson's famous recitation of the cathedral — dramatic, illusionistic ren-

Transcendentalist vision, quoted above, derings of figures swept up into the fir-

had immense influence. The historian mament —worked their magic on him.
Barbara Novak connects this and other He was also enthusiastic about car-
Emersonian ideas with Fitz Hugh Lane, AVAGGio's drama, which his biog-
whose art "is perhaps the closest paral- rapher, BELLORI, quoted above, was
lel to Emerson's transcendentalism that not at all in favor of. But Lanfranco
America produced: of all the painters of absorbed his lessons and used them
the mid-century," she writes, "he was to good advantage when he, himself,
the most 'transparent eyeball.' " The ar- painted the ceiling fresco. Assumption
chetypal LUMINIST painter. Lane cre- of the Virgin (1625-27), in the dome of
ated pictures characterized by precisely San Andrea della Valle Rome. That,
in

delineated forms, an absence of visible in its turn, served as a model for artists
brushstrokes, and a devotion to por- over the next 100 years. Lanfranco's
traying the quality of light, particularly ceiling is bathed in light, which seems to
at sunrise and sunset. He specialized radiate from Christ (and also comes
in harbor scenes around his home through the dome's lantern, or open-
in Gloucester, Massachusetts, and the ing). The Virgin gazes ecstatically

Boston area. Boston Harbor (1850-55) toward the light with her arms out-
shows the bay and the many-masted stretched. Lanfranco was an important
sailing ships bathed in the light of the bridge between the baroque classical
setting sun. Lane's scenes were tran- tradition followed by the carracci
scendental in their spirit of luminous FAMILY (with whom Lanfranco trained)
tranquillity, but they were also glorifi- and the High Baroque of cortona.
cations of commerce, representing, as
they did, the flourishing maritime trade Lange, Dorothea
in glowing terms. 189 5-1 965 • American •
photographer • Social Documentary

Lanfranco, Giovanni The contemplation of things as they

15 82-1 647 • Italian • painter • are, without substitution or imposture,
Baroque without error or confusion, is in itself

a nobler thing than a whole harvest of

Lanfranco made a good deal of
invention. (Francis Bacon, i6th-i7th
money. He did not leave much
. . .

century)
when he died to his son . . . but
together with his family he led a An employed by the Farm Secu-
artist

splendid life. He spent three thousand rity Administration, Lange traveled

 —

378 LAOCOON

widely across America to document fashioned Laocoon, his sons, and

conditions of the Great Depression. Her snakes marvelously entwined about
photograph Migrant Mother, Nipomo, them. . ,
." In 1506, excavations at the
California (1936) —a grim woman gaz- Baths of Titus based on Pliny's words
ing into space with her two children, turned up a group of marble figures.
who hide their eyes on her shoulders Experts called in to assess the work, in-

became symbolic of the hopelessness of cluding MICHELANGELO, Were as enthu-

poverty. It has been called "the world's siastic as Pliny, even though they saw
most reproduced photograph," and that more than one block of marble had
was effective in contributing to im- been carved —the current count is six.

provements in the migrant camp at Until recently the excavated Laocoon

which it was taken. Nevertheless, the was considered a Hellenistic original
woman who posed for the picture (before 31 bce), sculpted by the artists
complained, when interviewed 42 Pliny cites. Now it is thought by some
years later, that it had done her, person- art historians to be a Roman copy from
ally,no good at all. Discussion today the ist century ce, but there is no gen-
focuses on ethical questions about such eral agreement about that — the date
pictures and the degree to which and status of Laocoon are still unset-
they exploit their subjects. Another tled. In any case, the story it illustrates

of Lange's Depression-era pictures may be interpreted as having political as

has no visible human subject, though well as dramatic impact: Laocoon was a
human exploitation of a different kind priest who warned the people of Troy
is its theme: Tractored Out, Childress about the wooden horse in which in-

County, Texas (1938) is a picture of an vading Greeks were hidden. Angered at

abandoned farmhouse that sits atop a Laocoon's effort to thwart his plans,
pattern of curved tractor furrows in the Neptune two huge sea serpents to
sent
dry earth. The story it tells is that, kill the priest and his two sons. The fa-

through overuse, a different kind of ex- ther, his head thrown back, is contorted

ploitation, this farmland has become a with pain as a snake bites his side; the

wasteland. Not just a powerful docu- boy on his right is also doomed, but the
mentary photograph, it is also a beauti- alarmed child on his left may yet escape.
ful, abstract composition. It follows the Contemporary Hellenistic Greeks
spirit of the English essayist Francis might have seen this as a metaphor for

Bacon, whose words, recorded above, Greece, which was, at that time, in its

Lange pinned over her darkroom door. own death throes. The ascendant Ro-
mans who captured, admired, and
Laocoon copied Laocoon could also have found
"Laocoon, which stands in the palace of a metaphor in the sculpture: The event
the Emperor Titus, [is] a work to be pre- it describes is one that forewarned Ae-
ferred to all that the arts of painting and neas in time for him to flee Troy for

sculpture have produced," wrote pliny Italy. Aeneas was reputedly an ancestor
the Elder. "Out of one block of stone of Romulus and Remus, the legendary
the consummate artists Agesander, founders of Rome. To Romans of the
Polydoros and Athenodoros of Rhodes ITALIAN renaissance who rediscovered
 LARIONOV, MIKHAIL 379

Laocoon after it lay buried for as many puts it, "somewhat calculated and
as 1,300 years, it surfaced at a time rhetorical, and its meticulous surface
when Rome was again a center of finish ... a display of virtuoso tech-
power, as well as of art, yet its power nique."
and wealth were also waning. (Warfare
was incessant between 1499 and 1527; Larionov, Mikhail
aided by successful voyages of explo- 1881-1964 • Russian pamter •

ration and trade, Spain was gaining su- Rayonism

premacy; and excesses of the Roman
Painting is self-supporting. It is an
Catholic Church provoked agitation for
autonomous art which has its proper
reform.) How many of these analogies
forms, its proper colors and its proper
successive artists, patrons, and histori-
tones. Rayonism created forms in
ans have read into Laocoon is conjec-
space. These forms are born from the
ture, but the sculpture's influence has
intersection of luminous rays emitted
been vast. Michelangelo studied and
by different objects. These are liberally
sketched it (as did many other artists),
interpreted by the artist-creator and
and Dying Slave (c. 15 13-16) is
his
subjected to his will of aesthetic
based on it. Titian borrowed poses
expression.
from the group for some of his paint-
ings, then, as if in rebellion against the In Moscow, in 19 10 Larionov orga-
reverence accorded it, sometime around nized a group of painters, including
1532 he drew the father and his two GONCHAROVA and MALEVICH, who ex-
sons as monkeys. El greco painted his hibited under the name Jack of Dia-
own MANNERIST vctsion of Laocoon. In monds. Later, with Goncharova, whom
1843, iri ^ Christmas Carol, Dickens he married, Larionov started the ray-
compared Scrooge putting on his stock- onism movement — the quotation
ings to the struggling figures in the above is taken from his manifesto of
sculpture. Interpretations of and quota- 1912 —and organized the 1913 exhibit
tions from the work are unending, as Target, in which the first Rayonist art
are critical assessments. Enthusiasm was shown. Larionov was almost doc-
peaked during the i8th century, led by trinaire in his insistence that he adhered
wiNCKELMANN, who wrote, "The ex- to no doctrine, but the new style was re-

pression of such a great soul goes far be- lated to CUBISM in its use of geometric
yond what beautiful Nature may form and to futurism in its dynamic
accomplish. The artist had to feel in lines of movement. Scientific and philo-
himself the power of the spirit which he sophical ideas of Albert Einstein and
impressed into his marble. Greece had Ernst Mach also interested Larionov
artists and philosophers in one person." and other Rayonists, and they tried to

Winckelmann's effusions were fol- express the new concepts of time and
lowed by lessing's celebrated 1766 space in part by using lines that cross
essay on aesthetics entitled Laocoon. and cut off one another. The Beef Ray-
Many critics of the 1 9th and most of the onism (19 10) is the head of a cow in
2.0th century find the pathos over- slashes of yellow and white with some
heated, or, as Janson's History of Art black outlining. Rayonism was short-
 —

380 LASTMAN, PIETER

lived, but had an impact on the later Latrobe, Benjamin Henry

SUPREMATISM. Larionov and Gon- 1764-182.0 • American • architect
charova left Russia in 191 5 and settled Federal/Neoclassicist
in Paris, where both designed for Di-
/ have heard with the deepest
aghilev's Ballets Russes, reviving their
mortification that I have had the
interest in Russian history and folk
misfortune to displease you. . . . I am
ART.
convinced by the evidence of my senses
T r,. tn innumerable cases, by all my
Lastman, Pieter ^ , r
professional experience for near zo
1583-1633 • Dutch • painter
years, and by all my reasonings, that
Baroque
the panel lights must inevitably be
now in Italy there is a certain destroyed after being made.
PieterLastman who shows great
Born in England to an American
promise. (Carel van Mander, c. 1604)
mother, Latrobe received his architec-
Before he returned home Amsterdam
to tural training there. He also studied in
to fulfill the assessment of van MANDER, Germany and traveled in France and
quoted above, Lastman was impressed Italy. After almost all building in Eng-
by the German expatriate landscape land stopped because of the Napoleonic
painter living in Italy elsheimer — War, Latrobe moved to the United
and the pervasive influence of caravag- States in 1796. He brought with him a
Gio. Back in Holland by 1607, Lastman new, more austere neoclassical style

painted religious and mythological pic- than that of his predecessors and
tures that show drama, baroque com- contemporaries (e.g., bulfinch), one
position, and an and
interest in light that synthesized Greek, Roman, and
shadow. He liked to use crowds of "Revolutionary Classicism," that is, an
people to dramatize the stories he told, architectural style and content that re-

in Nausicaa and Odysseus (1619), fleeted the intellectual, political, eco-

Odysseus arrives unexpectedly, and nomic, and technological revolutions of
naked, to the surprise of Nausicaa and the new age. The Bank of Pennsylvania
all others present. His alarming appear- (1799-1801; destroyed 1867), with its

ance shocks and stops everyone short. Classical front, geometric symmetry,
from women carrying laundry in the and rationality, is an expression of this

distance to the horse in the front of the style. In 1803 President jefferson ap-
picture, which seems to have screeched pointed Latrobe Surveyor of the Public
to a halt. REMBRANDT Studied with Buildings for the United States, giving
Lastman, and was greatly influenced by him supervisory power and design au-
him. thority for government projects. Fore-
most among these was the unfinished
Late Antique Capitol building. The Capitol's comple-
See EARLY MEDIEVAL tion was fraught with problems, delays,
and difficulties that included disputes
Late Classical with Jefferson. One difference of opin-
See classical ion concerned the lighting source of the
 LAWRENCE, JACOB 381

building's great domed roof. It is in an- dance, [her painting] is an infinitely gra-

swer to the president's when it ap-

ire, cious and rhythmical art of enumera-
peared to him that Latrobe was not tion," wrote APOLLINAIRE. He was her
following his directions to install lover before her marriage in 19 14. After
wedge-shaped skylights, that the archi- her divorce in 1920, she had her most
tect wrote the letter quoted from above. productive years, painting scenes of
(The president prevailed, although the simplicity and charm.
skylights became a series of relatively

small squares, and Latrobe's prophecies Lawrence, Jacob

proved true: Condensation, leakage, born 1917 • American • painter •
and glaring light were problematic.) Modern/Expressionist
In the building, Latrobe Americanized
Iremember folks in the street in
his Classicism with details such as to-
Harlem tell the stories of John Brown
bacco leaf and corncob capitals on the
and Harriet Tubman in such a
COLUMNS. Other difficulties included
passionate way.
conflict with his clerk of the works and
the accusation of extravagance by some Lawrence's parents had migrated from
members of Congress. Latrobe resigned the South, and he was born in Atlantic

his post in 1817 and was succeeded by City, New Jersey. Harlem was in its

Bulfinch. Latrobe died tragically. Hav- heyday when Lawrence and his mother
ing accumulated a morass of debts and settled there in 1930. He met important
failed business ventures, he was almost personalities in the artscommunity,
forgotten and financially ruined. known as the harlem renaissance,
including the poet Langston Hughes
Laurencin, Marie and the sculptor savage, and studied
1885-1956 • French • African-American history, whose he-
painter/illustrator • School of Paris roes he painted.Though without for-
mal schooling in art, he was greatly
My pictures are the love stories I tell
inspired by visits to the Metropolitan
myself and which I want to tell others.
Museum of Art; as a teenager he walked
Closely associated with the cubists be- the 50-odd blocks from home to the
foreWorld War I and familiar with museum and went straight to the gal-
DADA afterward, Laurencin cultivated a leries with ITALIAN renaissance paint-
style that remained purposefully dis- ings. Success and fame were his in 1941
tinct from those movements. Enchanted when Fortune magazine printed pic-
and lyrical, her paintings are more rem- tures from his cycle entitled Migration,

iniscent of CHAGALL and STETTHEIMER; about the movement of blacks to the

Laurencin invented floaty, delicate urban North from the rural South after

women and gentle animals. Using soft World War I. Lawrence painted a nar-
color, she set her figures in an indis- rative series of 32 pictures on the life of
tinctly contoured arcadian landscape Frederick Douglass (1938-39), and 31
{e.^.. Nymph and Hind, 1925). She also on Harriet Tubman (1939-40). Begin-
designed sets for the Ballets Russes and ning in 1937, he worked on a series that
illustrated many books. "Like the told the inspiring story of Toussaint
382 LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS

L'Ouverture, a Haitian revolutionary He was knighted and dispatched to the

leader. His figures are large masses, ab- Continent by the king: His mission
stracted in his own flattened, energetic was to paint portraits of the European
style, and rendered in rich, bold, un- leaders important to the defeat of
modulated color. Lawrence says that Napoleon. Besides charming his way
the Katzenjammer Kids and Maggie through cosmopolitan society, Lawr-
and Jiggs comic and the movies
strips ence studied portraits by titian and
inspired him, adding that he was im- VELAZQUEZ in Collections abroad. To
pressed by everything in his environ- most critics, he never seems to have
ment and was particularly interested in gone beyond virtuoso flattery and an
telling stories. To Marie-Henri
ability to give pleasure.

Beyle, whose pen name was Stendhal,

Lawrence, Sir Thomas he did not even accomplish that. Stend-
1 769-1 830 • English • painter • hal wrote, in 1824: "M. Lawrence's
Grand Manner manner is a caricature of the careless-
ness of genius. I admit I do not under-
Master Lawrence takes very striking
stand the reputation of this painter. . . .

likenessesof ladies and gentlemen for

His figures do not have a wooden ap-
a charge of one guinea for an oval
pearance . . . but truthfully, they possess
crayon. (Bath Chronicle, lySz)
very little merit. . . . M. Lawrence must
One of 17 children, son of an inn- be very clever, or else our London

keeper, Lawrence was so skilled at neighbors must be very poor connois-

crayon portraiture that he was already seurs." Like SARGENT at the end of the
earning money, perhaps even support- 19th century, Lawrence was a brilliant
ing his family, at the age of 10. At 13, mirror of a certain class at a certain mo-
when they moved to Bath, his father put ment in time.

an advertisement, quoted above, in the

local newspaper. As is true of other Lawson, Ernest

major British portraitists of his period 1 873-1 939 • American • painter •
RAEBURN and romney), Lawrence
(e.g., Impressionist
was largely self-taught. When he was 17
/ would like to communicate the
he thought he could compete with any
artist's point of view which is at its
painter except Reynolds, so he went to
best, the power to see beautifully,
London to confront the master. At the
which is almost all that is worth
Royal Academy he studied Reynolds's
bothering about.
social style more carefully than his
artistry, and he was soon painting por- Lawson made an unusual, if not incon-
traits of the leaders of high society, in- gruous, combination: impressionist in

cluding Queen Charlotte (1789). When style and technique, unlike their hedo-
Reynolds died in 1792, Lawrence, only nistic subjects, his paintings related to

22, succeeded him in the post of Painter theworking classes, the same people
to the King. He made one unsuccessful whose lives were so vigorously explored
stab at HLSTORY PAINTING and then re- by the so-called Apostles of Ugliness,
turned to his prosperous portraiture. artists of the ashcan school. Lawson
 LE CORBUSIER (CHARLES-EDOUARD JEANNERET) 383

Studied with the American impres- Europe. Colbert delegated artistic au-

sionists WEIR and twachtman even tocracy to Le Brun, who supervised all

before he went to Paris in 1893. In the king's projects related to art and ar-
Paris, Lawson worked alongside Som- chitecture. Le Brun controlled a work-
erset Maugham, who named and mod- force of painters, sculptors, engravers,
eled the artist in his novel Of Human weavers, dyers, goldsmiths, and so on,
Bondage (191 5) after his studio mate. devoted to providing the Sun King with
In Lawson's oeuvre, sometimes what the most magnificent surroundings. The
seems to be a rural landscape is actually first project was the completion of the
a city scene in which industrial build- Louvre palace, in more than
process for
ings hover benignly at a distance. Law- 100 years. The Palace of Versailles was
son especially liked to paint New begun in 1669. The preferred style was
York's rivers and bridges (e.g., Winter a modification of extravagant Italian
Landscape: Washington Bridge, 1905- BAROQUE with French classicism.
15), and while often his palette was During this period, despite political an-

soft and light, sometimes his brush- tagonisms, French style permeated
stroke was thick and his colors bright: a other Western European countries. Not
pink factory with a blue roof, a tugboat only did he control the commissioning
in green, red, orange, and blue. Lawson of artists, but Le Brun also established a
exhibited as one of The eight. He sel- new system for educating them at the
dom spoke about his work, but in his Royal Academy of Painting and Sculp-
later years he wrote down what he ture in Paris. He became its director in
called "The Credo," which is quoted 1663. In a lecture delivered in 1668, Le
from above. Brun discussed the human face and the
emotions it could show, systematizing
Le Brun, Charles and categorizing the passions, as de-
1 610-1690 • French • scribed in the segment quoted above.
painter/administrator • Baroque Ironically, in Le Brun's own paintings
(rare during his artistic dictatorship but
The Motions of this Passion [love],
more substantial once Colbert died in
when it is simple, are very soft and
1683 and Le Brun was displaced from
simple, for the Forehead will be
his position), he followed the quasi-
smooth, the Eye-balls shall be turned.
CARAVAGGESQUE manner of lighting
The Head inclined towards the Object
and imparted an emotional atmosphere
of the Passion, the Eyes may be
more personal than his lectures would
moderately open, the White very lively
suggest. (See also Versailles)
and shining, and the Eyeball being
gently turned towards the Object, will
appear a little sparkling and elevated. Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard
Jeanneret)
Louis XIV took over the government of
1887-1965 • Swiss • architect •
France in 1661. His chief adviser was
Modern/International Style
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, and their joint
mission was the glorification of France, Phenomenon of visual acoustics. . . .

which became the strongest power of The shell of the crab.

384 LE MOYNE DE MORGUES, JACQUES

Le Corbusier began his career building But Soriano also challenged Le Cor-
houses that he called "machines for liv- busier's ideas, like those above, saying,

ing." The masterpiece of his "ma- "These are all marvelous-sounding

chines" is the Villa Savoye in words — but just find the content. If this

Poissy-sur-Seine, France (1929-31). El- is not voodoo I would like to know

evated above the ground on slender what is. What you learn ... is nothing."
concrete pillars, it is a rectangular box
with flat white surfaces divided by Le Moyne de Morgues, Jacques
strips of windows. The interior, with 1 53 3-1 588 • French • painter •

glass walls, surrounds a courtyard. Le Northern Renaissance

Corbusier was interested in the inter-
My special duty when we reached the
penetration of interior and exterior
Indies would be to map the seacoast
space, and while to the passerby
and harbors, indicate the position of
the house presents a stern facade, for
towns, plot the depth and course of
inhabitants it opens up to the outdoors
the rivers.
with freedom and light. While the
Villa Savoye's concrete surfaces were Le Moyne sailed from France with an
smooth, for later projects Le Corbusier expedition to Florida in 1564. His as-
inaugurated a new style, later called signment was to document the journey,
New Brutalism, using rough concrete. It as in the quotation above, but the only
was part of the "truth-to-materials" remaining original picture of his excur-

doctrine also expressed by artists and sion is entitled Rene Laudonniere and
architects as diverse as tatlin and the Indian Chief Athore Visit Ribaut's
Frank Lloyd wright, among others. Column (c. was painted after
1570). It

During the 1950s, Le Corbusier re- he returned home and records a monu-
ceived a major commission to plan the ment erected by the French as a territo-
new city of Chandrigarh in India. In his rial claim. This garlanded column with

later work Le Corbusier explored free, the French coat of arms is treated as a
organic forms, still using concrete. sort of altar, surrounded by food offer-

N6tre-Dame-du-Haut, in Ronchamp, ings and rows of kneeling Native Amer-

France (1950-55), is as upsweeping in icans. The tribal chief, in the idealized

its curves as the Villa Savoye is rigor- "noble savage" role, rests his hand on
ously geometrical. About Ronchamp, the shoulder of the explorerLaudon-
as the building is known, Le
familiarly niere. Designed to satisfy European
Corbusier wrote the words quoted curiosity, this small gouache on
above, and went on, "In the brain the PARCHMENT is more fanciful than accu-
idea is born, indefinite it wanders and rate, presenting the Native peoples with
develops. On the hill I had meticulously blond hair, for example, and vegetables
drawn the four horizons. ... It is they that do not grow in Florida. Le Moyne's
which unlocked, architecturally, the style is recognizably that of the fon-
echo, the visual echo in the realm of TAINEBLEAU painters (e.g., Jean and
shape." The architect Raphael Soriano Francois clouet), and especially of a
(1904-1988) wrote, "Nearly every ar- contemporary portraitist of great re-
chitect loves the Ronchamp Chapel." pute at the time, Corneille de Lyon
 LEDOUX, CLAUDE-NICOLAS 385

(c. 1500/10-C. 1575). Le Moyne was a present in these paintings indicates that
Calvinist and may have left France for the people portrayed are more likely
religious reasons. He went to England, members of the newly emerging class of
where he was taken on by Sir Walter small landowners than peasants, and
Raleigh. Some of his New World paint- that they may even be the patrons of
ings were translated into engravings the paintings. The social circumstances
and used to illustrate America (1590), of these sober country people are very
published by Theodore de Bry. close to what is known about the Le
Nain family itself. In this context, the
Le Nains, The (Antoine c. 1588- comment by Champfleury, quoted
1648, Louis c. 1 593-1 648, above, may signal the most meaningful
Mathieu c. 1 607-1 677) approach to the Le Nain oeuvre: the
French • painters • Baroque painters as historians. In any case, their

~, /•. •
/^i n range of color is often limited to shades
L hey are historians. {L.\\2in\m\t\xrY, ^, ,. , , ,

of brown and white, and the indirect

,

^^50) V u. is shed
u A on an arrangement ofc
light
"More ink has been spilled over the 'le people that is almost like a still life
Nain problem' than over any other composition,
question in French seventeenth-century
art," wrote blunt in 1953, "and the Ledoux, Claude-Nicolas
process will assuredly continue, be- 173 6-1 806 • French • architect •
cause, though at certain moments a Neoclassicist
solution has seemed to be near, new
The artist demonstrates his character
evidence has always been produced
in his works.
which has necessitated a re-exam-
ination of the whole problem." The The ^\\v2ise architecture parlante {dirchi-
problem Blunt refers to concerns which tecture that speaks) is frequently used to
of the three Le Nain brothers painted describe the work of Ledoux as well as
what. Their individual hands have been that of his contemporary boullee. The
hard to distinguish, as their works are ideas communicated by Ledoux's de-
all signed le nain, and that, as Blunt signs derive from the enlightenment
adds, "has greatly exercised the minds period in which he lived, a time in
of historians." Perhaps they coUabo- which the classical past could be em-
rated, perhaps not. The important braced with defiant individuality. Such
paintings usually, though uncertainly, is the case, for example, of Ledoux's
attributed to Louis, such as Peasants at Barriere de Villette (1785-89) in Paris.
Supper (c. 1642), were long described Of the 50 Ledoux de-
tollgate structures
as combining a sensitivity to the lives of signed for the new walls built around
poor peasants with an interest in the use the city toward the end of the i8th cen-
of dramatic lighting to reveal strength tury, this (restored) example is one of
of character. The observation about only four that still stand. The rest were
lighting is true; however, titles aside, the destroyed during the French Revolu-
rest may be misleading. Research into tion, when Ledoux himself was jailed
details of the clothing worn and objects for his association with royal patron-
 —

386 LEGER, FERNAND

age. The Barriere de Villette has a circu- lies who would on the harvest of
live

lar rotunda approached through a por- their gardens, vineyards, and orchards.
tico that immediately suggests the
PANTHEON. Yet there is no dome over Leger, Fernand
the rotunda, and its large scale defies 1 881-195 5 • French •

the proportions of its Roman proto- painter/sculptor • Cubist

type. Moreover, the eight Corinthian
One can assert this: a machine or a
COLUMNS of the Pantheon's entryway
manufactured object may be beautiful
have become eight starkly unadorned
when the relation of the lines which
pillars. These and other differences in
define its volume are balanced in an
the structure and its prototype defy
order corresponding to those of
CLASSICISM v^hile alluding to it, speak-
preceding architectures. We are not,
ing in the language of a new, irreverent
then, in the presence of an intrinsically
age. This is way in which
similar to the
new phenomenon, but simply of an
20th-century POSTMODERN architects
architectural manifestation like those
use Classical examples, giving them
of the past.
complex, ambiguous, and ironic inflec-

tions. If the comment above expresses Leger focused the cubist's kaleido-
Ledoux's belief in the artist's individual scopic vision on a subject that Cubists
expression, it also poses the question of had not yet treated: the industrial city
whether the artist's character should be and the machine aesthetic. Earlier
"read" through interpretation of the artists (e.g., the impressionists) had
buildings, or if the buildings' meanings, celebrated leisure activities of the so-
or intentions, are better understood phisticated, urban middle class; Leger
using what we may learn of the archi- focused on high buildings and smoke-
tect's character. The historian Emil stacks, signs, stairways, and metal grids
Kaufmann stresses the importance of (e.g.. The City, 1919), which he por-
Ledoux's personality, which he de- trayed in semi-abstract, volumetric
scribes as "uncompromising." He calls compositions. In contrast to ruskin
the book Ledoux wrote and published, and Robert morris, who reacted with
at his own expense, L'architecture con- horror at the evil effects of industrial-
sidere sous le rapport de I'art, des ization, Leger found the Machine Age
moeurs et de la legislation, in 1804, beautiful. In Three Women (1921),
just two years before his death, "the large nudes are transformed into figures
passionate outburst of a deeply disap- of columns and spheres that look both
pointed man, the resentful remem- machine-made and machine-like. Posed
brance of bitterly felt indignities." on a divan and surrounded by art
Ledoux was an idealist with the re- DECO patterns, the women are simulta-
formist, nature-based mysticism of neously glamorous and daunting
Jean-Jacques Rousseau. His humanitar- technological versions of the femme
ian ideals are expressed in engravings FATALE. The inventive progression of
of houses for the poor, for a scientist, Leger's styles, in sculpture as well as
and a House of Communal Life, an painting, was increasingly fanciful as he
idyllic shelter in the woods for 16 fami- began to shape his figures with thick
 LEIGHTON, FREDERIC 387

black outlines and to flatten them. Also during World War I, Lehmbruck fell

capricious, he showed the interwoven into a depression that led to his suicide.

forms of people tumbling through space

(The Polychrome Divers, 1942-46), Leibl, Wilhelm
seemingly a conflation of lipchitz's 1 844-1900 • German pamter •

Joy of Life, 1927-60, and matisse's ec- Realist

static nude dancers in his Joy of Life

Several peasants came to look at
(1906). Leger might also pose his fig-
[the painting] just lately, and they
ures as if in a tableau: The Great Parade
instinctively folded their hands in front
(1954) is made up of highly simplified
of it. One man said, ''that is the work of
circus performers in frozen poses. Here,
a master." I have always set greater store
through transparent swaths of color
by the opinion of simple peasants than
and various combinations of lines,
by that of so-called painters, so I take
Leger has created a picture so animated
that peasant's remark as a good omen.
that it seems to jump off the canvas.
Whether his figures move in space or Leibl made the comment quoted above
space seems to move around them, in a letter to his mother written in 1 879.

Leger looked at the contemporary The picture to which he refers. Three

world in surprising new ways, trying to Women in Church, took him four years
produce art that appealed to a proletar- to finish (1878-82) and is his master-

ian as well as to an elite audience. piece. Like couRBET, Leibl paid

homage to the hardworking laborers,
Lehmbruck, Wilhelm "simple peasants," as he said in the pas-
1 881-19 1 9 • German • sculptor • sage above. Despite its title and the fact

Expressionist that the women two with

are kneeling,
books in hand. Three Women in Church
. . . sculpture is the essence of things,
shows none of a church's standard reli-
the essence of nature, that which is
gious objects, but the women's cos-
eternally human.
tumes and the carved woodwork of the
An German expression-
outstanding pews are executed with painstaking de-
ist, Lehmbruck assimilated many influ- tail. Leibl and his circle were important

ences, especially maillol— he was in influences on a group of American

Paris from 1910 to 1914 — but filtered artists in the early 1870s. (See also Mu-
them through his own sensitive point of nich school)
view. A larger-than-life bronze, Stand-
ing Woman (19 10), has the shape of a Leighton, Frederic
sculpture by Maillol, but where Maillol 1 830-1 896 • English • painter •
would express the challenges of form Academic
and balance, Lehmbruck shows a
//am] passionate for the true Hellenic
delicacy of attitude and a posture of in-
art and am touched beyond everything
trospection. Some of Lehmbruck's elon-
by its noble simplicity.
gated figures seem to have been inspired
by a Belgian sculptor, Georges Minne Leighton painted a theme that was
(1866-1941). Working in a hospital widespread and popular during late
388 LEOCHARES

Victorian times but that has generally injuring the boy with its claws, even
been out of favor since: languorous, through his clothing. (Pliny the Elder,
beautiful women, clothed in vaporous I St century ce)
gowns, inhabiting an unreal world.
These women seem to have emerged Known through literature rather than
from the beauties of both pre- for specific works, Leochares was em-
RAPHAELITE and SYMBOLIST painters, ployed by both Philip of Macedon and
yet they are unlike those dangerous his son, Alexander the Great. He is re-

FEMMEs FATALEs. Rather, they appear ported as having carved several individ-
detached and seem mainly objects of de- ual sculptures, including one renowned
sire, without character or substance. statue of Zeus and another of Apollo
Leighton's Flaming June (1894-95) is (which may be the apollo belvedere).
an archetype: The woman is curled on a Leochares was also employed to work
bench in innocent sleep, thus entirely on the MAUSOLEUM OF HALICARNAS-
vulnerable to the lascivious gaze and sus, and although scholars are able to
sexual fantasies. To heat those fan- discern distinctive styles in surviving
tasies, she is lightly covered in a trans- fragments of its frieze, specific attribu-

parent orange gown, and glistening tions to one artist or another are not
behind her is the broad reflection agreed on. The lost work to which
of sunset on lightly rippled water. PLINY the Elder refers in the quotation

The source Flaming June is the

for above would have represented the myth
"Hellenic art" to which Leighton refers of Ganymede, a shepherd with whom
in the quotation above, specifically the Zeus fell in love. The god changed him-
sculpted marble Three Goddesses (c. self into an eagle in order to carry off

438-432 bce) from the east pediment Ganymede to Olympus, where the boy
of the PARTHENON, by then in London became the god's wine cup bearer. This
as part of the elgin marbles. Setting story is interpreted as an example and
this Victorian type in historic context, it approbation of homosexual love.
is noted that during Leighton's era, as
women pressed to acquire the right to Leonardo da Vinci
vote and some measure of equality, so 1452-1519 • Italian • painter •

efforts to suppress them were manifest Late Renaissance

and found expression in imagery such
It happened to me that I made a
as the pictures of Leighton, alma-
religious painting which was bought
TADEMA, and others.
by one who so loved it that he wanted
to remove the sacred representation so
Leochares as to be able to kiss it without
active c. 350 bce • Greek • sculptor suspicion. Finally his conscience
• Late Classical/Hellenistic prevailed over his sighs and lust, but
he had to remove the picture from his
Leochares made an eagle, which is
house.
aware of just what it is abducting in

Ganymede and for whom it carries Just a few worn and damaged paintings
him, and which therefore refrains from by Leonardo remain, not only because
 —

LEONARDO DA VINCI 389

of the ravages of time, but also because use. Rather, his unfinished Adoration of
he left so many projects unfinished. the Magi (c. 148 1) reveals his method.
Yet the power of his imaginative, inno- Another innovation is his famous SFU-
vativemind still shines, and in the mato (smoky) mode of coloring in
drawings and writing, as well as the which the range of color is kept at mid-
paintings, that are left, there is ample value and low intensity, and transitions
evidence of both his personal genius from one color to the next are gradual
and the changes in artistic ideology he and hazy. This created a pearly mist for
initiated. Among these was his determi- atmospheric perspective, evident in

nation to prod beyond mood and emo- the background of his Mona Lisa
tion to psychology. That distinguishes (begun c. 1500-03). The technique was
his Last Supper (1495-97/98) from new and the idea behind it revolution-
those of other artists: Where they chose ary, for in revealing that combinations
to paint the drama of Christ singl- of light, humidity, and color are interre-
ing out Judas, and to accentuate the lated (transient atmospheric variables),
bread and wine as foretelling the Eu- he translated into paint the concept of
charist (see Raphael's Disputa and time passing. Until then, painting was
Tintoretto's Last Supper), Leonardo given to the expression of eternal val-
illustrated both an earlier moment, ues. "This profoundly radical change
when Christ announced that one ushered in a new style, making possible
among them would betray him, and the great dramatic effects [in 16th-
the Eucharist, symbolically, through century] painting that depend, like the
Christ's role at the table. Leonardo was theater,on the ability to control both
interested in and conveyed reaction of space and time," writes Marcia Hall.
each individual apostle to Christ's star- Leonardo developed the pyramidal
tling news, each one's self-examination type of composition, building figures or
and self-doubt. "A good painter has lines of movement to reach the summit
two chief objects to paint," he wrote, of a triangle. This system supplanted
"man and the intention of his soul." the earlier tendency to line up the action
Leonardo also developed new tech- along parallel picture planes. Modify-
niques, including his system of model- ing and rejecting the rules and regula-
ing in the early stages of painting —he tions set by his predecessors, Leonardo
considered modeling the very essence of constantly experimented. Sometimes,
a painting. To model, he used a single as with Last Supper, where he tried to

color, probably in tempera and oil paint a mural with an oil-base paint of
paint, and pre-painted the picture with his own concoction (efforts to analyze it

his desired range of dark and light, have been unsuccessful) rather than
chiaroscuro. Transparent oil glazes, buon fresco, they were disastrous
tinted with pigment, were applied over the painting began to self-destruct dur-
this. Leonardo's system cannot be de- ing his own lifetime. A more fanciful
tected by scientific method; although experiment was his construction of
infrared reflectography is able to lizard-skin wings on gold wires with
penetrate painting, it can pick up only which he outfitted a tamed lizard (to
carbon black, which Leonardo did not which he also appended a beard).
390 LEONI, LEONE

Whether he wished it to fly or merely to the political and religious controversies

discourage uninvited visitors is not of his era. From 1 51 7 until his death, he
known. Some revisionist approaches to was in France as a guest of King Fran-
the ITALIAN RENAISSANCE include the cis I, who asked only that Leonardo
reassessment of Leonardo's reputed in- honor him with conversation.
ventive genius, casting doubt on
whether he ever conducted a valid sci-
entific experiment to test his theories. Leoni, Leone
Yet he did all he could to build a flying c. 1 509-1 590 • Italian • sculptor •

machine that was based on his pains- Mannerist

taking study of the flight of birds — it
. . . as many of the celebrated works,
was a mechanical bird, not an airplane
carved and antique and modern,
as is generally said —that Leonardo in-
as he was able
cast,

to obtain. (Vasari, mid-

sisted was within the realm of engineer-
i6th century)
ing accomplishment.
Impatience with the standard modus VASARI, quoted above, is speaking with
operandi probably explains the many admiration of the remarkable collection
unfinished projects Leonardo left, as of plaster casts Leoni had installed at
well as his hundreds, perhaps thou- his house in Milan, and particularly the
sands of ideas and inventions in fields EQUESTRIAN Marcus Aurelius, which
that range from aeronautics and hy- stood in the courtyard. Some of these
draulics to human anatomy and repro- were no doubt from molds Leoni
duction. He left behind thousands of bought from primaticcio, who had
pages of his notes, and what survives is made them from classical statuary
estimated to be but a third of what he for the king of France's palace at
actually wrote. Whether larger than life FONTAiNEBLEAU. As a result of his pur-
or not, the few particulars of his biogra- chase, actually on behalf of his patron.
phy combined with his oeuvre have Queen Mary of Hungary, so that he
stirred the imagination of baudelaire, might make bronze casts, Leoni pos-
Freud, and duchamp (who added a sessed what was at the time probably
goatee and an obscenity to a photo- the largest private collection of casts
graph of the Morta Lisa). Leonardo, after antique sculptures. Among the
born out of wedlock, was adopted into most impressive of his own works is a
his father's family. He trained with ver- life-size bronze of another of his pa-

ROCCHio and was patronized by the trons: Charles V Triumphing over Fury
major, and sometimes warring, powers (1549-55). Straddling his foe —the per-
of his era, moving among Florence, sonification of Fury —youthful, hand-
Milan, and Rome. It was at the Vatican, some, and elaborately armored, Charles
where he lived at the invitation of the is in the pose of polykleitos's embod-
pope, that he made his winged lizard. iment of perfection, Doryphoros (c.

While religious and political upheavals 450-440 bce). Leoni's coup de grace
may have determined his patronage and was to cast the armor separately so that
place of residence, Leonardo was, like it might be removed to reveal a perfect,
RAPHAEL and CELLINI, detached from heroic NUDE.
 —
LEUTZE, EMANUEL 39I

Les Vingt portray events in time, Lessing went far

See VINGT, Les toward liberating them from a narrative
or literary raison d'etre, although his in-
Lessing, Gotthold tention was more directed toward de-
1729-178 1 • German writer fending the realm of poetry against
what he saw as an invasion by the visual
The details, which the eye takes in at a
arts.
glance, [the poet] enumerates slowly
one by one [but] when we look at an
Leutze, Emanuel
object the various parts are always
1816-1868 • American • painter •
present to the eye. It can run over
Romantic
them again and again.
. . . the romantic ruins of what were
Though most of Lessing's writing
once free cities, with their grey walls
was was inspired to
for the theater, he
and frowning towers, in which a few
critical dissent by winckelmann's dis-
hardy persevering burghers bade
cussion of Greek art, especially Winck-
defiance to their noble
elmann's comments about laocoon.
oppressors . . . led me to think how
The full title of Lessing's famous essay
glorious had been the course of
is "Laocoon, or On the Boundaries be-
freedom from those small isolated
tween Painting and Poetry" (generally
manifestations of the love of liberty to
known "Laocoon"; 1766). Lessing
as
where it has unfolded all its splendor
allowed that the statuary group, which
in the institutions of our own country.
Winckelmann had seen in the Vatican
but Lessing had not, preserved its serene history painting finally succeeded in
dignity and grandeur despite the mortal America in the hands of Leutze after
pain its figures endured. However, he earlier painters (e.g., vanderlyn and
took issue with the concept of UT Pic- allston) had failed to import it. Born
TURA POESis —as in painting so in po- in Germany, Leutze returned there to
etry. Lessing held that each pursuit study at dusseldorf, and remained in
should follow, and be defined by, its Europe for 20 years. That was where he
own intrinsic concerns. Thus, poetry painted his major opus, overwhelming
should be concerned with events that in size inches by 21 feet 3
(12 feet 5
unravel in time and should not en- inches) as well as concept: Washington
deavor to describe objects in space. The Crossing the Delaware ( 1 851 ) was as
proper sphere for painting, in contrast, idealized and dramatic a representation
is the description of objects in space of America's first hero as anyone could
they should not try to tell a story. The imagine. Washington had died 50 years
disadvantage of Lessing's idea was the earlier. Although he had surprised the
confounding of sculpture, which is cre- enemy by crossing the Delaware River
ated to occupy three-dimensional space, at night, the rest —Washington standing
with painting, which is executed on a in what would have been a foolish pose
flat surface —as modern artists would on the bow of an overpopulated boat
later so adamantly argue. With his insis- that is being paddled through ice

tence that the fine arts not endeavor to floes —has no basis in fact, (whit-
392 LEWIS, EDMONIA

TREDGE posed for hours both as Wash- lated to her own background; for exam-
ington and as his helmsman.) It was all ple, Forever Free (1867) represents two
part of the mythologizing of Washing- former slaves who have broken their
ton, captain of the metaphorical ship of chains of bondage. She also made a
state. With that success in hand, Leutze number of sculptures based on Henry
was asked to paint a mural for the U.S. Wadsworth Longfellow's The Song of
Capitol: Westward the Course of Em- Hiawatha (1855). Lewis seems to have
pire Takes Its Way (i860). It was a glo- faded away toward the end of her life,
rification of America and Manifest and the date and circumstances of her
Destiny (for Manifest Destiny, see death are unknown.
cole). The ruins of which Leutze
speaks in the quotation above are those
he saw when visiting his birthplace in Lewis, Percy Wyndham
Swabia. That train of thought led to his 1882-1957 • English •
formulation of the ideas for his Ameri- painter/writer • Vorticist
can history paintings.
By vorticism we mean (a) Activity as
opposed to the tasteful Passivity of
Lewis, Edmonia
Picasso; (b) Significance as opposed to
active 1845-after 191 1 • American •
the dull and anecdotal character to
sculptor • Neoclassicist
which the Naturalist is condemned; (c)
My mother was a wild Indian and was Essential Movement and Activity (such
born in Albany, of copper color and as the energy of a mind) as opposed to
with straight black hair. There she the imitative cinematography, the fuss
made and sold moccasins. My father, and hysterics of the Futurists.
who was a Negro, and a gentleman's
The founder of vorticism, Lewis de-
servant, saw and married her. Mother
scribed its intentions in a nutshell in the
often left her home and wandered with
catalogue of the style's only exhibition,
her people, whose habits she could not
in 191 5, quoted from above. If Lewis
forget, and thus we, her children, were
scoffed at other current movements, he
brought up in the same wild manner.
was in turn harshly put down by fry
Until I was twelve years old, I led this
and Clive Bell, who berated the "little
wandering life, fishing and
backwater, called English Vorticism,
swimming and making moccasins.
. . .

which already gives signs of being as in-

Lewis's parents died when she was four, sipid as any other puddle of provincial-
and she was raised in her mother's ism." Vorticism was closely related to
Chippewa tribe under the name Wild- futurism's artistic goals, but highly
fire. She studied at Oberlin College, the critical of its militarism. Lewis's paint-
first coeducational and interracial col- ings are strong and structural abstrac-
and went to
lege in the United States, tions: A Battery Shelled (19 17-18)
Rome in 1845, where she worked with describes his wartime experience in
HOSMER in a group of sculptors Henry the trenches, stopping and solidify-

James called "the white marmorean ing movement and even the smoke of
[marble] flock." Her subjects were re- battle.
 LEYDEN, LUCAS VAN 393

LeWitt, Sol those who still know, that when he

born 1928 • American • sculptor • was but a child of nine he produced
Conceptual engravings of his own composition,
extremely well done and subtle. (Carel
These sentences comment on art, but
van Mander, c. 1604)
are not art.

LeWitt is often called the father of con- It is known that he studied with his fa-
ceptual ART. The designation applies ther, a painter, and with another
to his sculptures, usually white con- painter, Cornelis Engelbrechtsz
structions such as Wall/Floor Piece # 4 (1468-1533), also of Leiden (Leyden),
(1976), a grid of identical open cubes but there is not much information
that, while assembled according to about how Lucas became so extraordi-
strict, predefined numerical ratios, are, narily accomplished as a printmaker.
once executed, visually complex and in- (Although he also painted, he is best
triguing. As one looks at them, they re- known for his engravings.) Lucas was
peatedly change pattern, shape, and above all a narrative and landscape
depth, and seem continually to escape artist — telling stories in provocative
definition. LeWitt may present his con- ways and integrating them into an effec-

cepts to assistants on paper, or some- tive atmospheric, natural environment.

times on the very wall where they are to Once he mastered the medium of print-
carry out his instructions. Often imper- making (see printing), which was
manent, non-collectible, and noncom- relatively new and promised a vast au-

mercial (and unsigned), these wall dience, he also used it to express ideas
drawings, like the sculptures, are ab- that were then on people's minds. One
sorbing and frequently beautiful. such contemporary question had to do
LeWitt's patrimony of the genre is also with the rite of baptism, and whether it

connected to his Paragraphs on Concep- was appropriate for infants or only for

tual Art (1967) and subsequently his adults. He raised that issue in Baptism

series Sentences on Conceptual Art of Christ (c. 15 10), and to make the

(1969), from which the concluding point of the issue clearer, he showed a
sentence is quoted above. The first two child watching Christ's submersion in
sentences are "Conceptual artists are the water from its banks. There are
mystics rather than rationalists. They anonymous bystanders in the fore-

leap to conclusions that logic cannot ground engaged in conversation, which

reach." the image hoped to provoke among its

audience without necessarily revealing

any stand the artist might take. To
Leyden, Lucas van
make his subject even more eye-
c. 1494-1533 • Netherlandish •
catching, he devised the technique of
printmaker/painter • Northern
"inverted composition," with the main
Renaissance
topic of the scene in the background
/ know of none who was the equal of and more incidental figures in the fore-
the gifted Lucas van Leyden. . . . ground. This was a style he increasingly
Nearly incredible stories are told by adopted during the course of his career.
394 LEYSTER, JUDITH

Moreover, as Craig Harbison has ob-
served, Lucas's illustrations of this topic
preceded any written exegesis of it,
viding the example of an instance in
which visual imagery preceded the text.
The "text" ultimately reached print
over her sewing, the woman ignores the
man's offer of coins. From the evidence
pro- of Leyster's Self-portrait (1633), she
was confident and self-possessed. Even
though her neck is encased in a large
stiff collar and her head is covered by a

not only in the form of theological ar- starched hat, she smiles easily and leans
gument in the 1520s, but also in a back casually. Her work fell into obliv-
movement that culminated in the An- ion and was discovered only by accident
abaptist revolution in Mijnster during in the late 19th century when her mono-

the 1530s. Harbison writes, the "very gram, JL attached to a star, was discov-
suggestiveness of art seems to have been ered on a painting attributed to Hals,
an active agent in the formulation of re- The Jolly Companions (1630). The star
ligious thought and feeling." was a pun on "Lodestar," a name taken
from her father's brewery. Since the
Leyster, Judith 1970s, much research has been done in
1 609-1 660 • Dutch • painter • the effort to recover Leyster's work and
Baroque restore her reputation.

From her death in 1660 through the

Lichtenstein, Roy
end of the nineteenth century, no
19x3-1997 • American • painter •
painting was publicly sold with an
Pop Art
attribution to Leyster. (Prima Fox
Hofrichter, 1993) Oh, I'm in my dotage, I suppose. But I

don't think a change in subject really

Leyster was one of the few Dutch
matters that much.
women who were able to succeed with-
out depending on a male relative. In her In the manner of pop art, a major reac-
early 20s she became a master in the tion against abstract expressionism,
Haarlem Guild, set up her own shop, and with Pop's devotion to emblems of
and was the only woman painter in POPULAR CULTURE, Lichtenstein used in
Holland who had students. A skilled his art ideas and techniques from the

businesswoman, after her marriage to
fellow artist Jan Miense Molenaer in
1636, she ran his studio, but apparently
she no longer painted. Both Leyster and
Molenaer had studied under hals.
Leyster's subject matter was typical of
her era: many everyday, genre scenes,
including one, Man Offering a
Money (1631), understood as an allu-
sion to prostitution. Numerous follow-
comic strips. However, he made his im-
ages as single panels and vastly enlarged
them. Painting in oil and acrylics, he
used the same limited, flat colors and
precise, dark outline drawing that
was popular in newspaper features like
Dick Tracy and Wonder Woman. He
Woman also mimicked the characteristic ben
DAY mechanical printing process, in
which dots express tone, achieving a

ers of CARAVAGGio painted the kind of ersatz pointillism. Lichten-

prostitute as temptress, but Leyster stein used comic-strip-like characters,
showed a different point of view: Bent whose words fill balloons, in some of
 LIMBOURG, POL, HERMAN, AND JEAN DE 395

his paintings, and in others he freely the early 1630s, and while he received
copied works by picasso and mon- commissions for allegorical subjects,

DRIAN, for example, in his comic-book HISTORY PAINTINGS, and portraits, as

style. Not until 1995 did he begin to the quotation above illustrates, Liev-
paint nudes, a preoccupation with the ens's contribution to the history of art is

human body that seemed new in his relatively slight.

work. Asked about the change, Lichten-

stein made the comment quoted above. Limbourg, Pol, Herman, and Jean
More seriously, he added, "I had the de
idea that thenude would be a kind of died 14 1 6 • Franco/Flemish •
undulating surface that would show off painters • Late Gothic/International
light and shade. Also, I liked the idea Style

that the heavy lines and dots were so

A counterfeit book, made from a piece
unrealistic and unsensual, contrary to
of wood and painted to look like a
the way we think of human flesh."
book, though it has no pages and
nothing written. (Robinet d'Etampes,
Lievens, Jan
1411)
1607-74 • Dutch
painter/printmaker Baroque The book described above was both a
gift and a joke of the Limbourg broth-
[My portrait is] . . . out of the hand of
ers, who presented it to their patron,
Mr. Levinus, the Duke of
Duke Jean de Berry. With the words
Brandenburg's paynter. He duelt at the
quoted above, Robinet, court librarian,
signe of the fleur-de-luce and you may
listed thebook for the duke's inventory.
be sure of a good one. He ist the better
Earlier the Limbourgs had worked for
because he hath so high conceit of
Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (see
himself that he thinks here none to

be compaired with him in

is

all
valois) — their uncle, Jean Malouel,
was an artist in Philip's court and prob-
Germany -Holland, nor the rest of the
ably introduced them —and earlier still,
17 provinces. (Robert Kerr, Earl of
prior to 1400, they were in a Parisian
Ancram, 1654)
goldsmith's workshop. By 1402 all

His artistic training began at the age of three were painting miniatures for

8; was 11, Lievens was study-

before he Duke Philip. When Philip died, they
ing with Pieter lastman in Amsterdam; went to work for his brother, Jean. Les

and by 1 3 he was working on his own in Tres Riches Heures, one of the most
Leiden. Lievens became a friend of Rem- renowned and beautiful books in his-
brandt when the latter began his ap- tory, was under way when they, and
prenticeship in Leiden. They developed their patron, died in 1416, probably
along different lines; Lievens was less victims of the plague. Their masterpiece
interested in psychology than he was in was left unfinished. Much discussion
melodrama and was also inclined to a has revolved around which brother did
larger scale; however, a number of which pages, but there is no consensus.
works attributed to Rembrandt were Their work is a marvel of precise detail
probably by Lievens. The two parted in and rich color, a visual realism^ that
396 LIMNER

characterized their era. They followed object placed into the earth but as a
the duke's peripatetic court, and several cut in the earth that has then been
of his fairy-tale-like castles appear in polished, like a geode. Interest in the
the background of their illustrations. land and concern about how we are
One building they painted, Mont-Saint- polluting the air and water of the
Michel, had not yet been completed as planet are what make me want to
planned, and never w^as, although the travel back in geologic time— to

artists presented it as if it were. Les Tres witness the shaping of the earth
Riches Heures is a book of hours with before man.
full-page representations of the months,
each showing appropriate seasonal ac- Lin won a competition to design the
tivities, alternating scenes of the nobil- Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wash- in

ity in their leisure and the peasants at ington, D.C. (1981-83), when she was
work. Topographically as well as archi- a 20-year-old undergraduate student in
tecturally descriptive, the pictures re- architecture at Yale University. Made
veal the social graces of nobles and up of seven slabs of highly polished
occupations of the laboring class. In the granite engraved with the names of
foreground of October, for example, a Americans killed in the war, the memo-
field is being sown with winter wheat, rial is located on the Mall. Although
and shimmering in the background is there were protests when the was design
the Louvre palace in Paris. Moreover, chosen, and a conventional group of
for the first time since classical an- statues commemorating the soldiers
tiquity, figures cast shadows. The Feb- was later erected to satisfy those dis-
ruary miniature shows one of the senters, Lin's work has proved to be un-

earliest snow-covered landscapes in the paralleled in the profundity of its effect.

history of Western art. Besides the beauty of its minimalist

simplicity, she has tapped into our
human response to the power of a
limner name: Visitors to the wall earnestly seek
A medieval term for a painter of illu- identification of the individual they are
minated MANUSCRIPTS. In Britain, dur- mourning, sometimes make rubbings of
ing the 15th century, and later, during his or her name, and leave behind let-

the 1 6th and 17th centuries in New ters, photographs, and other tokens
England, "limner" was used to mean (some of these items are now on display
painters in general, especially por- at the National Museum of American
traitists. History). Moreover, the polished sur-
face acts as a mirror linking the living
with the dead. Lin has received a variety
Lin, Maya Ying
of other notable commissions that in-
born 1959 • American •
clude additional public monuments and
architect/sculptor • Modern
buildings, and for New York City's
Even my work was influenced
earliest Pennsylvania Station, she designed
by geology and topology. I saw the Eclipsed Time (1994), a clock that sug-
Vietnam Veterans Memorial not as an gests the movement of an eclipse.
 LIPCHITZ, JACQUES 397

line vs. color ing of, or fluidity between, forms. Bot-

The debate about the value of Hne vs. ticelli's Birth of Venus (c. 1484) is a
color is also known as the battle of the linear picture.

Ancients (representing "line") and the

Moderns (representing "color"), and as Linked Ring
Poussinistes (admirers of poussin, who See secession
followed the example of classical art)

versus Rubenistes (after rubens, who Lipchitz, Jacques

was an outstanding colorist). Education 1891-1973 •

at the ACADEMY had long defended Lithuanian/French/American •

the line/Ancient/Poussiniste position, sculptor • Cubist

which was debated especially hotly in
The problem was to combine light and
the French Academy during the 17th
shade in my likeness, not by copying
century. The Poussinistes were champi-
my face and then simplifying it, nor by
oned by LE BRUN and the Rubenistes by
deforming it afterwards on the pretext
the critic de piles. By the end of the cen-
of style . . . the capture of likeness was
tury, the views of the Rubenistes had
a very long affair . . . and the day in
gained the lead. "Line" here refers to
which the two savage beasts
defining edges, clear outlines. For
understood each other to perfection
example, line is emphasized in Greek
and became domestic animals, Lipchitz
POTTERY and in works by flaxman and
decapitated me. (Jean Cocteau, 19x2)
INGRES, besides those of Poussin.
Among whose emphasis is on
painters Born in Lithuania, Lipchitz studied in

color are caravaggio, titian, van Paris and, between 1915 and 1925,
DYCK, and REMBRANDT, in addition to sculpted in a cubist manner. He began
Rubens. It should be kept in mind, how- by simplifying figures in overlapping
ever, that these are relative preferences, vertical and horizontal planes. One
or values, and the dichotomy is not ab- might think of Head (191 5) as a detail

solute. It has to do with emphasis of a painted Analytical Cubist portrait

within a spectrum that might have a line translated into bronze. Less abstract
drawing at one end and an image de- but still simplified in form is his Portrait

fined entirely by color relationships at of Jean Cocteau (c. 1920), about which
the other. the subject wrote an essay that is quoted
from above. Lipchitz's work pro-
linear gressed, expressing alternately still-

A term introduced to art history by ness — as humorous, totemic

in the
wolfflin, "linear" describes the con- Figure (19x6-^0), in which eyes seem to
cept of line, often as outline, leading the look out from a disk attached to a three-
eye and defining the surfaces and con- part body —
and boisterous activity, as
making them tangi-
tours in a painting, in the 1 1 -foot-high /oy of Life (192.7-
ble and finite. Linear forms may be 60), in which curved forms are acrobat-
modulated by light and shadow, but we ically linked. Between 1944 and 1953,

never lose the sense that they have Lipchitz used a mythological figure for
edges, or boundaries; there is no meld- a contemporary analogy: Prometheus
 —

398 LIPPARD, LUCY

Strangling the Vulture shows Prome- by discovering and writing about art
theus as the Allied victory in World and artists outside the establishment.

War II and the eagle as symbolic of the Among her books and articles is Over-
Axis powers. Lipchitz had moved to the lay:Contemporary Art and the Art of
United States in 1941. After the war Prehistory (1983), from which the quo-
he was chosen to design a shrine to tation above is taken. In 1985 Lippard
the Madonna (1948) for a church in was fired from a supposedly progressive
France. Lipchitz expressed his deep ap- publication of the popular press, the
preciation that he, "a Jew, true to the Village Voice, and this virtual censor-

faith of his ancestors," as he put it, was ship of a Feminist spokeswoman in such
awarded that commission. The Virgin's a context signals how controversial the
figure is continuous with and sur- Feminist point of view remains.
rounded by a heart-shaped mandorla.
Such continuity of forms, of one shape Lippi, Filippino
uniting with and becoming another, is 1457-1504 • Italian • pamter
characteristic of his work throughout Renaissance
his career. In this way, each one of his
Filippino's invention was so copious,
sculptures, regardless of how radically
and his ornamentation so curious and
different it may seem, in fact expresses
original, that he was the among
first
its evolution from and continuity with
the moderns to employ the new
all of his work.
method of varying the costumes, and
to dress his figures in the short antique
Lippard, Lucy
vestments. (Vasari, mid- 1 6th century)
born 1937 • American • critic/artist

• Feminist Filippino studied first with his father,

Horst Janson's standard textbook — Fra Filippo (see below), then with Bot-
ticelli, who was in his father's work-
History of Art does not include a
shop. He combined their linear style
single woman. This absence of women
with the SFUMATO (smoky) manner of
from art history, added to emotional
LEONARDO. His later works are far
needs for gender affirmation, is one of
more emotional than those of his teach-
the reasons feminist artists have taken
ers, particularly Saint Philip Exorcising
the conventional history of art with a
a Demon in the Temple of Mars
massive grain of salt.
(1497-1502). The "short antique vest-

In the effort to devise a specifically fem- ments" to which VASARI refers in the
was one of
inist art criticism, Lippard quotation above are interspersed with
the most important writers in what is other richly imaginative costumes, but
now called the "first generation" of above all, as the historian Frederick
Feminist art critics. Her methodol- Hartt writes, "Filippino's fresco is, in

ogy has no rigid theoretical "system" the last analysis, the painting of a bad
such as MARXISM, Socialism, or decon- smell." Hartt is referring to the demon
STRUCTiON, though it may incorporate that, bursting from the base of a statue
those points of view. She covers much of Mars, emits such terrible and poiso-
ground and has contributed greatly nous fumes that the king's son falls
 LIPTON, SEYMOUR 399

dead. Besides its cast of overwrought have resembled the bold, natural ap-
characters, some of whom hold their proach Masaccio favored, but Filippo's
noses, this painting also makes refer- later stylewas linear and more decora-
ence to the golden house of nero, tive. This linear definition of form was

which had just been found beneath the adopted by Fra Filippo's best-known
ruins of the Roman Baths of Trajan. Fil- student, botticelli.
ippino had gone to see the discovery
and adapted its decorations — urns,
lamps, masks, lions' feet, known as Lipton, Seymour
grotesques —to the architectural de- 1903-1986 • American • sculptor •
tails in his own picture. The strangeness Abstract Expressionist
of this picture may be related to the ^ . , ,
It IS a new consciousness oj the
turn-of-the-century millennialism that , r 1
wonder of the regenerative processes in
seemed also to affect bosch and botti- , , ,
nature, yet seen through ana
CELLI. J I
incorporated in its polar opposite,
-. . . _, _.,. science and technology. This work
^^ Fra Filippo
Lippi, ^^ .
^. / * ;
suggests a nostalgia for nature in a
c. 1406-1469 • Italian • pamter • ,
r^ mtti
; 7 •

frame of technological vision, what

/ j.

results plastically is neither, but

You reply . . . you cannot give me something new, consistent with the
another farthing. This has been very will and courage deriving from a new
painful to me ... I am one of
clearly and tragic cultural situation. It is a
thy poorest friars in Florence— that's new metaphysics for man. We cannot
me. God has left me with six nieces to return to virgin nature, nor allow
find husbands for, all sickly and destruction by the machine.
useless. . . . Tears come to my eyes Somewhere in this polar tension lies

when I think that if I die . . . (Letter to the plastic solution for sculpture as I
Piero de' Medici, Aug. 13, 1439) see it.

After he was orphaned, Filippo's rela- Trained as a dentist, Lipton began mak-
tives put him in a Carmelite monastery, ing sculpture in the 1930s. His forms
a most unsuitable placement. His mis- were generally biomorphic, or proto-
demeanors there ranged from forgery to plasmic, rather than recognizable repre-
the abduction of a nun, with whom he sentations. His earliest works were
had a child, Filippino (see above), who aggressive in attitude, but later his
also became a painter. It is speculated shapes were rounded and less vicious-

that Fra Filippo met masaccio at the looking. A work like Sanctuary (1953)5
church associated with his monastery, of nickel-silver over steel, may call to

Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, mind the unfolding bud of a flower, yet

where the Brancacci Chapel that in its center are sharp, angular shapes.
Masaccio decorated is located (and The quotation above refers to a work
where Fihppino would eventually com- entitled Earth Forge #2 (1955) and
plete the frescoes in 1484). Fra Filippo's clearly expresses Lipton's interest in the

early work, now largely destroyed, may problem and play of dichotomies.
400 LISSITZKY, EL (lAZAR LISITSKY)

Lissitzky, El (Lazar Lisitsky) ernment's conservatism, however, he

1890-1941 • Russian • returned to BerUn in 192 1 and worked
painter/sculptor/illustrator/architect • with members of the avant-garde that
Folk Art/Suprematist/Constructivist/ included De stijl and bauhaus artists.

Proun He also traveled and worked in France,

^_, , , ^ ^ Holland, and Switzerland.

[Proun is] form
the creation of
(control of space) by means of the
lithograph/lithography
economic construction of material to ^ •

Ongmally
1
r
rrom
, 1 ^
Greek
t i-

... , . . , lithos, tor

which a netv value is assigned. ,, „ , . , , ,
stone, lithography rerers to a process
Denied admission to the Academy of developed in Munich by Alois Sene-
Art in Saint Petersburg because its Jew- felder(1771-1834) between 1796 and
ish quota was achieved, Lissitzky went 1799. The smoothed surface of a block
to Germany to study. He returned to of stone receives the image to be
Russia when World War I began, and, printed. Unlike other processes devel-
sponsored by the Jewish Ethnographic oped for printing, the image is not cut;
Society, explored synagogues and jew- rather, basedon the principle that oil
ISH ART along the Dnieper River. Dur- and water do not mix, it is drawn with
ing this era, when artists in Germany a lithographic pencil, crayon, or sub-
and Russia were interested in folk art, stance that contains some kind of
Lissitzky, like chagall, researched the greasy, water-resistant material that
folklore of the region's Jews. Lissitzky will absorb a greasy printing ink. When
illustrated both religious texts and chil- the surface of the stone is wet and then
dren's books, integrating the inspira- inked, the ink adheres only to the areas
tion of painted wooden synagogues, impregnated with the greasy crayon,
bright folk art colors, and folk-based and paper pressed on it will take up
Hebrew typology with a combination those markings. The artist may draw
of CUBISM and futurism. Later he more freely than he or she can in other

continued these experimental mixes forms of printing that require painstak-

with non-Jewish themes in a style he ing cutting. Thus, a lithographic print is

called by the acronym Proun (Proekt likely to be more

from the directly
utverzhdeniia woi/ogo — Project for the artist's hand than is a copy of a work in

Affirmation of the New). Proun Com- another medium that may have been
position (c. 1922) is an example: Simple done by a specialist in engraving, for

geometric shapes at first glance, their example. As do copies made from pre-
shading and solidity, the repetition of existing images, the end product of lith-

forms, allusions to a cross and triangu- ographs reverses the design of the
lar shapes, increase their complexity, original. Lithographers take this into
Under Chagall, and then his successor account when drawing directly on
MALEVICH, Lissitzky taught architec- stone, and draw their picture in reverse

ture at the Vitebsk School of Art and be- of the image they want printed. Thou-
came interested in suprematism. In the sands of lithographic prints, called lith-

face of the Russian revolutionary gov- ographs, may be made from an image
 LOMAZZO, GIOVANNI PAOLO 4OI

on Stone. (Metal plates with grained spired during the 15th century were
surfaces are usually used in commercial also related to byzantine art. Efforts to

"lithography.") reunite the Orthodox and Roman

Churches were under way at that time

Lochner, Stefan and Byzantine icons were imported

active c. 1440-after 1453? • German into the West, where they were copied.

• painter • Late Gothic/Early On one of his trips along the Rhine,

Northern Renaissance DURER stopped and, as he recorded in
his diary, paid to see Lochner's Adora-
If allowance is made for the difference
tion of the Magi
1440-45) in the (c.
entailed by an interval of more than
Cologne Cathedral, panofsky remarks
sixty years, this famed altarpiece
on the effect of that visit in the passage
[Lochner's Adoration of the Magi/
quoted above and adds, "And it is
may be said to anticipate much of
therefore understandable that Dijrer's
what strikes us as new in Diirer's
first painting to deserve the title of a
composition: the symmetrical, yet by
Late Renaissance work reveals both the
no means schematic arrangement of
manifest influence of Giovanni Bellini
the whole; the quiet dignity and
and a recollection, perhaps uncon-
comparative heaviness of the
scious, of Stephan [sic] Lochner."
individual figures; the magnificent
contrast between a solemn pyramidal
Lomazzo, Giovanni Paolo
group in the center and lively throngs
1 53 8-1600 • ItaUan • writer/painter
of worshipers unfolding in the second
• Mannerist
plane; and even the detail of a cloth of
honor spread out by two angels. Naples yellow and orpiment [bright,

(Erwin Panofsky, 1943) goldlike yellow] cannot be better

shadowed than with ocher. But
Lochner, who settled in Cologne, has
German yellow, being darker, requires
been called the Fra angelico of the
a darker ocher. . . . Brown of Spain
North. His paintings have a similar
shadows burnt orpiment.
serenity and love of color, his saints the

same sweet faces. In his masterpiece, Lomazzo painted portraits and

Virgin and Child in a Rose Arbor (c. FRESCOes in and around his hometown
1440), a sense of otherworldly purity is of Milan before going blind at the age of
achieved by setting the Virgin, "a rose 33. He then turned to writing poetry
among thorns," against a tooled gold and about painting. The quota-
tracts

background. She is surrounded by an- tion above is from his Treatise on the
—those her
gels at feet play musical in- Art of Fainting (1584), in a section enti-

struments — and a trellis of roses rises tled"Correspondence of Light and

behind her. A traditional representation Dark Colors," which he began by say-
following MEDIEVAL Conventions, its re- ing, "It is necessary for the painter to be

ligious purpose was to draw the viewer perfectly acquainted and familiar with
into mystical contemplation. Lochner's the aptitude that each color may have to
."
composition and others similarly in- shadow or illuminate any other. . .
 —

402 LOMBARDO FAMILY

(This text was soon translated and pub- quotation above, is visible in a small

lished in French and English.) Lomazzo (about 5 inches high) bronze Head of a
rejected vasari's preference for draw- Woman (c. 1490-95).
ing over the use of color (see line vs.
color), holding each to be equal. He London Group
also wrote the first systematic account Persuaded of their importance by
of landscape painting. whistler, Walter Richard Sickert
(1860-1942) went to Paris to see
Lombardo family the impressionists and post-
c. 1435-153^ • Italian • sculptors impressionists. He then became the
Renaissance center of a group that met at his studio
in Camden Town. It was first known as
As a portraitist Tullio was among the
the Camden Town Group, then, in
first Renaissance artists to be fully
191 3, became the London Group. The
aware of the precise angle of the head.
painter Percy Wyndham lewis, the
The tilt of its axis and turn of the
. . .

sculptor EPSTEIN, and the critic fry

face to the left or right, play a decisive
were among the members.
role in creating psychological
animation. His ability to utilize such
Longhi, Pietro (Pietro Falca)
devices effectively probably derived in
1700/02-1785 • Italian • painter •
the first instancefrom study of
Baroque
Hellenistic sculpture and its formulas
for pathos. (Wendy Stedman Sheard, Longhi, you summon my sibling muse;
1978) your pen like mine is seeking truth.
(Carlo Goldoni, 1750)
The father, Pietro (c. 143 5-15 15), and
two sons, Tullio (c. 1455?-! 53 2) and Carlo Goldoni, quoted above, was a
Antonio (c. i458?-i5i6?), though playwright whose plots were based on
originally from Lombardy, were active real life in defiance of the then popular
in Venice. Primarily sculptors of marble traveling companies, the commedia
architectural ornament, their style be- delTarte ("professional comedy"). The
came known as Lombardesque after true-to-life genre pictures Longhi
their ornamentation of the triumphal painted
— "conversations, meetings,
arch and large chapel (chancel) in the playful scenes of love and jealousy"
church of San Giobbe in Venice. They have an affinity with Goldoni's plays.
used lush vegetation, such as the acan- The House Concert (c. 1750), in which
thus leaf, flowers, birds, putti, and a pleasant bourgeois family is gathered
other elements of grotesque decora- for a musical interlude, is typical of his
tion. The Lombardo workshop was es- anecdotal subjects, and he was highly
pecially busy in the 1470s and '80s and thought of by members of Venetian so-
employed numerous stoneworkers. ciety. Although the baroque era had
Tullio was fond of antiquities and a passed elsewhere, it lingered in Venice
collector of relics. The Hellenistic in- until the downfall of the Republic at the
fluence, mentioned by Sheard in the end of the i8th century, and Longhi
 LORENZETTI, PIETRO, AND AMBROGIO 4O3

shared Baroque tendencies of the earher and the plumber." More than his archi-

period. However, there is one disarm- tectural designs, Loos's writing had
ing and perplexing painting of his. The great influence on the evolution of
Rhinoceros (c. 175 1). The animal in MODERN architecture, but when named
question, from India, was exhibited in a founder of modernism. Loos de-
three German cities as well as Paris and murred. While the facades of his build-
Verona before arriving in Venice, ings, such as the Steiner House in
where, during the Carnival of 175 1, it Vienna (19 10), were stark, the interiors
was put on display. Other portraits of might be colorful and sumptuous.
the rhino were produced, as well as a
dissertation on the animal, as it fol- Lorenzetti, Pietro (active
lowed its itinerary. Longhi's picture is 132.0-1348) and Ambrogio (active

most unusual in his sense of the bizarre. 1319-1348)

The asymmetrical composition clusters Italian • painters • Late

the audience to the right. It includes the Gothic/International Style

nobleman who commissioned the pic-
The city of Siena had most excellent
ture, the animal's owner holding its re-
and learned masters, among whom
moved horn, and six others dressed in
was Ambrogio Lorenzetti. He was a
carnival finery, two with masks. The
most famous and unusual master and
setting is barnlike and otherwise empty
did very many works. (Ghiberti, c.
except for the rhinoceros, which stands
1450)
unattractively in full profile, center
front, munching on straw amid piles of These two brothers studied and worked
dung. In this picture Longhi's recording in SIENA, where, once martini had left

of Venetian life is unprecedented, and for AVIGNON, they became the leading
could hardly be more distant from those painters. Both probably died during the
appealing views painted by his contem- bubonic plague (Black Death) of 1348.
porary CANALETTO. Their work contains an amalgam of
styles, including that of their teacher,
Loos, Adolf Duccio, and of giotto. Among Pie-

1 870-1 93 3 • Austrian • architect • tro's most interesting paintings is De-

Modern scent from the Cross (1320S-30S). It

shows expressiveness on the mourners'

The evolution of culture is
faces and even, although not so success-
synonymous with the removal of
fully as Giotto, presents one figure from
ornament from utilitarian objects.
the back. Pietro's composition, combin-
The quotation above is from the essay ing the diagonal (already stiffening)
Ornament and Crime (1908). Loos was body of Christ with a pyramid of
fiercely opposed to ornamentation, mourners, is weighed down by the long,
which he considered a sign of weakness. grainy, bloodstained crossbar of the
He was in favor of cubic shapes and fine of the Virgin
crucifix. In Pietro's Birth

materials and a believer, as Nikolaus (134Z), Saint Anne, Mary's mother, re-
PEVSNER writes, "in the engineer clines on her bed, which is neatly cov-
404 LORENZO MONACO (LAWRENCE THE MONK, PIERO DI GIOVANNI)

ered with a plaid spread. Historians This new evaluation Lorenzo Monaco
particularly note the framing of this al- could not share. (Frederick Hartt,
TARPiECE, which seems devised to in- 1969)
corporate spatial illusion. (It may have
been a later addition.) In 1391 Lorenzo joined the mystical
Ambrogio's most wonderful and rev- Camaldolite order in Florence, though
olutionary paintings were FRESCoes on in 1402 he registered for art school
three walls of a chamber in Siena's city using his lay name (Piero di Giovanni).
hall (the Palazzo Pubblico). These alle- Lorenzo used luminous color, and his

gorical personifications, called Good human forms are ethereal rather than
Government and Bad Government solid. His masterwork is the Corona-
(1338-39), illustrate how such gov- tion of the Virgin (1414), an altar-
ernment affects life in the town and piece in which exultant multitudes are
the country. The works are particularly painted against a gold background. It

significant because that was the period has predellas that are set inside quatre-
when Florence and Siena were vying for foils (four-lobed shapes) that remind us,
power. As poetic justice, perhaps. Bad as they probably did his contem-
Government has been seriously dam- poraries, that the designs for ghib-
aged by time (and vandals). The Good ERTi's Baptistery doors were also set in

Government landscapes show us 14th- quatrefoils. Lorenzo was among the last

century Siena and its environs. We see practitioners of the Late gothic Inter-

the crenellated city wall, towers and national Style, a conservative tendency
rooflines, and multicolored buildings to which the historian Hartt refers in
(one of which is under construction), the comment above.
and we see people who are clearly thriv-
ing, dancing in the streets. Outside the lost wax process [cire perdue)
walls peasants harvest grain and tend See BRONZE
the vines in fertile fields. Meanwhile,
members of the leisure class set out on Lotto, Lorenzo
horseback for a day of hawking. These c. 1480-15 56 • Italian • painter •

are amazing panoramas. Renaissance/Mannerist

He shows us people in want of the

Lorenzo Monaco (Lawrence the consolations of religion, of sober
Monk, Piero di Giovanni) thought, of friendship and affectation.
c. 1370-C. 1425 • painter • Italian • They look out from his canvases as if

Late Gothic/International Style begging for sympathy. (Bernard

Berenson, 1894)
For Lorenzo Monaco's visual poetry is

essentially imaginative and unreal; the Although TITIAN professed to admire

crucial developments of the early him. Lotto chose a more conservative
Quattrocento, on the other hand, were route and failed to explore the ground
based on a new early evaluation of the his somewhat younger contemporary
reality of day-to-day experience, and broke in the handling of color and
of the human being who experiences. paint. Rather, Lotto showed such a
 LUKE, SAINT 4O5

multitude of stylistic influences that he own experiments with the materials of

is often called a chameleon. Still, he was painting, especially the staining tech-
individualistic —he has also been called niques she was using. In the belief that
the most idiosyncratic Venetian artist of he had lost his way, 1957 Louis de-
in

the 1 6th century —

and was sometimes stroyed many of the paintings done be-
inspired in his presentation of ideas. In tween 1954 and 1957. Then he resumed
Annunciation (1520s), for example, the working in a series called Veils— an apt
unexpected angel Gabriel arrives on the allusion to the impression given by his
scene with a long stalk of white lilies, transparent colors, which seem to have
and Mary's own great surprise is mir- floated in gently and settled onto the
rored by that of a startled cat. Lotto's canvas. The technique Louis typically
pleasure in novelty and humor is also used was to allow extremely dilute, liq-
apparent in the painting Saint Jerome in uid acrylic paint to flow over a tilted,

the Desert (
1 506). Jerome is seen from unstretched canvas. It was the canvas it-

above as a small, frail figure among self that acted as resistance to the paint,
looming rocks. One must search the This is in contrast to abstract expres-
canvas to locate the saint's constant sionists like kline and de kooning,
companion, the lion from whose paw whose canvases provided resistance to

Jerome removed a thorn, but it is finally their attacklike gestures of painting,

to be found emerging from the shadow Striving for a luminosity unrelated to

between the rocks. In work clark
this material things, Louis worked, in 1959,
sees the influence of durer on Lotto, with muted colors in what look like
especially because it "contains rocks tonal waves. He also tried painting with
and trees remarkably similar to the stripes of brilliant color. His artistic ex-

drawings which Diirer did on his jour- plorations were ended by his early
ney home from Italy in 1495." The death, in 1962.
Northern echo of grunewald is seen in
Lotto, too, in some of his dark and low art
clashing, un-Venetian colorings. Not- See high art
ing that Lotto did portraits of Luther,
scholars speculate about his interest in Luke, Saint
Protestantism, berenson, in the quota- One of the four evangelists, author of
tion above, makes an interesting, re- the third Gospel, Saint Luke is supposed
lated comment. to have painted portraits of the Vir-
gin —the theme of Saint Luke painting
Louis, Morris the Virgin was especially popular
1912-1962 • American • painter • among artists of the early northern
Post-Painterly Abstraction renaissance (e.g., van der weyden's
^, , ,
Saint Luke Portraying the Virgin, c.
You have something to say, you say it. v t j j 1 j r
1435-40). Indeed, the precedent of
In 1953, Louis franken- visited Saint Luke's picture is taken both as
thaler's studio and found her method the prototypical Madonna and Child
of soaking and staining an unprimed and as a justification for the icon. Luke
canvas a revelation. He then began his became the patron saint of painters;
 —

406 LUKS, GEORGE

many painters' guilds were dedicated ticular tradition in American painting,

to him and named after him. especially seen in landscapes of the third
quarter of the 19th century. Novak
Luks, George points to characteristics that include
1867-1933 • American Painter hard, smooth surfaces; outlined forms;
ReaHst horizontal organization; and strong,
clear light. She describes Luminists as
can paint with] a shoe string dipped
//

in pitch and lard.

conceptual — revealing what the mind
knows rather than what the eye per-
The exuberant claim quoted above was ceives — in contrast to impressionists,
made by Luks, who had previously lim- for example, who sought to report vi-

ited himself to drawing, after glackens sual sensations and form. of light
persuaded him to try his hand at pastels Prominent Luminists were gifford,
and oils. Unfortunately, the result of HEADE, KENSETT, LANE, and WHIT-
such experiments was paintings that tredge. Frequently considered a
cracked and generally deteriorated. The branch of the Hudson river school,
infamous show of The eight in 1908 Luminism was also steeped in tran-
was partly a result of National Acad- scendentalism and equally concerned
emy of Design jurors rejecting a paint- with the fate of the American landscape
ing by Luks called Man with Dyed under pressure from industrialization,
Mustachios, which is now lost. Luks railroad building, and westward expan-
was amember both of The Eight and of sion. Subsequent to Novak's account,
the ASHCAN SCHOOL. His interest in "Luminism" was used so wantonly that
urban life is epitomized by a 1905 it lost significance and muddled distinc-

painting, Hester Street, which sweeps tions instead of serving as a useful defi-
the viewer into and through the teeming nition. It has thus become controversial
life of the Jewish neighborhood of among historians.
New York City's Lower East Side. An
artist-reporter for the Philadelphia Lysippos
Press along with shinn, glackens and active c. 360-300 BCE • Greek •

SLOAN, like them he followed henri to sculptor • Late Classical/Hellenistic

New York, and like Henri he admired
Alexander gave orders that Lysippos
and was inspired by hals (Luks studied
only should make portraits of him
art in Europe). Luks also painted
since Lysippos only, as itwould seem,
wrestlers with a brushwork and brutal-
truly revealed his nature in bronze, and
ity similar to bellows's pictures of
portrayed his courage in visible form,
boxers, and especially raw in compari-
while others . . . failed to preserve his
son to the wrestlers and boxers of his
masculine and leonine aspect.
predecessor eakins.
(Plutarch, ist-md century ce)

Luminism During his long and productive life

As applied by John Baur in 1948 and by according to pliny the Elder he made
Barbara Novak in 1969, the term "Lu- 1,500 sculptures "all of such artistic

minism" asserted the existence of a par- value that each would have sufficed by I
 LYSIPPOS 407

itself to make him famous" — Lysippos scribed Alexander's successor as having

bridged the late classical and Hel- been struck with dizzying fear when he
lenistic periods. His interest in the stumbled on a portrait of his predeces-
Polykleitan canon him to modify it:
led sor. It is unknown if this bronze or an-
The earlier ratio of head to body was other statue was the one that captured
1:7; Lysippos used a ratio of 1:8. Thus the Emperor Nero's fancy, but he was
his figures looked slimmer, sinuous so enamored of a statue of Alexander
rather than compact. was his conceit
It that he had it entirely covered in gold.
that while earlier sculptors showed men "Afterward," Pliny relates, "since the
as they really were, he represented them charm of the work had vanished,
as they appeared. Whether this has to though its value had increased, the gold
do with the concept of optical illusion was removed, and was esteemed more
it

or with the "real" as ideal prototype is valuable in this state even though the
uncertain. Regardless, the Lysippian scars and incisions which had contained
proportions gained favor. Another the gold still remained." Interest in

Lysippian innovation was to take com- showing personality became increas-

mand of surrounding space as artists ingly important for Hellenistic artists,
had not yet done — breaking into the due, probably, to Lysippos's success.
manner of speaking.
viewer's space, in a Besides Alexander's courage, Lysippos
His Apoxyomenos (known only by its conveyed his intensity, energy, and
Roman marble copy in the Vatican), an willfulness. Similarly, a portrait of Aris-

athlete scraping the oil and dirt from his totle tentatively attributed to Lysippos
skin, extends his right arm at shoulder shows a deeply thoughtful, concerned if

height, straight in front of his body. The not worried man of letters. Lysippos
Apoxyomenos is further storied: Ac- could also impress with both overstate-
cording to Pliny the Elder, the emperor ment and understatement. Consider the
Tiberius developed an uncontrollable gigantic farnese hercules (known
passion for it and had it taken from the from an early 3rd-century CE Roman
baths where it stood and set in his own version by Glycon after a Lysippian
bedchamber. This so angered the popu- original) in contrast to the very small
lace of Rome that Tiberius was forced Herakles Epitrapezios ("Hercules on
to return the statue. As court artist for the table," ist century ce). As the histo-

Alexander the Great, Lysippos must rian J. J. Pollitt suggests, Lysippos's

have captured the man's character and purpose was not overwhelm or
just to

personality, at least enough to please amaze the onlooker. He also wanted

him, as the above quotation from "to stimulate curiosity and thought by
Plutarch reports. Plutarch also de- confounding expectations."
 .

Macchiaioli Macdonald, Jock

Meaning "spot painters," the name ap- 1897-1960 • Canadian • painter •
plies to a group of nine young Italian Abstract Expressionism
artists who began gathering at the Caffe
Hearing him lecture . . . was an eye
Michelangiolo in Florence during the
opener to many students who were
mid-i85os. One member of the Mac-
seeking the answer to the question
chiaioli was Adriano Cecioni (1838-
"Why Abstract?" He makes one see
1886), a sculptor and painter but best
what a very deep and searching
clearly
known as a writer on art. He articulated
problem it is. (Alexandra Luke,
the aims and stylistic characteristics of
1945)
the Macchiaioli: "Their art consisted
not in a research for form but in a mode Born Macdonald settled in
in Scotland,

of rendering the impressions received Canada in 1926 and was first associ-
from reality by using patches of color, ated with the GROUP of seven. Spiritu-
or of light and dark; for instance, a sin- alism, especially that in the writings of
gle patch of color for the face, another KANDiNSKY, was an undercurrent in his

for the hair, a third, say, for the necker- art. An interest in abstraction grew
chief, another for the jacket or dress . . strong during two summers when he
and so with the ground and the sky." studied with hofmann. Macdonald
Giovanni Fattori (i 825-1908) was the himself was an important teacher, as
outstanding Macchiaioli artist, known the words of one of his students, quoted
for using large patches of simplified above, testify, and he became the leader
color in military scenes and landscapes of the experimental vanguard in

as well as in figure paintings. In their re- Toronto, the artists known as Painters
bellion against academic painting, Eleven.They were closely allied with
they are sometimes associated with the American abstract expressionism,
IMPRESSIONISTS, whom they predated. and Macdonald was encouraged and
They were closer in spirit to the barbi- greatly influenced by the critic green-
ZON SCHOOL, especially in working berg. He devoted himself to painting
outdoors and avoiding subjects pre- large, forceful canvases such as Fleeting
scribed by the academy. Breath (1959).
 MACKINTOSH, CHARLES RENNIE 4O9

Macdonald, Margaret imagination creates an organization of

(1865-193 3) and Frances (1874- color that corresponds to it. . . . Each
1921) color has an inevitable position of its
Scottish • designers • Arts and own what could be called
in

Crafts "emotional space" and has also its

precise character. I conceive space itself

New Women [who make] rather weird
as of plastic significance that I express
adaptions of the human form.
in color.
(
Glasgow Evening News, 1895)

Sisters Margaret and Frances both Macdonald-Wright ran away from

trained at the Glasgow School of Art home at 14 and studied art in Los Ange-
and worked in metals, stained glass, les. Later he studied in Paris, where he
and embroidery. Margaret married and his American colleague russell
MACKINTOSH, Frances married his part- began to develop the movement called
ner, J. H. McNair, and their artistic col- SYNCHROMiSM. They were inspired by a
laborations led to their being known as Canadian artist, Ernest Percyval Tudor-
The Four, or sometimes Mac's Group. Hart, whose system of color harmonies
It was their credo that design should established correspondences between
evolve from specific geographic condi- tonal sound and color. In their system
tions and traditions, a belief expressed the use of a certain color had to do with
in works of theirs that were inspired by its volume and position in space. Warm
INTERLACE patterns of hiberno saxon colors, like red and yellow, were "con-
origin. One example is a silver pendant vex" and advancing; "concave" colors,
of birds in flight entwined in loops and like blue, receded. Macdonald-Wright's
overlapping each other. Margaret and interpretation of this system can be seen
her husband collaborated on this neck- in a work such as Abstraction on the
lace in 1902. A mirror frame of beaten Spectrum (Organization, ^) (1914-17).
tin by Margaret and Frances, named Macdonald-Wright considered Syn-
Honesty (c. 1896), has sinuously elon- chromism to be the culmination of
gated figures enclosing the mirror. MODERN painting.
These figures resemble animated init-

ials (usually the first letter on a page, Mackintosh, Charles Rennie

known as a historiated initial) used in 1 868-1928 • Scottish • architect •
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS of the ME- Art Nouveau
DIEVAL period. It was this kind of figure
Old architecture lived because it had a
to which the newspaper reviewer re-
purpose. Modern architecture, to be
ferred in the comment quoted above.
real, must not be a mere envelope
without contents.
Macdonald-Wright, Stanton
Both as an architect and as a designer of
1890-1973 • American • painter •
DECORATIVE ARTS, Mackintosh was a
Modern/Synchromist
prominent international figure in the

Form to me is color. When I conceive ART NOUVEAU movement. He is known

of a composition of form, my as a leader of the Glasgow school,
4IO MacMONNIES, FREDERICK WILLIAM

which, in effect, acknowledges his asso- statue, Saint-Gaudens challenged him

Glasgow School of Art,
ciation with the to improve it, allegedly with the words
where he studied and for which he de- quoted above. Apparently MacMon-
signed a new building in 1895 (con- nies did so, and then was made a studio
struction began in 1896). This building, assistant. Later, he studied in Paris. His
while fairly austere and clear in its over- best-known work was made for the
all design, had fanciful metalwork with World's Columbian Exposition in

delicate Art Nouveau curves. The com- Chicago: MacMonnies created an

bination of traditional sturdy, straight- extravaganza known as The Triumph
forward Scottish architecture with the of Columbia, or The Barge of State
elegant new art fulfilled his mandate as (1893). It is an amalgam of styles but
quoted above. He also designed several preeminently neo-BAROQUE; Columbia,
"tea rooms" in Glasgow, outfitting holding a torch, sits in a chair that is set

them with white enamel chairs and cup- atop a high pedestal on a "barge" that
boards containing inlays of mauve, somewhat resembles one of the ships in
pink, and mother-of-pearl. He designed Columbus's fleet. Below her a crew of
with natural and stained wood as well. women personifying the Arts and In-
Mackintosh was noted for combining dustries hold long oars with decorative
rectangular forms, painted white, with paddles. Time handles the rudder and
gentle curves as decorative motifs. Fame is on the bow. Made of a mixture
"There was no one else who could com- of plaster and straw (called staff mater-
bine the rational and the expressive in ial) and placed in a great basin of water,

so intriguing way," writes Nikolaus the work did not last long after the ex-
PEVSNER. Mackintosh had considerable position was over. In 1893 MacMon-
influence in Austria and Germany, but nies created a scandal in Boston with
little in either Scotland or England. Bacchante and Infant Faun (1893): The
Margaret macdonald was Mackin- naked bacchante, or female follower of
tosh's wife and collaborator. the god of wine, dances with an infant
in one hand and a bunch of grapes in

MacMonnies, Frederick William the other. It had been commissioned for

1863-1937 • American • sculptor • MCKiM, MEAD AND white's library, but

Eclectic the public protested and the sculpture

Well, if you think you can do it better,

was banished — to the Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
go ahead and change the arm.
(Augustus Saint-Gaudens)
maesta
MacMonnies, who started but could Italian for "majesty," the term refers
not afford to keep up his studies at the generally to representations of the Vir-
Art Students League and National gin and Child enthroned, adored by
Academy of Design in New York, saints and angels, especially as shown in

worked as a cleanup boy in the studio of the 1 4th and 1 5 th centuries. This image
SAINT-GAUDENS. When he overheard may be traced back to icons of the
MacMonnies criticize the arm on a clay BYZANTINE period. The most famous
 MAILLOL, ARISTIDE 4II

maesta painting, known as the Maesta, tiplied by a view through the window of
is Duccio's 1308-11 masterpiece, the an elaborate wrought-iron balcony
ALTARPIECE for the Siena Cathedral. with three male heads looking over it,

triplicates of the man at the gramo-

Magic Realism phone, and mountain peaks beyond.
The hne is difficult to draw, but Magic Hiding on the near side of an interior
Realism (also called Precise Realism or wall, two identical men in bowler hats
Sharp-Focus Realism) differs from sur- (detectives?) flank the entryway; one
realism mainly in subject matter. De- holds a club, the other a net. All is mys-
veloping parallel with Surrealism, tery, allusion to uncertain crimes in de-
Magic Realism does not depend on the ceptively ordinary places. Magritte
subconscious or automatism for inspi- went to live in Paris in 1927, but tiring
ration; rather, it very consciously plays of the pace, and the art world argu-
with the everyday, waking world and, ments, he returned home to live and
by creating bizarre circumstances and work in Brussels in 1930. He chose to
juxtapositions, makes it unreal. (See define himself in opposition to leading
also magritte) surrealists (mASSON, ERNST, and
DALi), rejecting fantasy and, rather,
Magritte, Rene subverting the ordinary: the pipe, for
1898-1967 • Belgian • painter • example. Le soir qui tombe {Evening
Magic Realist Falls; 1964) is another example: Frag-
ments of shattered windowpane, having
Ceci n'est pas une pipe.
fallen to the floor, still hold the image of
One of the famous phrases in art his- the sun setting outside, which is also
tory, quoted above, means "This is not seen beyond the window. Besides pre-
a pipe." It was written by Magritte be- senting a confounding statement about
neath an outstandingly real-looking vision, as a painting of a window it also
painting of a pipe. The picture is enti- plays with the most ancient of paint-
tled The Treachery (or Perfidy) of Im- ing's own subjects and devices and
ages (1928-29). It is not a pipe because, ideas: the window itself. Tricky, too, is

of course, it is a picture of a pipe. It is a the literal translation, "Evening Falls,"

statement about the illusionistic nature referring to the fallen glass and the
of painting, and it is an example of "fallen" sun. Here Magritte's humor
MAGIC realism: sharply focused, pho- sharpens the edges of his Magic Real-
tograph-like pictures. Magic Realism is ism.
also the style Magritte used for the ear-
lierand eternally perplexing painting
Maillol, Aristide
called The Menaced Assassin (1926).
1 861-1944 • French • sculptor •
This is a murder scene set in a room
Modern Classicist
empty of everything except the victim (a

store mannequin) and a man in a suit [Rodin] sometimes says, "It's

staring wistfully into the large horn of decorative." And he passes by. He's not
an old gramophone. Strangeness is mul- interested in that. It's decorative! Me,
412 MALATESTA FAMILY

I'm quite the opposite— that's my Malatesta family

point of departure, from the great Warriors and landowners, the Malates-
decorative line. tas ruled papal territory in southern Ro-
magna during the 14th and 15th

Maillol began sculpting when he was centuries. Their reputation for ferocity

nearly 40, after working as a painter and immorality was notorious, and
and TAPESTRY designer and exhibiting Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta
with the NABis. Trouble with his eyes (1417-1468), accused of all manner of
led him to modeling in clay. Defining sins, from sexual irregularities to mur-

himself very much in reaction to the ex- dering his second wife, was officially
pressionist brutalism of rodin, Mail- and ceremonially condemned to hell by
lol concentrated on a restatement and Pope Pius II —while he was still alive.

modernization of classical idealism, Not the least of his transgressions was

expressing harmony and balance and having a monastic church in Rimini
working to a highly polished finish. "I (San Francesco) turned into a temple to
wanted to see how the ancients came to himself. The architect who designed

terms with reality. I looked at a what is now known as the Malatesta

woman's head outside, in the street, Temple (c. 1450) was none other than
then went into the Louvre and looked
I ALBERTi. The building was never com-
at an antiquity, and I saw how they had pleted, but the arcaded lower story of

come to extract the beauty from life," the west side and the front reveal Al-
he said. With little diversion he concen- berti's mastery of the classical vocab-
trated on portrayal of the female nude ulary and the dignity of his invention. A
in large scale, and usually in bronze, medal struck for the laying of the build-

though his wealthy, gay, German pa- ing's cornerstone shows that the plan
tron, Count Harry Kessler, encouraged called for an arch over the main portal
him to sculpt the male nude, which he as well as a dome.

did on a couple of occasions. Among

Maillol's best-known female figures is

an example of Classical equilibrium Male, Emile

and restraint. The Mediterranean (c. 1862-1954 • French • art historian

1902-05), a seated woman whose

To the Middle Ages art was didactic.
crooked arm holds her head while her
All that it was necessary that men
elbow rests on a bent knee. The River
should know— the history of the world
(c.1938-43) challenges equilibrium dogmas of
from the creation, the
spectacularly to become, in a sense, its
religion, the examples of the saints, the
epitome: the huge {jVi feet long) lead
hierarchy of the virtues, the range of
figure of a reclining woman rests, or
and crafts— all these
the sciences, arts
pivots, on her hip. The work is simulta-
were taught them by the windows of
neously stable and unstable, achieving a
the church or by the statues in the
moment of eternity between the two,
porch.
much as a river expresses the di-

chotomies of constant flow and eternal In his preface to The Gothic Image
change. (1898; translated into English 1902,
 MALVASIA, COUNT CARLO CESARE 413

into German 1907), quoted from In Moscow's small cell of earnest intel-
above, Male explains what he believes lectuals the atmosphere was ripe for
was the purpose of medieval cathe- artistic as well as political revolution.

drals and Medieval art in general — his new ideas of

After having absorbed the
field of study. To Male the sculpture of CUBISM and futurism (without actu-
a CATHEDRAL was like an encyclopedia ally having left Russia), Malevich pro-
in stone, and he writes about it, posed the purest and most radical
and about its stained glass windows, NONOBjECTiVE, abstract picture yet
with feeling and eloquence. Each cathe- seen. It was a pencil drawing and
dral shows its individuality to him: "nothing more than a black square on a
CHARTRES "is medieval thought in visi- white field," he said. He called the
ble form," Amiens "messianic, drawing Basic Suprematist Element,
prophetic." At Notre-Dame of Paris the named its style suprematism, and ex-
Virgin "is the center of all things," plained it as "the supremacy of pure
while at Laon "Knowledge" takes first feeling in creative art." Everything else

place with "Philosophy sculptured on was meaningless. Suprematism became

the facadeand painted in one of the a movement in 19 15 when its first

rose-windows." Each cathedral Male paintings were shown. It was visionary

describes was, as he says, an expression and spiritual, and the forms Malevich
of the Church, and the artists were a painted — triangles, squares, circles, ir-

channel for that expression, "simply the regular bars — float, liberated from con-
interpreters of her thought." In this straints of earthbound gravity, in the

opinion Male argues with the writer sense of seriousness as well as of weight.
Victor Hugo (180Z-1885), who The freest, most sublime series of his

thought that the artists of the great compositions are white squares that
cathedrals were more like priests than float on white grounds (e.g., Suprema-
illustrators, and with viollet-le-duc, tist Composition: White on White,
who thought of GOTHIC art as an "out- 19 1 8). "We must prepare ourselves by
let for minds always ready to react prayer to embrace the sky," Malevich
against the abuses of the feudal sys- wrote. Aviation, then in its early years,

tem." Not so, according to Male. Nei- was part of his inspiration; he described

ther thinker or prerevolutionary his intention to convey the idea of

protester, the Medieval artist was, to flight. He also explored architectural
Male, "the docile interpreter of the ideas with drawings and models that
great ideas. ..." were important to the development of
constructivism in Russia as well as to
the BAUHAUS in Germany.
Malevich, Kasimir (also Kazimir)
1878-193 5 • Russian • painter •
Suprematist Malvasia, Count Carlo Cesare
1616-1693 • Italian • writer
In 191^, trying desperately to liberate
art from the of the
ballast One day while I stood watching [Reni]
representational world, I sought refuge paint he asked me if someone could
in the square. cast a spell on a person's hands so that
414 MAN RAY (EMMANUEL RADENSKi)

either he could no longer use his Shadows (19 16) is his best-known
brushes or would have to use them work on canvas. The idea for it came to
badly. him when he was cutting away pieces of
a drawing on colored paper of the
During the 17th century, for the first dancer's positions. It was the discarded
time, some writers speciahzed in the bi- pieces of paper that inspired the paint-
ographies of artists from a particular re- ing. The following year, his association
gion. Malvasia wrote about Bologna, with ARENSBERG and DUCHAMP moti-
which was the center of the universe as vated Man Ray to free himself from the
far as he was concerned. His biography direct manipulation of paint (as had
of RENi portrays a very strange man, as Duchamp). He began to use an air-
in the quotation above, who, however, brush to spray paint onto the picture
painted divinely. Malvasia's two- surface, and was probably the first non-
volume Lives of Bolognese Painters commercial artist to use that technique.
(1678) is dedicated to Louis XIV in the He was also the first American to make
hope of drawing the French king's pa- a purely DADAist assemblage: Self-

tronage to Bologna. The text is both a two electric bells, a

Portrait (1916) has
valuable and an untrustworthy source. push-button, and his palm print as a
For example, his editing of an exchange signature. Adding to his credentials,
of letters between sacchi and his Man Ray was a leading photographer.
teacher about the bamboccianti, a As he had changed trash into the Rope
group of street-scene painters, is ques- Dancer, so too did he turn accidentally
tionable, as is his "doctoring" of other unexposed paper from the developing
correspondences and his reporting of tray into a "photogram" by setting ob-

anecdotes. As is true of most sources jects on it and then exposing it to light.

used today that formerly may have been He called this the Rayogram. A famous
taken for gospel, the motives of the example of his "straight" photography
writer now receive serious scrutiny. is based on a painting by Ingres of
a woman's back, The Bather of Val-
Man Ray (Emmanuel Radenski) pingon (1808). Man Ray has photo-
1 890-1 976 • American • graphed a woman's back, but only after
painter/photographer • Dadaist having drawn marks on it that resemble
the designs on the body of a violin. He
/was planning something entirely new,
named it Le Violin d'lngres (19x4).
had no need of an easel, brushes and
Man Ray was a cofounder of the so-
the other paraphernalia of the
cifiTE ANONYME, which sponsored
traditional painter. . . . It was thrilling
avant-garde artists.
to paint a picture, hardly touching the

surface— a purely cerebral act, as it Mander, Carel van

were. 1 548-1606 • Netherlandish •

writer/painter • Northern
Man Ray was an innovative artist and
Renaissance
photographer. A 6-foot-long painting
collage, The Rope
that looks like a When I endeavored to ascertain who
Dancer Accompanies Herself with Her were the most outstanding men in our
 MANET, EDOUARD 4I5

art, so that I might arrange them in cluded throughout. Van Mander was
order one after the other and be also a painter, but the importance of his
careful to call the earliest one first writing far outweighs that of his art.

upon my stage, I was surprised to

learn of Albert van Outwater, painter mandorla
of Haarlem, that he had become so From the Italian for "almond," refers

skillful a painter in oils at so early a also to the "glory" or aureole of light

time. in an almond shape sometimes shown
as surrounding a divine being. (See also
Van Mander wrote the first vernacular halo)
treatise on Dutch painting, which is

quoted from above. His text is the prin- Manet, Edouard

cipal source of information about the 1 83 2-1883 • French • painter •
art and artists of the northern renais- Impressionist/Post-Impressionist
sance. He wrote about the artists' edu-
[Academicians] thought they were
cation and characteristics of their
doing the right thing; they were
works, and he described particular
mistaken; they didn't see that in
paintings. Van Mander was inspired, if
installing licensed opticians they not
not prompted, to write his tribute to
only killed competition, but that these
Northern artists, Het schilder-boek
opticians, accustomed to using a
(The Book of Painters, published 1604),
certain formula, would put glasses of
by VASARi's 16th-century Italian text.
the same strength on the noses of their
He does, however, include Italian
pupils. The result has been a
artists with information derived from
succession of the near-sighted and the
condensations of Vasari's Lives en-
far-sighted, depending on the distance
hanced by his own travels and up-to-
that their professors saw.
date research. As is also true of Vasari,
van Mander may be called a "patriotic With his relatively flattened surfaces
biographer," as the excerpt quoted and color, Manet avoided imitating na-
above reveals; panofsky points out ture, and his paintings were neither
that van Mander describes Albert van highly emotional nor forthrightly so-
Outwater as a contemporary of van ciopolitical. For these rejections of both
EYCK in order, it would seem, to give his ROMANTICISM and realism, respec-
and van Cutwater's hometown of tively, Manet was claimed by and

Haarlem artistic preeminence over grouped with impressionists. While

Bruges, where van Eyck worked for the he shared many of their subjects, Manet
Burgundian court (see valois). In truth, did not, however, share the Impression-
van Outwater was of a younger genera- ist preoccupation with a fleeting sense
tion thanwas van Eyck. Het schilder- of light and sensation as did monet, for
boek includes chapters on landscape example, nor did he reject historical
and figure painting, composition, pro- precedent, although he used it with a
portion, drawing, color, and reflec- great measure of parody. The composi-
tions, and references to classical and tion of Manet's Le Dejeuner sur I'herbe
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE painting are in- (1863) looks back to a famous engrav-
4l6 MANIERA GRECA

ing by raimondi that claimed to be maniera greca

based on a lost work by Raphael, and Maniera greca refers to images in the

the ambiguity of portraying disrobed "Greek manner," but no^ classical, or

women in the presence of overdressed pre- or post-Athenian Greek. To under-
men in an arcadian setting looks to stand the logic behind this term one has
giorgione's fe?e Champetre (c. 1510). to remember that the town of Byzan-
Manet's Olympia (also 1863), while in tium (now Istanbul, Turkey) was origi-
a long line of reclining nudes, is most di- nally Greek. So looking back to
rectly a reference to Titian's Venus of Christianized Byzantium, maniera
Urbino (1538), a painting that intro- greca describes Italian painting of the
duced the frankness of a nude woman 13th century that was strongly influ-
looking out of the picture at the ob- enced by Byzantine style. One channel
server. But where Titian's model is shy of that influence may have to do with
and tentative, Manet's is bold and looks the occupation of Orthodox Christian
directly, almost confrontationally, at Constantinople, in 1204, by the armies
the viewer. Thus looking out at those of the Fourth Crusade. This conquest
who are looking at her, she defies the contributed to the downfall of the
age-old objectification of undressed Byzantine Empire but, paradoxically, it

women (see also gaze). And with her also reinvigorated Byzantine style in
candid, un-idealized appearance, she is Italy. Artists whose works are associ-
a frankly "naked" woman defying a ated with the maniera greca include
tradition of prettified, academic cimabue, berlinghieri, and duccio.
"nudes." When Dejeuner and Olympia
were exhibited, reaction went from out- Mannerism
rage at their
—
immorality "Abuses rain After 1520 to c. 1600. Overlapping
upon me like hail," Manet wrote to his with the Late Italian renaissance,
friend Baudelaire —
to lascivious ap- Mannerism is said to have evolved from
proval. Guards were stationed by the writhing, twisted figures of
Olympia to protect it from vandals. To Michelangelo's late years, his "man-
what extent was it Manet's intention to ner." Where Renaissance artists strove

shock, to aggravate, and to attract at- to achieve a reasoned balance and har-
tention? It is noted that he sent Olympia mony, the Mannerist style is character-
to the salon of 1865 along W\x.\\ Jesus ized by instability and exaggeration,
Mocked by Soldiers (1865), a provoca- most explicit in unnaturally elongated
tive gesture. With all the uncertainty re- bodies and dramatic gestures. Painters
garding their intended meaning, there is usually labeled Mannerist include
one undeniable truth: Dejeuner and pontormo, bronzino, fiorentino,
Olympia changed both images and dis- parmigianino. greco, and the
El

cussionsof nude women in art. In 1889, northern renaissance artist gos-

six years after Manet's death, O/ympw, saert; sculptors include cellini and
once called an offense to both art and bologna. Their figures bear some re-

morals, was accepted for the collection semblance to the Hellenistic phase of
at the Luxembourg Palace, and in 1908 greek art; in fact, around 1610 El
it went into the Louvre. Greco painted at least three interpreta-
 MANSHIP, PAUL H. 417

tions of the 2nd-century bce laocoon style. It has the "mansard" roof to
sculpture group, which had been redis- which he gave his name —a steeply slop-
covered in 1506 (and also had a strong ing triangular shape with its peak
on Michelangelo). The expressive
effect sheared or modified. Little is known
power, restlessness, and distortion of about Mansart's life, but it is thought
Mannerism cannot be disassociated that his practice was limited by his diffi-

from the spiritual upheavals of the Re- was reputedly in-

cult personality; he

formation and Counter-Reformation. tractable and arrogant. The eclectic

Thus, while some scholars describe the SECOND EMPIRE Style of the 19th cen-
lack of emotional expressiveness in tury looked back to the 17th century,
Mannerist paintings as disinterest in the and design ideas derived from Mansart
emotional or inner life, others see it as a were not only seen in Paris, but were
manifestation of inner vision. Miguel de also imported to the United States by
Cervantes and William Shakespeare many young Americans who received
were writing during this period. their architectural training at the ecole
DES BEAUX-ARTS.
Mansart, Francois
1 598-1 666 • French • architect • Mansart, Jules Hardouin-
Baroque See HARDOUIN-MANSART

Art hid itself in the guise of nature, I

Manship, Paul H.
the eye, satisfied, embraced its
1 88 5-1966 • American • sculptor •
structure, I Never surprised and always
Art Deco
enchanted. (Voltaire, i8th century)
The credo of the artist must be the
Whereas in Rome the Counter-
resultof his education and
Reformation led to ecclesiastical
environment. He cannot depart from
autocracy, in France, under Henry IV,
his age, and its spiritual and material
Richelieu, and Mazarin, a new secular
influences.
monarchy subordinated the Church to
the needs of the state. French art took Manship won American prix de
the
many forms but was dominated by non- ROME in 1909 and studied at the Amer-
religious, rational classicism that con- icanAcademy in Rome for three years.
trasted with the emotionalism of the He returned home and achieved great
Roman baroque. Mansart's style de- success. His subjects were often taken
veloped through designs he made for from ancient mythology, and his style

wealthy patrons who demanded luxu- was influenced by the academic tradi-
rious houses. He combined a Classical tion to which he often added a pared-
simplicity and restraint with rich, ele- down, mechanistic, art deco look.
gant decorative elements. Voltaire's One of his most familiar works is the
words, quoted above, express pleasure gilded bronze statue of the Greek god
with Mansart's style and skill. The Prometheus (c. 1933-36) at Rockefeller

Chateau de Maisons (1642-51; now Center in New

York City. Prometheus,
Maisons-Laffitte) at Yvelines, near who stole fire from the other Olym-
Paris, is an outstanding example of his pians to bring it to humankind, floats
 ,

4l8 MANTEGNA, ANDREA

above the sidewalk with his flaming gift level — sometimes called a worm's-eye
in hand. view but more formally known as di
sotto in su ("from below upward").
Mantegna, Andrea This is a perspective that puts the
1430/3 i-i 506 • Italian • painter • viewer into a newly challenging posi-
Renaissance tion, seemingly drawn in to the action.

r
it IS
,
. .

said that the rope,

1 , , r,
on account of
..
,
r Spectator involvement
.

dauntmg, or
. ...
amusmg, m
is even more
the room
his numerous engagements, did not .
° , . ,
,
Mantegna finished
r- •
1 1

m 1474 for the GON-

•
r 1

pay mantegna so often as the artist s • » , ,

Mantua. He
1 1 1

, , , , , ,
ZAGA ducal palace in
needs required, and that the latter, in .
, ,, , ,, ,
,- ^ i

. . /•
; Tr- f
painted all the walls and ceiling or the
painting some of the Virtues in la ,,,^ , ^
,
chapel
,,. ,„.„,_,
introduced Equity. he rope,
,

I
so-C2i\\ta
^t
,
Camera
1 1 . •
1
degli Sposi
1 i-
,t^
(Koova Qi
11
c

, , ; I I
the Newlyweds), including its lavish ar-
going one day to see the work asked ,.
chitectural detailing,
, , -,- 111
which he modeled
111
, r
, 1 ,
what the figure was, and on learning , t 1 •

on ANTIQUE decorations. Looking up at

, ,
that she represented Equity he replied,
I r- •
f I- r
.... . ,

„,,

with
.
, ,
her.
,
You should have associated Fatience
„ ^,
, , ,

he painter understood
,
in-
,
, 11111
the ceiling one sees a circular opening
(an oculus, like that in the pantheon).
v

I ^ 1 i-
Peering over a parapet and smiling
,
what was meant and never uttered
,

another word. (Vasari, mid-i6th

,
.
1^^
,

• 1 1
,

down
.

, ^
, .

(observing the observer, so to

...
speak), with the sky behind their heads,
•

1
1

1 1
•
1

1 1 1 1

century ,. ,
,, .... ,

are fivewomen (all portraitlike, and

Mantegna grew up in the stimulating one woman is black), a peacock, and a
atmosphere of Padua, which had an in- group of chubby putti, three of whom
ternationally important university, its have mischievously climbed over the
own Roman antiquities, and a circle parapet into very precarious positions,
of humanist scholars (see humanism). But most threatening is a large tub of

He entered the first private art school in plants sitting on an unstable pole,
northern Italy, run by Francesco Squar- poised to tumble on a spectator's head,
clone (1397-C. 1468). At the age of 26, It is all painted illusion, including the
working on fresco in the Ovetari a oculus. Mantegna continued his per-

Chapel of the Church of the Eremitani spective explorations, and in c. 1500

in Padua, Mantegna developed a pow- painted (on canvas) The Dead Christ
erful and distinct new style. His figures from an astounding angle: We look at
are unusually solid and hard-looking, Christ as though standing near his feet,

as if they were carved rather than which are punctured by nail holes. This
painted. Even more singular, he used unexpected and disconcerting perspec-
PERSPECTivE to Unite two independent tive is dependent on severe foreshorten-
but sequential scenes in the life of Saint ing (see perspective). Yet Mantegna
James, giving each the same vanishing put the integrity of his picture before
point. Then, painting Saint James Led methodical accuracy: He reduced the
to 1453-54) in the same
Execution (c. size of Christ's feet, which would, in re-

chapel, he radically changed the per- ality, have looked much larger from
spective so that a viewer has the sense of that point of view. For nearly half a cen-
looking up at the scene from ground tury Mantegna was employed by the
 MAPPLETHORPE, ROBERT 419

Gonzaga family. His influence was es- Mapplethorpe, Robert

pecially great, for he was also an en- 1946-1989 • American •

graver, and his prints were widely photographer • Modern Classicist

disseminated, durer was among the
I've always found it irritating to hear
artists who admired Mantegna. Man-
people say erotic when they mean
tegna's feats of illusory virtuosity be-
sexual material. I'm. not afraid of
came an ever-increasing obsession of
words. Pornography is fine with me. If
BAROQUE painters
it's good it transcends what it is.

Manzu, Giacomo In the year that he died of aids, 1989,

born 1908 • Italian • sculptor • Mapplethorpe's work precipitated a cri-

Expressionist Figuration sis in American art and culture that still

has not been fully assessed. The cata-

When I compare the results of my
clysm followed a last-minute cancella-
endeavors with my far-off childhood
tion by the Corcoran Gallery of Art, in
dreams and my present-day intentions,
Washington, D.C., of an exhibit of
then it seems to me that everything has
Mapplethorpe works that included the
stopped half-way. Just the same I start
X Portfolio of sadomasochistic/homo-
work early every day as if it were my
erotic photographs. The cancellation led
first morning, and I find in my work
to accusations of censorship from liber-
my daily task and my confirmation. I
als and most people in the art world on
know that this is very little, but this is
one side and, on the other, attacks
the only trueand honest thing I can
against thenational endowment for
say of myself as a man and as a
THE ARTS, which had contributed funds
sculptor.
to the assembling of the exhibit. The ex-
While most artists of renown worked in hibition continued its tour, and in early

some kind of abstraction, or at least 1990,when it opened in Cincinnati, the

distorted their figures, Manzii contin- museum's director, David Barrie, was
ued to use the human form in a quite arrested. He was tried, in June, for pan-
straightforward way to express a sense dering obscenity and child pornogra-
of endurance and dignity. He created a phy. Defying the presiding judge, the
series of life-size bronze cardinal figures jury decided that Barrie was guilty of
engulfed in ecclesiastical robes and 1989 Mapplethorpe was
neither. Before
headgear, with only their faces and best known for portraits of famous
hands visible. They convey a great sense people and for the formal, cool, im-
of serenity, a rare commodity in 20th- mutable classicism of his images, espe-

century art. Manzij has received impor- cially of flowers and nudes. His lifestyle

tant religious commissions that include as well as his art was described as "radi-
bronze doors for Saint Peter's in Rome, cal chic." After his death and the
and the Salzburg Cathedral, rewald controversial exhibit, Mapplethorpe be-
visited Manzii in his studio outside of came a symbol of the victimization of
Rome in 1965, and was to Rewald
it gays both by society and by AIDS. The
that Manzii communicated the exhibit served to polarize historically
thoughts quoted above. antagonistic conservatives and progres-
420 MAQUETTE

sives on questions of morality and re- scend" to take a would-be patron's

sponsibility. More subtly, public con- money. But many painters appreciated
sciousness of his transgressive work him for raising the status of the profes-
probably helped to clear the path for sion. During the papacy of Innocent XI
sexually suggestive imagery not only in (1676-89), Maratta was commissioned
art, where it already had a long tradi- to cover the immodestly exposed breast
tion, but also in popular culture. of the Virgin Mary in an earlier painting
by reni.
maquette
French for a small, rough model in a marble
material such as clay or wax, used as a Metamorphosed limestone that lends it-

preliminary study for a sculpture. self to polishing is called marble, the

Greek word for which, in fact, means
Maratta (also Maratti), Carlo "shining stone." Marble's lustrous
16Z5-1713 • Italian • painter • sheen is the result of light penetrating
Classical Baroque the surface to a certain extent before
being reflected by interior crystals. The
When he was eleven years old Carlo
best-known marbles are Pentelic, from
Maratta was sent to Rome in the care
Mount Pentelicus in Greece, which was
of Bernabeo [his brother]. . . . After a
used for the Parthenon; Parian, from
year he enrolled him in the school of
theAegean island of Paros, used for
Andrea Sacchi, a master whose great
aphrodite of melos; and Carrara,
worth is well-known. . . . There Carlo
quarried in the Italian Apennines, used
went about his studies with such
for architectural structures in ancient
enthusiasm and studied with such
Rome, and later, after the pure white
perseverance that he stayed there for
varieties were found, for sculpture. The
twenty-five years, up until Sacchi's
most renowned block of marble, origi-
death. (Bellori, c. 1696)
nally 18 feet high and known as the
BELLORi, quoted above, worked on Giant, was the Carrara stone from
Maratta's biography from about 1625 which MICHELANGELO carved his David
until his death in 1696. The two men (1501-04).
were close friends; Bellori secured for
Maratta his first public commission, Marc, Franz
and it was Maratta whom Bellori chose 1880-1916 • German • painter •
to paint his own portrait. Maratta Expressionist
looked back to the work of Raphael for
Is there any more mysterious idea for
inspiration. He was in the classical
an artist than the conception of how
wing of the baroque era, a backlash to
nature is mirrored in the eyes of an
the emotive, agitated style of painters
animal? How does a horse see the
like CARAVAGGio and cortona and the
world, or an eagle, or a doe, or a dog?
earlier mannerism. Maratta became
fashionable and was so highly paid that In 191 1, with KANDiNSKY and munter,
sarcastic comments were made about Marc was a founding member of Der
his fees and whether he would "conde- BLAUE REiTER. Before he was killed in
 1

MARINI, MARINO 42

action during World War I, Marc had where he made etchings of land-
Paris,

only about five short years in which to marks such as the cathedral of Notre-
paint in his evolving mature style, and Dame to sell to tourists. In Paris he met
animals, especially horses, were his the photographer steichen, who intro-
most frequent subjects. He used lumi- duced him to STiEGLiTZ, and on his re-

nescent colors, the blues, reds, greens, turn home he became a member of the
and yellows of stained glass win- Stieglitz Circle. Unlike painters of the
dows. From Blue Horses of 191 1 in — ashcan school, Marin was not inter-
which the vigorously curving lines of ested in New York City life as seen in
beautiful blue animals are in harmony the people on the street; rather, he
with the soft curves of the brilliantly looked at buildings as if they were in-
colored hills —to the nearly abstract dividual characters with dynamic in-
Fighting Forms of 191 3, his colors are teractions and personalities as well
dazzling. Marc was absorbed with the as distinctive forms (e.g.. Saint Paul's,
mystery, poetry, and symbolism of Lower Manhattan, 1912). Marin bor-
color, which had been liberated from its rowed the tilted axis of futurists to
dependence on the natural world by the express the force of movement and vi-
FAUVEs and was being experimented tality in the new architecture. He is

with by DELAUNAY, whom Marc visited a good example of the way in which
in Paris in 19 12. The quotation above is American artists absorbed various
from Marc's Aphorisms (published phases of European modernism.
1920), in which he also expressed an ec- Marin also painted landscapes in Maine
static spirituality: "Only today can art and, later, around Taos, New Mexico.
be metaphysical, and it will continue to
be so. Art will free itself from the needs Marini, Marino
and desires of men. We will no longer 1901-1980 • Italian • sculptor •

paint a forest or a horse as we please or Expressionist

as they may seem to us, but as they re-
Now I must speak about the
ally are."
"Riders"— a search for (what should I

call it?) a combination of bodies in

Marin, John
space. . . . For many centuries the
1 870-1 95 3 • American •
image of the rider has maintained an
painter/printmaker • Modern
epic character. However, the nature
. . .

/ try to express graphically what a of the reactions which have existed for
great city is doing. Within the frames so long between men and
there must be balance, a controlling of horses . . . has been greatly changed
these warring, pushing, pulling forces. during the last half century. . . . It can
even be said that, for the majority of
Before he became a painter, Marin was
our contemporaries, the horse has
an architectural draftsman, and as his
acquired a mythical character.
love of painting developed he often used
his brush, in watercolor primarily, to A horse with a nude male bareback
paint pictures of buildings. After brief rider isdominant image in Marini's
a

studies in art, in 1905 Marin went to sculpture. He works with bronze, leav-
422 MARISOL (MARISOL ESCOBAR)

ing its surface rough, and his figures are drawn, and perhaps set on wheels, and
without details. Within his Hmited whether obviously political or not, all

theme he has invented an unlimited are humorous.

range of expression. In one Horse and
Rider (1952-55), for example, the ani- Marsh, Reginald
mal stands on widespread, spindly legs, 1898-1954 • American pamter •

its elongated neck thrown back and its Realist

head raised as if neighing in fear, while
I like Coney Island because of the sea,
the rider leans, or falls, backward, arms
the open air, and the crowds — crowds
spread wide. During a late stage of his
of people in all directions, in all
career, Marini translated his subject
positions, without clothing, moving-
into a block of stone that he carved as
like the great compositions of
though horse and rider had become a
Michelangelo and Rubens.
mountain. (See also equestrian)
Marsh was interested in painting "the
Marisol (Marisol Escobar) characteristic life" of his time, which in-

born 1930 • Venezuelan/American • cluded movie theaters, subway stations

sculptor • Modern/Assemblage and street workers, as well as the beach
scenes he speaks of in the quotation
The first girl artist with glamour.
above. As did bellows, luks, and
(Andy Warhol, 1962)
other New York followers of henri.
Born in Paris to Venezuelan parents, Marsh captured the street life of the
Marisol studied at the ecole des city. Like them, too, his pictures were
BEAUX-ARTS and the academie julian. social commentaries about the plight of
In 1950 she moved to New York and the poor. But Marsh's scenes are
continued her studies with hofmann sleazier, his urbanites more disrep-
and at the Art Students League. She cre- utable. Tattoo and Haircut (1932), for

ated a distinct cast of characters whose example, named for a sign advertising a
rectangular torsos are usually boxes tattoo parlor and a barbershop, is set

with heads, legs, and hands, if not arms, underground in a subway station. The
added. They may be families or famous men in the picture are loafers with an
own face is
people, but a likeness of her air of unpredictable meanness, and the
often among them. The comment by only woman in the scene is noticeably
WARHOL quoted above was made after anxious at having to cross their path.
her first exhibition, in 1962. Marisol's Unlike most ashcan school artists
constructions are amusing, but with an who painted with oil. Marsh worked
edge of uneasiness (e.g., Women and in tempera.
Dog, 1964). Her more recent sculptures
include General Plywood, a plywood
Martin, Agnes
EQUESTRIAN Statue of Joseph Stalin. In-
born 1 91 2 • Canadian/American •
side the horse's body is a lighted tomb
painter • Abstraction
containing a picture of the dead Stalin
in repose. Her assemblages may be The Greeks knew that in the mind you
carved and/or cast, painted and/or can draw a perfect circle, but you can't
 .

MARTINI, SIMONE 423

really draw a perfect circle. Everyone Martin remained outside of and vio-
has a vision of perfection, don't you lently opposed to the art establishment,

think? Even a housewife wants to which also kept him at bay. Though he
have a perfect home. could not exhibit under the aegis of the
Royal Academy, he did so on his own,
Martin made the observation quoted and with huge popular and financial
above in an interview with the critic Hol- success: The quotation above appeared
land Cotter of The New York Times. She in a review in The Examiner of London

added, "I'm so anxious to be nonobjec- when Martin showed his Fall of Baby-
tive, nothing in this world applies to my lon in 1 8 19. When he exhibited Bel-
art. It's beyond the world. I paint about shazzar's Feast (1821) at the British
happiness and innocence and beauty." Institution, the audience was so great
Born in Canada, Martin became a citi- and enthusiastic that the exhibit had to
zen of the United States in 1950, and her be extended for three weeks. Later, it

thoughts are influenced by studies attracted 5,000 paying visitors when it

of Buddhism as well as Emersonian was shown privately. Martin wrote

TRANSCENDENTALISM. She is frequently pamphlets that described the hordes of
grouped with minimalists but rejects people, the buildings, and even the
that category. More appropriately de- heights of the great mountains in

scribed as FORMALIST abstraction, her his paintings. He also made money

works have barely visible grids and deli- from selling prints. His pictures were
cate pencil lines with graded shades of melodramatic, cataclysmic, often bibli-

off-white horizontal bands (e.g.. Unti- cal fantasies, full of sublime terror, an-

tled No. 9, 1990). Her paintings have ticipating the movies of Cecil B. De
been described by viewers as transmit- Mille, and though academicians found
ting happiness, optimism, joy, spiritual- them vulgar, he was extremely influen-

ity, and feelings of infinite expanses; tial, not only with the public, but
Martin herself has said, "They are light, among American landscape artists

lightness, about merging, about form- as well.

lessness breaking down forms."

Martini, Simone
Martin, John c. 1Z84-1344 • Italian • painter •

1789-18 54 • English • painter • Late Gothic/International Style

Romantic
But, Simone, thou was then in

Enough . . . is stated in the Old Heav'n's blest sky, I Ere she, my fair
Testament, and by Herodotus . . one, left her native spheres, I To trace a

and subsequent ancient historians, to loveliness this world reverses I Was

afford sufficient materials to a Fainter thus thy task, from Heav'n's reality I

of genius for a work of magnificent . . . The soul's reflected grace was

object and effect; a work, such as Mr. thine to take, I Which not on earth

Martin here surprises us with, of thy painting could achieve, I Where

mingled Poetry, Fiction, and Fact. mortal limits all the powers confine.
(Robert Hunt, 18 19) (Petrarch, early 14th century)
424 MARXISM

Simone studied under duccio in siena, Marxism

There is a flavor of maniera greca in Based on the writings of Karl Marx
the three-quarter-view, almond-shaped (1818-1883), the German philosopher,
faces and aloof expressions1333 in his political economist, and founder of
Annunciation, the central panel of an Communism. Marx's belief in the pri-

ALTARPiECE. (Its elaborate French mary role of economic circumstances in

GOTHIC frame was added during the determining human history, especially
19th century.) Setting his figures after the beginning of the Industrial
against a gold background, Simone Revolution, was expressed in the work
used rich colors, in contrast to the of Francis Klingender (1907-19 5 5).
lighter palette of his contemporary Klingender began writing in the mid-
GiOTTO. Simone's Mary, interrupted in 1930s, defining art as "the most sponta-
her reading by the appearance of the neous form of social consciousness."
angel Gabriel, seems anxious. Gabriel He focused on responses to economic
(whose cloak is patterned with plaid oppression, especially as seen in the
and who carries an olive branch) says to paintings ofgoya and hogarth. Dur-
her "Hail, favored one! The Lord is ing the next decade, Marxism gained
with you," words inscribed so as to
in importance in art history with the
reach from his lips to her ear. Simone publication first of Florentine Painting
apparently enjoyed painting the idea of and Its Social Background (1948), by
flight; it is easily deduced from the flut- antal, and then of Social History of Art
ter of Gabriel's cape that he has just (1951), by Arnold Hauser. Marxism
flown onto the scene. Another, slightly still finds expression in a variety of ap-
less refined but equally ambitious in- proaches other than purely Marxist, pa-
stance of flight appears in his earlier tronage and feminist analyses, for
Blessed Agostino Novello and Four of example, bring Marxist socioeconomic
His Miracles (c. 1330). With the imme- ideas into play. As a political ideology,
diacy of a news photograph, Simone Marxism, in addition to the French
portrays Agostino swooping down Utopian Socialism expressed by comte
from the sky to rescue a child who is de Saint-Simon (1760-1825), was di-

falling from a balcony. The child's rectly related to the works of 19th-
amazing restoration is also shown in the century realists, and to later Russian
same picture (see continuous narra- constructivists and social realists.
tion). In 1339, at the height of his ca- Marxist studies in art history are con-
reer, Simone was avignon,
called to textual.
then the seat of the papacy, where he
contributed to the International Style ^. •
/t- j- r
, „. , . Masaccio lommaso ( di Ser
(see GOTHIC). Simone was sung s praise ^. j- »* •

Giovanni di Mone)
v

, , „
by the great poet/humanist petrarch,
1401-1428 • Italian • painter •
quoted above, for whom Simone made
Renaissance
images of the Virgin and of Laura, the
woman immortalized in Petrarch's son- He was a very absent-minded and
nets. careless person, as one who, having
 MASOLINO DA PANICALE 425

fixed his whole mind and will on the their hair, and casts long shadows of
matters of art, cared little about various intensity. It also creates more
himself, and still less about others. subtle tonalities in the landscape. There
(Vasari, mid-i6th century) was a contemporary political subtext
for this picture: The Great Schism that
"Masaccio" is a fond nickname that had divided the papacy had just ended,
means "careless," "hulking," or "Big the pope had returned to Rome, and
Tom," referring to the qualities de- Masaccio's patron, Brancacci, wanted
scribed above by vasari. This artist people to support the pope by paying
lived less than zy years, and though he their taxes. Thus, the artist collaborated
died, as Vasari w^rote, "in the flower of with his patron in painting a fresco with
his youth," during his relatively ifw a propagandistic agenda.
productive years he revolutionized
painting. As donatello had in sculp- Masolino da Panicale
ture, Masaccio introduced linear and 1383-after 1435 • Italian • painter

atmospheric perspective to painting. • proto-Renaissance

Another giant step he took was to ap-
Masolino . . . called on Masaccio to
proach the MODELING of forms as an ef-
draw out the lines of buildings in
fect of natural light from a single source
perspective. And in the head of Christ
outside the picture plane —that is, the
in The Tribute Money where mildness
sun. Earlier artists had assumed a dif-
of expression was appropriate,
fuse, evenly present kind of light.
Masolino's softer and sweeter manner
Masaccio's advances are visible in his
lent itself to this end, as against
FRESCoes for the Brancacci Chapel in
Masaccio's severity. (Mark Roskill,
Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence,
1989)
where he painted events in the life of
Saint Peter. The part of the cycle enti- As is masaccio (see above), Ma-
true of
tled The Tribute Money (c. 14x7) shows solino is also a nickname based on
three distinct episodes (continuous Tommaso, but in this case it means
narrative) in the story of how, when it "Little Tom." The artists not only
came time to pay imperial taxes, Christ shared a name, but both also came from
informed Peter that he would find the region south of Florence, and they
money in a fish's mouth. With his disci- also worked together on at least one
pies, Christ stands in the center speak- project: the mid- 14 20s fresco cycle for
ing to Peter. At the far left, Peter the Brancacci Chapel in Florence. This
retrieves the coin from the fish, and at collaboration has provided art histori-
the right side Peter hands the money to ans with material for analysis, perplex-
the tax collector. The sun is imagined ity, and speculation in their efforts to
off to the right, and its light slants into determine which artistwas responsible
the picture at an angle, as if entering for which details. The harmony of their
through the actual window over the efforts is highlighted by the historian
altar in the chapel. On the fresco, the Mark Roskill's commentary, quoted
light strikes some surfaces of the men's from above. It was, he says, "probably
voluminous robes and their heads and a matter of each recognizing where the
426 MASSON, ANDRE

true strengths of the other lay and could wounded. In Paris, he was a friend
suitably be applied." Masolino was the of Surrealist poets and a great advo-
older of the two, and his style is retro- cate for AUTOMATISM —the stream-of-
spective, relating to the lyrical, spiritual consciousness means of prompting im-
idealism of International Style gothic. ages. An example of his automatism is

Around 14Z4-27, both artists painted the drawing Battle of the Fishes (1926),
their own Adam and Eve in the chapel, an undersea vision of fishes attacking
providing a fascinating opportunity for one another. He created it by spilling
contrast. Masolino's couple are light on glue on the canvas, pouring sand over
their feet, lithe and complacent, por- it, and using the shapes produced as a
trayed before the fall, with the serpent means of free association. In the next

hovering benignly above their heads. In step he used oil, pencil, and charcoal
Masaccio's image the pair are harshly marks to bring out ideas that the ran-
lighted, heavy, and wrought with de- dom forms suggested. During World
spair and disgrace; Eve grimaces and War II Masson lived in the United
Adam hides his face while the angel States and was an important resource
above, brandishing a sword, vehe- for ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISTS, who
mently casts them out of Eden. At times also called on automatism for inspira-
their styles came close enough to be in- tion. There were several points of
distinguishable, but after Masaccio connection between his Surrealism (al-

died, when Masolino moved on to other though he left the fold in an argument
projects in Rome and elsewhere, he re- with Andre Breton) and Abstract Ex-
verted to his earlier style. This is seen in pressionism. For example, Masson was
the fresco Baptism of Christ (c. 1435) absorbed with ideas of metamorphosis
executed for a church in Castiglione in general and its presence in alchemy in
d'Olona, a small town north of Milan. particular. This interest led him to the
Here there are only traces of Masaccio's 16th-century alchemist, theologian,
massive figures, and Masolino's stylized and heretic Paracelsus, who sought a
water and landscape formations have a key to nature's secret and, through na-
sense of light and pattern rather than ture, to God. The theme was also used
real depth or space. by the Abstract Expressionist gottlieb
in several of his paintings. In 1945,
Masson, Andre Masson returned to France.
1896-1987 • French •

painter/theoretician • Surrealist
Massys, Quinten (also
For us, young surrealists of 1914, the Matsys/Metsys)
great prostitute was reason. c. 1466-1530 • Netherlandish •

painter • Northern Renaissance

A leading proponent of surrealist art,
Masson was also a passionate revolu- In iconography, Massys picture was
'

tionary. His distrust of power and rea- inspired, I good friend

believe, by his

son was fortified by the experience of Erasmus of Rotterdam; it shows a

World War I, in which he was seriously horrifying example . . . of those foolish
 MASTER FRANCKE 427

old women who, to quote from the between the spectator and the person
Praise of Folly, still wish to "play the in the portrait. It introduces a sense
goat," "industriously smear their faces of the momentary, like a snapshot,
with paint," and have no hesitation to an allusion to time passing. Massys
"display their foul and withered also painted genre scenes, the best
breasts" (Erwin Panofsky, 1953) known of which is Money-Changer and
His Wife (15 14). This picture comes
Massys was the first artist to emerge freighted with a moral homily about
with distinction from the great numbers honesty, as well as the worldly versus
who flocked to Antwerp, and he made a the spiritual. To his other innovations

name for himself as well as a fortune, we must add one of the strangest por-
rising from blacksmith's assistant traits ever painted. The Ugly Old
to foremost artist. Antwerp was a city Woman (c. 1 5 1 3 ), and ugly is an under-
in its zenith in 1520. It had replaced statement for this simian hag who is the
Bruges as the center of international subject also of panofsky's ruminations
commerce and the premier seaport, and quoted above. This painting closely re-

It was an equally busy art market. The sembles studies of strange faces and
only city that was at all comparable was heads found in the notebooks of
VENICE (which handled well under 10 LEONARDO da Vinci. Massys's picture
percent of the commercial traffic that in turn inspired the illustrator John
Antwerp did). Massys's early religious Tenniel's dreadful Duchess in Lewis
paintings, such as Madonna Enthroned Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonder-
(c.1495) and the Altarpiece of the Holy land.
Kinship (1507-09), carry on the tradi-
tions of CAMPiN, van der weyden, and Master Francke
van EYCK. Based on a change in his style active c. 1424-30 • German •

and the way he used color, it is thought painter • Late Gothic/International

that Massys may have traveled to Ven- Style

ice and brought back a new palette

It may seem strange that the mystical
that included a range unfamiliar to
content reversed in Master Francke's
Northern artists — soft blues, rose, or- painting with the
is

human and mundane

ange, and violet, as well as crimson and
aspects of the Passion stressed, but this
blond hues. Besides his innovations
is in keeping with the brand of
with color, Massys added an unprece-
mysticism [promoted] in the Rhineland
dented affectation to portraiture in
by . . . mystics who counted every drop
1 5 1 5with Portrait of a Man with
of blood on Christ's body during his
Glasses: an intimation that the viewer
execution. (James Snyder, 1985)
has intruded on the subject, who looks
up from his book with a slightly an- He was one of the most gifted artists of
noyed expression and raises his hand in his era, known about this
but little is

a spontaneous gesture of surprise. This anonymous painter who settled in

reaction represents a major event in Hamburg. His work relates to the
painting, a new dynamic of interaction GOTHIC International Style, and has
428 MASTER (of . . .
)

been compared with Parisian illumi- ern Netherlands) is known for inscribed
nated MANUSCRIPTS. It is in reference banners. An artist whose prints were
to the Englandfahrer Altarpiece (c. signed E. s. is called Master E. S. (active

1424) that the historian James Snyder c. 1450-67, Germany). The contribu-
makes the comment quoted above. tion of E. S. to our understanding of pil-
Besides the intent of evoking Christ's grimages and the cult of saints is

suffering, the altarpiece contains in- important because he (or perhaps she)
teresting juxtapositions of, for example, designed souvenir prints for pilgrims.
richly textured and patterned back- Many important 15th-century Flemish
grounds and symbols of nobility with painters are known from the cycles of
proletarian details such as tiny shep- the saints' lives they painted: for exam-
herds tending their flock in the distance. ple, the Master of the Saint Lucy Leg-
All is framed in an aura of transcendent end, the Master of the Saint Barbara
spiritualism. One of Master Francke's Legend, and the Master of the Saint
last-known works that is especially in- Catherine Legend (all active late 15th
teresting to historians is Christ as Man century). Art historians do their best to

of Sorrows (c. 1425-30). It contains de- attach true, historic names to such
tails unprecedented in Northern art, anonymous artists. One important
one of which is its elegant drapery and artist formerly called the Master of Fle-
"cloth of honor" held by angels; an- malle is now identified as campin (c.

other is the way in which Christ touches 1375/79-1444); a painter of a particu-

his open wound. larly gory set of pictures about Saint Se-

bastian, long known as Master of Saint

Master (of ... )
Sebastian, has been identified as Josse
For the origin of the term, see master- Lieferinxe (also Lifferin/Lifferinxe; ac-
piece. With the development of art tive 1493-1505).
HISTORY and the desire to be able to
identify an anonymous artist for the Master of Saint Giles
sake of discussion, the expression active c. 1490-1510 • Franco/Flemish
"Master of" is attached to a phrase that • painter • Late Medieval/Early
usually refers to a particular work, Northern Renaissance
a characteristic of several works, a
At one time the Altarpiece of Saint
strength, or a subject — the Master of Denis [by the Master of Saint Giles]
the Smiling Angels, for example, was a
must have been one of the most
sculptor who worked Reims Cathe-
at
fascinating treasures of the abbey
dral about 1Z50. A recurrent theme
church. (James Snyder, 1985)
names the Master of the Playing Cards
(active c.1425-50, in France) card — The anonymous artist of several works
playing was popular during the mid- that are related stylistically and themat-
15th century — the first engraver for ically, this master has left behind pic-
whom an oeuvre has been identified tures that, like those of van eyck,
(see engraving). The Master of the combine meticulous attention to realis-
Banderoles (active c. 1450-75, north- tic detail with a cavalier, or obstinate.
 —

MATISSE, HENRI 429

upending of realistic scale and perspec- for example — painters usually had to
tive.While he worked in France, the produce a work of specified dimen-
Master of Saint Giles's stylistic connec- sions; sculptors submitted a statue;
—for example,
tions to Flemish artists glaziers, a panel of stained glass.
BOUTS and van der goes — indicate that Judges of submissions were Masters,
he may have been from the North him- and if they disagreed about a work, ar-
self. His Mass of Saint Giles (c. 1500) is bitration procedures were followed.
an extraordinary visual record of the The title "Master" began to appear as
altar furnishings and interior of the part of artists' signatures toward the
Abbey Church of Saint-Denis near Paris end of the izth century. (See also
(see Abbot suger). The painting shows workshop)
the legendary Charlemagne kneeling
before the altar and provides accurate Matisse, Henri
representations of carolingian trea- 1 869-1954 • French •

sures that have also been documented in painter/sculptor • Post-Fauve

writing. At the same time, details are
7 found myself or my artistic
objectively precise: There is an Oriental
personality by looking over my earlier
carpet painted at a vertiginous angle
works. They rarely deceive. There I
were the floor really so slanted, it would
found something that was always the
send all present tumbling out of the
same and which at first glance I
church. This "realism of particulars"
thought to be monotonous repetition.
that keeps some and breaks other rules
Itwas the mark of my personality,
of observation is characteristic of nom-
which appeared the same no matter
inalism as it was expressed in the early
what different states of mind I
northern renaissance. Snyder's as-
happened to have passed through.
sessment of the Mass, which he believes
part of an altarpiece with a side panel Matisse's paintings are saturated with
showing The Baptism of Clovis, is bright color. He grew up in Bohain,
quoted above. where weavers created fabrics in many
rich colors and patterns. Stylistic affini-

masterpiece ties with his contemporaries are easily

The concept of a masterpiece is a me- pointed to: the outlines of gauguin that
dieval invention that was derived from simplify and flatten forms (e.g., Large
guild practices. After training as an ap- Reclining Nude, 1935); the unnatural
prentice and perhaps as a journeyman colors of his fauve friends derain and
(the next step up), a candidate for the VLAMiNCK, with whom he exhibited in
title of Master and for membership in the famous 1905 salon d'automne
the guild made an exemplar of his (e.g.. Portrait of Madame Matisse,
work: a masterpiece. Masterpieces were 1905, her face half yellow, half pink,
required of barbers, bakers, tailors, and with a green stripe down the middle);
locksmiths as well as artists and archi- the thick brushfuls of paint applied in"

tects. Assigned their subjects —an image short, bold van GOGH-like strokes, yet
of the Virgin Mary, or the Crucifixion, so different in their inviting color (e.g..
430 MATTA (SEBASTIAN ANTONIO MATTA ECHAURREN)

Open Window, 1905). Matisse was en- most complaining of critics are undone
tranced by ISLAMIC art, which echoes in by Matisse.
his paintings, in which the all-over pat-
terns of walls, tablecloths, and flattened Matta (Sebastian Antonio Matta
figures and objects seem like pages from Echaurren)
a Persian manuscript. "I have never born 19 1 2 • Chilean/French •

shunned outside influences," Matisse painter • Surrealist/Abstract

said. "I should consider that an act of Expressionist
cowardice and bad faith towards my-
/ had some kind of trauma when I
self. I believe that the struggles an artist
realized what the war was, and the
undergoes help him assert his personal-
concentration camps, and I went one
ity." When DENIS advised that he
step further in my understanding.
restudy classical tradition (which he
had done as a student of moreau), Ma- Matta went to Paris in 193 3 , studied ar-
tisse turned to Agostino carracci's chitecture with LE CORBUSIER, met
Reciprico Amore (1589-95) as a DALi, and became a member of the sur-
source, it is believed, for his circle of ec- realist group 1937, painting what
in

static nude dancers in Joy of Life he called "Psychological Morpholo-

(1905-06). Sometimes Matisse's re- gies," and "Inscapes." In the United
sponse to his contemporaries could be States from 1939 to 1948, Matta helped
ambiguous: Bathers with a Turtle to bridge the gap between Surrealism
(1908), a picture of three women feed- and abstract expressionism. The
ing lettuce to a turtle, is said by the his- comment he made above prefaces
torian John Elderfield to be a response Matta's description of a transition from
to Picasso's fierce Demoiselles d' Avi- the inwardness of Surrealism's imagery
gnon (1907). (Elderfield organized the to "cultural expressions, totemic things,
great Matisse retrospective exhibition civilizations." The difference was in

of 1992.) Though Matisse's large and seeking to give an individual's inner life

lumpy female figures are no more ideal- universal rather than personal meaning.
ized than Picasso's fractured, looming, An example of his effort is Disasters of
sharp-edged demons, they are certainly Mysticism (1942), which seems to al-
more friendly. An often told story is lude to outer space as if it were seen
that Matisse had studied law and in through partly cracked glass. There is a

1890 was working in a law firm, until, pinwheel effect, and a cluster of blood
when he was nearly 21, he had to have red forms, but it is difficult to find a

an appendectomy. During his convales- focal point, and one's attention is shut-
cence his mother gave him a box tled from a single point to the whole, as
of paints, a set of brushes, and an if caught in the turmoil of battle. Matta
instruction book. "When I started to returned to France and became a French
paint I felt transported into a kind of citizen in 1959.
paradise. ... I felt gloriously free, quiet
and on my own," he later said. The maulstick (mahlstick)
beneficent effect painting had on Ma- From the Dutch terms meaning "to
tisse is conveyed to his audience. The paint" and "stick," refers to a long,
 —

McKIM, MEAD AND WHITE 43 I

wooden rod artists use to support and them, and 36 colossal statues of Mauso-
steady the hand that holds the paint- lus's ancestors between the columns
brush. There are several self-portraits in as well as three carved friezes with
which the artist holds a maulstick, for traditional battle themes of Lapiths
instance, by the 16th-century painters fighting Centaurs and Greeks fighting
van HEMESSEN and anguissola. An- Amazons, were all highlighted by blue
other, of rockwell, appeared on the and red paint. Lions parading around
cover of The Saturday Evening Post in the base of the roof were painted yel-
1960. low-ocher. In the second century ce,
PAUSANIAS wrote that the Romans were
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus "utterly astounded" by this building
Mausolus was a 4th-century bce and adopted the word "mausoleum"
satrap, or governor, for the Persian for their own great tombs. It was an in-

empire. Although he warred with the spiration to the historicizing architects

Greeks, Mausolus was an avid Gre- of the 19th and early zoth centuries (see
cophile and employed Greek artists at historicism). In Washington D.C., an
Halicarnassus, the city he made his adaptation of the memorial to Mauso-
spectacular capital. Mausolus died in lus reemerged as the council building of
353 BCE. The great memorial he the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry
planned was probably begun during his (1911-15), designed by John Russell
lifetime; it was finished about 350 bce. Pope (i 874-1937).
It was 160 feet high and rectangular at
its base. It had 36 Ionic columns, 40 McKim, Mead and White
feet tall, surrounding the upper section. The architectural firm formed in 1879
and a stepped pyramidal roof. Its elabo- whose partners were Charles Follen
rate sculpturalprogram was carried McKim (i 847-1909), William Ruther-
out by renowned Greek artists, includ- ford Mead (1846-1928), and Stanford
ing SCOPAS, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and White (1853-1906). Together with
leochares. It was named one of Richard Morris hunt, this company set
the seven wonders of the ancient the style for the Gilded Age in America.
world, and we know it primarily from In opposition to the indigenous styles
PLINY the Elder's descriptions (which developed by midwestern architects like

do not all quite add up) and from recov- sullivan, these architects based their
ered fragments of sculpture, mostly in plans on grandiose European examples,
Museum, thanks to archaeo-
the British An exception was the Isaac Bell House
logical work started by Sir Charles T. inNewport, Rhode Island (1881-83).
Newton in 1856. The structure, de- Though grounded in English proto-
signed by Pythis and Satyros, was faced types, it was in the so-called Shingle
with white marble; a carved marble style— facade covered with wood shin-
chariot driven by Helios and drawn by gles — and was ostentatious and
less

four horses crowned the roof. Groups more informal than most Newport
of freestanding statues — 88 life-size mansions. The firm also designed the
Greeks and Persians 72 even
in battle, Boston Public Library (1887-95), a
larger warriors and huntsmen above square, white-granite building with an
43^ MEDICI

open courtyard. The exterior has ozzo. Ironically, even as Medici largess
Roman ARCHes enclosing the windows in the arts was dispensed, the family's
of the second floor and three arched banking houses were failing during the
openings that serve as the entrance. It second half of the 1 5th century. Cosimo
was designed to be a "palace of the had young ficino trained in philoso-

people," and was the largest public phy and Greek in order to have plato
lending library to date. translated into Latin, and he founded
the Platonic Academy, putting Ficino at

Medici the head of it.

Throughout the Italian renaissance Piero (the Gouty) di Cosimo de'

and into the i8th century, Florence was Medici (1416-1469) enjoyed (or en-
nominally a republic and actually an dured, considering his crippling infir-

oligarchy ruled, on and off, by the mity) only a five-year reign. was It

Medici family. Their wealth derived probably he who chose GOZZOLi to

from banking houses in Italy and
throughout Europe. Their power was
both secular and religious several
members of the family became popes,
most famously Leo X (Giovanni de'
Medici) and Clement VII (Giulio de'
Medici). Medicis were the main patrons
of art in Florence. Giovanni di Bicci
(Giovanni di Averardo de' Medici,
1360-1429), founder of the family
tune, gained wide support by champi-
paint the Procession of the Magi in
1459 (completed 1461) in the Medici
— palace. This fresco was of a favorite
subject of the Medicis, who belonged to
theCompany of the Magi, one of the
many religious organizations that flour-
ished during the Renaissance.
Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-
1492) took over the reins from Piero,
for- his father, in 1469, at the age of 20. He
had studied under Ficino and had liter-

oning the city's poorer population ary as well as political ambitions. He

against taxation. He was brunelle- was an extremely power-hungry tyrant
scHi's first patron, awarding him the who exercised his will fiercely. Lor-
commission for the Old Sacristy of San enzo's conspicuous consumption and
Lorenzo (14Z1-25). immorality were notorious enough to
Cosimo the Elder, 13 89-1464, was provoke popular uprisings (see Savon-
one of Giovanni's two sons. Artists he arola). Yet the arts flourished during
commissioned included Brunelleschi, his rule. Michelangelo was invited by
donatello, ghiberti, and della rob- Lorenzo to live at the palace and study
BiA. Their works were frequently sym- in an art school established in the
bolic of Florentine legends, victories, nearby Medici Garden (now vanished).
and the exploits of the Medici, uc- In the 1480S, SANGALLO designed a
cello's Battle of San Romano (mid- villa for Lorenzo (the Villa Medici at

1450s), for example, commemorates a Poggio a Caiano). Though it is un-

Florentine victory of 1432.. It was des- certain whether Gozzoli's above-
tined for the bedroom of the Palazzo mentioned Procession of the Magi was
Medici-Riccardi (begun 1444), which actually conceived by Lorenzo or by his
was designed for Cosimo by michel- father, it was installed in the palace
 MEDIEVAL ART 433

chapel, and a portrait of Lorenzo him- He favored Raphael and is the patron
self appears as part of the procession in who fanned the flames of competition
the painting, pollaiuolo and verroc- between Michelangelo and Raphael
CHio were Lorenzo's favorite artists. (see SEBASTiANo). Upon becoming
Botticelli's paintings contain many pope, he enabled Raphael to reach a po-
Medici symbols, allegories, and por- sition of power never enjoyed by any
traits:Then already deceased Cosimo, other artist. Besides being showered
for example, is in Adoration of the Magi with commissions, Raphael was named
(early 1470s). In Botticelli's striking the first Superintendent of Antiquities
portrait Young Man with a Medal and given authority over all excavations
(1470S?), although the young man's in the papal dominions.
identity is uncertain, the large medal he Cosimo Grand Duke of Tus-
I, first

holds is clearly a likeness of Cosimo. A cany (1519-74), was from another

hundred years ago historians described branch of the Medici family. Besides be-
Lorenzo as a heroic, beneficent figure coming a supporter of Mannerist art
and patron of the arts. That estimate (see mannerism), Cosimo I played a

has been revised to the extent that one large part in forwarding Vasari's pro-
of the many events in Italy commemo- ject of recording the lives of Italian
rating the fifth centenary of his death, in artists, and, no doubt, in contributing
1992, was a resolutely anti-Lorenzo ex- to its Tuscan bias. Later members of the
hibition. family also played their parts, but never
Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco (1463- with as much panache as had their pre-
1503) was a younger second cousin of decessors. One exception is Marie de'
Lorenzo the Magnificent. Because Medici 573-1 642), who married
(i

VASARi recorded seeing two of Botti- Henri IV and reigned as queen of

celli's most important pictures, Prima- France after his assassination in 16 10.
vera 1478) and Birth of Venus (c.
(c. RUBENS was commissioned to paint a

1484), on the walls of the villa in which cycle of pictures based on her life.

Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco lived, it had

long been assumed that he commis- Medieval art
sioned them. When a 1498 inventory of 3rd-i5th century
the villa's contents came to light, they The Latin roots of the term "Medieval"
contained no record of those pictures, mean "middle" and "age," and this pe-
so his patronage is today refuted, and riod is alternatively called the Middle
the elder Lorenzo seems the more likely Ages. Once known as the Dark Ages, it
patron. But it is still possible, as Freder- was then considered a vast empty space
ick Hartt suggests, that the young man between the end of the Greco-Roman
in Young Man with a Medal, described classical world (sometime during the
above, is none other than Lorenzo di first centuries bce) and the beginning of
Pierfrancesco. the ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. That Opinion
Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici is long outdated. On the contrary, the

(1475-15 21), son of Lorenzo the Mag- Medieval period is admired and studied
nificent, became Pope Leo X in 15 13. in its own right, its boundaries are far
434 MEDIUM

more permeable, and the dynamic of between the power of church and that
cross-fertilization enriches art through- of state, the patriarch held temporal
out all the Medieval centuries. Still, dat- and power (caesaropapism),
spiritual

ing and defining its beginning and and BYZANTINE ART flourished for
its end is entangled in problems of 1,000 years. In the West, the pope was
PERIODIZATION, even as the notion of spiritual leader and the emperor or king
periodization is itself contested. The ruled secular affairs (nominally as
Church v^as the main patron and ma- vicar of God). While Byzantine art de-

terial beneficiary of the arts throughout veloped West hosted a

in the East, the

the Medieval period. It provided a set- succession of styles: Hiberno Saxon,

ting for communal and formal liturgy Carolingian, mozarabic, ottonian,
and for private worship. In its architec- ROMANESQUE, and GOTHIC. Among dif-
ture and works of art, it could provide ferences that can be cited is the venera-
the illusion of heaven on earth, a tran- tion of images of Christ and the saints in

scendental stage setting for spiritual, the East (except for one period of time;
often mystical, experience. However, see iconoclasm under icon), while in

as the relationship of church and state the West the purpose of images was os-
was the continuing theme of European tensibly for instruction. Yet crosscur-
politics from the time the emperor Con- rents of stylistic influence can hardly be
stantine pledged his allegiance to Chris- overemphasized.
tianity in the early 4th century, politics

also influenced Medieval art. medium

After 430, imperial forces could not The material or technique an artist uses
defend from "barbarian" tribes (see mi- as a means of expression or communi-
gration) either the city of Rome itself cation: e.g., MARBLE, LITHOGRAPHY,
or the western provinces of the Roman PERFORMANCE, and PHOTOGRAPHY. In
empire. The western part of the empire painting, medium also refers to the sub-
collapsed as a political entity and the stance (e.g., oil, water) in which pig-
emperor was replaced by German ment is suspended (for example, see
rulers, who divided the territory into OIL painting and watercolor).
kingdoms. Christianity survived in the

West thanks in great measure to the zeal Meissonier, Ernest

of Irish missionaries (see hiberno 181 5-1 89 1 • French •

saxon), and then to the vigor of Charle- painter/sculptor • Realist

magne's support (see carolingian).
. . . defenders slain, shot doivn, thrown
Later, the eastern portion of the empire
from the windows, covering the
came to be called Byzantium. Thus, Me-
ground with their corpses, the earth
dieval art is separated into two ulti-
not yet having drunk up all the blood.
mately competing entities, led by the
emperor West and the patriarch
in the Before the slaughter of the French Rev-
in the East. In the East, where the Or- olution of 1848 and the riots that en-
thodox Church made little distinction sued, Meissonier painted pleasing.
 MEMLING, HANS (ALSO MEMLINC) 435

everyday genre subjects with meticu- the entire Christian world. (Written at
lous attention to detail. Called to duty Memling's death by the notary of Saint
as a captain in the National Guard, and Donation in Bruges)

on scene to defend the Hotel de Ville

during the "June days," he was an eye- Memling arrived in Bruges in 1464,
witness to the massacre he describes in after van der weyden's death. Fif-

the passage quoted above. Memory of teenth-century Bruges (then Burgun-

CivH War [The Barricade, rue de la dian, today Belgian) did not look so
Mortellerie, June 1848; 1848) is a gory very different from the cityscape that
presentation of what he saw. Later, dur- has been preserved to this day. We find

ing the Franco-Prussian War, after hav- it in the background of several 15th-
ing recorded the military triumphs of century paintings where it seems to em-
both Napoleon I and Napoleon III, body an ideal town in which sacred and
Meissonier was a colonel in the Na- secular, church and state, existed in har-

tional Guard. The Siege of Paris (1870) mony and prosperity reigned. However,
is his updated massacre, but it is as op- as the historian Johan Huizinga wrote,
eratically heroic as the earlier work was "It is a general phenomenon that the
mordant. Here again are dead and idea which works of art give us of an
dying, but this time they appear in uni- epoch is farmore serene and happy
form rather than as peasants, the mood than that which we glean in reading its
is courageous, and allegory reigns: The chronicles, documents, or even litera-
city of Paris is personified as a woman ture." In fact, Bruges, although a center

standing in front of the tricolore wear- of trade and manufacture, was in eco-

ing a helmet fashioned as a lion's head; nomic and political crisis that led to its

the Prussian eagle and a personification ceding its Antwerp by the be-
place to
of famine hover ominously overhead. ginning of the i6th century. Memling
was an assimilator rather than an inven-
memento mori tor of styles, but his bright, restrained
Latin term that means "remember you narratives are beautifully set in idyllic
must die." Memento mori in art refers panoramas, as though he were able to
to symbols of mortality such as a skull, change contemporary reality, as

hourglass, candle, and flowers, which, Huizinga suggests, by manipulating the

at the peak of their beauty, will soon landscape. Scenes from the Life of the
wilt and die. Memento mori are espe- Virgin and Christ (1480) contains no
cially prevalent in still life paintings, fewer than 25 biographical moments in
(See also vanitas) the lives of Mary and Jesus. The setting
is outside of Jerusalem, and while the
Memling, Hans (also Memlinc) tidy little city in the background may be
1430/40-1494 • Netherlandish • an imaginary Jerusalem, the topograph-
painter • Northern Renaissance ical details of hills and rock outcrops, as

well as the pleasant harbor in the dis-

Hans Memling was the most , u .
* „ „ ^
, , , ,
tance, make it
1
possible to associate it as
accomplished and excellent painter in
436 MENDIETA, ANA

much with Bruges as with the Holy Tree of Life. Mendieta died in a fall

Land. For the Hospital of Saint John in from an apartment window in New
two altarpieces
Bruges, in addition to York in 1985.
and other works, Memling created the
Shrine of Saint Ursula (1489), a reli- Mengs, Anton Raphael
quary form of a small church.
in the 1728-1779 • German • painter •

Narrative scenes from the saint's life are Neoclassicist

painted between gilded wooden arches
By the ideal I mean that which one
on the exterior. Some of the story takes
sees only with the imagination, and
place in Cologne, another city that
not with the eyes; thus an ideal in
Memling was familiar with, judging
painting depends upon selection of the
from the accuracy of the cityscape that
most beautiful things in nature purified
he depicted.
of every imperfection.

Mendieta, Ana After a period as court painter in Dres-

1948-1985 • Cuban/American • den, Mengs, who had studied in Rome,
performance/body artist • Feminist 175 1. A representative
settled there in
of the anti-BAROQUE, he was a propo-
. . . a dialog between the landscape
nent of NEOCLASSICAL purity, clarity,
and the female body (based on my
and nobility upheld by his mentor,
own silhouette) . . . a return to the
wiNCKELMANN. He distinguished be-
maternal source.
tween copying the antique and imitat-
Mendieta moved to Iowa from Cuba in ing it, arguing in favor of the latter
1961 and studied art at the University because it required consideration while
of Iowa, where, in 1973, she began to the former was mere plagiarism. Both
use herown body to make her art. The he and Winckelmann were confounded
purpose of her body art is described by by the important finds at hercula-
her comment above. In the Tree of Life NEUM and POMPEII, in 1738 and 1748
Series {i^jj) she covered her naked respectively, which seemed to them pale
body in mud and stood before a wide imitations of the best of the antique. As
tree trunk, almost four times her own a Mengs painted Jupiter and
ruse,
width. Her arms are raised above her Ganymede (1758-59), one of Winckel-
head in a way that identifies her with mann's favorite subjects, in imitation of
prehistoric Egyptian terra-cotta fig- Herculaneum, and Winckelmann was,
urines, fashioned from Nile River mud indeed, deceived by it. Mengs was the
about 4000 BCE, often called goddesses. tutor of the American painter west.
These and subsequent figures of women
are also called the Great Mother, the
Menzel, Adolph
Primordial Mother, the Archetypal
181 5-1905 • German pamter •
Feminine, and Mother Earth. It is this
Realist/Impressionist
image that Mendieta's work celebrates.
It is seen today only in the color photo- // approach the painting] ivith a

graph taken of her at the time she made beating heart and full of enthusiasm
 METONYMY 437

for the ideas for which the victims had Menzel's exuberant throng provides a
fallen. curious contrast to meissonier's The
Siege of Paris (1870), which shows the
In his paintings Menzel moved between ravages of the German victory that Wil-
portraying intimate family moments, helm is, in Menzel's picture, setting off
as in The Artist's Sister with Candle to accomplish.

(1847), and momentous public gather-

ings, as in Funeral of the Martyrs of Merovingian art
the Berlin Revolution (1848). It is See migration
about painting the latter that he wrote
the comment quoted above. Menzel metalpoint
blurred the boundaries between every- See silverpoint
day, GENRE scenes and Grand Opus
HISTORY paintings. He enjoyed an Metaphysical School (Scuola
early success, in Berlin of the 1840s, Metafisica)
with 400 ENGRAVINGS he did to illus- See carra and de chirico
trate a life of Frederick the Great. He
was again called on to celebrate Ger- Metcalf, Willard Leroy
man nationalism during the Franco- See American impressionism
Prussian War, when a collector in Berlin
asked him to paint the military pageant method/methodology
that accompanied the departure of the Refers to a practical or theoretical ap-
Prussian king for the front. Menzel's proach to discussing and understanding
commission came well after the event art. From purely descriptive (ekphra-
and its —
outcome Prussian defeat of sis) through connoisseurship, for-
Napoleon III, the eclipse of France's mal, and reception, the concept of
SECOND empire, and unification of methodology presumes a conscious
Germany under Wilhelm as emperor, choice of analytic procedure or an al-

Departure of King Wilhelm I for the liance to a point of view (e.g., marxism
Army on July ^i, i8jo (1871) resem- and feminism). Methods in art his-
bles the great Parisian crowd scenes of tory is itself a field of study in the dis-
the impressionists rather than a con- cipline.

ventional propagandistic or historic

painting. The street, observed from metonymy
above, bustles with people; Prussian The structural linguist Roman Jackob-
and German flags flutter in the breeze son described metaphor and metonymy
and wrap around their posts; the king as the two primary dichotomies of
and queen are but barely visible in their human language. As a figure of speech,
carriage. This has the gaiety of manet's or in a picture, a metaphor is an asso-
Concert in the Tuileries Gardens (i86z) ciative relationship: It brings together
and the detached point of view (but ideas or images, so that a painting of a
with less-distant elevation) of monet's sunset, for example, might stand for old
Boulevard des Capucines, Paris {iSy^). age. A metonymy, also a figure of
438 METZINGER, JEAN

speech, needs a more direct relation- minute dots that make up its tones. Un-
ship: A metonymy is a displacement like other INTAGLIO methods, the lines

rather than an analogy, or condensa- of a mezzotint are not sharply cut, but,
tion of an image and its meaning. For rather, are more subtly graded. Mez-
example, one might use as metonymy zotint refers both to the process and to
the White House standing for the presi- the end product. Invented in the 17th
dent. The relationship or connection of century, mezzotints became popular
the image to its signification is critical. when portraits by
during the i8th,
A synecdoche is a kind of metonymy in REYNOLDS and GAINSBOROUGH were
which a part is used to represent the reproduced by this means. Peter Pel-

whole; the word "bloodshed," or the ham, Copley's stepfather, was highly
color red, might a be a synecdoche for skilled at mezzotint work and his Cot-

war. Jackobson was an important influ- ton Mather (17x7), a portrait of the Pu-
ence in bringing the principles of semi- ritan leader — so finely worked that it

otic systems to art history. Both looks almost like an oil painting — is one
metonyms and metaphors are tropes. of the earliest prints made in the Ameri-
can colonies. (See also printing)
Metzinger, Jean
See CUBISM Michelangelo Buonarroti
1475-1564 • Italian •

mezzotint sculptor/painter/architect •
Meaning "half-tint" or "half-light," or Renaissance
"shadows," this is a process employed
Every beauty which is seen here below
in making prints. Mezzotint is used
by persons of perception resembles
sometimes for the entire image, some-
more than anything else that celestial
times for just a portion. The process
source from which we all are
produces a wide and subtle range of
come. .The best artist has no
. .

light and dark tones. The metal surface

concept which some single marble
on which the image is to be drawn is
does not encase within its mass.
first textured with an overall pattern of
dots or "burrs" by an instrument called Michelangelo's famous saying — that
a rocker. If this surface were printed, the artist must find his idea locked in-
the result would be a page of solid side the stone —has seemed to embody
black. However, a picture drawn on the essence of creative genius for almost
this surface smooths the tiny dots so five centuries, containing the notion
that they no longer hold the ink so ef- that the greater the artist, the more
ficiently — gradations of light and surely he, or she, will be able to find and
shadow are possible — and the final reveal life's hidden truths. However,
image appears in the print against a Michelangelo's artistic hierarchy was
background that remains black, or quite specific: Sculpture came first,

whatever color the ink, to the extent painting second. In addition, he dis-
that any of the original "rocked" sur- missed "additive" sculpture — achieved
face is left. Mezzotint is distinguished, by modeling a form with materials
on close inspection, by the rows of like clay — as being too much like paint-
 MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI 439

ing. Stone was Michelangelo's medium; return to Florence, where he finished

his wet nurse was from the town of Set- David during a four-year stay, Pope
tignano, a village of stonecutters (see Julius II called him to Rome. Known as
DESiDERio and rossellino), and he the warrior pope, Julius was, like the
liked to say that he absorbed the love of Italian renaissance itself, interested
stonecutting as an infant. As if to con- in both secular and religious power, and
firm that idea, he frequently chose to he sought both temporal and eternal
represent the Virgin Mary feeding the glory. For the latter he commissioned
baby Christ. As certainly as he deter- Michelangelo to design and carve a
mined his medium, he also knew his tomb to rival the mausoleum of hali-
subject: the human body. In that "mor- carnassus. After a year of work,
tal veil," as he called it, he saw divine fraught with difficulties of tempera-
intention; and he was not loath to think ment and logistics, that project was
himself godlike in his ability to liberate abandoned. Had it not been stopped,
a human being from matter. Land- Michelangelo would have spent the
scapes, clothing, even facial cast were next 40 years on Julius's tomb. Instead,
insignificant in relation to the physical he spent 18 months on a bronze statue
attitude and presence of the figures of the pope (subsequently destroyed
Michelangelo both sculpted and and melted down), and then began
painted; he was the first to endow the work on the Sistine Chapel at the Vati-
body with such expressive power. His can. Though he was reluctant to paint,
marble DawVi (1501-04), more than 14 especially such a vast project — some
feet tall, exemplifies heroic, muscular 5,800 square feet, about 70 feet above
strength and beauty, while it is simulta- the floor —he designed special scaffold-
neously a political metaphor for the ing for the purpose and completed
Florentine Republic, which had just (al- the ceiling in less than four years
though temporarily) shaken the grip of (1508-12), entirely by himself. The
the MEDICI family. David is rarely pho- theme is the Creation, Fall, and Re-
tographed from the angle at which demption, surrounded by prophets and
Michelangelo intended the statue to be sibyls —hundreds of figures altogether,

seen—sideways, situated as if overlook- In the center God floats in the firma-

ing the — but he

city clearly bears scant
resemblance to his smooth-skinned,
delicate-boned, bronze predecessors
made by DONATELLO and verrocchio.
Michelangelo began his artistic train-
ing with GHiRLANDAio, but was soon
invited to live at the palace of
de' Medici,where an informal school
had been established. When Lorenzo
died and Florence was in chaos,
Michelangelo worked for a time
Bologna, then in Rome, where he
carved the Pieta (1498-1 500). After his
ment, pointing his finger and bringing
Adam forth from primeval earth to
flesh and blood. Michelangelo's anal-
ogy of the sculptor creating his form is
inevitable. Many of the hundreds of
preliminary drawings Michelangelo
Lorenzo made for the ceiling survive, though the
cartoons are gone. These were laid on
the fresh plaster for each day's work, in
the process called buon fresco. The
in cleaning of this ceiling fresco, from
1985 to 1990, removing hundreds of
years of grime, uncovered unexpectedly
 ,

440 MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI

brilliant color and caused unprece- His close relationship with Vittoria
dented controversy. Critics insist a sur- Colonna, a Catholic reformer steeped
face layer, fresco secco, was mistakenly in mysticism, began around 1536 and
removed, giving Michelangelo's paint- had a profound impact on his spiritual

ing an unwarranted garishness. Others life. She died in 1547, when Michelan-
believe that the colors are true, and gelo was in his 70s. A melancholy,
point to how they resemble what the sometimes morose mood permeated
next generation of Mannerists would Michelangelo's poetry and sculpture
adopt (see mannerism). The historian during his late years, and after
Marcia Hall agrees, pointing out that Colonna's death he seemed to renounce
he used strong color selectively, rather all love other than that of Christ. Fail-
than uniformly, and adds that Michel- ing eyesight and strength inhibited his
angelo was "as significant a pioneer in ability to paint, yet he designed two of
color as he was in form, inventing here his most important architectural pro-
the cangiatismo mode." This mode is jects: the Medici family's Laurentian Li-
described as purposely artificial and or- brary with its great, flowing stairway
namental, juxtaposing highly contrast- (begun 152,4), and Saint Peter's in

ing colors. The gulf between those for Rome. Saint Peter's had a long history,
and those against the cleaning may re- dating back to the 4th century, and dur-
main unbridgeable. Michelangelo re- ing the Renaissance it had been re-

turned to the Sistine Chapel to paint designed by both BRAMANTE and

The Last judgment from 1536 to 1541 Antonio da Sangallo (see sangallo).
(also cleaned, 1990-93), a morbid, Michelangelo simplified Bramante's de-
turbulent scene that includes his sign, creating a single space covered
self-portrait on the flayed skin of Saint with a hemispherical dome (completed
Bartholomew. In the interim, the after his death; the final plan was re-

Medicis had returned to power, and designed during the early 17th century).
Michelangelo designed the Medici In contrast to Leonardo, Raphael,
Chapel and tomb sculptures in San and CELLINI, who remained aloof from
Lorenzo, Florence. He proceeded with the political and religious upheavals of
the tomb for Julius II, who died in 1 5 1 3 the era, Michelangelo felt the problems
beginning three extraordinary sculp- acutely and reflected them in a number
tures for it in 1513: a fierce, muscular of his works. He was the subject of two
Moses with horns (see sluter) and two biographies during his lifetime, the first

tormented yet sensuous Slaves for by VASARi. The later, by condivi, was
which there was no room on the dimin- authorized by the artist and believed to
ished version of the tomb that was fi- be a corrective for the first. There is,

nally dedicated in 1545. today especially, some question of the

Michelangelo was caught up in the extent to which Michelangelo himself
apocalyptic fervor that gripped Flo- crafted the alternately persecuted and
rence in the wake of Savonarola's ser- persecutor reputation by which he is

mons, and, as his poems attest, he was known. There is also a revisionist per-
also tormented by turbulent, sometimes spective that assesses him as a conscien-
unfulfilled love affairs with young men. tious and even benevolent entrepreneur,
 MIES VAN DER ROHE, LUDWIG 44!

managing community of workmen in

a lozzo. Having experienced a year of
a well-organized and well-run work- exile (1433-34), Cosimo decided that
shop. discretion was wiser than conspicuous
consumption. Michelozzo's relatively
Michelozzo di Bartolommeo modest but immensely dignified plan is
1396-147Z • Italian • three stories high. Large blocks of rusti-
sculptor/architect • Renaissance cated, or rough-cut, stone on the
ground level are reminiscent of ancient
When Cosimo was exiled in 1433,
Roman monuments. The stones flatten
Michelozzo, who greatly loved him
out and diminish in size on the second
and was very faithful to him,
and third stories, which also decrease in
voluntarily accompanied him to
height.
Venice, and was with him during his

stay there. Accordingly, besides the

Middle Ages
many designs and models which he
See medieval
made there of public and private
dwellings for the friends of Cosimo,
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig
and for many noblemen, he made by
1 886-1969 • German • architect •
Cosimo's order, and at his expense, the
Modern/International Style
library of the monastery of S. Giorgio
Maggiore. . . . This constituted the / don't want to be interesting. I want
diversion and pastime of Cosimo to be good.
until . . . he returned in triumph and
Mies van der Rohe succeeded gropius
Michelozzo with him. (Vasari, mid-
as director of the bauhaus, then left
i6th century)
Germany to teach in Chicago in what is
Michelozzo worked with ghiberti on now the Illinois Institute of Technol-
the bronze doors to the Florence Baptis- ogy. He also designed the school's cam-
tery and with donatello on several pus. Mies is considered the archetypal
projects, especially tomb sculpture. He architect of the international style.
also worked with brunelleschi, and if Among his best-known works is the
he seems to have been always an under- amber-tinted glass Seagram Building in
study and never a star, he did gain inde- New York City (1956-59), a slender,
pendent fame as an architect, though rectangular, elegant, and aloof sky-
somewhat by default. His best-known scraper with its own plaza and reflect-
work is the Medici-Riccardi Palace, ing pools. It is a classic illustration of

begun in 1444, named in

Florence c. the concept that "less is more," a phrase
part after the Riccardi family, who thatMies van der Rohe used. The critic
bought it at the end of the 17th century. Louis Mumford called Mies van der
Cosimo de' medici's fondness for Rohe's steel-and-glass structures "ele-
Michelozzo is described by vasari gant monuments of nothingness" that
above. Brunelleschi had also submitted "had no relation to site, climate, insula-

a design for the palace but it was re- tion, function, or internal activity; in-

jected because it was more ostentatious deed, they completely turned their
than the proposal offered by Miche- backs upon these realities, just as the
442. MIGRATION PERIOD

rigidly arranged chairs in his hving incorporated the ornamental Animal

rooms openly disregarded the necessary Style.

intimacies and informalities of conver-

sation." This harsh assessment neglects Millais, John Everett
the truth that Mies's cool, sleek build- 1829-1896 • English • painter •
ing was a stunning and appropriate ex- Pre-Raphaelite
pression of the anonymous corporate
/ hope it will not have any bad effects
world to which it belonged and for
upon her mind.
which it was designed.
With fellow students William Holman
Migration period HUNT and ROSSETTi, Millais was one
4th-7/8th (sometimes dated 5th-7th) of the three founders of the pre-
century. Refers to the period of move- RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD. Their first

ment and settlement in Western Europe meeting was at his house in London,
of Germanic and Slavic tribes. These around the corner from the British
peoples were called barbarians by Ro- Museum, in 1848. He was then 19
mans, who were following a greek years old. Millais worked out the "wet
precedent of so naming outsiders whose white" technique: transparent colors
incomprehensible language sounded applied over white paint that was still
like stuttering — ^ar bar— to them. wet. Others adapted this method to
These tribes gained power over Rome achieve a high, fresh, sunlit look. Mil-
and its western empire. Their people lais's painting Christ in the Carpenter's
were herders in search of land, and they Shop (1849-50), showing Joseph in his
had deep-rooted cultural traditions as workshop with Mary and young Christ,
well as highly accomplished, richly or- whose cut hand prefigures his Crucifix-
namented works of art, especially in ion, resulted in reviews so ferocious that
gold and bronze. Their art was gener- they are now legendary. Among those
ally portable and included personal or- incensed was Charles Dickens, who de-
naments, weapons, and implements. scribed Millais's Christ as "a hideous,
Three elements characterize art of the wry-necked, blubbering, red-haired
Migration period: the animal style boy" and Mary as "so horrible in her
(fantastic animal forms), interlace ugliness that she would stand out
. . .

and spiral designs, and horror vacui from the rest of the company as a mon-
(fear of vacant space), which inclined ster in the vilest cabaret in France or the
them to fill all surface space with lowest gin-shop in England." Amid the
decoration. As barbarians were Chris- uproar, Queen Victoria had the picture
tianized, Christian art assimilated removed from exhibition and brought
barbarian forms. An example is pro- to her, at which point Millais made the
vided by Merovingian art. Named after sardonic comment quoted above.
a Prankish ruling dynasty that claimed Christ in the Carpenter's Shop is

descent from a hero named Merovich, painted with meticulous attention to

the Merovingians were Christianized detail. Millais spent time in a carpentry
under the reign of Clovis I (481-511). shop to research procedures, tools, and
Merovingian architecture and artifacts so forth, and one can count the number
 MILLET, JEAN-FRANgOIS 443

of curls in a wood shaving or the SCHOOL painters who worked around

strands of hair that cross Joseph's bald- the Forest of Fontainebleau, but he
ing head. While the artist's own father is not strictly a Barbizon landscapist.
modeled for Joseph's face, for Joseph's The historian Kermit Champa argues
arm Millais studied the arm of a real that Millet and his friend Theodore
carpenter to be sure the muscle struc- ROUSSEAU, a founder of the Barbizon
turewas accurate. He used sheep heads group, are "two halves of one artist."

from a butcher for representing the Where Rousseau evokes human pres-
flock outside the door. Such pedestrian, ence and feeling in his landscape paint-
GENRE treatment of a holy subject was ings, Millet's human figures, natural
partly responsible for the picture's and at home on the earth, evoke the
scalding reception, but the existence of character of their landscape environ-
the newly revealed secret society of the ment. From a fairly well-to-do family of
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood also influ- pious Norman peasants himself, Millet
enced the reaction, inciting fear that studied in Paris with delaroche. His
they were a subversive group of young paintings of toiling peasants created a
renegades. Millais fell in love with sensation at the salons of the 1850s.
ruskin's new wife, who had her mar- Because of his subject matter, the police

riage annulled in order tomarry Mil- were asked to check his credentials be-

lais. He went on to enjoy fame and fore he received a state-sponsoredcom-

wealth, especially from paintings of mission. Any suspicions that he was
children, one of which became famous politically radical were wrong. As his
as an advertisement for Pears soap contemporary biographer Alfred Sen-
{Bubbles, 1886). He also painted por- sier wrote, "Millet had never caused

traits of prominent figures, including any trouble in any way, he seemed to be

Thomas Carlyle (1877), William Glad- quite satisfied with simply painting,
stone (1879 and 1885), and Benjamin staying very quietly at home, or walking
Disraeli (1881), and large-scale land- around gazing at the sky, the fields, and
scapes of the Scottish countryside, such the trees." His own politics aside, anti-

as Chill October (1870). In 1885 he be- establishment writers approved and ad-
came the first artist to be made a mired the moralizing they chose to find
baronet. in Millet's paintings. They saw it in

paintings like The Sower (c. 1850), in

Millet, Jean-Francois which a laborer is casting seeds onto the

1 8 14-1875 • French • painter • field. This picture represents a way of
Rural Realist life that was succumbing to changes
brought about by the Industrial Revolu-
/ have avoided (as I always do with
tion. The writer Alexandre Dumas pere
horror) anything that might verge on
equated Millet's critical reception to
the sentimental.
that ofcourbet some years earlier in- —
Best known for his scenes of humble, dignation on the one hand, admiration
pious peasants working in the fields, —
on the other and concluded that a
Millet lived in the village of Barbizon mediocre artist would not prompt such
and associated with the barbizon reaction.
 —

444 MIMESIS

mimesis or ventilates the rest of the social struc-

From ancient Greek, mimesis means ture."

"to imitate," or "mimic," primarily re-

ferring to things in nature. Thus, mime- miniature
sis defines the artistic process of Minium, a red pigment from lead, was
representation. Discussion of mimesis is originally used to draw pictures in an-
important to art theory, plato dimin- cient and medieval manuscripts
ishes art in mimetic terms as being a they were thus "miniated." By an
copy of a copy of what is in the "real" extension of meaning, and perhaps
or IDEAL world. Speaking on behalf of in confusion with minimus, Latin for
art in the Poetics, Aristotle, Plato's stu- "the smallest," the diminutive scale of
dent, argues that the artist represents those decorations led to "miniature,"
nature not as it is but as it should or signifying the paintings or drawings in
could be. Plotinus, founder of neopla- manuscripts, books, and other small,
TONISM, elaborated on mimesis, saying independent pictures. Christine de
that art does not simply imitate what is Pisan, the first professional woman
seen, but rather, through creative abil- writer in Western history, names her
ity, the artist understands underlying contemporary, a woman by the name of
principles of what is or could be seen. Anastaise, as an accomplished early-
The example Plotinus uses for illustra- i5th-century miniaturist. In Pisan's The
tion is the sculptor pheidias's Zeus, City of Women (1405) she writes that
which is based not on seeing Zeus, but Anastaise is "so skilled in painting the
on knowing how the god would look borders of manuscripts and miniatures"
should he appear in human form. In that she is unrivaled in Paris, which is

contemporary discussions of mimesis, "the center of the best illuminators in

GOMBRICH uses the idea to formulate the world." Scholars have not yet been
an argument in support of an artist's in- successful at identifying Anastaise's
dividualized perception being used to work. Portrait miniatures, in this case

modify historic conventions of repre- directly related to size, became popular

sentation. Borrowing from wolfflin, in Europe, especially in England, during
who wrote "the effect of picture on pic- the 1 6th century.
ture as a factor in style is much more
important than what comes directly Minimal art/Minimalism
from the imitation of nature," Gom- As its name suggests. Minimal art refers

brich wrote, "All paintings . . . owe to pared-down, usually regular, geo-

more to other paintings than they owe metric, frequently machine-made, and
to direct observation." bryson disputes sometimes repetitious forms. In their re-

what he calls Gombrich's "Perceptual- ductiveness, embrace of mass produc-

ist account" with the argument that tion, and use of new materials, pop and
Gombrich entirely neglects the play of Minimalism have much in common.
power vested in the patron and audi- Roots of Minimalism may be found in
ence of the artist's work. Painting, reinhardt and Frank stella and per-
Bryson insists, "... is bathed in the haps duchamp. Its early practitioners
same circulation of signs that permeates in the 1960s include JUDD, andre, and
 —

mir6, JOAN 445

FLAVIN. In contrast to conceptual art Toreador Fresco (c. 1550 bce), which
(see kosuth), which followed on the shows acrobatic "bull leapers" grasping
heels of Minimalism, the object is cen- a bull by its horns and vaulting over its

tral to Minimal art. In fact, one tribu- body. Whether was a game or a rite
this

tary of the movement is "process art," of passage is not known, nor is the rea-
in which the procedures and materials son for the darker coloring of what
used for making an object and the signs seem to be the male figures. Also found
or symptoms of its being made (e.g., at Knossos were faience (pottery made
saw marks, or the weight of its own with an opaque glaze) figures today
form) are central to the finished work called snake goddesses (c. 1600 bce),
(see Robert morris). Explanations are but their votive role is hypothesized
also critical, as the historian Jonathan little is known of Minoan religion. In-
Fineberg writes: "Minimalism de- troduction of the potter's wheel led to
pended upon a prodigious amount of stylistic and commercial advances on
polemic—written largely by the artists Crete (see pottery).
themselves — to reveal the motives be-
hind these apparently simple works." minor arts
(See also abc) Painting, sculpture, and architecture
were long considered the premier arts,

Minoan art and the —usually known as decora-

rest

C.2800-1500 BCE tive, domestic, and craft — as arts sec-

The Aegean island of Crete was the cen- ondary or "minor." Today the term is

ter of Minoan civilization, named for nearly extinct, and it is certainly vexed.
the legendary King Minos. Little is (See alsodecorative arts, fine art,
known of the settlement and history of HIGH ART, and popular art)
Crete, or of nearby thera, with its elab-
orate houses and wall paintings recently Mir Iskusstva
excavated, and the dates cited above See world of art
are somewhat arbitrary. The maze-
like Palace of Knossos on Crete (c. Miro, Joan
1600-1400 BCE; occupied in its latest 1893-1983 • Spanish (Catalan) •

phases by mycenaeans from mainland painter • Surrealist

Greece), which is partially recon-
You must always plant your feet firmly
structed from ruins, may be the
on the ground if you want to be able
labyrinth of the Minotaur legend. Al-
to jump up in the air.
though in close contact with both cul-
tures, Minoan art differs from that of When he went to France in 1919, Miro
contemporary Egypt and Mesopotamia joined the circle of Spaniards with Pi-
primarily in its spontaneity and interest CASSO at its center. Miro worked in
in showing movement. Minoan images FAUVE and cubist styles before adopt-
are colorful and rich with observation ing the surrealist mode. The first
of the natural world, including swim- group exhibition of Surrealist artists

ming dolphins, and landscapes.

birds, in 1925, in Paris, included his paint-
On the walls of the palace is the famous ings. Prompted by Miro's use of
446 MITCHELL, JOAN

AUTOMATISM — explorations of the from 1938, have something ferocious

subconscious through automatic writ- and demonic about their fanged beaks
ing — Andre Breton, spokesman for and bug eyes. During World War II,
SURREALISM, predicted that history Miro settled permanently in Palma de
would prove Miro most sur-
to be the Mallorca. There he worked with the ce-
real of the group. Besides making clear ramicist Jose Artigas, making pottery
that he started with his feet on the sculpture and ceramic tile murals; two
ground, as in the quotation above, Miro of the murals were for UNESCO head-
himself said, "I begin painting and as I quarters in Paris. Prehistoric cave paint-
paint the picture begins to assert itself, ings at Altamira, Spain, as well as
or suggest itself, under my brush. The Spanish architecture and painting, were
form becomes a sign for a woman or a Miro's inspiration. He said, "I sought a
bird as I work." In America, he became brutal expression in the large wall, a
one of the best-known Europeans and more poetic one in the smaller. Within
was an inspiration for abstract ex- each composition I sought at the same
pressionism as it coalesced after time a contrast by opposing to the
World War II. His later paintings, like black, ferocious and dynamic drawing,
Blue II (1961) — a canvas filled with calm colored forms, flat or in squares."
blue paint on which a line of irregular,
solid black circular forms leads to a Mitchell, Joan
blood red vertical brushstroke —reveal 1 926-1992 • American • painter •

that he was, in turn, influenced by Abstract Expressionist

American Abstract Expressionists, es-
. . . even today a vastly under-
pecially the COLOR FIELD painters.
appreciated painter. (Arthur Danto,
Miro's images are often animated with
1987)
a sense of gaiety and humor. His bio-
MORPHic blobs are joined by squiggles, Mitchellwas in the second generation
circles, stars, and energetic lines in of abstract expressionist painters.
black as well as bright colors. Shapes Her apparently spontaneous paintings
are frequently associated with male and are, in fact, carefully constructed. Often
female genitalia and what the historian based on landscapes, a painting such as
Robert Rosenblum calls "the sexy Dirty Snow (1980), for example, builds
throb of biology." Painting (1933) has thick layers of color: pale gray, cobalt
solid black and outlined shapes as well blue, and lavender. The ground, and
as some in white, red, blue, and green. perhaps moving figures, is suggested by
Though Painting is generally described black forms and dark colors on the bot-
as the most nonfigurative of Miro's tom of the canvas, while paint-laden
work, allusions to icons such as Pi- strokes of white blend with and cover
casso's bull horns and suggestions of darker tones, giving a mauve-bluc tint

human and animal shapes do emerge. to the putative sky and suggesting the
Miro was overtaken by dismay during snow of the title. Mitchell exhibited reg-
the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and ularly in New York, even after moving
the pre-World War II period; Head of a to Paris in 1955. Despite the signifi-
Woman and Nursery Decoration, both cance of her work, Mitchell has not re-
 modern/modernism/modernity 447

ceived the attention she merits, as the up-modeling. The system of modeling
philosopher-critic Arthur Danto com- promoted by alberti in On Painting
ments in the quotation above. (1435) creates shadows by adding
black and is called down-modeling.
mobile LEONARDO used this technique. Other
Term coined by duchamp1932 to in means of showing the plasticity, solid-
describe the sculptures of calder. A ity, or depth of form have also been

mobile is a work with moving parts, explored, for example, manipulation

usually suspended by wires, that are of the thickness or darkness of lines,
finely balanced. In a long tradition of hatching and cross-hatching (i.e., with
popular constructions, such as balanc- parallel lines), and exploiting the ex-
ing toys, mobiles may be moved by any- pressive properties of color: "Hot" and
thing from the slightest air current to a "warm" colors like red, orange, and
mechanical driver. Each movement cre- yellow seem to advance, while "cold"
ates a new set of relationships. and "cool" colors, such as blue, green,

and brown, seem to recede. Juxtaposi-

modelbook tions of advancing and receding colors
Also called pattern books, modelbooks participate in modeling systems.
contained drawings of, for example,
faces, hands, animals, the head of Jesus modello, modelli (pi.)
crowned with thorns, or that of a An Italian word that refers to the small

stereotypical queen. Not always in the version of a larger painting, usually ex-
form of a book, some images, about 3 x ecuted on paper, but often on wood. A
3 inches, were mounted, framed, and modello is more elaborate than a

stored in a small wooden box. These sketch, and was often made to show to

drawings served as exemplars for
to copy. The modelbook sources for
many medieval paintings can quite
easily be traced. Modelbooks were
valuable assets.
modeling
artists a client for approval before the final
painting went forward. Although paper
and PARCHMENT were widely available,
no modelli for fresco scenes from be-
fore 1340 are known. After that date,
modelli themselves were collected as
works of art.

In its first sense, "modeling" refers to

shaping a work in a plastic medium Modern/Modernism/modernity

such as clay or wax. The term is also Several characteristics distinguish Mod-

used in relation to paintings that en- ernism in art, and dating its advent de-

deavor to achieve the illusion of three- pends on which characteristic is

dimensionality through the use of dark stressed. Baudelaire's direction of at-

and The Book on Art

light shading. In tention toward problems and activities
of contemporary urban life around
(1437), CENNiNi describes modeling
that used pure color in the shadows, 1850 is one marker. According to this

adding gradations of white for the guideline, realism- would then be the
mid- and light tones
— "up-modeling." first important Modern movement.
GIOTTO and his followers practiced Others argue that Modernism begins
448 MODERNE

later, with rejection of the Italian re- thoughts of you, make my path a diffi-

naissance convention of the picture as cult one.

a window opening onto a world of ob-

jects in mappable perspective. Accord- Modersohn-Becker, a major influence
ing to this way of thinking, it is the very on MODERN art in Germany, was the
assertion of artifice, an insistence on first German painter to use post-
consciousness of the act of seeing and impressionist ideas in her paintings.
painting (the impressionist's flicker- She studied at the Berlin School for
ing light, the visible brushstroke, the Women Artists and at the German
texture of paint), that defines Modern artists' colony of Worpswede, where
art. Photography played a large part in she met her teacher and future husband.
Modern art; the first daguerreotype of Otto Modersohn. She left Worpswede
1839 might be seen as heralding Mod- to study in Paris in 1900, the first of
ernism. Painting and photography in- four trips to that city. After her mar-
teracted as prompt, provocation, and riage in 1901, back in Germany, she
competition. Modernists were generally was torn between her domestic respon-
suspicious of and often hostile to sci- sibilities and her drive to express herself

ence, technology, and industrialization through art — a compulsion fed by ex-

until futurism embraced them. The pressionist manifestos. She fled to

era of Modernism stylistically consid- Paris. Her family implored her to re-
ered covers everything from Realism turn, and the passage quoted above is
to minimalism. To some, postmod- from a letter to her mother. In Paris she
ernism is a continuation of Mod- studied literature as well as art, and was
ernism; to others, it is new and distinct. a friend of the poet Rainer Maria Rilke,
Modern and Modernism refer to art whom she had met at Worpswede and
and an artistic movement of which Pi- who had been rodin's secretary in

CASSO's Demoiselles d' Avignon is the Paris.Her numerous self-portraits have

most familiar icon. The term "moder- unusual candor and depth, belied by a
nity" is frequently used interchange- highly simplified use of color and line.
ably, but it more properly refers to the Her style shows several current trends:
historical period, not to any movement. The geometric, volumetric planes of the
face in her 1906 Self-Portrait with
moderne Amber Necklace, for example, may re-
See ART DECO call both Matisse's portraits of his wife

and Picasso's Gertrude Stein (1905).

Modersohn-Becker, Paula
But more important is her nudity and
1 876-1 907 • German •
that in Mother and Child Lying Nude
painter/graphic artist • Expressionist
(1907). Modersohn-Becker and val-
Don't be sad about me. If my life ADON were among the first women to
won't take me back to Worpswede, concentrate on painting the female
that does not mean that the eight years nude. This was a bold step, proclaiming
that I spent there were not good. I independence from the tradition of rep-
found Otto very touching. This, and resenting the female body for the erotic
 MOHOLY-NAGY, lAsZL6 449

pleasure of males, as feminist histori- Chaim Soutine (19 17), is a good

friend,

ans and critics explain. Modersohn- example of Modigliani's distinctive

Becker's promising career ended when style: an almost complete absence of de-
she died, soon after childbirth, at the tail, save a nearly empty glass on the
age of 31. In her writings she had ex- corner of a table, roughly but thinly
pressed premonitions of an early death. applied paint, an oval face with its

As short as her career was, she left be- distinctive characteristics —wide nos-
hind some 400 paintings and studies trils, thick lips, uneven, almond-shaped
and 1,000 drawings. eyes — all delicately outlined (see sou-
tine).Though he exaggerates features,
Modigliani, Amedeo Modigliani never makes fun of his sub-
1884-1920 • Italian • jects nor renders them grotesque.

painter/sculptor • School of Paris Rather, he shows heightened sensibility

to the individuality of his model.
Here is my passport!
Born into a well-to-do Jewish family in Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo
Livorno, Italy, Modigliani first went to 1895-1946 • Hungarian •

Paris in 1906. Riddled with tuberculo- sculptor/painter • Constructivist

sis, drugs, and alcohol, he spent a good
The receding and advancing values of
part of his short, dissolute life in the
the black and white, grays and
cafes of Montparnasse, constantly and
textures, are here reminiscent of the
obsessively sketching, often paying for
photogram.
his drinks with his art. Once, when a
policeman asked him for identification An important teacher at the bauhaus,
papers, he waved a bunch of his draw- Moholy-Nagy applied its principles at
ings at him with the exclamation the New Bauhaus, which he founded in

quoted above. Modigliani died at the Chicago in 1937. (It later became the
age of 35, reportedly murmuring, Institute of Design, and is now part of
"Cara, cara Italia!" It is also said that the Illinois Institute of Technology.) His
his lover committed suicide so as not to writings, including The New Vision
survive him. These stories, true or not, (1932), are elucidations of the Bauhaus
contribute to a Modigliani legend, and vision and of his own interest in tech-

contribute also, indirectly, to under- nology and industry. He pioneered in

standing his art. There is a kind of the construction of machines that com-
plaintive asceticism in the spare grim- bined light and motion and set the stage
ness of the figures he painted, often in for later mechanized kinetic sculpture.
dark clothes. They have elongated He called his machines "light modula-
forms, exceedingly long necks, and oval tors." Moholy-Nagy also worked in

faces. "Mannered" best describes the photography. He began by using the

They are for-
affectation of his forms. work of others in photomontages,
ward-facing (frontal), seem expres- and went on to make his own images
sionless yet sad, and have unusual both with the camera and without: Like
psychological depth. His portrait of his MAN RAY, he made "photograms" by
45° MOMPER, JOOS DE, THE YOUNGER

laying objects on light-sensitive paper scene. Partnership among

was artists

and then exposing them to light. He
also took pictures from dizzying
heights, "Rodchenko
named for his Russian counterpart
RODCHENKO, with whom he shared mu-
tual admiration. The quotation above
common practice, and while he worked
with many others, de Momper was a
perspectives," frequent collaborator and friend of Jan
BRUEGEL (as reflected in the quotation
above). About 80 joint efforts are men-
tioned in 17th-century inventories, in-

refers to an aerial view Moholy-Nagy cluding several winter landscapes. It is

photographed from such a height, hypothesized, but not documented, that

Berlin Radio Tower (c. 1928), a fasci- de Momper may have crossed the Alps,
nating if disorienting essay in black and which would have contributed to his
white, circles and angles, shot from high imagination of the soaring mountains
up in the tower. he painted.

Momper, Joos de, the Younger Mondrian, Piet (Pieter

1564-163 5 • Flemish • painter • Mondfiaan)
Baroque 1 872-1944 • Dutch • painter • De
Stijl/Neo-Plasticism
Mio amico Momper [My friend
Momper]. (Jan Bruegel the Elder, In the future, the tangible embodiment
l6Z2) of pictorial values will supplant art.

Then we shall no longer need

Both his father and grandfather were
paintings, for we shall live in the midst
painters and Joos de Momper became a
of realized art.
MASTER in the Antwerp Guild of Saint
Luke in 1581 while his father was its Following his early (c. 1914) work in

dean. He became dean himself in 161 1. church decoration, Mondrian's paint-

Of his 10 children, two sons were
painters. 1626 de Momper was
In
exempted from wine and beer taxes
and other civic duties in recognition of
his years of working for the archdukes.
His fortunes declined, however, and,
though he traded paintings for
ing progressed, withwhat almost seems
preordained determination, from repre-
sentational landscapes to straight lines,
in the style for which he coined the term
NEO-PLASTiciSM. His lifelong quest for
"pure plastics" (plasticism) led to a
spirits, gradual awareness that "(a) in plastic

he was in debt to the local tavern when art reality can be expressed only
he died. He
famous for his infinite
is through the equilibrium of dynamic
variety of fantastic mountainous land- movements of form and color; (b) pure
scapes, as well as his grottoes and means afford the most effective way of
seasonal scenes, but there are few attaining this," as he explained. In
signed works and only one that is dated: translation onto canvas, this came to
Mountain Landscape with Travelers mean only straight lines, right angles,

(1623), both signed and dated, is a large and primary colors plus black and
(6 feet high, 11 feet wide) and majestic white. Neo-Plasticism was, for Mon-
vista, the fantastic bluish mountains in drian, more than a style of painting. It

the background of a sunlit wooded was equally philosophy and religion.

 a

MONET, CLAUDE 45 I

Art in harmony with universal princi- Monet, Claude

ples would, he believed, bring all as- 1 840-1 926 • French • painter •

pects of life into line with these Impressionist

principles, ultimately obviating art, as
When you go out to paint, try to forget
explained in the comment quoted
what objects you have before you—
above. Mondrian's belief in Theosophy
tree, a house, a field, or whatever.
provided the underpinning for his vari-
Merely think, here is a little square of
ations of lines and squares or rectangles
blue, here an oblong of pink, here a
of color, which were designed to repre-
streak of yellow, and paint it just as it
sent the underlying structure of nature.
looks to you, the exact color and
A cofounder of De stijl with van does- own
shape, until it gives your naive
burg, Mondrian left the movement
impression of the scene before you.
in 1925 when his colleague endeavored
to achieve more dynamic expression On December 27, 1873, ^ group of
through diagonal lines. Mondrian con- artists, calling itself the Societe
tinued his explorations of the dynamic Anonyme des artistes peintres, sculp-
balancing of vertical and horizontal teurs, graveurs, etc. . met to plan an
. . ,

structures and basic colors. A problem exhibition of their works to be held on

that troubled him was that his red, blue, April 15, 1874,two weeks before the
or yellow shapes seemed, visually, to opening of the official salon. They
occupy the foreground, disrupting the were dissatisfied because even the "al-
spatial unity he sought. His solution ternative"salon des refuses used ju-
was to devise a system of using heavy ries to select from among rejected

lines as though they move through rec- works, and they wished to turn their
tangles of color. In works like Tableau backs on all forms of discrimination.
II (1921-25) — blue, red, yellow, black, Their exhibition was hung alphabeti-
and two shades of gray —he achieves his cally and in only two rows, giving

goal: Everything, under tight control, everyone equal opportunity to be seen.

holds its place. Mondrian's experimen- It was at this exhibition that one
tation continued. He taught at the of Monet's five paintings, called Im-
BAUHAUS, lived in Paris, then briefly in pression—Sunrise, gave its name to the

London, and moved to the United movement had begun over a

that
States in 1940. In Broadway Boogie- decade earlier. The painting was
Woogie (1942-43), Mondrian returns ridiculed and impressionism was at
to "landscape," translating New York first a term of derision. Yet it revealed
City streets into a grid composed of Monet's intent, as quoted above, and
squares and rectangles via lines in (still reported by one of his students, an
primary) color. The picture expresses American artist, Lilla Cabot Perry
the jazzy life and spirit of Broadway. (AMERICAN impressionism). The goal
Mondrian's influence on succeeding of these painters, as finally understood,
generations extended to the interna- was "not to render a landscape but
tional STYLE in architecture as well as the sensation produced by a land-
abstract expressionism and, later, scape." Monet and others explored the
styles from op art to minimalism. individualized nature of sensation, in
452. MONOGRAPH

part by painting the same subject at the work, and also in focusing attention on
same time as another artist did (see neglected artists. For example, with the
renoir). Monet also studied the tem- growth of FEMINIST and revisionist
poral nature of sensation by painting art history, previously ignored and mar-
the same subject from the same point of ginalized artists (e.g., anguissola,
view at different times of day, in differ- KAHLO, and pippin) have been the sub-
ent seasons or weather conditions. In jects of monographs. However, the idea
the latter category is his 1890s series of the traditional monograph is also
Rouen Cathedral— some 40 views his — challenged and complicated by current
numerous haystacks, and about 16 critical theorists, especially followers
views of Waterloo Bridge in London. In and interpreters of Roland Barthes,
1899 he began painting Water Lilies, Michel Foucault, and the semiotic ap-
from those in the water garden he con- proach. These writers are likely to con-
structed at his home in Giverny. He sider artist (as "author") or work (as

even built a special studio so he could "text") as an individual's progression

paint them on outsize canvases. In through the dominant social and cul-
Monet's paintings, each short, thick tural forces of the time. Thus, Griselda
brushstroke of unmodulated color was POLLOCK writes, "Van Gogh becomes
correlated to a visual sensation, and the historically useful by throwing into re-

effect was to dissolve form as conven- lief those cultural formations [i.e.,

tionally seen and to reconstitute it, or at Dutch and French avant-garde] pre-
least express it, in terms of light (in cisely through the degree that van Gogh
which color is implicit). Summing up to was incapable of accommodating his

Gustave Geffroy, his friend and biogra- practice to them and normalizing their

pher, in 1909 Monet wrote: "I have protocols and concerns." (See also new
painted for half a century and will soon historicism)
have passed my sixty-ninth year, but,
far from decreasing, my sensitivity has monotype
sharpened with age. As long as constant As its name implies, monotype is a
commerce with the outside world can means of transferring one image in
maintain the ardor of my curiosity, and paint or ink from the surface on which
my hand remains the prompt and faith- it is painted or drawn (e.g., glass or

ful servant of my perception, I have metal) to another surface (e.g., paper).

nothing to fear from old age." Only one copy is made, in contrast to
multiple copies from most print medi-
monograph ums, so each monotype is unique.
An art history monograph is usually an DEGAS produced monotypes in a series

book devoted to a single artist

article or of brothel scenes (e.g.. The Client, c.
or one work of art. This is in contrast to 1879).
writing devoted to themes or periods,
for which there is no specific term. montage
Monographs serve an important role in COLLAGE and montage are often used
presentingnew information in a cogent interchangeably, as both involve apply-
biographical or contextual frame- ing, or superimposing, materials like
 MONUMENT 453

colored paper, newspapers, and sticks words enumerating the virtues of Fed-
on a surface. The main difference de- erigo. bramante, born near Urbino,
rives from the French root of each was inspired by the design of this build-
word: Coller refers to pasting or gluing ing.The walls of the duke's study (stu-
things together (a matisse paper diolo) at Urbino are celebrated: They
"cutout" is called a collage); "mon- are composed of inlaid cabinetwork of
tage," from monter, refers to mounting various colored woods (intarsia). De-
by whatever means, be it paste, nails, signed to resemble latticed cupboards,
knots, or clamps. There is usually a in one section the trompe l'oeil com-
sense that collage is used more for pat- position simulates a door left open to
tern and color while in montage things reveal the cupboard's "contents." On
are used more symbolically, but this is a an upper level, the pretense includes
rule with many exceptions, ernst's niches with statuary and views to the
Two Children Are Threatened by a outdoors. Federigo's interests are repre-
Nightingale (1924) is a montage. A sented by the illusory books, musical in-
kind of conceptual cinematic sequence, struments, and armor. Federigo had a
also called montage, was used by Sergei similar room home in
created for his
M. Eisenstein in the film Battleship Gubbio. This studiolo was made in Flo-
Potemkin (1925) — one powerfully rence in the workshop of Giuliano da
evocative montage followed an image Maiano (1432-1490) between 1478
of a firing pistol by one of a teeming and 1483, and Federigo did not live to

crowd, that image succeeded in turn by see it assembled. (Under restoration for
a falling statue. (See also photomon- almost 30 years, it was returned to pub-
tage and assemblage) lie view at the Metropolitan Museum of
Art in New York in 1996.) Federigo's

Montefeltro, Federigo II da son, Guidobaldo (1472-1508), al-

In the later 15th century, Urbino, in though infirm, was a strong military
central Italy, was a preeminent cultural man and patron of the arts; his court
center. The house of Montefeltro's was praised in The
castiglione's
reign over Urbino dated back to the Courtier. Cesare Borgia, who came to
early 13th century. Federigo II (1422- power in the area of Urbino around
1482), born out of wedlock and illustri- 1499, looted the priceless Montefeltro
ous for his military victories, became collections of their art and other trea-
Urbino's most enlightened ruler and a sures.
generous patron of the arts. He and his

bride, Battista sforza, were painted by monument

PiERO della Francesca (c. 1472), whose Conventionally, a structure or sculpture
intriguing Flagellation (mid- 14 50s) is serving as a memorial, triumphal, or
still in the ducal palace there. The otherwise important landmark. The
palace was built in several stages from word "monument" has another appli-
the 1440S to the 1470s. The palace ar- cation: Important works of art subject
chitect, Luciano Laurana, designed a to study and analysis, whether painted,
glorious courtyard with an elegant ar- sculpted, or built, are called monu-
cade and two friezes inscribed with ments in art history.
454 MOORE, CHARLES W.

Moore, Charles W. bell towers and fountains, all in the set-

1925-1 993 • American • architect • ting of a large Italian p/'^azz^, or plaza.

Postmodern
Moore, Henry
/ have believed for some time that
1898-1986 • English • sculptor •
sense might be made of the opposing
Modern/Figurative abstraction
views [of Modernism and its

detractors] in the terms of "yin " and When was eleven I was in Sunday
I

"yang," the Chinese diagram of school and I heard a story about

opposites complementing one another. Michelangelo. I can't remember the
If our century's predominant urge to story, but what I retained was that

erect high-rise macho objects was Michelangelo was esteemed the

nearly spent, I thought we might now greatest sculptor who ever lived. That
be eligible for a fifty-year-long respite unremarkable bit of information
of yin, of absorbing and healing and moved me, then and there, to decide to

trying to bring our freestanding become a sculptor myself.

erections into an inhabitable .
, , . ...
Moore s signature reclmmg women
community. ..
i 1 i 1

usually are enormous, but they look

Moore first gained national attention as huge even when they are relatively
one of the designers of Sea Ranch small. Early in his career, between 1926
(1963-65), a housing complex north of and 1930, pre-Columbian art was the
San Francisco. Its weathered wood sid- most important influence on Moore,
ing and "shed" roof (i.e., with just one His first masterpiece, Reclining Figure
sloping plane) soon became a popular (1929), reveals its effect in the
idiom. It also continued the ground- frontality of the figure and in the
hugging tradition of Frank Lloyd sharp angles at which the limbs bend.
Wright's Prairie Style and his concept During World War II, in 1940, Moore
of a building in harmony with the land- was an official war artist in England,
scape. While those innovations were in His drawings of Londoners huddled in

the spirit of modernism, Moore went underground bomb shelters touched the
on to design with a postmodern ap- making him one of
general population,
proach, mixing historical periods and England's best-known artists. But in
incorporating colorful and picturesque sculpture it is his female figures, some-
details at his pleasure, in the interest of times joined by infants, on which his
"an inhabitable community," as de- reputation rests. He and hepworth re-

scribed in the quotation above. Piazza stored to sculpture the importance of

d'ltalia (1977-78) in New Orleans is carving in wood and stone. Since rodin
from an early stage of Moore's rebellion had reintroduced bronze casting, that
against the rationality and formalism of is what sculptors had been concentrat-
"yang" design. To honor the Italian ing on. Moore said, "It is only when the
population of the city, Moore included sculptor works direct, when there is an
a relief map of Italy, allusions to the tri- active relationship with his material,
umphal arches of ancient Rome and to that the material can take its part in the
 .

MOREAU, GUSTAVE 455

shaping of an idea." But later in the Moreau, Gustave

1940s and 1950s, with his interest in 1826-1898 • French • painter •
solving spatial problems, and in open- Symbolist
ing large voids in his figures to connect ^
(J
,,
noble poetry of Iwtnp and
/-,. . ,

.
, , , J 1

one side to the other and more immedi- , ,

, . .
, ,
. , impassioned silence! How admirable is
, , ; , ,

ately achieve three-dimensionality, as , , , , ,

»x 1- ^c c 1 • 1
that art which, under a material
he explained, Moore himself frequently
,

• ^
1

,
envelope, mirror of physical beauty,
/•,.,,
, II 1

turned to casting. Casting allows the ^ r

, , , ,
, , ... reflects also the movements of the soul,
penetration of forms with larger open- ,
, r

...
, , , ,
. • 1
T • 1 of the spirit, of the heart and the
ings than carving does, in using these , ,
° imagination, and responds to those
,

holes
, „
—he likened them to
,
,
... ,

,
,

•
„
the mys-
n I
,

•
I
...
divine necessities felt by humanity
/-;;/
terious fascination of caves in hillsides , , , r , ,
throughout the ases. the language

,
,.„ „
andchffs
,^^
,,
,

_,
, ,,
Moore followed the exam-
,,-r
— ,
.
,

,
,

,^,,
of ijodi ... lo
„ ,.
whose
this
It IS
,

eloquence,
,

pie of Hepworth. 1 heir work dirrered,

1

however,
-ITTHepworth
in that
1 ,
s
r
rorms
,
character,
r t
nature and power have up to
h
, ,

, , J ,- • ^ow resisted definition, ,

I have given all
, /

leaned more toward nonfigurative ab-

... ^° my care, all„ my efforts:
rr
the evocation
i

STRACT concepts while Moore

,
s great , ... ,

,T- , , ,

^. of thought through line, arabesque,

interest was the human figure [Interior-
, ,

, , , ,

and the means open to the plastic

Exterior Reclining Figure, 19 51).
., arts— that has been
11, my aim!
,

Among Moore ,
s
,

sculptures without
openings are the great bronzes of King Moreau painted scenes from the Bible,
a«<i Qween (195Z-53). They have dis- the classics, and other texts, and is
tinctive flattened bodies with small sometimes called a "literary" symbol-
heads and spindly limbs. During his ist. His style was eclectic, his figures as-

last decades Moore worked largely with sume theatrical rather than natural
three themes: rough-finished, moun- poses, and his scenes are elaborated
tainlike reclining figures; smoothly with a multitude of detail. As the con-
finished and contoured figures, reminis- temporary Symbolist painter redon re-

cent of the earlier types with voids; and marked, Moreau's inner life was veiled

huge skeletal-like forms, generally in by worldly artifice. Moreau repeated a

bronze, with a variety of finishes. These type of languid, androgynous male fig-

latter countermand his earlier "truth- ure, sensitive but doomed, and destruc-

to-materials" intention, which held that tive, sinister women — a convention

stone should look like stone, and metal known as the femme fatale. A water-

and wood sculpture should express the color. The Apparition [Dance of Sa-
nature of its material. To change or lome; 1876), illustrated a story popular
vary textures of a material suggests, or with pre-raphaelites as well as Sym-
acknowledges, that the artist is exerting bolists. In Moreau's picture Salome
his or her personal skill and authority, dances, barely clothed but lavishly be-
This contradicts the long-enduring jeweled, while the halo-encircled, lumi-
principle that the intrinsic nature of a nescent head of John the Baptist,
material should dictate the form the gushing blood, is suspended in midair,
artist gave it. She strikes an aggressive pose, pointing
 —

456 MORELLI, GIOVANNI

to but not looking at John. The colors representation of eyes, ears, and hands,
are chilling — white, sapphire blue, and which he believed each artist treated

blood red. There is tension in Salome's idiosyncratically. He questioned many

frozen attitude — Moreau aspired to widely accepted attributions. One ex-
what he called "the beauty of inertia" ample is a painting previously thought
in the profusion of ornamental detail to be by Pordenone (1483?-! 5 39) that
and in the combination of decadence Morelli reattributed to Titian based on
and beauty. The inspiration was one of details like earlobes and fingernails. His
Moreau's favorite books, Gustave training as a physician contributed to
Flaubert's Salammbo, published in his awareness of such physical traits

1863. (Moreau also painted the Salome and fueled his detractors' criticism that

theme in oil.) Moreau's work was at- he was "a mere empiric," able, that is,

tacked when he sent it to the salon only to believe what his own observa-
in 1869, but by the 1890s it was well tions and experience dictated. Morelli's
recognized, and he was an important ideas on connoisseurship were pub-
teacher at the ecole des beaux-arts. lished late in his professional life; hav-
Moreau lived and worked in seclusion, ing studied medicine in Switzerland and
but devoted himself to helping students Germany, he served in the army during
develop their own styles and influence, the Risorgimento, the Italian unifica-
ROUAULT and matisse among them. tion movement, of the 1860s. Once
When a colleague commented "Isn't Italy became an independent nation,

that the end?" about a salon des in- Morelli was a member of the senate, es-
DEPENDANTS that included the avant- pecially active on arts commissions.
garde work of TOULOUSE-LAUTREC and The comment quoted above is from the
Henri rousseau, Moreau replied, "The introduction to Italian Painters (1890)
end? No, it is only a beginning." On his and was written in the first person. The
deathbed Moreau said to Rouault, "I book was published under the pseudo-
would leave my uniform of the Acad- nym Ivan Lermolieff, an anagram of
emy of Fine Arts to you, only you would Morelli's name with a Russian ending.
burst all its seams." It presents Morelli's opinions in dia-
logue form and is full of humor as well
as sharp critiques of contemporary
Morelli, Giovanni art history practices. In his essay on
18 16-189 1 • Italian • Michelangelo's Moses, Sigmund
critic/connoisseur Freud cited Morelli in support of his ap-
proach. BERENSON was foremost
. . . the history of art can only be
among the followers of "Morellian crit-
studied properly before the works of
icism."
art themselves. Books are apt to warp
a man's judgment.
Morgan, Julia
Morelli endeavored to make a science
187Z-1957 • American • architect •
out of connoisseurship, devising ways
Eclectic
to test the attribution of a painting by
studying incidental details such as the That [tree] is three inches out of line.
 MORISOT, BERTHE 457

In the summer of 19 17, on a mountain TRIES, COLUMNS . . . whatever struck

rising 2,000 feet above the Pacific his fancy — and designed architectural
Ocean about zoo miles south of San environments and details to incorporate
Francisco, the newspaper tycoon Wil- them. From the turn of the century until
liam Randolph Hearst announced to a her retirement in 195 1, Morgan de-
gathering of his friends that they were signed 700 buildings, both private and
on the very spot where he was going to public. One of her first commissions was
build his house. He showed them a the Bell Tower at Mills College, in Cali-

model prepared by the architect, Julia fornia, and she built several YWCAs.
Morgan. She was a graduate in engi-
neering at the University of California Morisot, Berthe
at Berkeley, where she was the only fe- 1 841-189 5 • French • painter •
male student, and of the French ecole Impressionist
DBS BEAUX-ARTS, where she was the
My ambition is limited to the desire to
first woman admitted to study architec-
capture something transient, and yet,
ture. For Hearst's compound, known as
this ambition is excessive.
San Simeon, Morgan designed three
palatial guesthouses and the main In 1896, on the first anniversary
house itself, Casa Grande (1922-26), of Morisot's death, monet, renoir,
which resembles a castle more than it DEGAS, and the poet Stephane Mal-
does any "house." The style is derived larme opened a memorial retrospective
from that of the Spanish missionary in her honor. With those artists, along
churches of the Franciscan order in with her brother-in-law, manet, who
Mexico and southern California, the was a founder of im-
died in 1883, she
Mission Style. Elaborate twin towers pressionism. Almost a century later, in
with fretwork ornamentation surmount 1987, another Morisot exhibition was
the building; they replaced the original held. "There are many reasons for the
towers that Hearst had torn down soon relative neglect of Morisot by collectors
after they were finished because he con- and historians since 1 we now
896, what
sidered them too severe. Morgan's in- call sexist attitudes chief among them,"

sistence on perfection matched his, as the introduction to the exhibition cat-

illustrated by her comment quoted alogue explained. Morisot's art had
above, made when she was sighting progressed within the Impressionist vo-
along a line of plum trees. (The cabulary. She applied paint with almost
groundsmen moved the offending tree manic vigor, her brushstrokes criss-
back three inches.) Morgan worked crossing each other. At close range the
for a willful client who kept her on subject of a picture is virtually indistin-

an annual retainer and budget for most guishable, and it looks like the work of

of her career. She masterfully accom- an abstract expressionist concen-

modated the unprecedented collection trating on the evocative texture

Hearst had assembled from European and color of paint, not on recognizable
castles and cathedrals —
entire rooms, forms. But at a certain distance

carved ceilings, mosaics, staircases, Morisot's subjects coalesce a bird- —

STAINED GLASS, sarcophagi, TAPES- cage, a woman seated in a garden and —
458 MORRIS, ROBERT

open to allusions of time, place, and determines the size and shape of the fin-

perhaps story. She painted landscapes ished work. The pull of gravity is exem-
and domestic scenes that are filled with plified here in three ways: the
theglow of light. That is true even in downward drape of the strips of felt on
Mother and Sister of the Artist (1870) the wall; the position of the larger,
despite the black dress the mother heavier pieces of felt closest to the
wears. As remarkable as her accom- ground; and the down curves of the
plishments are, she still is studied rela- smaller strips of felt on the top of the
tively infrequently. pile. One could also say that as gravity
insists on pulling objects toward the
Morris, Robert center of the earth, all these pieces seem
born 193 1 • American • sculptor • to be seeking that core. "In these cases
Minimalist/Process art considerations of gravity become as im-
portant as those of space. The focus on
The process of "making itself" has
matter and gravity as means results in
hardly been examined. It has only
forms which were not projected in ad-
received attention in terms of some
vance," Morris writes. In one sense this
kind of mythical, romanticized
example might be thought of as a com-
polarity: the so-called action of the
pact, three-dimensional realization of
Abstract Expressionists and the so-
the piled-up skeins of paint that poured
called conceptualizations of the
from Jackson pollock's paint cans, as
Minimalists. . . . American art has
strongly controlled by gravity as they
developed by uncovering successive
were by Pollock. Morris speaks of both
alternative premises for making itself.
Pollock and louis in terms of Process
One of the founders of minimalism, art, alluding to the way in which Louis
Morris also explored several other moved his paint on the surface by tilting

ideas, but he is especially well known the canvas. Process art plays with philo-
for what is called Process art, which he sophical ideas regarding indeterminacy,
describes in the quotation above. Edu- while from a purely visual point of
cated in the liberal arts rather than a view, Morris's Untitled is an intriguing
professional art school, conversant with tumble of gently curving and undulat-
philosophy and literature in addition to ing forms. HESSE is the foremost exam-
ART HISTORY, Morris was an important ple among those artists who were
spokesman for new art endeavors dur- directly influenced by Morris.
ing the 1960s and 1970s. One Untitled
composition of 1967-68 (there are oth-
Morris, William
ers) is among his best known and also
1834-1896 • English •
serves to illustrate his definition of
designer/craftsman • Pre-Raphaelite
Process art. It is made up of Z54 pieces
of heavy, charcoal gray felt in strips of All the minor arts were in a state of
various widths and lengths. Piled in a complete degradation, and accordingly
mound on the floor, the random, casual in 1 86 1 with the conceited courage of
assembly of the felt, acted on by gravity, a young man I set myself to reforming
 MORSE, SAMUEL F. B. 459

all that and started a sort of firm for 1884 and played a leading part in the
producing decorative articles. arts and crafts movement. That
workers who so carefully handcrafted
The firm Morris alludes to above was beautiful objects could not, in fact, af-
the successful Morris, Marshall, ford to own them troubled him.He was
Faulkner & Co., formed in 1861 and also disturbed by feuding among Social-
reorganized in 1875 as Morris & Co. In ist leaders in the late 1880s. Morris vis-

1890 he founded the Kelmscott Press, ited Iceland twice in the 1870s and
Many of the leading pre-raphaelite described the experience in his epic
painters made designs for Morris's poem Sigurd the Yolsung{i%-j 6). ^t%\n-
products, which ranged from stained ning in the mid- 18 60s, Morris's wife,
GLASS and textiles to wallpaper, furni- Jane Burden, posed for Rossetti, ap-
ture, and exquisite books. His own pearing in many of his paintings (e.g.,

reputation as a designer is largely asso- Astarte Syriaca, 1875). ^^e left Morris
ciated with his printed textiles. For to become Rossetti's mistress. Burden,

these he introduced a new range of veg- like Rossetti's first wife, Elizabeth Sid-

etable dyes in order to revitalize a tech- dall, was one of several working-class

nique that had been discontinued, women who had been drawn into the
replaced by mineral colors of the later circle of Pre-Raphaelite artists, first as

1 8th century, and by aniline dyes de- models, then as lovers, then as wives,
rived from coal tar after the 1850s.
Morris's all-over patterns of entwined Morse, Samuel F. B.
flowers, leaves, and birds in rich blues 1791-1872 • American • painter •

and reds, often inspired by islamic art, Federal

remain popular. The crowning achieve-
an unrivaledj
•
;

^ f ... a masterpiece,
ment of the Kelmscott Press was the
masterpiece. {American Monthly
folioChaucer (1896), illustrated by
Magazine, 1834)
burne-jones, Morris's closest associ-
ate, (rossetti and brown, as well as Under allston's influence, Morse
Burne-Jones, were partners in his origi- went to London to study. He returned

nal firm.) A leading figure in late Victo- home full of hopes for painting in the
rian decorative arts, Morris was also grand manner, but as were trum-
important as a political-social theorist, bull, vanderlyn, and Allston himself.
Rejecting the Industrial Revolution and Morse was unsuccessful in imposing
things produced by machine, he looked the high-blown European style on the
back longingly to medieval life, leg- American public. The Old House of
end, and handcrafted objects. Morris Representatives (1822), a paintmg
wished to restore the guild workshop more than 7 feet high and almost 11
system, and wanted all classes of people wide, was a spectacular documentation
to enjoy beautifully made things: of the building's interior (just recently
"What business have we with art at all completed by latrobe), with its marble
unless all can share it?" he asked. He columns, its red drapes, and its great

helped found the Socialist League in chandelier being lighted. When Morse
460 MOSAIC

took the painting on tour to several heroic moment in Alexander's life)

cities, charging admission, he had less from POMPEII, 50 separate tesserae

success than he had counted on. Despite were used to form an eye about 1V2
effusive receptions such as that in the inches wide. Roman mosaicists even
magazine quoted from above, the same created an amusing trompe l'oeil of
fateawaited his great Gallery of the shells, bones, and a tiny mouse, no less,

Louvre (1831-33), almost as large, a scattered underfoot on The Unswept

tour de force show^ing the greatest Floor (c. 120 ce). At first, pictures in
works of the Louvre, painted with care- Christian churches resembled Roman
ful detail. In 1826 Morse became the prototypes, but soon, to gain impact
first president of the National Academy from a distance rather than close-up el-

of Design in New York City. Also to his egance, great sparkling mosaics were
credit is the introduction of the da- created for churches by using larger,
guerreotype to America (see da- rough-edged pieces of glass, sometimes
guerre), and the invention with which backed with gold leaf, in bolder, simpli-
his name is most famously linked, the fied designs. Adorning the apse of a
telegraph, in the pursuit of which he church, these images would be seen first
gave up painting. on entering the building, and would re-
main in sight for the length of the nave
mosaic as one approached the altar, byzantine
Designs or pictures composed by fixing mosaics were highly admired, and influ-

small fragments of colored materials, enced early Islamic artisans — there is

like pebbles, glass, and pottery, on a speculation that Byzantine mosaicists

flat surface. The practice predates 4th- were imported to work on the Dome of
century bce Greece; however, that is the Rock in Jerusalem (late 7th cen-
when we begin to note the impressive tury), and perhaps the Great Mosque of
decoration of floors with heroic and Damascus (c. 705-15) (see islamic
mythological pictures made from peb- art). By the early Italian renais-
bles of many colors. The Stag Hunt sance, mosaic decoration in the West-
(signed by Gnosis, 300 bce), from
c. ern world still flourished only in VENICE
Pella, birthplace of Alexander the (where Byzantine influence had re-

Great, is an early masterpiece. Later, mained strong). The craft fell into dis-
fragments of marble, glass, and other use during the 14th and 15th centuries,
substances — called tesserae (tessera, and has never been revived with the
singular) — were shaped and fixed in same enthusiasm as was, for example,
place to create ever-more-elaborate de- STAINED glass.
signs on walls and ceilings as well as
floors, a practice pliny the Elder de- Mosan
scribed as "after the fashion of paint- Artists working in the Meuse (Moselle)
ing." Mosaic work became increasingly River Valley, which runs from north-
sophisticated and refined: In the action- eastern France into Belgium and Hol-
packed late-znd- or early-ist-century land, and in its cities such as Aachen,
BCE Battle of Issus mosaic (another Trier, Metz, Verdun, and Liege, devel-
 1

MOTHERWELL, ROBERT 46

oped a style known as Mosan, which along with her canned preserves. Her
flourished from the late nth to the scenes of rural life — little cube houses,
early 13 th century. In the i2.th century little figures, small-town activities in

Liege, a center of classical learning, winter (e.g., Hoosick Falls in Winter,

called itself the Athens of the North. 1944) and in summer, all imbued with a
The intellectual interest in Classicism is sense of joy —were soon discovered by
reflected in a persistent thread of hu- collectors in the late 1930s. Her expres-
manism, regard for human nature and sion of life's simple pleasures has made
the human form; the art expresses har- her one of America's best-known and
mony, simplicity, and restraint, espe- best-loved artists.
cially relative to the intensity of some
ROMANESQUE (iith-izth century) fig- Motherwell, Robert
ures. A baptismal font executed in the 19 1 5-199 1 • American • painter •

early 12th century by Ranier de Huy is Abstract Expressionist

a foremost example of Mosan artistry:
/ never think of my pictures as
Resting on iz bronze oxen (which
"abstract," nor do those who live with
stand for the 12 apostles), the bronze
them day by day— my wife and
basin has Saint John baptizing Christ
children, for example. I happen to . . .

and Saint John preaching, in relief.

think primarily in paint— this is the
Each figure is individualized, yet they
nature of the painter— just as
form dynamic, interrelated groups.
musicians think And nothing
in music.
Nicholas of Verdun's enamel and gold
can be more concrete to a man than
Klosterneuburg Altarpiece (1181) uses
his own felt thought, his own thought
an elaborate allegorical technique, ty-
feeling.
pology, in foretelling the New Testa-
ment with Hebrew Bible scenes. When Despite his preference for the term
Abbot suGER (1081-1151) commis- "New York School," which he coined,
sioned work in enamel and gold, their art historians call Motherwell an ab-
specialty, he employed Mosan artists. stract EXPRESSIONIST because his

paintings are not representational in

Moses, Anna Mary Robertson any discernible way. They are "expres-
(Grandma Moses) sionist" to the extent that they make
1860-1961 • American • painter • human contact and touch human feel-
Folk Art ings, as he wished to do. Motherwell
also said, in the1955 statement from
/ look back on my life like a good
which the quotation above is excerpted,
day's work. . . . I knew nothing better
"... I love painting in that it can be a
and made the best of what life offered.
vehicle for human intercourse." Like
And life is what we make of it. Always
KLINE, Motherwell painted mainly with
has been, always will be.
black on white, but the shapes he
Grandma Moses did not begin painting painted are discrete forms rather than
pictures until shewas in her early 70s. AE gestures. Motherwell avidly studied
She exhibited her work at country fairs philosophy and art history with
462 MOTLEY, ARCHIBALD, JR.

Meyer schapiro, and his engagement He never considered the painting to be

in the poHtics of his era is expressed by finished.

a lengthy series entitled Elegies to the

Spanish Republic, composed of massive Mount, William Sidney
vertical pillars of paint connected by 1 807-1 868 • American • painter •
black ovals. He worked on this over a Romantic/Genre
period of 30 years, ending the series at
Paint scenes that come home to
the death of Franco (1892-1975) and
everybody. That everyone can
restoration of parliamentary democ-
understand.
racy in Spain.
When he attended classes at the Na-
tional Academy of Design, Mount
Motley, Archibald, Jr. hoped to make his name with history
1891-1981 • American • painter • painting, but he found success after he
American Scene returned home to rural Long Island,
and devoted himself to painting every-
It is my and ambition to
earnest desire
day scenes with their pleasant inter-
express the American Negro honestly
ludes, such as Dancing on the Barn
and sincerely, neither to add nor
Floor ( 1 83 1 ). Many of his pictures pose
detract. .../// believe Negro art is
problems of interpretation for art histo-
someday going to contribute to our
rians. This is true of The Power of
culture, our civilization.
Music (1847): A black man stands out-
Motley studied at the Art Institute of side the barn door, listening to the
Chicago and was awarded a fellowship music, clearly isolated from the music-
that provided a year of study in Paris. making white trio inside. Clues to the
His early work was a joyous celebration painting's possible hidden meaning, or
of the vitality of life in the cities. In the moral, are a jug, perhaps of spirits, and
vein of bellows, luks, and sloan but an ax by the outsider's feet, while a
with a focus on black culture, Motley pitchfork stands just inside the barn
differed substantially from his fellow door. Exactly what these details signify
African-American tanner, in both in- is ambiguous, and the extent to which
tention and style. Where Tanner ex- Mount's apparently sympathetic por-
pressed simple piety. Motley painted trayal of African-Americans is more
street life and barrooms infused with truly demeaning and stereotypical is
boisterous, sensual energy. In 1963 he also a matter of discussion. Where one
began a large painting to celebrate the interpreter may see "a wholesome sim-
looth anniversary of the Emancipation plicity, even virtue . . . truly American,"
Proclamation, but with the struggle for another will note the picture's racism.
civil murders of John F.
rights, the In all cases, as was true of Northern Eu-
Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr., ropean genre paintings of the i6th cen-
and the bombing of an Alabama black tury. Mount's vignettes have underlying
church, his optimistic mood changed. messages that were more quickly appar-
 MUNCH, EDVARD 463

ent to his contemporaries than they are and very elaborate jewelry. He became
to us today. Mount pioneered in Amer- renowned for his advertising posters,

ican GENRE painting, but was soon fol- especially those produced in Paris for

lowed by others, foremost among them "the divine" Sarah Bernhardt, whom he
Francis William Edmonds (i 806-1 863) also advised on theatrical productions,

and Richard Caton Woodville (1825- In the glitter of la Belle Epoque, Mucha
1855). was the preeminent art nouveau illus-

trator, despite his rejection of the

Mozarabic term — as in the quotation above. Nev-
After the Islamic conquest of Spain in ertheless, the distinctive look of his

711, Christians in the Arab territories major published works from 1895 to
were called Mozarabs, from the Arabic 1905 was in a mode that led, in France,
mustarib, meaning "would-be Arab." to the phrase "le style Mucha" being
They adapted features of islamic art used as a synonym for all work that was
to their traditional themes, evolving a labeled Art Nouveau.
colorful style known as Mozarabic. An
example is a full-page painting in an il- Munch, Edvard
LUMINATED MANUSCRIPT that shows a 1863-1944 • Norwegian • painter •

large bird with sharp talons and a bril- Symbolist

liant, crescent-shaped, starry halo (or
, .
r 1
^
I do not think that my art IS sick —
. , , 1 ^ . • 7

perhaps a comb) reachmg from its tail .

c rr
.
j
^ despite what Scharffenberg and many
1 1 t
,
11 J r
;j/-^^;j
•
I I 1 I I

to its beak, in which It holds the head of ...

, „,
others believe. 1 hose kind of people do
a long
° snake. The image represents the r ^- r

victory of Christ,
1111
symbolized by the
,
not understand the true junction oj
j ,

titknow anything about

^

^1 1 ^
,
art, nor do they
bird, over Satan, the snake. It was part . , .

. '
I ^ 7 1
'^5 history.
of Commentary on the Apocalypse, by
Beatus, an 8th-century abbot, compiled The Scharffenberg mentioned in the
and illustrated for Abbot Dominicus, quotation above was a 26-year-old
probably at the Monastery of San Sal- medical student who connected
vador and completed on July
in Spain, Munch's radical images with the inci-

6, 975. The colophon (page on which dence of mental illness in his family.

the manuscript's artists are credited) Munch's considered reply is quoted

lists Senior as scribe, and two painters, above, though he also wrote, at one
Emeterius and a woman named Ende. time, "Illness, madness and death were
the black angels that kept watch over
Mucha, Alfonse my The 1895 exhibition that
cradle."
1860-1939 • Czechoslovakian • drew attention to both his art and his
illustrator/designer • Art Nouveau sanity included Munch's best-known
work. The Scream (1893). Also in that
Art is eternal, it cannot be new.
exhibit was a self-portrait in which he is
Mucha studied in Munich, Viei
Vienna, and smoking a cigarette. Late- 19th-century

Paris, where he designed a jewelry shop moralists saw social decline in indul
 —

464 MUNICH SCHOOL

gences such as smoking: "A race which 1908. After that, he returned home to
is regularly addicted, even without ex- Norway, and to paint less wrenching,
cess, to narcotics and stimulants in any anguished pictures,
form . . . begets degenerate descendants
who, if they remain exposed to the same Munich School
influences, rapidly descend to the low- Dark coloration and vigorous brush-
est degrees of degeneracy, to idiocy, to work using broad, fluid strokes charac-
dwarfishness, etc.," as the physician terized training at the Royal Academy
Max Nordau wrote in his study of de- in Munich and became known as the

viancy. Degeneration (1894). Such was Munich Style during the later 19th cen-
the backlash to the literary likes of tury. It was a style based on the work of

Oscar Wilde whose The Picture of

(in hals and velazquez, influenced by the
Dorian Gray, smoking is synonymous realism^ of courbet, and promoted
with eroticism), baudelaire, and Mai- by leibl. Many American artists stud-

larme, and artistic themes explored by ied in Munich, including chase, duve-
SYMBOLiSTs like BEARDSLEY. Cigarette neck, and harnett.
smoking was still rare in Norway, and
Munch's self-portrait could only reflect Miinter, Gabriele
his belief that the creative artist found 1877-196Z • German • painter •
inspiration in living outside the bound- Expressionist
aries of ordinary, "healthy" bourgeois
[Kandinsky] explained things in depth
life. It also allied him with the Bohemi-
and looked at me as if I was a human
ans of Paris, where he went to work and
being, consciously striving, as being
where he was much influenced by
capable of setting tasks and goals.
TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, van GOGH, and
GAUGUIN. The Scream shows a figure Miinter was one of kandinsky's first

on a bridge whose open mouth lets out students, and he described her as a
some primal sound that seems to ex- "natural" artist, saying there was noth-
and pain. (In
press unbearable terror ing he could teach her. "What I can do
1994 The Scream was stolen from the for you is merely to guard your talent.

National Art Museum in Oslo. During to nurse it, and to make sure that noth-
negotiations the thieves, who attempted ing false touches it," he told her. Her
to ransom the painting for $400,000, work was included in the inaugural
left fragments of its frame at various blaue reiter exhibition in Munich
places around Oslo over a period of 10 she was one of the group's founders
days preceding the May 7 recovery.) and she and Kandinsky, who left his
Munch was also taken with the late- wife, lived and traveled together for
19th-century obsession with evil, espe- many years, until he left her, too, for an-
femme fatale,
cially the destructive other woman in 19 17. Miinter used in-

whom Munch portrayed in Madonna tense, bright colors and simplified

(1895). Munch sought the core of emo- shapes, typical of and perhaps inspired
tion and bore the brunt of that quest by the folk art in a Bavarian village
with a complete mental breakdown in where she and Kandinsky had settled.
 MURILLO, BARTOLOM^ ESTEBAN 465

Staffelsee in Autumn (1923) is a land- techniques. Because of their public na-

scape in brilliant reds, orange, green, ture, during the 20th century murals
and blue. While her shapes are simpli- have been and remain important as po-
fied, and she abandoned perspective for litical statements (e.g., rivera) and
flattened spaces, she did not abandon graffiti art (e.g., haring).
representational art, as Kandinsky did.
During the Nazi era, Mijnter worked Murillo, Bartolome Esteban
clandestinely, for her art was con- 1617-1682 • Spanish • painter •

demned as DEGENERATE ART. Baroque

Murillo was so modest that it might be

mural/wall painting
said he died from pure modesty.
From the Latin murus, for "wall," a
(Antonio Palomino, 1724)
mural is a painting made directly on the
surface of a wall or painted on another Murillo founded the Academy of Seville
surface that is then attached to the wall. in 1660 and was the leading painter in

From prehistoric caves to the present, that city as zurburan's popularity de-
walls have been used for pictures. An- clined. While his work was also pre-
cient Egyptians prepared their voyages dominantly religious, Murillo's style

to the other world by painting the walls and subjects were very different from
of their tombs with salubrious images. his forerunner's. Instead of painting as-

Little is know about Greek wall paint- cetics and martyrs, he painted gentler
ings, other than that they existed. scenes, favoring the Immaculate Con-
Roman wall paintings are divided into ception and rendering it as if following
groups that are dated from the late 2nd PACHEO's instructions to show the Vir-
century bce to 79 ce, not as chronolog- gin as the loveliest of all women
ical periods but as overlapping and (though certainly older than the pre-
often coexisting styles.The First (or In- scribed 12 or 13 years of age). For the
crustation) Style had no objects or fig- most part, as his art matured, Murillo's

ures; instead it had textured paintings colors were soft, his faces kind, and
of architectural veneers. The Second his touch eloquent. His biographer.
Style aimed to dissolve the walls with il- Palomino, a Spanish painter of modest
lusionistic scenes rather than to imitate skill and success, defended both
marble panels, as did the First Style. Murillo and national art in general. In-
(For examples of Second Style, see sisting that Madrid was the farthest

VILLA BOSCOREALE and VILLA OF THE from his home that Murillo ever went,

MYSTERIES.) The Third (or Ornate Palomino wrote, "The fact is that for-
Style) presented smaller, framed pic- eigners do not want to concede fame to
tures arranged as if in a picture gallery; any Spanish painter who has not passed
and the Fourth (Intricate) Style com- through an Italian customhouse."
bined features of the earlier three. While As modesty mentioned in the
for the

the terms "mural" and "wall painting" quotation above. Palomino goes on to
are interchangeable, they are distinct explain that, after falling off the scaf-
from FRESCO, which refers to specific folding while painting a large picture of
466 MURRAY, ELIZABETH

Saint Catherine, in order not to show things . . . yet it is layered with com-
weakness and because of his great mod- plexity in structure and allusion. It is a

esty, Murillo would not let himself be contemplative moment to do with read-
examined and died from the accident. ing, remembering, thinking about how
The "And he was such a
tale concludes, all the pieces fit together (both literally
generous man that when he died they and figuratively)."

found that in spite of all the many fa-

mous works he did, the only money he museum
had was 100 reales that he had received Latin museum (from the Greek mou-
the day before and sixty pesos in a seion) is the place of the Muses: the nine
drawer." daughters of Zeus/Jupiter and Mnemo-
syne (Memory). These goddesses, com-
Murray, Elizabeth panions of Apollo, are the creative
born 1940 • American • painter • inspiration of poetry, song, and other
New Abstraction arts.The most famous museum of the
ancient world was founded at Alexan-
All of my ideas about art came from
dria around the 3rd century bce. It was
looking at comic books. I remember
a collection of interesting artifacts,
writing to Walt Disney to ask if I
from astronomical and surgical instru-
could be his secretary. . . . I think
ments to elephant trunks and animal
cartoon drawing— the simplification,
hides, and it contained a botanical and
the universality, the diagrammatic
zoological park. There were some stat-
quality of the marks, the breakdown
ues of thinkers, but it was mainly an
of reality, its blatant, symbolic
academic institution rather than an art
quality— has been an enormous
museum. The Mouseion of Alexandria
influence on my work.
was destroyed during the 3rd century
Murray's interest is in paint and the CE. The idea of the modern museum as
structure of the surface to which she ap- a showplace evolved from the renais-
plies it. She works on shaped canvases sance interest in the classical world
(as did Frank stella), but they are odd, and its The public museum
treasures.
fragmentary shapes, sometimes super- was a 17th-century development: The
imposed on one another. Her images, in first university museum opened in Basel
bold color, are abstract but sugges- in 1 671, and the Ashmolean Museum at

tive, as are cartoons, as she describes the University of Oxford a dozen years
above. Her Story (1984), on a complex The first permanent museum in
later.

assembly of surfaces, is about her America was started in 1773 by the

mother,who died in 1983: "I associated Charleston (South Carolina) Library
books with my mother. Her Story is Society, intent on a well-documented
really a portrait of her sitting with a natural history collection, peale's
book, holding a cup," Murray said. It is eclecticcollection
— "a Repository of
a challenge to make out the details, they Natural Curiosities" — included some
have been so thoroughly abstracted. mastodon bones that he had excavated,
The historian Jonathan Fineberg writes, and also portraits of Revolutionary he-
"The painting portrays simple ordinary roes. Peale's museum was started in his
 MUYBRIDGE, EADWEARD (EDWARD MUGGERIDGE) 467

home, and the collection eventually Grandma, I'm going to make a name
moved into what is now Independence for myself. If I fail, you will never hear
Hall in Philadelphia. In iSzz, Peale o/" me ag^m. (Norma Self e, 1963)
painted The Artist in His Museum with
his self-portrait: He lifts a tasseled Muybridge's important invention for a
drape with one hand and gestures with series of stop-action photographs of
the other, ushering the visitor into the horses was undertaken at the stud farm
long gallery that contains his treasures, of American railroad baron and Cali-
Yale University, in New Haven, built a fornia governor Leland Stanford. It was
gallery in1832 to show the historical to settle a bet, the story goes, as to
paintings of trumbull. The Wads- whether a horse ever had all four
worth Atheneum in Hartford is usually hooves off the ground at the same mo-
designated the first true and continuing ment. Muybridge set up a series of cam-
art museum in the United States. It eras whose shutters were opened as the
opened 184Z and displayed about 80
in horse, galloping past, tripped strings at-
works by Trumbull, cole, and other tached to them. He not only proved that
American artists. The history of art mu- horses were momentarily airborne, but
seums is tied up with the history of COL- also provided invaluable documenta-
LECTING, both private and institutional, tion of sequential movement. Muy-
New York's Metropolitan Museum of bridge published The Horse in Motion
Art was established in 1870. Museums in 1878 and, from subsequent experi-

like this one, striving to assemble coUec- ments, Animal Locomotion in 1887.
tions that encompass the earliest to the degas was one of the first artists to use
latest works of art, are termed "ency- the new knowledge Muybridge pro-
clopedic." Their ambitious intentions vided in his images of racehorses (e.g.,

were not always smoothly executed: The Jockey, 1889). eakins was also in-
The opening of the Museum of Fine fluenced by Muybridge, and decided to
Arts in Boston (also in 1870) was com- photograph and study motion himself,
plicated when the arrival of 50 crates duchamp's Nude Descending a Stair-
of ANTIQUE casts Sparked debate about case (1912) and several futurists used
the placement of fig leaves on the nude Muybridge's information as well as that
statues. of the French biophysicist Etienne-Jules
Marey, who also used stop-action or
,, ,.j ^j
Muybridge, Eadweard Edward
i/T-j J what he
, _,
called a
.
"chronophotograph"
. , ,

,, .?
Muggeridee)
^°
1830-1904 •
,

'
,. ,

English/American
,»
•
to analyze force. This also
,.
dissension.
. „,
prompted
Photographer Antonio .a
r-- 00 ^ c /

, 7 f, ,
Giuho r.
i-
Bragagha (1889-1963), for i- \
ex-
photographer
^ • Modern 1 11 lii- j 1
•

ample, believed that the blurred image

When he went to say farewell to his of action gained via a single open shut-
grandmother, she with her usual ter was a more truthful means of repre-

kindliness put a pile of sovereigns senting motion than the sequential one,
beside him and "You may be glad
said, Bragaglia's pictures were called photo-
to have them, Ted." He pushed them dynamic and he published them in Fo-
back to her, and said, "No, thank you, todinamismo futurista (19 13). The
468 MYCENAEAN ART

reminiscence above was provided by tified citadels. These were built of huge
Muybridge's second cousin to the pho- stones later called Cyclopean (after the
tographer's biographer, Robert Bartlett mythical race of giants). In the Lion
Hass. Just before leaving England, in Gate at Mycenae (c. 1300 bce), an en-
1852, Muybridge changed his name tryway to a fortified palace, we see the
from Edward Muggeridge to Eadweard use of Cyclopean stones in combination
Muybridge. He began his experiments with two stone guardian lions that flank
in recording motion through photogra- a tapered stone pillar, their forepaws on
phy in the 1870s, a decade during its base. This pillar resembles wooden
which he was also tried in Napa Valley, COLUMNS used on Crete that are be-
California, for murdering his wife's lieved by some scholars to have repre-
lover, an act that he admitted commit- sented sacred figures, especially because
ting and of which he was acquitted. liquid offerings were poured on them.

Mycenaean art Myron

C. 1500-1x00 BCE. mid-400S bce • Greek • sculptor •

In the Peloponnese, on mainland Early Classical/Severe style

Greece, was a warrior culture, the
He . . . cared only for the physical
source of Homer's Iliad, a narrative
form, and did not express the
fully formed only centuries later during
sensations of the mind. (Pliny the
theGEOMETRIC period. The origin of
Elder, ist century ce)
Mycenaean civilization is not known.
Some scholars believe it was a minoan We know Myron's Discobolos (Discus
colony, but it has strong connections Thrower; 460 bce) only from Roman
c.

with the Balkans and Asia Minor. marble copies (Myron's original was
Homer said that the Mycenaeans loved probably cast in bronze) a 5-foot- —
gold, which seems confirmed by trea- high sculpture of an athlete who is

sures like the gold Vaphio drinking cups poised at a peak of arrested energy, on
(with designs evocative of minoan bull the verge of launching the discus. This
leapers), and a golden death mask from kind of investigation of patterns in mo-
the royal tombs (both 1500 bce). If
c. tion, called rhythmos, considered ac-
Minoan influence is apparent in Myce- tion as built up of moments, such as
naean crafts, its effect on Mycenaean those captured in modern time-lapse
architecture is symbolic rather than photography. Like the Doryphoros of
structural, for in contrast to the natural polykleitos, Myron's sculpture is also
security provided by the Minoans' is- an essay in dynamic symmetry, main-
land location, Mycenaeans needed for- taining balance while expressing action.
 N

Nabis an expedition through Central Asia and

A secret society named from the He- painted haunting landscapes with sym-
brew word for prophet, the Nabis was bols representative of Tibetan and
formed by a group of young symbolist Western mysticism.
artists. Led by painter Paul Serusir
(1863-1927), who had been influenced Nadar (Gaspard-Felix
by GAUGUIN, the Nabis started meeting Tournachon)
every Saturday at Serusir's studio in 1 820-19 10 • French • photographer
Paris in 1888. Sometimes they explored • Realist
the supernatural aspects of Eastern
Photography is a marvelous discovery,
faiths, including a new cult of Theoso-
a science that has attracted the greatest
phy that had been founded, in New
intellects, an art that excited the most
York, by a Russian, Helena Blavatsky.
astute minds— and one that can be
Mystic symbols and cabalistic practices
practiced by any imbecile. . . .To
fueled the imagination and art of some
produce an intimate likeness rather
Nabis, but not all: It does not char-
than a banal portrait, the result of
works of painters denis,
acterize the
mere chance, you must put yourself at
vuiLLARD and bonnard, or sculptor
once in communion with the sitter, size
MAiLLOL, all of whom were connected
up his thoughts and his very character.
with the Nabis for a time. However
Christ and Buddha (c. 1890) by Paul Nadar was a novelist, journalist, carica-
Ranson (i 864-1 909), in which a cruci- turist, balloonist, and successful por-
fied Christ (who resembles the figure in trait photographer whose wide-ranging
Gauguin's Yellow Christ) is combined clientele included Sarah Bernhardt,
with both Buddhist and Hindu allu- DAUMIER, COURBET, and MANET. He
sions, shows the mystical cross currents was also a friend of the impression-
that did occur in Nabis art. Beyond the ists, who held their first exhibition in
Nabis, the influence of Theosophy per- his studio. INGRES sent some of his

sisted well into the zoth century and in- clients to Nadar for photographic stud-

fluenced the art of kandinsky and ies to be used in his painted portraits.
MONDRiAN as Well as the paintings of Nadar also took the first aerial pho-
less renowned artists like the Russian tographs from a balloon, and in the cat-

Nicholas Roerich 874-1947). Roer-

(i acombs of Paris he took some of the
ich, who had earlier designed sets and earliest photographs illuminated by
costumes for the Ballets Russes, made flash powder.
470 NADELMAN, ELIE

Nadelman, Elie term, like primitive and Folk, suggests

1 882-1946 • Polish/ American • that the artist is unsophisticated and un-
sculptor • Modern schooled, many highly trained artists
affect a "naive" style.
. . . each expression of sentiment is

made by a movement which geometry

governs. . . . I have adopted this
Nanni di Banco
principle in building up my statuary,
c. 1 3 80-1421 • Italian • sculptor •
simplifying and restraining always in
Early Renaissance
organizing the parts so as to give the
whole a greater unity. Nanni di Banco can be looked
. . .

upon at will as a Gothic artist in

Nadelman was born and studied in
contact with Renaissance style, or as a
Warsaw, then went to Paris. At the out-
Renaissance sculptor who retains some
break of World War I, he moved to the
features of Gothic art. (John Pope-
United States and became a member
Hennessey, 1955)
of the STiEGLiTZ Circle, exhibiting his
sculpture at the 291 Gallery. He was Nanni was one of the four sculptors
among the first American modernists, whose genius marked the early Italian
noted for life-size and larger bronze fig- RENAISSANCE. (GHIBERTI, DONATELLO,
ures such as Man in the Open Air (c. and JACOPO della Querela were the oth-
19 1 5), a pared-down form whose legs ers.) A Florentine, Nanni studied
and arms taper to incredibly tiny feet Roman antiquities. In his best-known
and hands. He strikes a jaunty pose and work, a group of life-size marble saints,

wears a stylized bow tie at his neck and Quattro Santi Coronati (c. 1408-14),
a bowler hat on his head. Perhaps the he captures the attitudes of four men in

bow tie and bowler suggest a man of conversation. Draped in Roman-style

the theater —performers were a subject robes, this group is set into a deep niche
Nadelman enjoyed portraying. As in Orsanmichele, a combined shrine for
unique and eccentric as his interpreta- the local guilds and the municipal gra-

tions may be, his grounding in "geome- nary in Florence. The spatial setting en-

try," expressed above, depends on abled the sculptor to make his figures
universal principles. virtually independent of the architec-
ture. Yet they relate to the building,
naive art which provides a kind of stage set, and
Because of its judgmental connotations they relate psychologically to one an-
(synonyms include simple, guileless, other. The figures represent four leg-
artless) the term "naive" is infrequently endary Christian sculptors who refused
used in the United States, though it is to carry out an order from the emperor
still current in Europe. Europeans call Diocletian for a statue of a pagan god.
Grandma moses a naive artist, but They were put to death around the year
Americans call her work folk art. 300. Beneath the niche in which these
Henri rousseau is best known among figures stand is a relief of the four
artists labeled "naive." Although this sculptors at work. Nanni's early death
 5

NASH, JOHN 471

cut short a career that many believe Wellington] refusing to make Mr. Nash
could have rivaled that of Donatello. a Baronet. The King says he is the only
sovereign in Europe without power to
confer an honor of this kind. The
narrative/narratology Duke says Mr. Nash is in the public

As an account of either actual or fic- service, that his conduct is under a

tional events, narrative has always been course of inquiry before the house of
recognized as playing an important role Commons and that now was not
. . .

in art, especially in illustration of the moment to grant him a favor from

mythological and biblical texts. Con- the Crown. (Mrs. Arbuthnot, 18Z9)
temporary approaches to visual narra-
tive are less concerned with the search It is Nash
thought, but not certain, that
for written sources, prefixed symbolic was born in Wales his mother was —
meaning, or historic reportage, and Welsh. It is known that he worked for
more inclined to regard the work of an architect in London from about
art —painting, sculpture, tapestry, 1767 to 1778. He inherited some
comic strip, and so on — as a visual money, married, speculated in real es-
"text" in and of itself. One route is to tate, lost both his fortune and his wife,

study the artist's particular techniques and returned to Wales in 1783. He built

for presenting the visual narration (see up his practice with commissions
COLUMN OF TRAJAN). Another involves for villas and country houses and be-
consideration of audience, how the came a foremost proponent of the pic-
work was pitched to a particular group, turesque theory, with its embrace
their "reading" of it, and ways in which of irregularity and variety. Nash was
their interpretation(s) may in turn have especially influential on landscape de-
impact on the work's "meaning." These sign. He worked in every imaginable

studies involve the understanding of, as style, including classical, "Cottage,"

Richard Brilliant writes, "interdepen- GOTHIC, and even Indian and chinois-
dent languages of narrative representa- erie. Back in London by 1795, in 181

tion, the visual and the verbal." In he was officially attached to the royal
effect, narratology is the study of a court, afterwhich he stopped taking
work's narrative methodology — how private commissions. His best-known
things are "said" more than what they work is The Royal Pavilion, Brighton
"say." (1815-2Z). This "stately pleasure
dome" has uco-palladian front
a
topped with onion-shaped domes and
slender minarets. The style was called
Nash, John
Indian Gothic, and sometimes Hindoo.
1752-1835 • British •
A frequently reproduced view of its
architect/town planner •
kitchen shows a vast space with col-
Romantic/Picturesque Nash
umns shaped like palm trees. de-

H. M.'s [His Majesty's] present ill signed Buckingham Palace (1825-30)

humor is caused by the Duke [of for George IV and the Haymarket The-
472. NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE ARTS (nEA)

ater (1820), the brilliantly imaginative National Museum of Women in

Regent's Park (from 1812), and Re- the Arts (NMWA)
gent's Street (from 18 14), all in Lon- During a trip to Europe in the 1960s,
don. The park contains villas and Wilhelmina and Wallace Holladay
make-believe villages and is surrounded bought a painting by Clara peeters.
by terraces and palatial private houses. They could not find her listed in any
The extravagance of Nash's designs de- ART HISTORY textbook, but they were
pended on the prodigality of the king, prompted by that work to seek out
and when Parliament became exasper- other art by women. Because there was
ated and the king lost favor, so did no museum and no library on women in
Nash, who was taken to task. The king art, they founded the National Museum
tried to help him save face, at the least, of Women in the Arts, in Washington,
by recommending that he be made a D.C., which opened to the public in
baronet. Both the king and Nash were 1987. The collection grows continually
rebuffed, as the commentary quoted and the museum sponsors important
above (from the journal of an informed exhibitions of art by women on a regu-
contemporary) reveals. lar basis.

National Endowment for the Arts native art/arts

(NEA) Generally refers to the art of the indige-
Formed in 1965, the NEA is an agency nous peoples of a land, but with unclear
of the U.S. government charged with connotations: European art is excluded,
funding artists and projects in Ameri- as is art influenced by European artists.

can arts. The policies of the NEA came Yet the masks from Africa that influ-

under fire at the end of the 1980s be- enced PICASSO, the Pueblo architecture
cause of it its contributions to contro- painted by o'keeffe, and the American
versial art: Two of the more famous Indian sand paintings and blankets that
examples are Piss Christ (1987; a pho- inspired abstract expressionists are
tograph of a cheap plastic crucifix in a described as native art. The work of in-
jar of urine), by Andres Serrano (born digenous artists who adopt European
1950); and mapplethorpe's photo- style is not called native art.

graphs. In Congress, Sen. Jesse Helms

led an effort to effectively censor the naturalism/naturalistic
activities of the NEA, but the Helms This term is often used to describe the
amendment was voted down. Neverthe- effort of artists to represent the world as
less, the conflict over moral and ethical the eye sees it, as accurately as possible.
values has taken a heavy toll on support Often used interchangeably with real-
for and the effectiveness of the NEA. In ism', naturalism includes techniques
October 1997, Jane Alexander, the de- such as PERSPECTIVE, modeling, credi-
parting director, spoke of continu- ble folds for drapery, and intimations
ing congressional efforts to "drive a of movement such contrapposto.
as
stake in the heart of Federal funding for At the opposite pole from naturalism
the arts." are representations that are typically
 —

NAZARENES 473

ABSTRACT, FRONTAL, Static, often hier- spired by the musicians he mentions in

atic in scale (i.e., size dependent on im- the quotation above, he had others ex-
portance) and ideaUzed (see ideal). perience their bodies as he did his own:
He hid a microphone behind a wall to
Nauman, Bruce pick up the friction of a viewer touching
born 1 94 1 • American • the wall's surface. Hidden speakers
neon/video/installation • broadcast the sound so that the viewer
Conceptualist became unusually self-aware, rather
like hearing oneself breathe while snor-
/ wanted to get time and sound into
keling.
my work, and so Arnold Schonberg,
Philip Glass, Steve Reich, Lamont ^.j

Young, were important composers for . t •• t^ j r

.
^
„ J , J r A i i j
Lukasbruder, or Brotherhood of
i t

me, especially John Cage. In terms of

Saint Luke (see Saint luke) group
sound and time, other things interested
founded in Vienna in 1809 by Friedrich
me, too, of course, like Andy Warhol's
Overbeck (1789-1869) and Franz Pforr
films.
(1788-1812). Dissatisfied with its in-

Nauman has explored most of the ex- struction, they staged the first 19th-
perimental movements of the last third century artists' secession by quitting the

of the 20th century.
with language in neon, and as sound,
with computers, and constructions
often combining these
bellowing clowns) and perhaps other
mediums. His works are aggressive
they confront and challenge the ob-
server, provoking annoyance as well as
a sense of anxiety.
may be claustrophobic and disorient-
ing, and are usually deeply
He has worked Vienna Academy. They went to Rome
in 18 10, where they were joined by
Petervon Cornelius (1783-1867). De-
(e.g., his tapes of termined to renew the religious basis
of German art, members of this move-
ment became known as Nazarenes
because they adapted biblical dress
and hairstyles and used the abandoned
His installations Monastery of San Isidoro for their
brotherhood. Some members converted
unsettling, to Catholicism. They wished to revive

"Loud," "grating," "relentless," and religious fresco painting, and devel-

above all "pessimistic" are terms fre- oped a style dependent on precise con-
quently used to describe his work. Nau- tour lines and simple, flat colors but
man's endeavor often had to do with his with a romantic sensibility. They
own body, or presence, and his self- looked back to medieval practices of
consciousness. At one end of the spec- the guilds for their organizational
trum, he made a construction entitled practices. In honor of the Austrian em-
Neon Templates of the Left Half of peror and empress, who visited Rome
My Body, Taken at Ten Inch Intervals during Easter 1819, the city's German-
(1966), a 5-foot, 8-inch-high series of speaking residents held the first-ever
neon green loops and dark cords that "national" exhibition, with 65 pamters
make an attractive free-form shape from the northern lands, Switzerland to

against a wall. At the other end, in- Sweden. Among those on exhibit, the
474 NEAGLE, JOHN

Nazarenes' paintings were the most the story behind it. As a young man
controversial, in part because of their Lyon was imprisoned on false charges
German nationahsm and in part be- of bank robbery, and though he was
cause of their fervent mysticism. (Fred- able to become a successful and wealthy
erich von Schlegel, writing about the man, he always disdained members of
exhibition, came to their defense.) Their the city's social elite who were responsi-
style made their compositions ideal for ble for his misfortune. Thus, he chose to
reproduction so that their work, in be shown as a laborer at his forge;
PRINT form, became widely distributed through the open window behind him is

and known. Their elaborate allegories, the cupola of the Walnut Street Jail,
as well as their Medievalism, influenced where he had been detained. In the pas-
the PRE-RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD, sage quoted above from Neagle's jour-
which formed some 40 years after the nal, which he called the Blotter, he
Nazarenes first came together and some notes the beginning work for this por-
two decades after the exhibition in trait. Besides its personal history, the
Rome. painting is provocative stylistically in
that it is an example of the grand man-
Neagle, John ner, usually reserved for history
1796-1865 • American • painter • PAINTING, being redirected, if not sub-
Federal/Romantic verted, into a statement about Ameri-
can democracy: that even someone of
April 28, 1816. Measured Mr. Lyon
low social and economic rank might
five feet six inches and three-quarters
rise to financial well-being and preemi-
in his Boots. May 18, i8z6. Began a
nence in the community.
study of P. Lyon for full length in the
blacksmith's shop. May 19, 1826.
Rode with Mr. Lyon in his gig to the
Neel, Alice
blacksmith's shop again to study my
1900-1984 • American • painter •
composition for a picture of him.
Modern
Neagle spent almost his entire profes-
[l am] a collector of souls.
sional career in Philadelphia, where
he began as an apprentice with a car- Neel's early — showing distorted
work
riage painter. His talent brought him images of children — was haunted by the
to the attention of the city's preemi- death of one of her children and the ab-
nent painters, peale, sully, John duction of the other. After she moved
Lewis Krimmel (.''-iSzz) and Bass Otis from her home in Pennsylvania to New
(1784-1821), with whom he studied York City, she began to paint at a fran-

portraiture. Neagle also went to tic pace, taking her friends, family,
Boston, in 1825, to study stuart's neighbors, and the life of the city as sub-
work firsthand. He had a steady stream jects. She worked for the federal art
of clients; Pat Lyon at the Forge PROJECT during the Depression and
(1826-27) is now the most acclaimed moved to Spanish Harlem in 1938. Her
portrait and is especially interesting for painting titled T. B. Harlem (1940) is a
 —

neo-expressionism/new expressionism 475

striking portrait of one of her neigh- throughout her Hfe showed her as she
bors. The T.B. refers to tuberculosis, aged, accumulating wrinkles, sagging
and the suffering young Latino rests jaw, and flabby contours,
in bed after surgery that removed ii of
his ribs. There are allusions to tra- Neodassical/Neoclassicism
ditional paintings of Christ's suffering A reaction to rococo, Neoclassicism
in this powerful work. Neel detached was born of the enlightenment idea
herself from the changing styles that that human affairs should be ruled by
swept through the art world during her reason and the common good rather
productive career. Another of her por- than by tradition. From the mid- 1 8th
traits,Andy Warhol (1970), painted century, infatuation with the antique
after warhol had been injured in an at- encouraged the development of a Neo-
tack, shows the tracks of scars across classical movement in art throughout
his chest. His eyes are closed and this Europe. was fueled by discoveries at
It

unusual representation unveils a sad pompeii and herculaneum, the writ-

vulnerability, ings of winckelmann, and paintings
by mengs. The age of Neoclassicism
included romantic artists. Among
Nefertiti the great exponents of Neoclassicism
Name of an Egyptian queen, wife of in architecturewas adam; in sculp-
and possible co-ruler with Akhenaten. ture, canova and thorvaldsen; and
The translation of Nefertiti is "the Jaques-Louis david in painting. (See
Beautiful One Is Here." Akhenaten also classical and classicism)
(Amunhotep IV) ruled from c. 1356 to
1339 bce, during the i8th Dynasty, in Neo-Expressionism/New
the period known as the New Kingdom. Expressionism
Nefertiti's famous head — 19 inches A daring, aggressive mood of the 1980s
high, of limestone covered with plaster thatcame about in reaction to the cool
and painted —was found in a storeroom detachment and rationalism of mini-
of the sculptor Tuthmose. It may have malism and conceptualism. Neo-
been a model for studio artists, a por- Expressionist artists brought emotional
trait likeness to be copied. Her neck impact back into art, using a variety
is exceptionally long and elegantly of techniques assemblage, collage,
curved, her cheekbones are high, and sculpture, photography, painting,

her mouth is full and sensuous. When metaphor, allegory, narrative — to

found in 191Z by a German archaeolo- communicate the artist's state of mind,

gist, one of the rock crystal eyes was Neo-Expressionists include baselitz,
missing and could not be found despite Sigmar Polke (born 1941)1 kiefer,
careful sifting of the storeroom rubble, clemente, schnabel, salle, fischl.
Its absence partly explains the profile basquiat, and Robert Longo (born
view of the head usually shown. Virtu- 1953). Blatant sexuality and appropri-
ally unknown to the general public is ation often characterize their work,
that likenesses of Nefertiti sculpted but they have little else in common with
 —

476 NEO-GEO

one another in terms of style and theme. most disparaged rung of which was
(See also new image) matter. The goal of each person on
earth was to achieve mystical union
Neo-Geo with the One, accomplished through
A movement, rather than style, based contemplation and liberation from
on the writings of the French philoso- bondage to matter. The physical body
pher Jean Baudrillard on simulacra. should be denied, a goal made possible
Founded on the notion that what seems through asceticism. Plotinus's One
false in America is true America, the could later be considered analogous to
movement was epitomized in work of the Christian God. By the 6th century,
Jeff Koons (born 1955), whose ceramic Neoplatonic thought so infused Christ-
statue Michael Jackson and Bubbles ian ideology that it affected pictorial art

(1988) carries the burden of making that was used as a vehicle for contem-
kitsch represent itself as what really plation. This art was required to ex-
matters. press the essence of things, rather than
their superficial, physical, or material
Neo-Impressionism appearance. Thus, naturalism, with
See SEURAT, siGNAc, and pointillism its sense of real bodies that have sub-
stance and cast shadows, was sup-
Neo-Plasticism planted by symbolic idealism, while
mondrian's style and theory based on light and color, representing divine im-
the proposal that art should be utterly manence, gained importance. And be-
ABSTRACT and NONOBjECTiVE, and use cause the Neoplatonic goal was to reach
right angles with vertical and horizontal outside of time, narratives, which tend
forms and just primary colors supple- to progress chronologically, were in-

mented by white, black, and gray. (See creasingly abandoned. The brilliant
also De stijl) light and color reflected in mosaics in

churches like san vitale and hagia

Neoplatonism/Neoplatonic SOPHIA are examples of the transforma-
philosophy tion for which Neoplatonic theory may
In the 3rd century the pagan philos- be considered responsible. During the
opher Plotinus bridged the gulf be- ITALIAN renaissance, a school of Neo-
tween rationality and the mystery platonism led by ficino and Pico della
religions (among which pagans in- Mirandola (1469-1533) also empha-
cluded Christianity) that had such a sized the contemplation of beauty as a
strong foothold. His outlook, based on means of rising above and beyond the
Plato's doctrine of transcendent ideas, baseness of the material world. Botti-
came to be known as Neoplatonism. celli, in paintings like the Birth of
Plotinus named an incomprehensible, Venus (c. 1484), was the foremost artist
all-sufficient being, perfect in truth, of the Renaissance influenced by Neo-
beauty, and goodness, that radiated, or platonism.
emanated, throughout the universe
the One. The One was at the summit of Neo-Reaiism
a hierarchical ladder, on the lowest and see realism-
 NETHERLANDISH 477

Neo-Romanticism breuer's praise of Nervi, who was

and affected by the climate
Paralleling trained as a structural engineer and
of SURREALISM in the 1930s, Neo- with whom Breuer worked on the Paris
Romanticists overlaid a theatrical, ro- headquarters for UNESCO, is a tribute

mantic approach to their enigmatic to the ingenuity with which Nervi

scenes. Four artists are preeminently used prestressed concrete to cover vast
associated with Neo-Romanticism, the spaces. His Palazzetto dello Sport
Frenchman Christian Berard (1902- (Palace of Sports; 1957) in Rome is the

1949) and three Russian-born Ameri- most renowned example: A series of Y-

cans: brothers Eugene Herman (1899- shaped concrete buttresses around the
1972) and Leonid Berman (1896- circumference of the stadium support a
1976), who painted under the name shallow DOME with scalloped edges.
Leonid; and Pavel Tchelitchew (1898- The span covered is 330 feet in diame-
1957).They sought a return to human ter, and the effect inside is that the roof

emotion and were particularly attracted seems to float as if suspended in the air,

to seascapes, though there is sometimes like that of hagia sophia.

a Surreal sense of mystery and strange-
ness in their works. They were often Netherlandish
called on to design for the theater and "Nether" means "located beneath or
the ballet. below." "Netherlandish" is the term
used to describe the area between Ger-
many and France, territory also known
Nervi, Pier Luigi
as the Low Countries, during the 15 th
1 891-1979 • Italian • architect •
and 1 6th centuries. Though the borders
Modern
have changed, they contained what is

. . . [Nervi achieves] razor-sharp today Holland and part of Belgium

analysis of the stresses working upon (Flanders, a province), and Brabant,
the structure and {meets] these stresses which has vanished. In the study of the

face to face in a corresponding art of this region during the period of

system— an organic system.
structural the northern renaissance, the terms
Now, "organic " is not meant as a "Netherlandish" and "Flemish" are
catchword, nor in a metaphysical or sometimes incorrectly used inter-

nebulous sense, nor as an excuse. changeably. For example, van eyck,

"Organic" means a flow as real as the who worked in Bruges, is called both.
continuous strain starting at the While Netherlandish may subsume
shoulder, moving through the upper Flemish, the reverse is not true. Albert
and lower arm, into the grip of the Blankert explains: "When not blinded
hand, fingers, and thumb. This is the by the present borders, we see a Nether-
real world of Nervi, the continuous landish art with various centers in the
stresses, branching out from support to 15th and 1 6th centuries. The leading
girders, dividing into ribs and into the ones at that time were in Flanders and
very fibers of the structure, only to Brabant, with Holland in the i6th cen-
combine again into ribs and columns. tury becoming the most closely linked,
(Marcel Breuer) 'fastest developing' area on the periph-
478 NEUE KiJNSTLER VEREINIGUNG (nKV, NEW ARTISTS ASSOCIATION)

ery." War resulted in an arbitrary bor- coco style in religious architecture and
der: "The old principal province, the isNeumann's masterpiece. The facade,
Duchy of Brabant, was torn apart. Its with two extremely high towers, has
cities 's-Hertogenbosch and Breda be- undulating walls and a multitude of
came part of the North, Brussels and windows, and is adorned with gesturing
Louvain of the South." The present bor- sculptures. The interior, flooded with
ders were defined by the Peace of West- light, has gilded decorations on its

phalia in 1648. LANDSCAPES, GENRE white walls, which also curve in and
paintings, and still lifes developed in out with complex turns. Neumann's
the 1 6th century, in Flanders and Bra- Church of the Holy Cross, for the Ben-
bant (see, for example, patinir, Pieter edictine abbey of Neresheim, was
BRUEGEL the Elder, and aertsen) and begun in 1747. With four shallow
reached their peak in the 17th century domes and a high central dome, it too
both there (e.g., Jan bruegel the Elder, describes the delicate fantasy world of
jordaens, and snyders) and in Dutch —
Rococo in contrast to earlier, more
art (e.g., ruisdael, ruysch, de hooch, somber baroque and creates effects —
and steen), once Amsterdam had sur- of motion and variety as well as a sense
passed Antwerp in importance. of spiritual elevation. Neumann trav-
eled in Austria and northern Italy and
Neue Kiinstler Vereinigung studied in Paris before he returned
(NKV, New Artists Association) home to practice architecture. The com-
A revolt led by kandinsky against the plexity of his style has been compared
Munich secession. The NKV in turn to Bach's fugues. The quotation above
split, in 191 1, and Kandinsky spear- is from a letter Neumann wrote to
headed Der BLAUE REITER group. his patron, a bishop, and highlights
the importance of decoration in his
Neue Sachlichkeit architecture.
See NEW OBJECTIVITY

Neumann, Balthasar neutron autoradiography

1686/87-1753 • German • architect See autoradiography
• Rococo

I wish humbly to report to your Grace Nevelson, Louise

that atmidday on the 14th, I inspected 1900-1988 • American • sculptor •
the church and painting at Modern/Assemblage
Heusenstamm. The painting is
Different people have different
certainly good and rather beautiful,
memories . . . some have memories for
but the painter is not [suited] for your
words, some for action — mine happen
Grace's Residenz.
to be for form. Basically, my memory
Neumann's church of Vierzehnheiligen is for wood, which gives a certain kind
(Fourteen Saints; 1743-72), near Banz of form— it isn't too hard and it isn't

in Germany, is an example of the ro- too soft.

 NEW IMAGE 479

Early in her career Nevelson worked New Artists Association

with the MURAL painter rivera, which See neue kunstler vereinigung (nkv)
could explain her tendency to construct
large wooden walls. She outfitted them New Historicism
with multitudes of compartments in This critical approach was named and
which were objects, often bits and described by Stephen Greenblatt, a re-
pieces of wood, all painted a uniform naissance scholar, in 198Z. In reading
color, usually black, white, or gold a painting as if it were a literary text, he
(e.g.,Sky Cathedral, 1958). Later she situates a work in its contemporary his-
used other materials such as aluminum, torical period, taking account of every-
epoxy, and clear Lucite. The play of thing from religious and political
light and shadow, and the interest of controversies to fashion and sanitary
different shapes, preoccupies a viewer, practices. As an interdisciplinary en-
"The effect is . . . rather like viewing the deavor, New Historicism dissolves
side wall of an apartment building from boundaries "between artistic produc-
a moving elevated train or looking tion and other kinds of social produc-
down on a city from the air," one art tion," as Greenblatt writes, thus
historian has written. eliminating the traditional hierarchies
of the ACADEMY and canon, and
the
also of MODERNISM, with its FORMAL-
New Art History ist critiques. Greenblatt demonstrated
Since the 1980s, an effort to update an- the use of New Historicism as an
alytical, theoretical, and critical ap- art historical method himself when
proaches to studying art has come he wrote about durer's Design for a
under the heading "New Art History." Monument to Commemorate a Victory
It has been strongly influenced by the over the Rebellious Peasants from the
theoretical writings of Walter ben- Painter's Manual (1525). He main-
jamin, Jacques Derrida, and foucault, tained that Diirer's Design does not re-
and by concepts of semiotics, the fleet sympathy for the peasants in the

GAZE, and the simulacrum. Beneath Peasants' War of 1524-26 but, rather,
the New Art History heading are supports and illustrates Martin Luther's
several frameworks or
theoretical remarks to the effect that the rebels

METHODOLOGIES including FEMINISM, should be stabbed without compunc-

PSYCHOANALYSis, STRUCTURALISM, and tion. In this essay Greenblatt draws gen-
MARXISM, plus combinations of two or eral conclusions about the coincidence
more. In other words, the New Art His- of Diirer's intention and the historical
tory open to a multiplicity of ap-
is situation. New Historicism, consistent
proaches. There is, as bryson, a with new art history, challenges tra-

foremost spokesman, wrote, "the ab- ditional approaches,

sence of the sense of threshold, of bor-
der police ready to pounce." He also New Image
stresses the Semiotic foundation of the A term coined at the Whitney Museum
new approach. of American Art in December 1978,
480 NEW OBJECTIVITY (NEUE SACHLICHKEIT)

with the exhibition New

Image Paint- New Realism
ing. The prime mover was guston, See realism^
and those in the group include roth-
enberg, borofsky, and bartlett. New York School
While their subjects, styles, and tech- An alternative term, coined by Moth-
niques are very different from one erwell, for abstract expressionist
another, each works with the figure painters.
or landscape, rather than pure ab-
straction, though their figuration is usu- Newman, Barnett
ally not representational, and their 1905-1970 • American •

painting is and fast, in the

often loose painter/sculptor • Abstract
manner of abstract expressionism. Expressionist
The works allude to narrative and
Esthetics is for artists like ornithology
partake of a postmodern ambiguity.
is for the birds.
Unlike artists whose style might be seen
as an expression of —or at least inter- Newman discovered a painting process
dependent with — their subject. New that achieved, with a painting called
Image artists distinguish and separ- Onement I (1948), the artistic expres-
ate style and image, giving precedence sion he was striving for: not the "esthet-

to neither. New Image and neo- ics" in his comment quoted above,
expressionism are often interchange- which he saw as "a meaningless materi-
able. alism of design," but rather as a "liv-
ing" thing. To create Onement he
applied a strip of tape to the vertical
New Objectivity (Neue center line of a small canvas that was
Sachlichkeit) painted a reddish color. Then he ap-
In Germany between the two World plied color to the entire canvas. When
Wars, as hopes for social reform grew he stripped the tape from the canvas,
dim, a new movement full of disillusion Newman revealed a line of the earlier
and cynicism was formed. It received color moderated at its edges by the
the name New Objectivity from a 192.5 later — and an idea that led to a long se-

exhibition (held at the Mannheim Mu- ries of so-called zip paintings. The title,

seum), though it was neither objective Onement, refers to a unity of the inner

nor entirely new. Like 19th-century re- and outer The "zip" is a kind of
self.

alism^ it had a social/political agenda. energy principle. The subject of this, as

While there was no stylistic uniformity of all Newman's paintings, is an image
among its practitioners, of whom of the self, "terrible and constant,"
grosz, dix, and beckmann are the best in his own words. Vir Heroicus Suh-
known, they shared a determination to limis(1950-51) is Newman's most
relentlessly show the face of evil, not renowned and, perhaps, as the title sug-
abstractly but with recognizable, if ex- gests, sublime painting. Almost 18 feet

aggerated, characteristics that would long, the rich red field, or background,
drive home their point. is divided by thin vertical stripes or zips
 NIMBUS 481

of color. It is an elegant and harmo- cal designer, and a founding member

nious image. In his sculptures, Newman of the National Portrait Society in
turned his zips into three-dimensional 191 1.

forms.
Nike of Samothrace (Winged
Nicholson, Ben Victory)
1894-1982 • English • Discovered by French excavators in

painter/sculptor • Abstraction 1863 and soon installed in the Louvre,

the 190 BCE, HELLENISTIC goddess of

c.
/ owe a lot to my father, especially to
1; I/- victory, with wings outspread, is seen as
his poetic idea and to his still life ...... ,
. . . ^.
ir alightmg on the prow or a ship. 1 he
theme. r j 1 •
r
,

sculpture was round in the ruins or a

Combining and juxtaposing flat, geo- fountain, overlooking the harbor on the
metric shapes, Nicholson invented a island of Samothrace. Her marble
kind of ABSTRACT construction, a re- robes, clinging and seemingly trans-
LiEF that has both depth and subtle parent around her torso, also sweep
color. His works are like paintings by about her thigh in deeply carved folds
MONDRiAN in their use and balance of that dramatize light and shadow. A
form and line, but Nicholson's materi- sense of movement is powerfully ex-
als and colors are quite different, and pressed; this Nike is especially interest-

his "lines" are material edges more ing in contrast with the relief Nike
often than painted lines. Dependence Tying (or Fastening) Her Sandal from
on overlapping forms gives his reliefs the parapet of the Temple of Athena
their depth. He made a series entitled Nike on the Athenian acropolis, made
White Reliefs by layering white shapes some 200 years earlier. The diaphanous
to achieve both surface flatness and per- gown of the temple Nike is an exquisite
ceptual depth. In Paris in 1933, Nichol- study of drapery falling and creasing
son was influenced by the group of according to its own texture and
painters and sculptors of the abstrac- weight; the winged Nike's drapery
TiON-CREATiON group. Nicholson and billows and swirls as a result of the
HEPWORTH were married and moved to complex forces of movement and at-
Cornwall, where they became the cen- mosphere combined with the properties
ter of a group of artists. With gabo they of its own fabric. The Acropolis Nike is
published Circle: International Survey a detailed but detached, almost scien-
of Constructive Art (1937), a program tific observation; the Samothrace figure
for abstract painting, constructivism, adds energy, engagement, and, it would
architecture, and design. Through Cir- seem, supernatural forces to those of
cle many bauhaus ideas arrived in observation.
England. Nicholson and Hepworth
were divorced in comment
19 51. In the nimbus
quoted above he pays homage to his Also halo, refers to the "cloud" or disk
father, Sir William Nicholson 1872- ( of light behind the head of an extraordi-

1949), a skilled wood engraver, theatri- nary person, such as Christ or a saint.
482 NIOBID PAINTER

Niobid Painter In these paintings, Nolan has set out

See POLYGNOTOS to redeem the Kelly might, and restore
to it, in the face even of his fellow
Noguchi, Isamu countrymen, the full glory of an
1904-1988 • American • sculptor • Australian saga. (Colin Macinness,
Modern 1957)

Interviewer: What kind of art do you

Nolan was searching for a way to make
admire?
distinctly Australian modern art
when he settled on the theme of Ned
Noguchi: Actually, the older it is, the
Kelly, his country's most infamous out-
more archaic and primitive, the better
law, who from 1855 to 1880.
lived
I like it. I don't know why, but perhaps
Nolan had heard tales about Kelly from
it's simply because the repeated
his grandfather and from a policeman
of art brings you back to
distillation
who had chased Kelly down. At first
the primordial . . .

just a horse rustler, Kelly became a

Born in California, of an American criminal when he shot a policeman who
mother and Japanese father, Noguchi came him and abused his
to arrest
was taken to Japan as an infant and re- sister. Thereafter, Kelly and his gang

turned to the United States in his teens. roamed southeastern Australia for
He went to study with brancusi in two years, robbing banks, charming
Paris, where he discovered the surre- hostages, and tricking and killing sev-
alist forms of MiRO and arp. Revisiting eral policemen. At the final showdown
Japan in 193 1, he studied pottery, and Kelly wore armor made from plow-
shapes of ancient Japanese ceramics shares, but he was shot in the legs, cap-
joined his artistic vocabulary. Noguchi tured, and later hanged. In Nolan's
usually carved slate, though he also paintings (series begun in 1946), the
worked in metal. Best known as a sculp- iron helmet becomes a strange, surreal
tor, he also designed experimental stage contraption, a square black head with a
sets for dancer Martha Graham and the slit (for the eyes) through which the sky
UNESCO garden in Paris, and he col- is visible. With Kelly on his horse,
laborated on the bridges of Hiroshima's Nolan evokes the desertlike plains,
Peace Park. His paper "Akari" lamps, moist mornings, and blazing days in the

both hanging and on tripods, were im- Australian bush. Nolan has, indeed,
mensely popular in the 1950s and '60s created a distinctive Australian style
and returned to favor in the 1990s. that combines an unsophisticated
folk idiom with a singular palette of
blue to yellow skies and dry, yellow-
Nolan, Sir Sidney
brown earth. He has also, as Macinness
1917-1992 • Australian • painter •
notes in the catalogue for an exhibi-
Modern
tion he curated in 1957, quoted from
Modern Australians have a thoroughly above, given visual form to a national
ambivalent attitude toward Ned. . . . myth.
 NOLDE, EMIL 483

Noland, Kenneth drawn window curtains: "Is he

born 1924 • American • painter • deadf"

Post-Painterly Abstraction
A pioneer in German expressionism
The thing is color, the thing in painting
and briefly a member of Die brucke,
is to find a way to get color down, to
Nolde used brilliant, even violent color,
float it without bogging the painting in
often in religious paintings. His best-
Surrealism, Cubism, or systems of
known work is a cramped, thickly and
structure.
lividly painted image. The Last Supper
LOUIS, having been intensely affected (1909), in which Christ and those sur-
by frankenthaler's use of color, took rounding him have yellow-green, mask-
Noland to her studio. Both
his friend like faces. Crowded together and
men returned to work in Washington, radically cropped, they wear blood red
D.C., where they established what is and blue-black clothes, the table is cov-
called the Washington School of Color. ered with green cloth, and the scene is

Unlike Frankenthaler and his friend, distressing. Just before he painted this

Noland did not stain his canvases with picture, Nolde suffered the near-death
color. Rather, using a synthetic pig- experience he described in his autobiog-
ment, he juxtaposed bright colors in raphy, which is quoted from above.
precisely delineated stripes. And unlike Nolde's landscapes are also rendered in
the broad swaths of color that rothko strange, strong, garish color, paint
painted as growing toward and out of thickly laid on (impasto) and roughly
each other, Noland juxtaposed colors textured. He was among the artists con-
in a HARD edge painting manner. Less demned and forbidden to paint by the
interested in composition than in color Nazis (see degenerate art), but he
relationships, Noland tended to repeat worked in secret, producing small, lu-
his explorations as bands in a triangular minous and haunting watercolors of
shape or in circles. In Whirl (i960), for old men and women, and children hud-
example, concentric circles of color dled together. He used watercolor be-
move out from a red sphere toward a cause he feared that the smell of oil
blue halo. The off-white background PAINT would betray him should mem-
also provides the color that frames each bers of the Gestapo visit his house.
The power with which the com-
circle. These vignettes Nolde called "un-
position draws the eye to its center is painted pictures," intending them as
quite amazing. studies for larger works to be painted
after the war. Nolde poses a problem
for his admirers in that, although con-
Nolde, Emil
demned by Nazis, he was, in fact, a
1867-1956 • German • painter •
member of the Nazi party and actively
Expressionist
sought its recognition, hoping that his
Lying quiet and exhausted, resting for work would be seen as supporting their
a few minutes free of pain, I heard a cause. There has been no secret about
neighbor say on the other side of the his politics: In 1967 Horizon magazine
484 NOMINALISM

described him as an "anti-Semite and a may appear nonobjective, it was

German jingoist." 1995 it was a
But in founded on new ways of breaking up,
point of contention when an exhibit at reassembling, and looking at people
the Museum of Fine Art in Boston over- and things. True nonobjective art first

looked Nolde's past and was pressured, appeared between 19 10 and 191 1 in the

by an open protest, to acknowledge his works of Americans macdonald-

Nazi sympathies in wall labels. WRiGHT and RUSSELL as well as Fran-
tisek Kupka (Czech, 1871-1957) and

Nominalism delaunay in France, larionov and

Historic circumstances during the MALEViCH in Russia, Percy Wyndham
GOTHIC period, from the collapse of the lewis and David Bomberg {1890-
soaring aspirations of Beauvais Cathe- 1957) in England, dove in the United
dral in 1284 to the Black Death in 1348, States, and kandinsky in Germany,
seemed to bring down with them confi- who used the term "nonobjective" in
dence in reconciling reason and faith. On the Spiritual in Art {i^iz).
Western intellectuals suffered a crisis of

doubt, not about God but about the Northern Renaissance

limits of human comprehension. To the This term describes the cultural cur-
extent that scholasticism had endeav- rents flowing through the Netherlands,
ored to understand and interpret God Germany, and France during the 15th
rationally, the Nominalism that suc- and 1 6th centuries, roughly parallel in
ceeded it emphasized God's unfath- time to the Italian renaissance.
omable autonomy and omnipotence. Unique to the North, at first, was the
Regarding worldly matters. Nominal- development of oil painting, visible
ism stressed only empiricism, concrete results of which were deep, intense

experience, perception through the tonality and an impression that light

senses—observation, study, and science emanates from inside the enamel-like
rather than — as the basis for un-
faith surface. The painstaking painting
derstanding. In art. Nominalism seems process lent itself to sharp focus, hard
to be expressed in the Late Gothic Inter- edges, and attention to detail. Unlike
national Style, and reveals itself espe- Italian artists, those of the North were
cially in the minutely, exquisitely less interested in geometric order and
detailed "realism of particulars" in one-point perspective than they were
paintings such as those of van eyck and in light, surface, and meticulous detail.

other artists of the early northern re- In contrast to Mediterranean art, where
naissance. William of Ockham (c. the NUDE body was foremost, in the
—
1285-1349 apparently he died of the North, from the earliest times, it was
plague) was the leading developer of the folds, texture, and ornamentation
Nominalist thinking. of objects, especially fabric (see drap-
ery), that received careful attention. Pe-
nonobjective art riods within the Northern Renaissance
abstract art that retains no reference are:

to figures and objects in the natural or Early Netherlandish, 1425-1500.

manufactured world. While cubism The classical tradition had little direct
 —

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE 485

influence on developments in the North movement formed and subsequently,

compared to its role in the Italian Re- breaking out of it, the Protestant Refor-
naissance. Rather, precedent is found in mation began. Although important, the
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS of the Reformation's effect on art and artists is

GOTHIC International Style and work sometimes misconstrued. Certainly the

by painters and sculptors like the lim- Church's patronage declined, and fear
BOURG brothers and sluter. Patronage of iconoclasm (see icon) cut severely
came from the nobility or from the into conventional commissions like al-
growing merchant middle class. Popu- tarpieces, but artists had a variety of re-
lar piety of the time was marked by pil- sponses and alternatives, landscapes
grimages and mysticism, and inclined began to come into their own as a sepa-
more toward personal rather than com- rate and body of painting.
distinct
munal worship. Pious individuals were Many artists, cranach and durer
rewarded with miraculous visions; among them, became wrapped up in the
much art of the period was created both theology of reform and made portraits
to induce and to document such visions. of Protestant leaders and didactic im-
PATRONS and donors appeared in reli- ages for the new doctrines. Skills in the
gious paintings, sometimes on the graphic arts had reached a peak in the
wings of an altarpiece (e.g., campin's work of SCHONGAUER and Diirer before
Merode Triplych, c. 1425-28), some- the Reformation began. The develop-
times in the biblical scene represented ment of the printing press in the mid-
(e.g., van der weyden's Nativity Altar- 1 5 th century led, during the 1 6th, to the

piece of Pieter Bladelin, 1452-55). Sin- wide dissemination of printed images in

gle portraits, which had not been POPULAR CULTURE. Prints, often cari-

produced since Roman times, also catures and satires, were used as pro-
reemerged. Van eyck, Campin, and van paganda both for and against the
der Weyden were the founders and papacy (see printing). Secular sub-
major influences of the period. All three jects portraits, landscapes, and
had gone on pilgrimages. A mood swing STILL lifes —also grew in popularity

distinguishes the sumptuous and opti- during the i6th century. At least one
mistic beginning of the century from its prominent artist, holbein, sought
pessimistic conclusion. Abuses by the commissions abroad; others went to
Church caused a spiritual crisis that, at Italy for education and inspiration (e.g.,

least in part, probably explains the Diirer and gossaert). genre scenes
strangeness and sense of instability ex- and mythical legends provided new
pressed in works like those of van der sources of ideas not only in the fine
GOES and bosch. Also, both before and ARTS (e.g., van leyden and Pieter
after the turn of the century, a mid- bruegel), but also in the work of the
millennium-inspired fear of the impend- era's outstanding French writer,
ing apocalypse was widespread. Francois Rabelais 1494-1553). As
(c.

Sixteenth Century. The stage had the century progressed and Protes-
been set for rebellion against the of- tantism spread, reform within the
fenses of the Roman Catholic Church Roman Catholic Church gained
as, inside its sphere, the humanist strength, although the Catholic human-
486 NORWICH SCHOOL

ists who had plowed the ground for re- among the members, who included
form were renounced. The Council of poets, musicians, and critics. The group
Trent (first convoked in 1 545 and meet- lasted barely a decade before disillu-
ing several times until 1563) reaffirmed sionment and cynicism set in. In the

the doctrinal tenets that had come meantime, the new objectivity move-
under attack, including transubstantia- ment had emerged.
tion, clerical celibacy, papal supremacy,
and the selling of indulgences. Counter- nude/nudity
Reformation theologians, dismissing The nude representation of human fig-
thehumanism of Erasmus, restored the ures was a unique cultural convention
SCHOLASTICISM of Saint Thomas of ancient Greece. From the earliest ex-
Aquinas. amples of the human figure in art, hu-
mans of consequence were usually
Norwich School clothed. True, in some pre-3000 bce
Founded in 1803 as the Norwich Soci- Mesopotamian images individuals ap-
ety of Artists, the loose group of profes- proached a god without clothes on, but
sional and amateur English landscape generally nakedness, a sign of vulnera-
painters was made up of friends, pa- bility,was reserved for the conquered
trons, and students of John Crome enemy and slave (e.g., the Egyptian
(1768-1821), who lived in Norwich. Palette of Narmer, c. 3000 bce, in
Their stated purpose was "an Enquiry which the king is clothed but the routed
into the Rise, Progress and present state enemy is either naked or nearly so).
of Painting, Architecture, and Sculp- About 900 BCE, during the geometric
ture, with a view to point out the Best period, Athenian artists began to por-
Methods of study to attain to Greater tray naked males on vases. By the yth
John Sell Cotman (1782-
Perfection." century, the stone kouros was nude.
1842), renowned for his watercolor Whether the kouros was a god, athlete,
landscapes and for his architectural votive figure, or warrior, its nakedness,
ETCHINGS, joined the society. Norwich rather than denoting shame, was a sign
painters were influenced by Dutch land- of privilege, aristocracy, strength, and
scape art and generally painted the East heroism, representing the Greek ideal of
Anglia landscape. In 1805 the so-called youthful beauty, often with overtones
Norwich School formed the first signif- of homosexuality and perhaps the idea
icant exhibition program outside of of purity before the gods. This was true
London. Its last exhibition was in 1825, only for males; female statues remained
and the group disbanded in the 1830s. clothed until the Late classical period.
In politics, war, athletics, and at sym-
Novembergruppe posia, or drinking parties, male com-
Formed after World War I in Berlin by a panionship was intimate. Pairing of
number of expressionist artists, later older with younger men was even pro-
joined by DADAists. This generally left- moted as a means of socializing the
wing group of hoped that out
artists young citizen. Nudity also made refer-
of the postwar chaos a more equitable ence to the juxtaposition of Apollo, god
society would emerge, gropius was of reason and restraint, and Dionysus,
 —

nude/nudity 487

god of inebriation, ecstasy, and aban- bronze David (14x8-30), was the nude
don. While heroically nude males are male once again idealized in sculpted

usually unexcited and even have small form. Nudity in Michelangelo's art
penises, the wild members of the uses the body to its fullest power of ex-
Dionysian cult are often represented on pression. Botticelli's Birth of Venus
vases painted with fully erect phalluses. (c. 1484) broke the proscription against
However, such display was not neces- nude females, using pagan myth as its
sarily condemned: Herms —
male busts source and rationale for doing so.
mounted on pillars that had carved Thereafter, images of naked female
penises jutting out —were distributed bodies proliferated in art, particularly

around Athens as protectors of the city, to appeal to a male audience (see gaze).

Perhaps even more complex than male In 1956, clark wrote an encyclopedic
nudity was the dress code insisted on and itself heroic survey — The Nude: A
for "respectable" women. Because vir- Study in Ideal Form. Contemporary art
tually all surviving documentation and theorists like Jacques Lacan and fou-
visual evidence about women in Greece cault study attitudes toward the body
is by men, contemporary researchers in the context of psychology, sexuality,
today question the intentions of the politics, culture, and the infliction of

image makers — why they portrayed pain, while artists like Kiki smith and
women as they did — and what alterna- Karen Finley (born 1956) make audi-
tive representations of women's lives ences uncomfortable in encounters with
might have been. Later, roman artists their explicitly political and sexual
again shunned most nakedness other works: Smith, for example, with her
than that of mythological figures or sculpture The Sitter (1992), shows a
heroic images of generals and imperial woman's back inscribed with deep
persons. During the medieval era, scars, and Finley, during a perfor-
nudes were considered indecent and mance, has removed her clothes and
idolatrous or were used symbolically spoken and acted in ways calculated to
for example, nakedness as a sign of confront, embarrass, and humiliate her
truth.Not until the Italian renais- audience. (See also body art)
SANCE, when donatello cast his
 o

odalisque up his pictures by applying translucent

French, derived from the Turkish word paint layers, or glazes, on an opaque,
for a slave in a harem. A subject, in- monochrome underpainting. He and
spired by ORIENTALISM, painted by other early Flemish painters (see

19th- and 20th-century artists, notably NETHERLANDISH) added some as yet

INGRES and DELACROIX, and subverted unidentified substance that, in effect, al-
by MANET and valadon. lowed them to achieve deep, rich tones.

Light reflected from layered glazes be-

Odo of Metz neath the surface gives the impression
Bishop, possibly architect for the em- of looking into the painting, as though
peror Charlemagne. (See also carolin- it has greater depth. That reflectivity
gian) also makes seem as if the painting
it

were illuminated from within. The

offset (counterproof) adoption and adaptation of oil paint,
A method of reversing the orientation which replaced tempera, progressed
of an image by, e.g., dampening the over the centuries as artists learned to

original and compressing it against a manipulate and ventured to experiment

clean piece of damp paper. This "back- with it. Oil paint is medium
a flexible

ward" reproduction provides a model that, besides transparent glazes, may be

for a PRINTING process, such as an en- used with an uneven, roughed-up ap-
graving; a direct copy would be im- pearance (e.g., SCUMBLING) or in thick

properly oriented and would print in (impasto) applications. It may also be

reverse. Offset printing is also a term combined with other mediums and
used to describe the photomechanical mixed with additives, such as sand, that
printing process used by large commer- vary its texture. The surface of a paint-
cial presses. ing in oil may range from an enamel-
like finish to one that is raised so much
oil painting that it might even seem sculpted. Oil
Particles of color (pigment) suspended and pigment was mixed as a painting
in an oil-based binding medium (e.g., progressed from day to day during the
linseed, nut, or poppy-seed oil) was early centuries. Although there is evi-

known long before the 15th century, dence that special boxes for open-air
when it was first applied to panel painting with oil and pigment existed as
painting. Van eyck perfected the tech- early as 1650, it is uncertain when or
nique: Using a fast-drying oil, he built how the two were mixed outdoors.
 OLDENBURG, CLAES 489

Ready-made oil paints, packaged in a bee about to land, and vastly magni-

small pigskin bladders that were punc- fied them, often cropping tightly. This
tured to squeeze out the contents, were effectively turned them into abstract
available in the i8th century. Painting forms. Similarly, she abstracted the sun-
outdoors directly from nature was prac- bleached pelvis of a large animal, hold-
ticed by Claude-Joseph Vernet (1714- ing it up to see "the sky through the
1789), a French landscape painter, hole," as in Pelvis with Moon, 1943.
and recommended especially for marine O'Keeffe studied at the Art Institute of
painters by Reynolds in the 1750s. Chicago and at the Art Students League
Thomas Jones (1742-1803), a Welsh in New York City, and took classes with
painter whose work was relatively un- Arthur Wesley Dow at Columbia Uni-
known until this century, made notably versity. Dow led her to appreciate the

fresh and luminous oil sketches on abstract beauty of form and color. She

paper during a visit to Naples during the married stieglitz, 24 years her senior,
1780S. This kind of painting was cate- in 1924, after a long affair and after
gorized as sketching, however. The fin- having been a member of his famous
ished work would be done in the studio. "circle" of artists and photographers
Oil paint in tubes is an American inven- since 19 17. She began spending sum-
tion, developed by John Rand in 1841. mers in Taos in 1929, and after Stieghtz
died, in 1946, settled permanently in
O'Keeffe, Georgia Abiquiu, New Mexico. Much has been
1887-1986 • American • painter • made of the sexual and erotic connota-
Modern/Precisionist tions of her work, though O'Keeffe con-
stantly denied such intent and insisted it
/ desire to make the unknown known.
was in the eye of the beholder. The topic
O'Keeffe derived her subjects largely is still controversial. Some art historians

from nature: flowers, the landscape of believe Stieglitz profited by marketing

New Mexico, and the skeletal forms of O'Keeffe's work as sexual, and that he
animals. She also painted images of pandered to the idea that her erotic
New York City, especially looking up at paintings flattered men (himself in par-
its nighttime vitality or out at its hazy, ticular) as both the cause and the object
rooftop views. In her later years she of women's desire.

painted vast panoramas of sky and land

inspired by views from airplanes. In her Oldenburg, Claes
early watercolors, O'Keeffe recorded born 1929 • American • sculptor •
her impressions with a few lines of Pop Art
color. An example is Evening Star III
My procedure was simply to find
(1917), with thick green and blue lines
everything that meant something to
suggesting earth and sky, and red,
me, but the logic of my self
orange, and yellow circular shapes for
development was to gradually find
the rising star. During the 192.0s she
myself in my surroundings.
painted flowers as they had never been
painted before. Isolating them from na- In June 1961 Oldenburg rented a store-
ture, she focused as closely as if she were front at 107 East Second Street, on the
49° OLMSTED, FREDERICK LAW

Lower East Side of New York City, and and his hand can be seen at many great
filled it with his sculptures of everything estates (e.g., Biltmore; see Richard
from a wristwatch, a piece of pie, hats, Morris hunt), as well as on the grounds
pants, and tennis shoes to a sewing ma- of Stanford University in Palo Alto, Cal-
chine. was a carnival of stuff made of
It ifornia, and at the World's Columbian
brightly enameled plaster. The store Exposition in Chicago, 1893. He ar-

closed after two months because the ob- gued for the preservation of landscapes

jects did not sell. For an exhibition of such as Yosemite and Niagara as re-

his work the next year, Oldenburg was serves for the public, and spearheaded
inspired by the cars in an automobile the country's city park movement. Cen-
showroom to create enormous soft tral Park (1857-77) in New York City
SCULPTURE, such as Floor Cake (Giant was a project he oversaw, in collabora-
Piece of Cake; 1962), made of canvas tion with Calvert Vaux (182.4-1895),
filled with foam rubber and cardboard steering it between demands of the
and then painted. was as if he had ac-
It wealthy — who envisioned winding
tually given tangible form to the con- paths, museums, and educational insti-
cept of those floppy watches so tutions —
and the general population,
preposterously draped over objects by who wanted the park for sports and
DALi (Persistence of Memory, 193 1). other relaxing diversions. Although
Oldenburg then returned to hard some of the city's underprivileged
shapes. One of his sculptures stands 46 dwellers had to be dislocated for the
feet high in the center of Philadelphia, project, Olmsted designed an 800-acre
flanked by office buildings: Made of park that most wishes. Laid
satisfied

Cor-ten and stainless steel —though it out in the English picturesque man-
looks like a replica of its wooden origi- ner, it was a pastoral idyll in the midst
nal— C/of/7e5pm (1976) is a towering of a city that had, since the Civil War,
icon of old-fashioned domesticity, an doubled its population to three million
Olympian goddess of washday. Many inhabitants. As the comment quoted
of Oldenburg's sculptures are clear above makes clear, Olmsted believed
analogies to the human body. "The parks important as retreats from the
erotic or the sexual is the root of art," evils attendant on industrialization and

he has said. urbanization.

Olmsted, Frederick Law Omega Workshops

182Z-1903 • American • landscape See FRY
architect • Picturesque

[A park should],
Op Art (Optical painting/art)
in a directly remedial
Playing and experimenting with optical
way enable men to better resist the
. . .

harmful influences of ordinary town

illusion —as artists have done since the

life and to recover what they lose from

beginning of time — this style was
named during the 1960s when a new
them.
generation of artists explored the possi-
After DOWNING, Olmsted became bilities of juxtaposing colors and shapes
America's leading landscape designer. that are entirely nonrepresentational.
 ORCAGNA (ANDREA DI CIONE) 49I

ALBERS is considered the movement's could be covered in fur. Meantime, her

pioneer. Interests of Op artists were sci- cup of tea growing cold, Oppenheim
entific, mathematical, and psychologi- asked the waiter for a bit more fur.

cal, and their materials, other than Later she bought a demitasse cup and
paint, included, for example, neon covered it with fur from a Chinese
lighting. Among prominent Op Art gazelle. Although generally known as
artists are the Hungarian-French Object (1936), Andre Breton (see sur-
painter Victor Vasarely (1908-1997), realism) actually named it Dejeuner en
who wrote manifestos on the subject; fourrure, or Breakfast in Fur, and it

the American Richard Anuszkiewicz caused a great sensation at the gallery

(born 1930), a student of Albers; and where it was shown. It is significant, es-

the British painter riley. pecially to feminist interpretation, that

he gave her work its title, considering
open form the importance of language and espe-
See CLOSED form cially the right to "name" things, which
is equivalent, or tantamount, to taking
Oppenheim, Meret possession of them. This interpretation
19 1 3-1 98 5 • German/Swiss • was described in a speech/performance
objects • Surrealist about Oppenheim presented by Mau-
reen Sherlock in May 1987 at the First
When I met end of 19^^, I
the group,
National Women's Sculpture Confer-
was twenty years old and I was not at
ence in Cincinnati, Ohio.
all sure about political opinions. I

made my work and did not worry

orans
about these discussions.
From the Latin orant, meaning "pray-
Oppenheim left Switzerland to study ing," refers to a figure whose hands
art in Paris at the age of 19. She soon fell are raised, palms forward, arms either
in with the "group" of surrealist bent or straight, to signify that he/
artists referred to in the quotation she is praying. A common posture
above, and to them she was a sort of in early christian art found, for
wild child, known for her outrageous example, in the catacombs, the orans
behavior. She was given to stripping in figure derives from a pagan symbol
the middle of a cafe, for example, and for piety.
was intimate with ernst and man ray,
who called her the most uninhibited
Orcagna (Andrea di Cione)
woman he had ever met. Thus, the sex-
active 1343-13 68 • Italian •
ual innuendoes of her most and only fa-
painter/sculptor/architect • Late
mous work, a fur-lined teacup, saucer,
Gothic
and spoon, are no surprise. The idea
came to her when picasso and the pho- Orcagna was a most noble master,
tographer Dora Maar 1907-1997; also
( extraordinarily skilled in both arts. . . .

Picasso's lover) were admiring a fur- He was an outstanding architect, and

covered bracelet Oppenheim had de- executed with his own hand all the
signed, and Picasso said that anything narrative scenes . . . [and] also carved
492 ORIENTALISM

his own likeness marvelously rendered. DELACROIX and INGRES), when the ex-
(Ghiberti, c. 1450) oticism of foreign countries held great
appeal. This was fueled by the con-
Orcagna headed a large workshop quests of Napoleon, and in France a
(with his brothers Nardo and Jacopo) in number of artists known as Oriental-
Italy after the middle of the 14th cen- istes specialized in North African and

tury. In the Enthroned Christ with Near Eastern subjects. During the mid-
Madonna and Saints (1354-57), an al- and later 19th century, the appetite for
TARPIECE for the Strozzi Chapel in both ISLAMIC and early christian
Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Or- culture increased, and showed itself in

cagna tightens and stiffens his figures artists as diverse as gerome, matisse,
and places them against a flat gold and church. After the 1850s, once
ground. It has been said that the horrors trade with Japan was reestablished, the
of the Black Death, the bubonic plague influence of Japanese art on both Euro-
of 1348, might have contributed to this pean and American artists was more
reversion to a more constrained manner critical to new styles than any previous
than that so recently explored by Oriental contacts had been. (See also
GIOTTO, although this idea is disputed. UKiYO-E and impressionism)
GHiBERTi's near contemporary assess- The term "Orientalism," and the
ment of Orcagna, quoted above, is flat- practices it represents, presupposes a di-
tering, as is the translation of his name, vision between East and West, and tra-

a nickname that was local slang for ditionally it meant a scholarly or artistic

"Archangel." study of "the Orient." During the last

quarter of the 20th century, that benign

Orientalism meaning has been turned upside down,
Rooted in the Latin word that refers to especially with recognition that it has
the rising sun, allusions to the Orient always meant a "privileging," or prefer-
and thus to Orientalism have generi- ence given to the West — a practice now
cally to do with Asian lands east of the called Eurocentrism. Such prejudice has
Mediterranean. However, the term been found in Homer, who represents
extends to areas of Africa, especially the Phoenicians as deceitful and dishon-
Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt. The in- orable in the Odyssey, and is also traced
fluence of the East on western Mediter- back to the "father of history,"
ranean countries predates recorded Herodotus (5th century bce). Writing
history, as scholars increasingly point about the Persian Wars, Herodotus
out. It is formally acknowledged in the split the world into East and West, dis-

naming of the 700-600 bce oriental- crediting the former in every way. An
izing period in Greek art. While cross- influential new perspective is articu-
currents of influence, both subtle (e.g., lated by Edward Said, especially in his
see halo) and obvious (e.g.. Oriental book Orientalism (1978). Said de-
carpets in renaissance paintings and scribes Orientalism as "the corporate
chinoiserie), the interest in cultural institution for dealing with the Ori-
differences became especially strong ent — dealing with it by making state-
during the early 19th century (e.g., ments about it, authorizing views of it.
 OROZCO, JOSE CLEMENTE 493

describing it, by teaching it ... as a potamian themes. These show up espe-

Western style for dominating, restruc- ciallyon painted vases (pottery) and
turing, and having authority over the cast metalwork, such as bronze caul-
Orient." The premise of OrientaUsm is, drons used in sanctuaries. Eastern influ-

thus, that it is an invention of non- ence also appears in the first relatively

Orientals for purposes they project on large stone sculptures, usually of

the idea they are creating. Said's point women, called daedalic. Eastern influ-

of view sparked much thought and sev- ence during this period is undisputed,
eral exhibitions and studies on the sub- but recent scholarship sees a much ear-
ject of Orientalism (from, e.g.. The lier connection.
Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse as-
sembled by the Royal Academy of Arts Ornate (Third) Style
in1984 to an article by Marilyn Brown, See MURAL
The Harem Dehistoricized: Ingres's
Turkish Bath, published in 1987). An- Orozco, Jose Clemente
other approach to countermanding the 1883-1949 • Mexican • painter •
effect of Orientalism is seen in Martin Expressionist/Social Realist
Bernal's controversial book. Black
[Jose Guadalupe] Posada used to work
Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Clas-
in full view, behind the shop windows,
sical Civilization (1987). Bernal argues
and on my way to school and back,
that, in fact, Western art and culture
four times a day, I would stop and
have black African origins. In post-
spend a few enchanted minutes
modern terms. Orientalizing derives
watching him, and sometimes I even
from the impulse and politics of domi-
ventured to enter the shop and snatch
nance that create the "Other," thereby
up a of the metal shavings that fell
bit
excluding certain populations (e.g.,
from the minium-coated metal plate
women, people of color, non-
as the master's graver passed over it.
heterosexuals, children) from the privi-
This was the push that first set my
leges one accords oneself as a member
imagination in motion and impelled
of the ruling establishment. As Orien-
me to cover paper with my earliest
talism is considered a trait of a coloniz-
little figures; this was my awakening to
ing, imperialistic society, the term
the existence of the art of painting.
"Postcolonial" is currently used to de-
scribe and study a society distancing it- Orozco was one of the three major
self from the subordination of another Mexican artists (see also rivera and
social group. siQUEiROs) whose role in decorating
public walls with paintings that glori-
Orientalizing period fied Mexican history and culture was
C. 700-600 BCE. part of an effort, launched in 1920, to
Increased trade and colonial
with inspire social change. In the face of
expansion in the Near East and Egypt protests from conservatives, and with a
influenced design in Greek Art, in- new president, however, many such
troducing fantastic lions, sphinxes, projects were suspended in 1924.
griffins, and other Egyptian and Meso- Where Siqueiros temporarily aban-
494 ORPHISM (ORPHIC CUBISM)

doned painting and Rivera tenuously emotion without resorting to specific

befriended the new regime, Orozco left
Mexico and worked in the United
States. (By the 1930s, all three artists
were working in the United States.)
Orozco's commissions included a pro-
ject Dartmouth College in New
at
Hampshire, which he worked on from
1932 to 1934: The Epic of American
Civilization is a mural made up of 24
compositions that, with passion and
fury, follow an imagined history from
the golden age of pre-Columbian cul-
ture, whose hero is Qetzalcoatl, to the
evil of Spanish conquest under Cortes.
The series continues through to the ulti-
mate vision of a triumphant human
spirit in the form of Christ, who de-
stroys oppression and brings about the
modern golden age. Messianic and
Utopian, Orozco's paintings preached
things seen in the natural world (besides
color), the movement was named for
the legendary poet Orpheus, whose mu-
sical genius charmed the animals and
persuaded Pluto to allow Eurydice, Or-
pheus's wife, to follow him back from
Hades. Orphists sought to produce
pure color harmonies, evoking the idea
of music pulsating through the uni-
verse. While Orphism was developing,
two Americans, macdonald-wright
and RUSSELL, also living in Paris,
launched a similar movement they
named synchromism.
Ossian
Between 1760 and 1763, a number of
prose poems reportedly written by a
3rd-century Gaelic poet named Ossian
were "discovered" and published after

political change less than his belief in translation into English by a Scotsman
the achievements that might reward named James Macpherson (1736-
physical and spiritual struggle. The 1796). The effect was overwhelming.
quotation above, from his autobiogra- Ossian was translated into German,
phy, describes the early encounter, Italian,and French. Ossian was consid-
when he was about seven years old, that ered the northern equivalent of Homer,
led to his interest in art. The window in but and amoral and
less superstitious

which Posada (1852-1913) did his en- more noble, humane, magnanimous,
graving was that of a printing press in virtuous, and, in short, polite. "Ossian
Mexico City. has replaced Homer in my heart,"
goethe's fictitious hero Werther wrote
Orphism (Orphic Cubism) in 1774. JEFFERSON declared Ossian's
A movement abstract style
of totally poems "the source of daily and exalted
whose chief theorist was the poet apol- pleasure." He added, "I am not
LiNAiRE and whose main practitioner ashamed to own that I think this rude
was DELAUNAY. Apollinaire described bard of the North the greatest Poet that
Orphism as "the art of painting new has ever existed." Napoleon said that
structures out of elements which have the poems of Ossian "contain the purest
not been borrowed from the visual and most animating principles and ex-
sphere, but have been created entirely amples of true honor, courage and dis-

by the artist." Because such painting cipline, and all the heroic virtues that
shares with music an ability to create can possibly exist." Ossian made his
 OTTONIAN ART 495

first pictorial appearance in Scotland Ostade converted to Catholicism after

when Alexander Runciman (1736- his marriage. Though quite wealthy, he

1785) decorated a ceiling with scenes continued to show the intimacy of peas-
from his life. (These were destroyed by ant life. (See also genre)
fire in 1 899, but some sketches for them
remain.) The Swiss painter kauffman, Ottonian art
the German runge, and the American c. 936-1002

TRUMBULL illustrated scenes from Os- Following Charlemagne's death in 814,

sianic legends. Among Jacques-Louis Viking and Magyar assaults ravaged his

David's students, Ossian joined Homer former empire and halted artistic ad-

and the Bible as sacred texts, girodet- vance until the arrival of a new Saxon
trioson's Ossian Receiving the Gen- line of German emperors, who ruled an
erals of the Republic (1802.) and area roughly corresponding to modern
ingres's Dream of Ossian (181 2) were Germany and Austria. Three of the em-
prompted by the verses, which also did perors who were called Otto gave their

much to stimulate the romantic move- name The Ottonian lead-

to the period.
ment, especially in literature, blake ers looked back to Charlemagne as their

adapted the format and meter of the model: Otto I (the Great) was crowned
Ossianic sagas for his own prophetic at Aachen in 936. In the year 1000, ac-
books. Ossian was, however, a great cording to legend. Otto III opened
ruse, fabricated almost entirely by Charlemagne's tomb and found the
Macpherson. Coronation Gospels on the emperor's
knees. Thereafter, German emperors
Ostade, Adriaen van swore their coronation oaths upon that
1610-1685 • Dutch • book. The emperors enhanced the polit-

painter/printmaker • Baroque ical power of the Church by appointing

/• I I /- ^ ; ,
their relatives to rule important monas-
The reason for the shift in Ostade s , ,, .
, ,
•
^ t
,
' ,
, ,
teries and sees (bishops territories). In
mood has ,
not been established, but
; /
it ^ . 1 1 r
, , , , , , , . art,BYZANTINE influence joined that or
IS probably related to a change in his •
r, j r
ancient Rome (classical) and of
/ v

, , r
clientele, to his
,
own conception of ^. . , .

, . ,^ , , , ; /
7 Charlemagne (carolingian), espe-
himself, and his ideas about his task as ,, r ^ tt •
j t.
^ , _, „ cially after Otto 11 married a Byzantine
^n ar?z5t (lakob Rosenberg, Seymour
, ,

-n • • 11 • 1

T^ -1 princess. 1 his increasingly humanized

Slive, and E. H. ter Kuile, 1966)
art,
r 1

evident in books such as the Gospel

1 1 1 ^ /

There is no conclusive proof, but many Book of Otto III (c. 1000), can be
scholars believe Ostade and brouwer highly emotional in tone as well as em-
studied together in the Haarlem studio phatically didactic. In style and content
of HALS, and they posit that Ostade was it leads to the Romanesque. An impor-
strongly influenced by Brouwer. Os- tant architectural monument is bern-
tade's paintings of peasant life, at first ward's Abbey Church of Saint Michael
similarly rude and raucous, became (c.1001-33) in Hildesheim, Germany
more respectable, perhaps for reasons (destroyed by bombs but rebuilt after
cited in the commentary quoted above. World War II). A massive structure, its
49^ OUTSIDER ART

most remarkable features are the great artists are often motivated, or driven,
bronze doors with reliefs that pair to make their creations by visions or
dramatically rendered scenes from the voices. The Throne of the Third Heaven
Book of Genesis on the left with the of the Nations' Millennium General As-
Gospels on the right. Another impor- sembly (c. 1950-64), by James Hamp-
tant monument of the period is the star- ton (1909-1964), is composed of 180
tling GERO CRUCIFIX (c. 970), which objects made from recycled materials
shows Christ's extreme suffering. such as hollow cylinders from carpet
and lightbulbs, all
rolls, jelly glasses,

Outsider art covered with gold and silver foil. The

A term for art that might alternate with throne itself is an old armchair, but its

FOLK, PRIMITIVE, or NAIVE. Outsider art arms sprout winglike extensions and
refers to work that is free of academic the back has elaborate decoration.
influence, outside of the elite main- Hampton's creation was put on exhibit
stream, and sometimes produced by the at the National Museum of American
uneducated, the insane, the criminal, Art in Washington, D.C., in 1990. In a
and the underprivileged. Outsider art review written in 1996, the critic

became so popular during the 1990s Wendy Steiner elucidated the irony of
that an annual New York Outsider Art Outsider art's popularity: "[It] is flour-

Fair was launched in 1993, and a Con- ishing because the art establishment
gressional Resolution hailed the new have become the true outsiders of our
American Visionary Art Museum that day." She concluded, "Though outsider
opened in Baltimore, in 1995, as "the artists are almost invariably discovered
official national museum, repository, by trained artists, curators and dealers,
and educational center for American vi- the carefully maintained myth of the
sionary and outsider art." This was de- isolate persists: that artworks can be
fined, by congressional fiat, as art produced and understood without ref-

"produced by self-taught individuals erence to history or tradition but as im-

who are driven by their own internal mediately gratifying objects . . . that
impulses to create." "Visionary," a sub- expertise and education interfere with
set of Outsider art, is frequently seen in beauty."
buildings or their environments. The
 p

Pacheo, Francisco girl, twelve or thirteen years old. . . .

1 564-1644 • Spanish • She should have pretty but serious eyes

writer/painter • Baroque with perfect features and rosy cheeks,
and the most beautiful, long gold
It would be hard to overstate the good
locks."
that holy images do: they perfect our
understanding, move our will, refresh
Pacher, Michael
our memory of divine things.
active 14 62-1 49 8 • German •

Pacheo was an undistinguished painter sculptor/painter • Early Northern

but an influential teacher whose great- Renaissance
est student (and son-in-law) was
Item, at St. Wolfgang, while he
VELAZQUEZ. Pacheo's most important
completes and sets up the altar, we
work was his book, The Art of Painting
shall provide his meals and drink, and
(published posthumously, 1649). He
also the iron work necessary for
worked on the text for 40 years. The
setting up the altar, as well as help
center of a group of intellectuals in
with loading wherever necessary.
Seville, Pacheo was also the inspector of
(contract between Pacher and the
art for the Inquisition of Seville and
abbot of Mondsee for the Saint
subscribed to a belief in the role of
Wolfgang altarpiece, 1471)
painting as a servant of Catholicism, as
expressed in the quotation above. From the Tyrolean region of south Ger-
Pacheo's adherence to the dictates of many, where wooden altar shrines were
the Counter-Reformation and of the very popular and important, Pacher
Council of Trent (first convoked in carved and painted a shrine of extreme
1545 and meeting sporadically until Gothic figures
intricacy, with sinuous

1563) also explains the philosophical
underpinnings of his book and his de-
velopment, with his friends, of prescrip-
tions for religious symbolism.
formulas are quite definite. In describ-
ing paintings of the Virgin after the Im-
maculate Conception, he writes, "In
this loveliest of mysteries
should be painted as a beautiful young
in gowns that fold and flow extrava-
gantly. Topped by a Crucifixion and
surrounded by lacy architectural de-
These tails, the sculpture is gilded. The exte-
rior,movable wings are painted with
scenes from the life of Saint Wolfgang.
These show the influence of the Italian
Our Lady RENAISSANCE (especially of mantegna),
and include perspective with very ex-
498 PAIK, NAM JUNE

aggerated foreshortening. This is the 1967) and found guilty of "an art which
Saint Wolfgang Altarpiece (1471-81) openly outrage[d] public decency." In
for which the contract quoted from his decision the judge cited a London
above was signed, and which took the Sunday Times editorial that described

artist ID years to complete. The written current art as "a kind of brothel of the
directions for what should be included intellect."

are also specific regarding the subject

matter. The last item in the contract does painterly
not seem to have been enforced. It reads, A term introduced to art history by
"If the altar is either not worth this sum wolfflin, who used it specifically to

[1,200 Hungarian guilders or ducats] or characterize baroque art. Painterly

of higher value, and there should be {malerisch in German) style stresses the

some difference of opinion between us, internal, intrinsic nature of form rather
both parties shall appoint equal num- than its outline, silhouette, or edges.
bers of experts to decide the matter." The painterly style leaves more to the
viewer's imagination than does the lin-
Paik, Nam June ear style, to which Wolfflin compared
born 1932 • Korean/American • it. Rembrandt's The Return of the
video artist • Modern Prodigal Son (c. 1665) is one of Wolf-
,, , .
I , I
• flin's examples of "painterly."
As collage technique replaced oil paint
the cathode ray
^ tube will replace
^ the < 1
paleography
canvas. ^ u >> ^ • «
rrom the Greek palatos, meanmg
1 ?
an-
Paik's innovations with electronic art cient," paleography is the study and in-
shocked and amused the public in the terpretation of ancient written
early 1960s, and new field of
initiated a documents,
artistic expression. He came to video
art from music composition; his first art palette
performance was Etude for Pi- The usually flat, wood, curved board on
anoforte in i960 during which he which an artist mixes paint. "Palette"
leaped off the stage to cut off cage's tie also refers to a characteristic color
with a scissors and shampooed Cage's range: Either an artist's oeuvre or a pic-
head. Besides humor, there is an insis- ture might be said to have a dark, lim-
tent defiance of social propriety in ited, or predominantly red palette, for
Paik's work, bestknown of which is Bra example. A high- or low-key palette,
for Living Sculpture (1969). He staged like the musical metaphor on which it

Bra with Charlotte Moorman, a classi- depends, is one in which colors are, re-

cal cellist. During her performance she spectively, light or dark in tone and
wears a "brassiere" in which two value. (See also color)
miniature TV sets substitute for the

cups. Moorman was arrested for inde- Palladian

cent exposure during one of her perfor- Refers to the style of the 16th-century
mances with Paik (Opera Sextronique, Italian architect palladio, whose de-
 —

PANEL 499

signs and ideas have been widely structure to have a dome. Identical
adapted over the centuries (e.g., jones). TEMPLE fronts (a porch with columns
In the 20th century, the "Palladian win- and a pediment) adorn all four sides. He
dow" remains was probably
popular. It was mistaken in his belief that ancient

derived from bramante, but knowl- Roman houses used such temple-front
edge of it was spread by L'Architettura porticoes, but that design was widely
(in six parts, 1 537-1 551), illustrated adapted and is even seen in jefferson's
texts of Sebastiano SerUo (1475-1554). home, Monticello. The facade of San
This detail consists of a central arched Giorgio Maggiore (i 566-1610) in
window or opening flanked by smaller Venice, overlooking the water, super-
arched openings, and is also known as imposes an exceptionally high temple
Serliana or the Serlian motif — but it was front over a lower, wider facade. Pal-
frequently used by Palladio. (See also ladio's style is smooth, elegant, and
arch) intellectual and gave its name to pal-
LADiANism, a style whose first exponent
Palladio, Andrea (Gondola, was JONES.
Andrea di Pietro della)

1 508-1 580 • Italian • architect • panel

Late Renaissance Before canvas came into use for free-
standing pictures, wood boards, or pan-
Guided by a natural inclination, I gave
els, were used for paintings. Their
myself up in my most early years to the
surfaces were usually prepared with
study of architecture . . . I proposed to
GESSO and their images were painted in
myself Vitruvius for my master and
TEMPERA or OIL PAINT. ALTARPIECES are
guide.
panel paintings. Panel painting reached
The nickname Palladio, given Andrea its zenith under the brush of van eyck,
by his benefactor, a poet, philosopher, whose development of the oil glaze
mathematician, and amateur architect, technique enabled him to paint mono-
is an allusion to Pallas Athena, goddess chrome (grisaille) figures that looked
ofwisdom and a subject of the long as though they had been sculpted, as
poem that his sponsor was writing. As well as sparkling gold and jewels, reflec-
had ALBERTi, Palladio followed the an- tive surfaces, and luxurious fabrics. It

cient Roman example, carefully exam- bears noting that panel painting devel-
ining and measuring ruins, but he oped same time (early 15th cen-
at the

developed a somewhat more rigid sys- tury) as the new Northern European
tem for following this example than Al- middle class grew wealthy and proud
berti had. In 1570 he published The enough to pay for paintings of such jew-
Four Books of Architecture, which pro- els and sculpture that they might not
vided a basis for much French and En- be in a position to purchase outright.
glish building of the next centuries. Panels were not the most expensive
Palladio's Villa Rotunda (1567-70), medium of their era tapestries and
near his hometown of Vicenza, is a cen- illuminated manuscripts were more
tral-plan building and the first domestic costly.
 —

500 PANINI, GIOVANNI PAOLO (ALSO PANNINl)

Panini, Giovanni Paolo (also paintings of the greatest monuments of

Pannini) ancient Rome. The dying gaul and
1691-1765 • Italian • painter • LAOCOON are two of more than a dozen
Rococo statues in the picture; the colosseum
and PARTHENON are framed and hung
. . . what remains to be discovered
among the many paintings on the walls
about Panini's studio practices, his
of the invented interior. The gallery
approach to the genres and subjects he
is populated by men and women in
depicted, and the authenticity of
individual paintings is considerable.
contemporary —that is, 18th-century
dress.
(Edgar Peters Bowron, 1994)

Trained as a set designer, Panini made a Panofsky, Erwin

new kind of c^pn'cc/o — "caprice," or 1892-1968 • German • art historian

imaginary scene — popular. He might, / dog in Correggio's

rather feel like the
for example, place accurate depictions
Ganymede who looks up at the skies
of famous ancient buildings and statues
into which his master, borne aloft by
in Rome within an invented setting.
the eagle, is about to disappear. But,
Panini's Interior of the Pantheon
like this dog, I have a dim
(c. 1740) describes, better than could
consciousness of the fact that
any photograph, a sense of the build-
something extremely important is
ing's enclosed space; for that rea-
happening.
son textbooks use it as an illustration of

the PANTHEON. However, Panini "freely A Jew expelled from Germany, Panof-
and imaginatively manipulated the ex- sky settled in the United States in 1934
isting pictorial and sculptural decora- and taught, along with Albert Einstein,
tion ... to create a more visually at the Princeton Institute for Advanced
attractive and scenographic composi- Study. His influence on the study of art
tion," as the historian Bowron, who is is immense, though increasingly dis-

quoted above, points out. This is in con- comment above, recorded

puted. In the
trast to his remarkable precision in ren- by gombrich, the aged Panofsky de-
dering numerous views of the interior scribed his reaction to being challenged
of Saint Peter's, also in Rome. Panini by dissident ideas. Gombrich adds,
first painted Saint Peter's in 1730, and "Can one wonder that the writer of
continued painting it during several such a letter was idolized by his stu-
decades, reflecting architectural modifi- dents and colleagues?" Panofsky's
made over time. So far
cations that were Early Netherlandish Painting (1953) in
unexplained, Bowron adds, is "the sub- effect introduced and legitimized the
tlety of his intentions and approach," study of NORTHERN RENAISSANCE art in

his reasons for fantasy in one instance America. Panofsky promoted a beguil-
and accuracy in another. In 1756 Panini ing new approach art history (es-
to
was commissioned by the due de pecially as CONNOISSEURSHIP became
Choiseul, French ambassador in Rome, tainted by commercialism): the study of
to paint an imaginary palatial gallery ICONOGRAPHY. As Panofsky defined it,

stocked with antique statues and iconography "concerns itself with the
 PANTHEON 501

subject matter or meaning of works of subsequent titles).panorama

This first

art, as opposed to their form." Going was followed by views of London, of

a step further, Panofsky discussed sea fights, and of battles of the
ICONOLOGY, which explores symbolic Napoleonic wars, all displayed in the
meaning. Iconography is descriptive; first rotunda built specifically to exhibit

iconology, interpretive. Inspired by panoramas, in Leicester Square, Lon-

Panofsky's example, finding and inter- don. After the Franco-German War, a
preting "hidden symbolism" in works panorama of the siege of Paris was ex-
of artbecame an avid preoccupation, hibited in that city. The popularity of
While scholars toward the end of the panoramic paintings spread throughout
20th century, rejecting Panofsky's au- Europe and eventually to America in
thority, recast iconology and supported traveling exhibitions. Stationary, circu-
new models of scholarship, his impor- larpanoramas were followed by mov-
tance to the discipline of art history is ing panoramas, in which a roUed-up
unchallenged. painting was slowly unfurled in front of
an audience, creating the illusion of
panorama traveling on a train or boat —views of
Two distinct meanings are attached to the Mississippi River were especially
this term. It may be used to describe a popular. In 1818-19 the American
wide landscape view such as the artistvanderlyn painted an impressive
"panoramic views" of claude lor- (immobile) panorama. The Palace of
RAIN and CANALETTO, or those pro- Versailles. It was originally 165 feet
duced by hockney during the 20th long and 18 feet high, but has lost some
century using photomontage tomake 6 feet in height from years of being
a panoramic landscape of the Grand trimmed. It has been permanently in-

Canyon. A second definition of stalled at the Metropolitan Museum of

"panorama" has to do with pictorial Art in New York City since 1988.
representations that cover the inside of
a cylindrical surface, running around Pantheon
360 degrees. An observer standing and The best preserved of all monumental
turning inside the panorama is meant to ancient Roman buildings (see roman
experience it as an approximation of art).As its name indicates, the Pan-
the actual scene it represents. Suggested theon was dedicated to all (pan) the
by a German architectural painter, the gods (theos— god) rather than a single
first constructed panorama made for deity, as was typical of most pagan tem-
public viewing was exhibited by Robert pies. It was built in Rome (118-25 ce)

Barker in Edinburgh in 1788 and repre- for Emperor Hadrian, who wanted
sented a view of that city; its title was al- "something ineluctably Roman" that
mostas wonderful as itself: Mr. Barker's expressed the multifaceted culture of
Interesting and Novel View of the City the empire, according to the historian
and Castle of Edinburgh, and the whole William MacDonald. Some of the
adjacent and surrounding country. Pantheon's distinction came from the
In 1791 Barker coined the term "pano- structural use of concrete, a material ex-
rama" (which significantly shortened ploited with unprecedented success by
 — —

502 PAPER

Roman builders. While the porch paper made in England. It was widely
facade, with columns and pediment, exported and imported before then,
suggests a Greek temple, that entry however, and between izoo and 1400,
leads into a great, half-spherical ro- paper largely replaced parchment. The
tunda covered by a 142-foot-diameter first manuscripts made of paper were
DOME. The dome's interior has decora- produced for administrative and ac-
tive, recessed panels (coffers), each of counting purposes, but inexpensive
which contains a gilded rosette. Natural books for clerics and students were also
light enters the building through 330- soon inscribed on paper — rags from
foot-diameter oculus (meaning "eye" which paper was then made cost one-
and suggesting the eye of Zeus) at the sixth the price of parchment. While
summit of the dome; open to the sky the it was still too scarce in giotto's time

oculus makes a dramatic spotlight that (early 14th century) to prepare full-
follows a path set by time of day and size CARTOONS —drawings— for fresco
season. Corinthian columns alternate painting, a century later masaccio was
with niches for statuary. The floor able to use paper cartoons for the Bran-
(which has a shallow depression and By 1300 European paper
cacci Chapel.
drainage holes beneath the oculus) is makers had begun using watermarks
paved with multicolored marble small designs impressed in the paper,
squares, alternating circle and square from —
swans to distinguish
lions to
designs. Suggesting both the dome their products. With the spread of
of heaven and the path of the planets, printing in the 1450s, paper became a
and the "unified, perfected, seamless, POPULAR CULTURE medium. But it was
comprehensible whole," MacDonald not shunned by princely libraries, one
writes, Hadrian's Pantheon expressed of which, in 1467, inventoried zo per-
"the order of the empire, sanctioned cent of its 196 manuscripts as being on
and watched over by the gods." It is paper.
probably the most imitated structure
ever built, a source of inspiration over papier colle
two millennia. (See also panini) French for "glued or pasted paper."
(See also collage)
paper
The word, from "papyrus," refers to parchment
thin sheets of material made from cellu- Animal skins were used for writing long
lose pulp derived from rags, wood, before the 2nd century bce, when an
and/or certain grasses. Invented in improved process of preparing them
China, probably during the 2nd cen- was developed in Pergamon, whence
tury, it took r,ooo years for paper mak- the word parchment ultimately derives.
ing tobecome popular in the West, even According to pliny the Elder, the new
though the technique was known (see invention came about when Eumenes II,
codex). By the 1 3th century, paper was ruler of Pergamon, wanted to enlarge
manufactured in Spain and Italy in — his library. Jealous rulers of Egypt tried

France and Germany during the 1 5th to interfere with his ambition by forbid-
but not until the later 15 th century was ding the export of papyrus, a plant that
 PARRHASIUS 503

then provided the standard writing sinuously curved in ways that may re-

material. Bred by necessity, the new mind one of the S-curve of the Interna-
manufacturing process, developed tional Style (see gothic). Also typically
on Eumenes' behalf, involved scraping, Mannerist, Parmigianino's colors seem
polishing, stretching, and then rubbing eerie, if not artificial; the mossy tones of
the skins with chalk and pumice. The the Virgin's gown and darkish emerald
result was that both surfaces, "recto" of her cape cast a greenish pallor over
and "verso," front and back, respec- all. This anemic aura adds to the
tively, were good for writing on. Ear- strange lifelessness of the infant Christ,
lier, prepared skins, known as whose pose, especially the dangling
membranes, had only one useful side. arm, mimics that of a series of dead
The two-sided parchment was later Christs going back to Michelangelo's
beneficial in development of the codex. Pieta 497-1 500), pontormo's De-
(c. 1

Skins of sheep, calves, and goats pro- scent from the Cross (1525-28), and
vided the best parchment, and that from Raphael's Entombment (1505-07).
calves, finer than the others, became Parmigianino was handsome and gifted
known as vellum. and had worldly elegance — it was said
that Raphael's soul had passed into
Parmigianino (Girolamo Parmigianino's body, although fuseli,
Francesco Maria Mazzola) whose numbered Aphorisms on Art are
1 503-1 540 • Italian • Mannerist quoted from above, seems to disagree.
Certainly Parmigianino's fate was un-
2iy. The women of Raphael are either
like that of Raphael. At one point he
his own mistress, or mother. 218. The
was imprisoned for breach of contract,
women of Correggio are seraglio
and during his last years he began to
beauties. 219. The women of Titian are
practice alchemy and became, accord-
the plump, fair, marrowy Venetian
ing to vasari, savage and wild-looking,
race. 220. The women of Parmigianino
with a beard and long hair. He died at
are coquettes. (Fuseli, c. 1790)
37, the same age Raphael was at his

Inspired by seeing his reflection in a death.

barber's convex mirror, in 1524 Parmi-
gianino painted his self-portrait on a
Parrhasius
9V2-inch-diameter wooden sphere. Vi-
late 5th century bce • Greek •
sual distortion, like that of the convex
painter • Late Classical
mirror, was pursued in many permuta-
tions in MANNERISM. Parmigianino, a He first gave symmetria to painting,

student of correggio, is best known and was the first to give liveliness to

for his Madonna with the Long Neck the face, elegance to the hair, and
(c. 1534-40), a painting in which the beauty to the mouth; and it is

Virgin is elongated to an extent that de- acknowledged by artists that he was

fies the imagination, but treatises at the supreme in painting contour lines,

time described ideal female beauty in which is the most subtle aspect of
this way. The Christ child on her lap is painting. (Pliny the Elder, ist century
similarly stretched out, and both are ce)
504 PARTHENON

Parrhasius's birth and death dates are seen by pheidias, the reconstructed
unknown, but a contemporary wrote of Parthenon reused the foundations and
a conversation between Parrhasius and some columns from the earlier building.
Socrates, who died in 399 bce, provid- There is speculation that some of the
ing at least one parameter. According to metopes (see column orders) were
written reports, Parrhasius is one of the also salvaged and reused. There are
greatest painters of ancient Greece, eight columns at each end, seventeen on
but none of his work survives. His own the sides (counting the corner columns
exploits are as legendary as the myths twice). The chief architect, ictinos,
he portrayed. For a picture of Prome- was assisted by Callicrates. The Parth-
theus —punished for stealing fire from enon's exterior style is the apogee of the
the gods by being chained to a rock Doric order, the interior is Ionic, and
where an eagle daily gnawed at his the combination signified Athenian uni-
liver —Parrhasius was reputed to have fication and the protection of those two
bought a slave and tortured him to regions of the Greek world. In architec-
death so as to study suffering. (Some ture and sculpture the Parthenon is the
scholars find the story unlikely and epitome of High classical Greek art.

argue that it was posited later, by Pericles said of it, "All the Old World's
Seneca, for the sake of teaching ethics culture culminated in Greece, all Greece
and rhetoric.) Another recurrent story in Athens, all Athens in its Acropolis, all

also involves birds: His competitor the Acropolis in the Parthenon." Two
ZEUXis had painted grapes so cleverly as design anomalies — a slight convex bow
to fool the birds, who pecked at them. of the stylobate (the platform on which
Parrhasius then presented a picture of the columns stand) and a slight cant in-
linen curtains so persuasive that Zeuxis ward of exterior columns — absorb
told him to draw the curtains and show scholars, vitruvius speculated that the
his picture behind them: the deceiver bow in the stylobate corrects our opti-
deceived. "On discovering his mistake cal inclination to see long horizontal
IZeuxis] surrendered the prize to Par- lines as if they were concave. However,
rhasius," PLINY, also quoted above, re- a contradictory theory suggests that the
ported. Parrhasius was the author of a bow is there to enhance the opposite
text, On Painting, in which he elabo- effect of a straight stylobate, which,
rated on POLYKLEiTOS's System of sym- seen from below the building —that is,

metria, but that, too, is lost. from the usual approach —would seem
slightly convex. Rather than correcting
Parthenon illusion, this, combined with other ir-

Built on the Athenian acropolis, from regularities, could serve the purpose of
447 to 432 BCE, a white marble temple making the building appear even larger
to Athena, goddess of war, wisdom, and loftier than it is. A third interpreta-
and the city of Athens. The original tion is that the structural deviations are
temple was under construction when it intended to create psychological tension
was demolished by the Persians in 480 because one expects to see a straight
BCE. By decree of pericles and over- line and upright columns but sees in-
 PARTHENON 5O5

Stead a bowed line and tilted columns, tury it became a Christian church; and
"As a result, the mind struggles to rec- after Athens fell to the Ottoman Em-
oncile what it knows with what the eye pire, in 1456, the Parthenon became a
sees, and from this struggle arises a ten- mosque. In 1687 Venetians bombarded
sion and fascination which make the the temple, igniting a stash of Turkish
structure seem vibrant, alive, and con- gunpowder that destroyed much of the
tinually interesting," writes the histo- building; after the Turks recaptured
rian The significance of the
J. J. Pollitt. Athens from the Venetians, they built a
sculptural program and that of the smaller mosque in the shell of the build-

colossal ivory and gold (chrysele- ing. Later, trying to plunder the
phantine) cult statue of Athena by Parthenon's pedimental sculpture, they
Pheidias, now lost, that stood inside are destroyed much of Adding insult
it. to
more subjects for debate. While scenes injury, in 1801 a British ambassador to
of Greeks fighting Giants or Amazons, Turkey, Lord Elgin, was able to remove
such as those on the metopes, were rou- large sections of the sculpture, which
tinely assumed to conjure up the Greek are now at the British Museum, where
defeat of Persian invaders, a new line of they are known as the elgin marbles.
research questions why Athenians Before that, however, the Parthenon's
would continue to give prominence to rediscovery and publication in the
that victory half a century later. An al- 1750s gave a powerful stimulus to the
ternative interpretation suggests that Doric Revival, a phase of architectural
the theme was a metaphor for contem- Romantic Classicism that emphasized
porary Greek women: Were they, per- the heroic and the sublime.
haps, striving for recognition or In the midst of a 30-year-long pro-
independence while the Parthenon was ject, begun in 1976, restorers are dis-
being built? Another new interpretation mantling, cleaning, and reassembling
concerns the frieze, a band 1^1 feet the Parthenon. They are trying to re-
high and 524 feet long along the upper verse damage resulting from earlier
edge of the outer wall of the cella (see restorations while conserving some
temple). Since the late 18th century, sense of the building's almost 2,500-
most scholars have thought it repre- year history by, for example, recon-
sented a contemporary procession hon- structing several interior columns that
oring Athena. In the mid-1990s, a new may have been started by the Goths in
analysis of the frieze that fits more se- 267 ce. At the same time they want to
curely with mythological conventions leave clear evidence of modern repairs,
of Greek art has gained credibility, making sure they will be reversible by
Joan B. Connelly suggests that the pro- future conservators. One way they do
cession represents the sacrifice of King this is to use a different color of marble
Erechthonius and his family, who gave for new work. Not the least of the prob-
their lives to save Athens. lems restorers are grappling with is how
Later history has left its mark on the to minimize future damage to the build-
Parthenon: The Romans inscribed ing, especially from modern pollutants
Nero's name on it; in the late 6th cen- such as acid rain.
506 PASCIN, JULES (JULIUS PINCAS)

Pascin, Jules (Julius Pincas) strange letter with instructions for a

1885-1930 • Bulgarian/American • Jewish burial. "His gift seemed to excel
painter • School of Paris in handling unsavory themes in such a
manner as to discover an element of the
/ love so much to squander money
sublime in them," the historian Walde-
about.
mar George has written. "In spite of
Pascin was so skilled a draftsman that their morbidly erotic quality, his draw-
some critics said his oil paintings were ings thus avoid becoming porno-
"drawings heightened by paint." He graphic."
worked as an illustrator and caricatur-
ist with an often biting edge, and he Passion
chronicled his travels in Europe, Amer- From the Latin for "suffering," the fre-
ica, and North Africa. His prints usu- quently illustrated Passion of Christ in-
ally were made by using a sharp needle cludes the Entry into Jerusalem and
to draw directly on copper, called dry- Last Supper, Christ Washing the Disci-
point (see intaglio). A large part of ples' Feet, the Agony in the Garden, Be-
Pascin's oeuvre was devoted to erotic trayal of Judas, Denial of Peter, Christ
studies of prostitutes, such as Back before Pilate, Flagellation, Crowning
View of Venus (19Z4-Z5), a nude, seen with Thorns, Christ Carrying the Cross,
from behind, strongly outlined to fol- the Crucifixion, Descent from the
low the voluptuous contours and fleshy Cross, the Pieta, Entombment, Descent
volume of her torso. Pascin became so into Limbo, Resurrection, and the As-
closely associated with such images that cension. By meditating on pictures of
his work was sometimes called the Christ's Passion, and to a lesser degree
"mirror of prostitutes." The son of a on those of the martyred saints, individ-

Sephardic grain merchant, Pascin uals hoped to experience visions and to

worked for his father before, at the age find mystical union with Christ through
of 17, he ran away from home to devote compassion. A movement, called the
his life to the art he had previously prac- devotio moderna, or Modern Devotion,
ticed in secret. He studied in Munich, of the 14th and 15th centuries pro-
went to Paris in 1905, and changed his moted the Imitation of Christ (Imitatio
name from Pincas to Pascin. He spent Christi) for which meditation on the
time in the United States, becoming a Passion was central. This empathetic,
citizen, but returned to Paris in 1920. emotional communion with Christ was
While he lived in New York he wrote especially widespread in Germany,
the letter from which the quotation where it is referred to in a type of devo-
above is taken. In the same letter he said tional image known as Andachtsbild.
he was increasingly indifferent to suc-
cess and attracted to life's pleasures. But pastels
he was also so absorbed by thoughts of Powdered pigments molded into sticks.
death that, in 1924, Andre Salmon ded- Pastel colors are generally paler and
icated a poem to him entitled Death and more delicate than those of oil paint
Her Mistresses. Pascin committed sui- and TEMPERA, and less stable. Pastel
cide in Paris in 1930, leaving behind a pictures, or pastels, often need to be se-
 PATINIR, JOACHIM 507

cured with a fixative that may some- sance was published in 1873, ^rid was
what dull the colors applied. In combi- called "the holy writ of beauty" by
nation with white chalk, pastels were Oscar Wilde. (See also aestheticism)
popular for portrait drawings in the

1 8th century (see Henrietta johnston). Patinir, Joachim

In the 19th century, degas used pastels c. 1480-1524 • Netherlandish •

with great success, as did morisot. painter • Northern Renaissance

/ gave Master Joachim one florin's

Pater, Walter
worth of prints for lending me his
1839-1894 • English • critic
assistant and his colors, and I gave his
She is older than the rocks among assistant three pounds' worth of
which she sits; like the vampire, she prints. (Albrecht Dijrer, 1520)
has been dead many times, and learned
Patinir's extraordinary landscapes
the secrets of the grave; and has been a
both satisfied the contemporary taste
diver in deep seas,and keeps their
for scenic views in the thriving port of
fallen day about her; and trafficked for
Antwerp and contributed to a remark-
strange webs with Eastern merchants.
able new interest in and attention to the
"She" is Mona Lisa, and famous
this environment. In fact, the first time the
passage from Pater's essay on Leo- term "landscape" was used in German
nardo quoted above is incomparably literature is when durer called Patinir
described by the critic hughes, who "thegood landscape painter." Patinir's
writes,"The famous Gioconda passage, topography closely resembles that of
which moved a whole generation of un- southern Belgium near his hometown of
dergraduates in Cambridge and Boston Dinant, but one is struck by the gigantic
to tears and become
secret fantasies, has and sometimes surreal terrain of a vast,
period fustian." About Pater, whose boundless landscape. We see his scenes
name is synonymous with the phrase from above, as from an omniscient
if

"art for art's sake," writing in Nothing point of view. Within these overwhelm-
If Not Critical (1990) Hughes contin- ing panoramas, a sm.all anecdotal mo-
ues, "Nobody ... in the 1880s could ment is found, as in Landscape with
approach the Mona Lisa without the Saint Jerome Removing Thorn from
the
sinuous Muzak of these cadences in his the Lion's Paw (c. 1 520) and Landscape
head. Pater furnished his readers with a with Charon's Boat (c. 1520-24), in
model of young revolt. Against the ma- which the River Styx divides the lush
terialism of the Victorian bourgeois fa- pastures of paradise from the rough
ther, and the arrogance of the landed peaks and canyons of hell. These "in-
'hearties,' Pater's writings set forth a verted" images, in which the story
new shudder, a more refined snobbery seems secondary (see aertsen and van
of floating and pollination: the dandyist leyden), are variously interpreted by
ideal of life lived as a procession of ex- art historians. They may, albeit indi-
quisitely shaped moments." It remains rectly, reflect the fact that people were
to be said only that Pater's well-known traveling a great deal in the period, for
Studies in the History of the Renais- pilgrimages as well as commercial pur-
 —

5o8 patron/patronage

poses. But they may also be considered national endowment FOR THE ARTS
as "politically correct" for their own especially, has been in upheaval. Studies

time: In the Post-Reformation period, of patronage are integral to the study of

images that foreground the scenery and ART HISTORY. (See also donor)
put the religious story in the back-
ground were less likely to be con- Patroon Painters
demned as idolatrous. In any case, one Patroons were Dutch settlers along the
of ART history's most unforgettable Hudson River, and Patroon Painter is
faces is that of massys's Ugly Old the name given to the anonymous lim-
Woman (15 13). It is found reproduced ners who made their portraits. Native
among the cast of characters in the fore- born and without academic training,
ground of a large (nearly 6 feet wide) they based their compositions, poses,
image, the Temptation of Saint An- and even settings on what they saw on
thony (c. 15ZO-24) by Patinir. While PRINTS imported from Europe. Thus, it

the human figures are painted by was not surprising to see a settler in up-
Massys, the vast landscape that fills the state New York looking very much like

canvas is by Patinir. a British nobleman on his estate.

patron/patronage Pausanias
The root of this term, which in art refers 2nd century ce • Greek •

to the artist's benefactor or customer, is geographer/traveler

the Latin word pater, meaning "father."
Such (in my opinion) are the most
Sources of patronage change along with
famous of the Athenian traditions afid
fluctuating social and political circum-
sights; from the mass of materials I
stances. Thus, for example, the emperor
have aimed from the outset at selecting
was a primary patron of roman art,
the really notable.
the Church commissioned art during
the MEDIEVAL period, and wealthy mer- Pausanias was an intrepid tourist, and
chants also came forward to sponsor his travel notes include histories of the

artists during the Italian and north- places he visited as well as their folk-
ern RENAISSANCES. During the 20th lore, ceremonies, customs, and im-
century the idea of patronage has so portant things and sights to see. His
vexed artists that they have sought ways lo-book Description of Greece has
both to defy and to manipulate it, only been a boon for archaeologists and art
to find, or to reassure themselves, that historians. His main interest is in the

the "establishment" — museums and monuments of ancient art, and he is

dealers as well as private individuals particularly drawn by those of the 5th

embraced them nevertheless. The and 4th centuries bce. At Delphi, for
exception to that embrace is the govern- example, he admires the work of
ment of the United States, which has POLYGNOTOS and describes his paint-
taken a stand against funding art con- ings minutely. J. G. Frazer, who trans-
sidered offensive, at least to certain of lated and published Pausanias in

its members. Since the 1980s, govern- English, wrote that "without him the
ment support of the arts, through the ruins of Greece would for the most part
 —

PEALE, CHARLES WILLSON 5O9

be a labyrinth without a clue, a riddle Washington before Princeton (1779)

without an answer." gave Washington the benevolent Peale
smile. Four years before his death, the

Peale, Charles Willson board of trustees of the Pennsylvania

1741-1827 • American • painter • Academy commissioned a self-portrait
Colonial from Peale, who had moved to Philadel-
phia just prior to the Revolutionary
Can the imagination conceive anything
War. The Artist in His Museum (1822)
more interesting than such a
shows Peale lifting a drape and provid-
museum?— Or can there he a more
ing a view into the natural history and
agreeable spectacle to an admirer of
science displays of the museum he
the divine wisdom!
founded and opened to the public in

Roughly contemporary with COPLEY 1794. (It is his idea for this museum that
but a native of Maryland rather than he describes in the quotation above.)
Boston, Peale was a saddlemaker before Shadow boxes hold specimens of North
—
he took up art he received painting American birds along the wall, and in

lessons from John Hesselius (1728- the foreground of the picture is an

1778) in exchange for a saddle. He also American turkey and the skeleton of a
went to Boston to see Copley, and made mastodon. Peale himself took part in

the ambitious artist's obligatory trip to
London to study in west's studio before
Copley did. Unlike Copley, though,
Peale was eager to return home. He was
also happy to leave the history paint-
ing that West practiced and paint the
portraits he knew would buy his
—
meals portraiture dominated Ameri-
can art well into the 19th century. The
digging up the prehistoric bones, and
painted a picture of the excavation in
progress: The Exhumation of the Mas-
todon (1806). The museum's intention
was didactic, in line with Peale's com-
mitment to education. He was con-
vinced that painting was a skill to be
learned, not a talent one is born with
and he inspired several members of his

faces that look out from Peale's can- family to paint. He actively supported
vases have their mouths curved up in a women's equality, and his liberality
particular smile that becomes recogniz- bore fruit: At least nine women artists

able as Peale's signature. Most of his can be Hnked to Charles Peale through
subjects appear charming, and none either lineage or marriage. He gave
more so than in The Peale Family (1773 his brother, James (1749-1831), his
and 1808). Gathered around a table, as first lesson; three of James's daugh-
were those in smibert's important ters were painters, and two of them,
Bermuda Group (Dean George Berke- Anna (1791-1878) and Sarah Miriam
ley and His Family) of 50-plus years (1800-188 5), were elected to member-
earlier, the family members here are rel- ship in the Pennsylvania Academy
atively informal and unpretentious; of the Fine Arts. Charles's sons,
moreover, even the dog, whose head is Raphaelle (1774-1825), Rembrandt
in the front of the picture, has a sweet (1778-1860), and Rubens (1784-
face. Peale painted many important 1865), were highly accomplished
Americans, and in General George painters.
 I

5IO PEARLSTEIN, PHILIP

Pearlstein, Philip taut curves and wrapped joints of a

born 1924 • American • painter • rattan chair {Model Seated on Rocking
Photorealist/New Realist Rattan Lounge, 1984).

/ have made a contribution to

peepshow box
humanism in 20th-century painting—
A box with painted interior panels that,
rescued the human figure from its
when seen through a small hole, seem to
tormented, agonized condition given it
become a three-dimensional scene. The
by the expressionistic artists, and the
boxes employ tricks of perspective,
cubist dissectors and of the
distorters
such as the severe distortion of anamor-
figure, and at the other extreme I have
phosis, and depend on using only one
rescued it from the pornographers, and
eye at the "peephole." Peepshow boxes
their easy exploitation of the figure for
may have been devised earlier, but they
its sexual implications. I have
became popular during the 17th cen-
presented the figure for itself, allowed
tury, when experimentation in optics
it its own dignity as a form among
was so important. In the 1650s, hoog-
other forms in nature.
STRATEN created marvelous peepshows,
Where wesselmann depersonalized the such as one with two different views
female nude by painting nearly feature- (i.e.,two peepholes) of the interior of a
less figures in flat color, Pearlstein ac- Dutch house. It includes a peek into a
complished the same objectification bedroom with, in the distance, the head
with excessive detail: bodies are all too of someone asleep in bed, as well as a
faithfully reproduced, and their features brown-and-white spaniel with winsome
are particularized and exaggerated as eyes whose top half, painted on one sur-
if by hyper-photography. His figures face, and bottom, painted on another,

are "naked" rather than "nude," to come together through optical illusion.
make a fine point of the artist's frank-
ness. Using large canvases, Pearlstein
Peeters, Clara
(again, like Wesselmann) crops bodies
1590-after 1657 Flemish • painter
at will and brings the viewer uncom-
• Baroque
fortably close to his subject. He frames
and organizes his compositions so that When saw her
(the Holladays] first
the human form may seems abstract, paintings in Vienna and Madrid in the
like the fabrics and furnishings — intri- early 1960s, they were particularly
cate shapes and carefully reproduced struck by their beauty and, upon
patterns that surround them to which — returning to the United States, tried to
they seem equivalent. As his comment learn more about the artist. They
quoted above implies, Pearlstein sees found that the standard art history
the human figure as a form among text by H. W. Janson did not at that
other forms, yet the question of its dig- time contain reference to Peeters — or
nity is more complex, unless that to any other woman artist— and
dignity is seen to reside in a cold objec- decided to focus their collecting upon
tivity that transcribes a body's folds, works by women, thus forming the
wrinkles, and fat as religiously as the nucleus of the National Museum of
 PERFORMANCE ART 5II

"^omen in the Arts. (M. L. Wood, the 1995 (loth) edition of the similarly

1987) standard Gardner's Art Through the

Ages, although Marilyn Stokstad's Art
Peeters was one of the most important History (1995) does contain an entry on
painters of the "tabletop still life," Peeters.

which she helped to make popular in

Antwerp during the first half of the pentimento, pentimenti (pi.)

17th century. Little is known of her life; Italian for "repentance," refers to
documents recording her birth and marks on a work of art that reveal the

marriage cannot be confirmed and she artist's second thoughts, change of

was never listed as a member of the mind, additions, or corrections. Penti-
artists' guild. It is not even known menti are good clues to an artist's work-
when she died, but there are paintings ing methods. Although sometimes
that bear her name dated from about pentimenti are said to suggest original-
1608. She painted flowers, foods and ity, as a copyist is less likely to make
delicacies, porcelain, glassware, and such changes, they may also be the
metal objects that comprise both a result of, for example, a master's cor-
handbook of current decorative arts rection of a workshop execution. Pen-
and superlative exemplars of the still timenti are often obvious in drawings.
LIFE genre. One subtype among the More elusive in paintings, they may be
tabletop still life is a "breakfast piece" revealed by an underdrawing or under-
in which the table is pitched so that each painting that has surfaced over time, or
thing set on it is distinct. Still Life with through scientific analyses such as x-
Tart (perhaps 161 1) is an example: All radiography and reflectography,
objects are meticulously rendered,
among them a plate of oysters, a porce- Performance art
lain pitcher and cup, fruit, pastries, and An evolution of happenings and
knives. Each object has significance be- fluxus during the 1970s. Performance
yond the perfection of its rendering, artists were also inspired by avant-

The tart, or pie, is traditionally served garde music and dance. Sometimes
at wedding feasts; it is decorated with the artist performed (see Anderson),
sprigs of rosemary, a symbol of eternity and sometimes he or she designed
and, in this context, fidelity. Oysters the performance. In 1969 the dancer-
were a delicacy and were believed to be choreographer Trisha Brown (born
an aphrodisiac. Peeters's signature is 1936) had a man equipped with moun-
engraved on the shaft of a silver knife, taineering gear descend a seven-story
Stunning in their skillfulness, her paint- building in New York City. Two per-
ings are also historic documentation of formance artists known as Gilbert and
contemporary customs and beliefs. The George (Gilbert Proesch, born 1943,
commentary quoted above is from the and George Passmore, born 1942)
catalogue of the national museum of are Britishers who collaborate as
WOMEN in the ARTS. There was still no "Living Sculpture." In The Singing
mention of Peeters in the 1995 edition Sculpture (''Underneath the Arches"),
of Janson's text, or for that matter in performed in 1971, they painted them-
512 PERGAMENE SCHOOL

selves bronze and danced, with me- his world, but from another it was be-
chanical movements, on the top of a lieved symptomatic of rash indiscretion.
table.Under the table a tape played a Financed in part with money paid to
song about two tramps, beneath the Athens by her allies for protection, the
arches of a bridge, fantasizing in their Acropolis building program was under
dreams. Part of their rationale is that way when 431 bce the Pelopon-
in

they, as artists (trained at Saint Martin's nesian War broke out and in 429 bce a
School of Art in London), could em- plague decimated Athens. Many citi-
body art and carry it out as they saw fit. zenssaw the double scourge as punish-
ment for breaking the promise, as well
Pergamene School as for the misappropriation of funds
During the Hellenistic period, the (Pericles used money earmarked for the
widely dispersed Greek influence Delian League). This belief seemed con-
was especially rich in the kingdom of firmed, at least to his enemies, when
Pergamon in Asia Minor, where the Pericles himself died in the epidemic.
style is sometimes known as Hellenistic His ambitions are expressed com- in the

baroque. It is characterized by theatri- mentary quoted above, taken from his

cality and suffering, exemplified by the famous funeral oration honoring Athe-
sculpted figures on the Altar of Zeus nians killed during the first year of the
and Athena (c. 175 bce). Originally lo- Peloponnesian War.
cated on the Acropolis, or upper city, in
Pergamon, this altar is now recon- periodicity/periodization
structed in Berlin. Describes the process of distinguishing
chronological eras in an effort to define
Pericles characteristics of artistic style in terms
died 429 bce • Greek • statesman of historic period. A broad, general his-
toric outline of the periodizations of
Mighty indeed are the marks and
Western art is (i) ancient,
3000 c.
monuments of our empire which we
bce-300 ce, (2) medieval, c. 3oo-
have left. Future ages will wonder at
1400, (3) renaissance/baroque,
us, as the present age wonders at us
c. 1400-1700, (4) modern, 1700-
now.
present. Sometimes only Ancient, Me-
The central and organizing principle of dieval, and Modern are used, incorpo-
Pericles' life was the political and cul- rating Renaissance and Baroque with
tural leadership of Athens, and from as Modern. And at other times (such as in

early as 460 bce until his death in 429 this text), more specificity is useful and
BCE, he exerted his influence on the city Modern is located during the 19th cen-
and on Greece. Despite an earlier Greek tury. (For subdivisions within periods,
vow to leave the ravaged acropolis as see the separate entries.) Stylistic peri-
it stood — a reminder of Persian barbar- ods are often named and defined after
ity — Pericles initiated a building they have ended. This is sometimes an
program there. From one perspective them (see gothic,
effort to discredit
Pericles' plans represented a humanist impressionist, and fauve). Many
belief in the potential of man to control terms used to denote periods are taken
 PERSPECTIVE 513

from art his-

disciplines other than the world. Renaissance perspective has
TORY; for example, neoclassicism, been described as the difference be-
ROMANTiciSM, REALISM, and POST- tween looking through a window to see
MODERN are adopted from literary the world, as humanists did, and the
history and theory. Periodization is a more spiritual, or experiential, ap-
subject of dispute involving not merely proach of walking through the window
beginning and ending dates, or the The latter ap-
to be inside the world.
boundaries of a "period," but also in- proach characterized byzantine art,
fluences that initiated or concluded it. and later cubism, surrealism, and
One complaint against the notion of pe- other modern experiments,
riodicity is that it endeavors to homoge- The "inventors" of perspective were
nize diversity. Despite the validity of brunelleschi, who first demonstrated
complaints against it, periodization its and alberti, who de-
principles,
serves the useful purpose of establishing scribed its underlying geometry and
landmarks (much like the canon), showed how it might be appHed. (It was
which may then be contested. Alberti who first likened a painting to a
window onto the visible world.) In his
Perry, Lilla Cabot treatise On Painting (1435), he de-
See American impressionism scribed the method for plotting "one
point perspective," taking into account
perspective the artist's viewpoint, the horizon line,
In art, perspective is a system for show- and a "vanishing point" where all "or-
ing three-dimensional space on a (usu- thagonals" (i.e., lines drawn from the
ally flat) two-dimensional surface. And baseline to the horizon) hypothetically
in art, as in literature, one's perspective converge. Once rules of mapping per-

depends on one's point of view and vice spective were established, like all rules

versa: Technicalities of perspective are they were manipulated: Objects and

extensions of the way an artist sees the scenes were looked at from playful,
world philosophically as well as opti- odd, and unusual angles, mantegna's
cally. Greek artists began to think about ceiling in the Camera degli Sposi
showing objects in space, and the Ro- (1465-74), which gives the illusion of
mans were even more absorbed with people looking down into the room
creating an illusion or resemblance of through an opening into the sky, is a fa-
the perceived world. During earlier and mous example. It is also an exercise in

later periods, scenes were portrayed as di sotto in su ("from below upward")

personal or spiritual experience, with perspective, of which pozzo's ecstatic

the sense of being inside the picture Glorification of Saint Ignatius [c. x6^^-
rather than looking from outside. The 94) is an extraordinary example,
first scientific explorations of perspec- Pozzo's Ignatius, as well as uccello's
tive began in the Italian renaissance. Romano (mid-i450s) and
Battle of San
They depended on the egocentric, ratio- Mantegna's Dead Christ (c. 1500) con-
nal, circumspect, and humanist belief tain examples of perspectival foreshort-
that man was the center of the universe ening, the result of focusing on a person

and could both understand and change or object by drawing a bead on its long
514 PERUGINO, PIETRO

axis. Atmospheric or aerial perspective Keys of the Kingdom to Saint Peter

is an approach that recognizes how (c. 1480-82). His FRESCO, in company

color and light appear to change in the with those of botticelli, ghirl-
The background of Leo-
far distance. ANDAio, and siGNORELLi, illustrates

nardo's Mona Lisa (begun c. 1500- that moment in the Bible on which
03) is an example of atmospheric the rule of papal authority rests, Peter
perspective. Anamorphosis, from the being the first father, or "pope," of
Greek word for "transform," explores the Church. The figures are lined up
the experience of seeing an object from in a well-ordered tableau. Behind the
a radical point of view that utterly dis- actors, as if on a painted theatrical

torts its form. The strange object on the backdrop, is a perspective grid leading
floor in holbein's The French Ambas- to the buildings along the horizon line.
sadors (1533), in truth the elongated Whether in a Crucifixion or a Lamenta-
perspective of a skull seen from a close, tion, Perugino's static figures are silent,

sharp angle, is an example of anamor- and perhaps part of their appeal has to

phosis. Other methods of representing do with qualities that also make them
perspective have been invented and ex- anachronistic: little variety in poses and
plored, and more will no doubt evolve lack of expressiveness or psychological
from cyberspace and virtual reality, but insight. But what makes a picture by Pe-
whether measured on a grid or trans- rugino irresistible is the reassuring
lated from a surreal dream or from an background — frequently still, serene,
abstract concept, each serves to express beautiful landscape. An important con-
the artist's own vision as part of the tribution to his coloristic effect was due
worldview of her or his era. to his experimentation with oil paint-
ing, as Marcia Hall notes in the quota-
Perugino, Pietro tion above. Perugino and his Italian

c. 1450-1523 • Italian pamter compatriots were suitably impressed

Renaissance and influenced by the Portinari Altar-
piece (c. 1473-78), which had been
Perugino was renowned as one of the
commissioned from van der goes
early experimenters in central Italy
and was delivered to his Florentine
with the technique of glazing in
patron in 1483. One of the young
oil. . . . Flemish-style realism became
painters whose reputation grew as Pe-
the prevailing fashion in the 1480s,
rugino's declined was his own student
and in order to achieve it Perugino
RAPHAEL.
set about teaching himself the
Flemish technique. (Marcia Hall,
i99z) Peto, John Frederick
1 854-1 907 • American • painter •
The city for which he is named, Perugia,
Trompe L'Oeil
was put on the map by this artist, al-
though he also worked in Florence and It does not take a Freudian
Rome, where on the walls of the Sistine psychologist to perceive that Peto's
Chapel he painted Christ Delivering the concern with used-up, discarded,
 PEVSNER, ANTOINE 515

and rejected things parallels his own friend and mentor to boccaccio. Not
life. This has gently poetic only were his own works illustrated (see

implications. (Alfred Frankenstein, martini), but also his likeness was

1969) often painted — e.g., by the boucicaut
master early in the 1 5 th century and by
A friend of harnett and also a Andrea castagna later in that century.
Philadelphian who studied at the Penn- Petrarch established an elitist jargon as
sylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, like well as an aesthetic hierarchy, exclud-
Harnett Peto painted trompe l'oeil ing the "ignorant" from the pleasure of
pictures. However, Peto's brushwork is art, which explains his comment about
more visible and more dra-
his lighting GIOTTO in the quotation above.
matic than Harnett's. While he also
painted still lifes of old rather than Pevsner, Antoine
new objects, Peto's are more tattered 1886-1962 • Russian •

and suggest a step down on the eco- painter/sculptor • Constructivist

nomic ladder from Harnett's world. An
Space and time are reborn in us today.
example of his work The Cup We All
is
Space and time are the only forms on
Race 4 (c. 1900), in which a battered tin
which life is built and hence art must
drinking cup hangs from a nail, against
be constructed.
a cracked, rough, painted background.
The title is ambiguous, but critic Frank- With his younger brother gabo, Pevs-
enstein's comment, quoted above, ner cosigned The Realistic Manifesto
refers to Peto's failure to attract buyers (19Z0), which laid down the con-
for his work. structivist idea; however, the extent
of his contribution to the movement, or
Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) to the manifesto itself, is uncertain. In
1 304-1 3 74 • Italian • poet the late 1920s Pevsner began to make
exactingly engineered abstract sculp-
[Giotto's] beauty amazes the masters
tures in metal. One of his most accom-
of the art, though the ignorant cannot
plished and unusual works, Projection
understand it.
into Space (1938-39), is hammered and
Looking back 1,000 years to the cul- polished, rather than cast bronze. Two
tures of ancient Rome and Greece, Pe- curved, winglike planes, back to back,
campaign to recover
trarch launched a give the work a sense of continual rota-
CLASSICAL works and to revitalize tional movement. Because movement
HUMANISM — in effect, he may have presumes a change from past to present
launched the Italian renaissance. and present to future, the work alludes
Much of Petrarch's poetry was ad- to time. It is a simple shape but a com-
dressed to a woman named Laura, plex form: Space is drawn into its soft
whose actual identity is not known. He curves, and is defined by its curvilinear
was crowned poet laureate on the Capi- edges. Thus Projection into Space ful-
toline Hill in Rome in 1341, survived fills the space and time mandated in the
the Black Death of 1348, and was a manifesto as quoted above.
 —

5l6 PEVSNER, SIR NIKOLAUS

Pevsner, Sir Nikolaus response to technology. (See also hegel

1902-1983 • German/English • art and riegl) The quotation above is from
historian Pevsner's introduction to An Outline of
European Architecture (1942).
A bicycle shed is a building; Lincoln
Cathedral is a piece of architecture.
Pfaffjudy
Nearly everything that encloses space
born 1946 • English/American •
on a scale sufficient for a human being
sculptor/installations •
to move in is a building; the term
Contemporary/Abstract Expressionist
architecture applies only to buildings
designed with a view to aesthetic Swimming Caribbean off the
in the

appeal. coast of Mexico in Quintana Roo, I

discovered a world undersea that
Pevsner started his career in Germany
corresponded to a new direction I had
before moving to England in the 1930s
been struggling towards in my work.
to escape the Nazi regime. His ap-
proach to ART HISTORY was "eclcctic," Pfaffwas born in London and trained in
according to the historian Eric Fernie, America at Yale University. She uses
who writes, "He was first and foremost various materials that sway, dart, and
an empiricist of such energy that he has hover as if far below the ocean surface,
been described as an academic locomo- as her description of their source,
tive and a discerning vacuum cleaner." quoted above, indicates. Deepwater
Pevsner compiled a series of books. The (1980) is one example. About it Pfaff
Buildings of England, an enormous said, "In the ocean the deeper you go,
perhaps the most enormous —research the less light there is, and the stranger
and publication project in architectural the life forms become. The formal vo-
history.He also published an important cabulary for this work became more ab-
defense of modern architecture, Pio- stract and visually dense. lit] was . . .

neers of the Modern Movement from. about a deeper engagement and a

William Morris to Walter Gropius greater risk." abstract
With entirely

(1936; retitled Pioneers of Modern De- forms in various materials, wonder-

sign in subsequent editions). Citing ful colors, and constant motion, Pfaff

three ways in which architecture creates suggests seaweed, coral, fishes, and sen-
aesthetic sensations — through planes, sations of a magical deep-sea environ-
which it shares with painting; masses, ment. Her INSTALLATIONS often fill a
shared with sculpture; and volumes gallery space, and viewers sense they
unique to the building profession have entered another world.
Pevsner argued that architecture was
thus foremost among all the arts. This
Pheidias (also Phidias)
primacy is supported by the social di-
active c. 460-430 bce • Greek •
mension of architecture, a preeminently
sculptor • High Classical
humanistic endeavor. Architectural
style developed, Pevsner believed, in Pheidias supervised everything.
fulfillment of the spirit of its age, not in (Plutarch, ist-2.nd century ce)
 PHOTOMONTAGE 517

Pheidias was overseer of the Parth- seems to have projected a state of mind
enon's sculptural program. It is not which was detached but not remote,
known how much of the project Phei- aware but not involved." Certainly suc-
dias himself carved, but he may have ceeding artists were greatly influenced
prepared detailed models for craftsmen by the majesty of his style.

to follow. He was renowned for two

colossal CHRYSELEPHANTINE (gold Phillips, Ammi
and ivory) cult statues —one of Athena, See FOLK ART
Athena Parthenos, for the Parthenon on
the Athenian acropolis, and the other Philostratus
of Zeus for his temple at Olympia. Nei- 3rd century ce • Greek •

ther survives; however, written descrip- philosopher

tions and copies in various mediums,
Purple figs dripping with juice are
some reconstruc-
including coins, allow
heaped on vine and they are
leaves,
tions. Athena Parthenos was 40 feet
depicted with breaks in the skin, some
high, she wore her goatskin cloak,
just cracking open to disgorge their
and the base she stood on as well as
honey, some split apart, they are so
—
her accessories helmet, sandals, and
shield —were decorated with the famil- ripe.

iar mythological metaphors that the Philostratus taught in Athens and

Greeks used to express their current Rome, and his book Imagines was writ-
problems or concerns. The statue was ten to acquaint students with painting.
also responsible for Pheidias's down- Imagines describes pictures in the
fall, may have been enemies
although it collection of a wealthy Neapolitan.
of PERICLES who wished to discredit the Whether it was a real or hypothetical
artist: was accused of keeping
Pheidias collection is not known, but the text is

for himself some of the precious materi- key in a category of writing known as
als designated for the sculptures, and he ekphrasis, exemplified by the excerpt
was condemned for carving his own from Imagines cited above.

portrait onto Athena's shield, where the

struggle between Greeks and Amazons photography
was represented. Whether undone by See printing and reproduction
hubris, politics, or both, Pheidias went
from Athens to Olympia, where he photomontage
carved the cult statue of Zeus, which A method making a single image by
of
was later counted as one of the seven combining two or more photographic
WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. It is negatives, or prints, and often pho-
not known whether Pheidias died in tographing the finished composition.
exile or if he was imprisoned and exe- (The last step is not always taken.) Dur-
cuted in Athens. But he was responsible ing the 19th century, a form of pho-
for the Athenian style that character- tomontage was used to construct
ized the visionary dream of Pericles. J. J. illusionistic scenes, from a vast political
Pollitt wrote, "All Pheidian sculpture convention constructed of individual
5l8 PHOTOREALISM

portrait photographs, to a small family realists include estes, close, flack,

gathering in which, as occasionally hap- and fish.
pened, a deceased relative was able to
rejoin the household through cutting, PhotO-Secession
pasting,and rephotographing the as- See stieglitz
sembly. dada and surrealist artists
(e.g., HOCH and ernst) irreverently Piazzetta, Giovanni Battista
combined photographs, often taken by c. 1 682-1754 • Italian •
others, removing themselves, as artists, painter/draftsman • Rococo
from the traditional
,,-
It
,

was the perfect retort to the insanity

. ......
role of originator.
representing a life-stze
» # / 1
,.^
woman,
1 ,

r , , . , seated with a boy between her knees, a

of a world torn to pieces by war and
,

,
, • /
, / i i

, T, 11-
.
1
• 1 basket Of grapes in her hand, dogs,
revolution. ... by dissembling the au- , , 1 r 1 , ,

. , r , 111- 1
^1^0 catch sight of a duck in the water
thorship of the assembled images they
,

attacked the notion that

, , 11what was valu-
1
,
^nd two men
.
,
in the distance.
i-

,,
. . .
.
A
, , , , ,
, • woman ,
with an umbrella, a
,

able about them was the artist s in- .

, „ ,

„ , ^ „ , . . , . maidservant, a peasant, an idle boy,

tention, the historian David Iravis , , , , r
and the head of cow.
writes. HOCKNEY s photomontages , ,

have included both panoramic (e.g., of Although Venetian artists were notori-
the Grand Canyon) and other idiosyn- ously late in adopting the light colors
cratic collages of photographs. In the and decorative spirit ofrococo. Pi-
latter category, for Pearblossom Hwy., azzetta might be considered more noto-
11-18 April, 1982, #2 (1986) Hockney rious for insistently not adopting them,
combined fragments of hundreds of and becoming nevertheless one of the
color prints in a composition that two dominant artists in Venice during
shows a littered, dry desert landscape the i8th century (tiepolo was the
traversed by a road, traffic signs, and an other). He carried out a number of com-
ironic street sign that reads pearblos- missions for Marshal Schulenburg, a
SOM HWY. professional soldier originally from
Saxony but then retired and living in
Photorealism Venice. These included the canvases in
Refers to paintings that look like pho- the quotation above, bluntly described
tographs. Often the artist uses a photo- by the artist himself for his patron's in-
graph or slide as the resource from ventory. Piazzetta was a disciple of car-
which the painting is made, and often avaggio in his contrasting of light and
the work on canvas goes beyond dark (chiaroscuro). In 1750 he was
photography in its sharpness of focus, appointed director of the new Venetian
brightness, and the reflectivity of State Academy, where he taught until
glass and other mirroring materials, his death. Besides his usually religious

This heightening of effect leads to oil was known for

paintings, Piazzetta
Photorealism alternatively being called drawings of heads and half-figures,
Superrealism and New Realism. Photo- called tetes de caractere. He smudged
 —

PICASSO, PABLO 519

white chalk to heighten the black-chalk tion difficult to decipher, enigmatic,

images and captured momentary scenes and mysterious. It is to these Trans-
of interaction, such as in A Bravo, a Girl parencies that he refers in the quotation
and an Old Woman (c. 1740), which above.
shows a procuress whispering in a
young woman's ear while a man dan- Picasso, Pablo
gles his purse. This socially as well as 1881-1973 • Spanish •

emotionally interesting moment is rem- painter/sculptor • Cubist

iniscent of the brothel category of
The masks weren't just like any other
Dutch BAROQUE GENRE pictures.
pieces of sculpture. Not at all. They
Tt- t-- r • were magic thmes
* . . . mtercessors,
Picabia, rrancis ..
mediators. . . . I hey were against
1879-1953 • French painter
everything— against unknown,
Dada/Surrealist
threatening spirits. I always looked at
. . . the resemblance of my interior fetishes. I understood; I too am against
desires. everything. I too believe that
everything is unknown, that everything
Picabia had acquired a substantial repu-
is an enemy! Everything!
tation as an impressionist when, in

19 1 2, he did an about-face and began For almost 80 years it was conventional

painting pictures that are part
and part dada. These had nonsense
such as Catch as Catch Can (19 13),
ties
an entirely nonrepresentational link-
orphism to describe cubism as a joint invention
ti- of Picasso and braque. The earliest
writings of its promoters and explain-
ers, including the poets apollinaire

ing of colors but greatly muted in and Andre Salmon and the dealer
comparison with those of the seminal kahnweiler, even focus on Picasso as
Orphist, delaunay. In 19 15, in New though the honor of invention should
York with duchamp and man ray, crown him first. It was an exhibition at
Picabia founded what would become the Museum of Modern Art in New
International Dada. He painted a series York City 1989 that strongly re-
in
of ironic Machine Portraits of himself versed the order: "Braque had already
and his colleagues. Although lei, c'est evolved significantly in the direction of
Stieglitz (191 5) is a drawingof a camera Cubism before he met Picasso," wrote
standing in for the famous photogra- the exhibition curator William Rubin,
pher, stieglitz, many of the machine "The earliest form of Cubism was less a

pictures bear no relation, let alone re- 'joint creation' . . . than an invention of
semblance, to their subject's profession. Braque alone." This both sets the
Under the influence of surrealism, record straight and allows a new per-
Picabia painted Transparencies, a series spective on Picasso, and especially on
superimposing layer upon layer of his early work. Les Demoiselles d'Avi-
images —men, women, flowers, birds gnon (1906-7), previously named the
over one another, creating a composi- first Cubist painting, need no longer be
520 PICASSO, PABLO

watered down with discussions of its tion developed through its Analytic and
FORMAL geometric qualities. Rather, Synthetic phases. (See also kahnweiler
this alarming, nearly 8-feet-square can- and cubism) In the year Analytic Cu-
vas, named for a red-light district of bism reached its peak, 191 1, his and
Barcelona, may be examined on its ex- Braque's works were almost indistin-
pressive, contextual merits: an angry, guishable. They then began the even
totemic representation of women as more fertile Synthetic Cubism in 19 12
threatening, aggressive, and danger- and explored it into the 1920s, making
ous —the FEMME FATALE of mid- 19th- collage constructions and sculpture.
century PRE-RAPHAELITES through a (The pioneering collage was Picasso's
newly distorted lens. Where their Still Life with Chair-Caning, 19 12, on

Jezebels were beautiful and erotic, Pi- which a piece of oilcloth imprinted with
casso's ugly prostitutes express "his caning and framed with rope is pasted;
deep-seated fear and loathing of the fe- use of such "alien" material flew in the
male body, which existed side by side face of artistic tradition.) As if in reac-

with his craving for and ecstatic ideal- tion to the flat planes of Cubism, Picasso
ization of it," as Rubin writes else- began to paint massive, sculptural forms
where. Part of Picasso's rage resulted during the 1920s (e.g., The Race, 1922),
from his contraction of venereal disease a phase called his Classical Period. He
at a brothel. While adding important also manipulated and combined both
perspective, this does not lessen the in- Analytic and Synthetic Cubism, with
ventiveness of Picasso's incorporation patterns that look like collage but are
of pre-Christian Iberian culture and painted rather than pasted onto the can-
African sculpture, especially the masks vas and forms that are often rounded
mentioned above, nor does the exor- and flattened rather than volumetric
cism of his personal demons diminish (Girl Before a Mirror, 1932). As Demoi-
the cataclysmic role that Demoiselles selles is the masterpiece of his early
and Picasso played in the future of art. years, Guernica (1937) is a masterpiece
Picasso's genius was enjoyed with of the century. Inspired by the destruc-
and by friends and followers who gath- tion of the Basque town of Guernica by
ered at his Montmartre studio, called German planes during the Spanish Civil
Bateau Lavoir (Laundry Boat), begin- War, the painting's description of war's
ning about 1905. Art historians divide obscenity and horror is unique. The
his production into "periods": the Blue hundred or so studies he made for it, the
Period, an early one in which his work themes familiar from his earlier work,
often expressed the poverty he suffered the symbolism — all contribute to its in-

and saw around him (e.g.. Woman terest, yet nothing can satisfactorily ap-
Ironing, 1904), and during which proach an explanation of its power.
his palette was predominantly blue; Picasso's career continued, he lived

then his Rose Period (e.g., Young Acro- largely in the south of France, and his

bat and Child, 1905). Once he did be- output of paintings, sculpture, and deco-
gin working with Cubism, and with rations for pottery continued unabated
Braque, in late 1909, his experimenta- in bursts of energy and invention.
 PICTURESQUE, THE 52I

pictograph closest to the viewer. If the Italian re-

A pictograph is a highly simplified, naissance analogy of looking out of a

shorthand symbol for a word or an window is used, the visible object clos-
idea. Prehistoric rock paintings, Egypt- est to the glass is in the front of the pic-

ian hieroglyphs, as well as many Native ture plane, or foreground; the vanishing
American designs are pictographs. point is on the most distant plane in the

Often universal signs, such as a spiral, a background. Between front and back,
pictograph may stand for water or the the image— scene, landscape, portrait,
idea of a journey, klee worked in what or whatever may be — constructed
it is

might be called his own pictographic through imaginary parallel planes on

system, and abstract expressionist which the illusion of distance is created
Adolph GOTTLIEB painted numerous by perspective. It is wolfflin who de-
pictographs derived from prehistoric scribed depth in Renaissance painting
and ancient mythological sources as as achieved along parallel planes, in
well as his own inventions. contrast to baroque artists moving
into the distance by breaking through
Pictorialism such planes along (at times circuitous)
A movement in photography to change diagonal paths. When there is no effort

and redefine the photographer's toshow distance or depth of field, as in

role from technician, more or less, to medieval painting, the work is de-
artist, and to promote the status of the scribed as "planar."
photograph to art object. Pictorialism
resembled aestheticism, the art-for- Picturesque, the
art's-sake concept. Foremost among The Picturesque in painting, landscape
Pictorialists, stieglitz insisted on the architecture, and architecture stood on
artistic, personal vision of photogra- ground between the neoclassical
phy. While some Pictorialists (e.g., beautiful ideal and the romantic Sub-
steichen) blurred the camera's focus lime. In contrast to the sublime, which
or manipulated the image during the could incite terror, the Picturesque, as
developing process, others, including William Gilpin wrote about it, begin-
Stieglitz, refused to use what they con- ning in the late i8th century, would
sidered artifice. Stieglitz stressed choice stimulate reverie or admiration. The
and framing of subject matter, lighting, concept of the Picturesque was devel-
and natural atmosphere, such as fog or oped by Uvedale Price in An Essay on
rain, to achieve his desired effects. Pic- the Picturesque as Compared with the
torialism became outmoded around Sublime and the Beautiful {ij9^), some
1 9 1 2. 37 years after Edmund Burke's disserta-
tion on the Sublime. The Picturesque
picture plane landscape might look like a scene set by
Plane is from the Latin for a "flat sur- claude lorrain: a composition char-
face"; combined with "picture," the acterized by the asymmetrical place-
term refers to a picture's surface, espe- ment of forms and containing a variety
cially whatever is on it that appears of textures. In the i8th century, actual
522 PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA

landscapes (i.e., gardens, grounds, and the early zoth century. Piero had several
parks) were designed to be Picturesque, portrait commissions, and those painted
that is to look more "natural" than they in c.1472 for his most important pa-
were in fact. Designers of Picturesque tron, MONTEFELTRO, of Urbino, are
landscapes were the Englishman, and particularly interesting: profile busts of
friend of Price, Humphrey Repton the duke and his wife on one side, and
(1752-1818) and the 19th-century the couple riding in horse- and unicorn-
American downing. drawn carts on the other. In the back-
grounds are panoramic landscapes that
Piero della Francesca reveal the influence of contemporary
c. 1415-1492 • Italian pamter • Flemish painting. While Piero's most
Renaissance complex and renowned painting, in the

Church of San Francesco in Arezzo, is

Many painters censure perspective. . . .

the Legend of the True Cross (c.

conclude that perspective
I

necessary, inasmuch as it
is

determines as
1450s) —
10 scenes that wind from the
Book of Genesis to the victory of the em-
a true science the apparent size of each
peror Constantine under the standard of
magnitude, indicating by means of
lines how much each must be
the Cross — his most mathematically
lucid but otherwise perplexing work is
shortened or lengthened.
the Flagellation of the mid- 14 50s. The
Piero was indomenico Veneziano's PERSPECTIVE is SO exacting that scholars
Florentine workshop in 1439, but re- have been able to reconstruct the build-
turned to his hometown, Borgo San Se- ing in which the scene is set. Yet no one
polcro, west of Florence, to live and has been able to explain (i) why Christ
work. Although outside of the main- and his tormentors have been set in the

stream, Piero was appreciated by his background, and (2) who the three ap-
—
contemporaries one named him "the parently unconcerned men in the fore-

—
monarch of painting" but his reputa- ground are. Many identifications of the

tion was obscured for five centuries in three have been proposed, one recently
the shadow of the preference given, after suggesting that the barefoot man in the

VASARi, to Florentine artists. Piero's bent center is the biblical criminal Barabbas,
toward science, especially mathematics, who was released just before the Flagel-
is evident in the solid-looking, geometric lation took place, and that the other two
forms with which even his human fig- represent the Roman who brought him
ures are constructed, none more so than and the Jew to whom he was released.

the monumental Virgin of his Madonna

della Misericordia (begun c. 1445). She
Piero di Cosimo
is twice as large as the kneeling sup-
1461/62-1521? • Italian • painter •
plicants whom she shelters under her
Renaissance
tentlike cape. Curiously, it was the pio-
neering style of CEZANNE, who was also . . . he kept himself shut up and would
interested in portraying volumetric so- not permit anyone to see him work.
lidity, that prompted people to look He would not allow his rooms to be
back at Piero with new appreciation in swept . . . would never suffer the fruit-
 PIGALLE, JEAN-BAPTISTE 523

trees of his garden to be pruned or bies irritated him, and so did the cough-
trained, leaving the vines to grow and ing of men, the sound of bells, the
trail along the ground . . . he loved to singing of the friars. When it rained
see everything wild, saying that nature hard he loved to see the water rushing
ought to be allowed to look after itself. off the roofs and splashing on to the
He would often go to see animals, ground. He was much afraid of light-

herbs, or any freaks of nature . . . his ning and was terrified of the thunder.
habitual food consisted of hard-boiled He would wrap himself up in his msm-
eggs, which he cooked while he was tie, shut up the windows and doors of
boiling his glue, to save the firing. He the room and crouch into a corner until

would cook not six or eight at a time, the fury of the storm had passed."
but a good fifty, and would eat them
one by one from a basket in which he Pieta
kept them. (Vasari, mid-i6th century) From the Italian word for "pity" and
"piety," the Pieta is that part of the pas-

Piero was a remarkable eccentric, in sion when the Virgin Mary holds and
both his personal life, described by mourns her dead son. (The term
VASARI above, and his painting. As in- "Lamentation" describes the scene im-
terested in pagan mythology as were mediately after Christ is removed from
contemporary Neoplatonists, he read the Cross and is surrounded by mourn-
ancient sources for inspiration (see ers.) There is no scriptural source for the

neoplatonism); however, his interpre- Pieta, but it seems to have been a textual
tations were entirely different: more invention of the 13th century, acting as
bizarre than high-minded, more humor- a foil to Virgin and Child imagery, with
ous than deferential. For example, in the intent of promoting imaginative vi-
stunning contrast to ghirlandaio, sualization. Despite the word's Italian
POLLAIUOLO, and piero della Fran- root, the first-known Pietas in art were
cesca, for whom portraiture was an op- German, of the early 14th century. An
portunity to depict their subjects in anonymous early- 14th-century painted
elegant finery, in his Simonetta wood carving, known as the Roettgen

Vespucci (c. 1 501), Piero shows his Pieta, represents the Germanic type,

elaborately coifed lady bare-breasted, showing almost repellent physical de-

wearing a real snake as a "necklace." tails of Christ's tortured body and overt

Piero's imagination was operating at expression of suffering, michelan-

full throttle in his series of small panels gelo's marble sculpture in Saint Peter's,

illustrating the beginnings of civiliza- nearly 6 feet high, is the most renowned
tion, with a collection of cavorting and Pieta (1498-1500).
warring half-human/half-beast charac-
ters. Yet also he showed a touching ten- n- 11 t t> ^.u
Pigalle, Jean-Baptiste
J
derness m his , ,

portrayals of dogs, and a

r 1 J
„ t-
French
i 1

, ,. r . I ; J
1714-1785 • • sculptor •
keen discernment of their habits and _,

w
I
•
r n ' I
'
Rococo
personalities. Vasari s litany or Piero s
peculiarities includes additional puz- In our own days we have seen our
zling idiosyncrasies: "The crying of ba- soldiers sharpening their sabers on the
 a

524 PIGMENT

tomb of Marechal de Saxe. {George water (watercolor and gouache),

Duplessis, 1881) wax (encaustic), or egg white (tem-
pera). Originally derived from both or-
Pigalle's first marble portrait bust of ganic and mineral substances —plants,
Madame de Pompadour, Louis XV's fa- animals, earth and rocks —today most
mous mistress, was made in 1748, and pigments are synthetic. Yet some 20th-
thereafter he became her official "por- century artists still prepare and mix
traitist in stone." Considering the num- theirown paints, Andrew wyeth
bar and importance of the commissions among them. The quality of any pig-
that she gave him, he might also be con- ment is defined by hue, value, and in-
sidered the chief sculptor in her employ, tensity.

This was, however, just a small fraction

of his prodigious output. Much ro- Piles, Roger de
coco art was decorative, playful, and 163 5-1709 • French •

intimate, but there were occasional op- critic/theoretician/painter • Baroque

portunities for the grandiose in 18th-
[Rubens] was so strongly persuaded
century France, and Pigalle's Tomb of
that the aim of the painter was to
the Marechal de Saxe (1753-76) — imitate nature perfectly, that he did
heroic group more baroque than Ro-
nothing without consulting and
—
coco is a case in point. The work is in-
there has never been a painter
her,

who has
stalled in a church at Strasbourg. The
observed and who has known better
Marechal, a French soldier, is accompa-
than he how to give to objects their
nied by allegorical figures that include a
true and distinctive character.
distraught Hercules and personifica-
tions of conquered countries. They ap- De Piles was a major influence on
pear as actors in a melodramatic French thought long before 1699, when
tableau. Pigalle earned his success after hardouin-mansart made him chief
a heroic struggle of his own: To pursue theoretician responsible for formulat-
his early studies, he walked from Paris ing the "infallible principles" by which
to Rome and endured sickness and the French Academy would be gov-
poverty. Back in Paris, he became a erned. (Until then, de Piles was not a
leading sculptor; clodion was one of member of the Academy.) One of de
his students. Almost 100 years after his Piles's objectives was to liberate the the-
death, according to Duplessis, quoted ory of painting from the dominance of
above, his Marechal de Saxe was still literary theory, which was the doctrine
able to provoke emotion. of the early academy. De Piles played an
outstanding role in the dispute between
pigment Poussinistes and Rubenistes (see line
Although from the Latin pingere, mean- vs. color). He defended the color of
ing "to paint," pigment is the insoluble the Venetian painters, especially Titian,
coloring substance that gives paint its and stood against the French Academy
COLOR or hue. Pigment is carried by in his ardent support of rubens, as in

and applied via a medium such as oil, the quotation above. He wrote pam-
 —

PINTURICCHIO (also PINTORICCHIO) (BERNARDINO DI BETTO) 525

phlets defending his position, and in the in 1572, Pilon produced a series of ex-

Principles of Painting (1708) he graded cellent medals showing that his talent as

the best-known painters according to a portraitist and his skill working in

how well they mastered Composition, bronze equaled his expertise in marble.
Drawing, Color, and Expression
which he considered the "Four Princi- Pinney, Eunice Griswold
pal Parts of Painting." Only Raphael, See FOLK ART
with an 18 (the highest score), sur-
passed Rubens in Expression, but Pinturicchio (also Pintoricchio)
Rubens was assigned 18 in Composi- (Bernardino di Betto)
tion, for which Raphael was graded 17. c. 1452-1513 Italian • painter •

De Piles graded Titian 18 in Color, and Renaissance

Rubens only 17.
When he had attained the age of fifty-
nine he was employed to paint a
Pilon, Germain (also Pillon)
Nativity of the Virgin in S. Francesco
c. 1 525-1 590 • French • sculptor •
at Siena. After he had begun it, the
Mannerist
friars gave him a room to dwell in,

Pilon does not hesitate to use gestures entirely bare, as he desired, except for

and features that are almost grotesque a large antique trunk, which they
in order to heighten his effect. found too heavy to move; but
(Anthony Blunt, 1953) Pinturicchio, who was very eccentric,
made such a clamor that the friars in
Pilon's best-known work The Three
is
despair determined to take it away. In
Graces (1561-65), a group of three
removing it they broke a plank, and
large marble figures designed to sup-
out came ^00 gold ducats. Pinturicchio
port an urn that held the heart of Henry
was chagrined at this, and bore such a
II. Pilon's Graces have classical pro-
grudge against the poor friars for their
portions, long necksand small heads,
good fortune, that he could think of
and wear Roman robes. They recall pri-
nothing else, and it so weighed upon
MATICCIO, in whose studio Pilon
his mind that it caused his death.
worked. Later Pilon's style became a
(Vasari, mid- 1 6th century)
good deal more expressive and Man-
nerist (see mannerism). This shows in Pinturicchio, a nickname that alludes to
the Tomb of Valentine Balbiani (1573- was from Perugia and
his small size,

74), a gisant, or recumbent funerary ef- worked with perugino on the Sistine
figy. It is a marble relief of the dead Chapel. He became the favored painter
woman lying on top of her sarcopha- of the Borgia pope, Alexander VI, who
gus, her curling, flowing hair, sunken aimed to re-create the luxury of imper-
cheeks, and emaciated body simultane- ial Rome. He also painted a series of
ously repellent and fascinating. The ef- FRESCOes for the Piccolomini Family Li-

fect is powerful, for reasons suggested brary in the Cathedral of Siena (c.

by BLUNT in the quotation above. Ap- 1502-08). It was the Italian renais-
pointed Controller General of the Mint sance version of virtual reality: Elabo-
526 PIPPIN, HORACE

rate architectural — details pilasters describes, he made his way back to

(flattened, COLUMN-Iike wall decora- drawing by burning lines into a board
tions), arches, and vaults — an in illu- with a poker that was heated on the
sionistic manner, sometimes even using kitchen stove. The method he devised
raised relief, with an impact that may was to hold the poker steady in his right

be understood only by standing in a arm, and create the image by moving

room that he created. The decor, gro- the board with his left. He always had
tesques inspired by the golden house to support his wounded arm, but as it

OF NERO, enclosed scenes dictated by grew stronger he was able to paint at an

his PATRONS to aggrandize their own easel. The End of the War: Starting
claims to glory. In one such scene, sup- Home (1931) is a small painting in
posedly set in Genoa though bearing no which the hand-carved frame, deco-
real relation to that town, is a storm rated with grenades and other military
that, in contrast to the town, looks very hardware, is part of the antiwar impact
real indeed, with wind-driven rain, dark of the picture, especially distressing be-
thunderclouds, and the optimistic touch cause of, rather than in spite of, the sim-

of a rainbow. The Piccolomini Library plicity with which the exploding shells

occupied Pinturicchio until 1508, some and expressionless, gesturing soldiers

five years before the event described by are portrayed. In contrast. Pippin also
VASARi in the quotation above might painted scenes (reminiscent of hicks's
have occurred. Peaceable Kingdom series) where the
grass in which the biblical lion and
Pippin, Horace lamb lie down together is covered with
1888-1946 • American • painter • wildflowers and the shepherd who
Folk art tends them is a black man.

/ began to think of things I had always

Piranesi, Giovanni Battista
loved to do. First I got together all the
1720-1778 • Italian
old cigar boxes that I could get and
printmaker/architect •
made fancy boxes out of them. . . . In
Rococo/Romantic Neoclassicist
the winter of 192 j I made my first

burnt wood panels . . . this brought me [l wish] to admire and learn from
back to my old self. those august relics which still remain
of ancient Roman majesty and
Pippin had little formal education and
magnificence, the most perfect there is
no art training. His paintings use bright,
of Architecture.
flat colors and ignore perspective in
favor of stylized forms that are reminis- Before he was 20 Piranesi made his first

cent of both MOSES and wood. How- trip from his home in Venice to Rome
ever, Pippin's subject was the life of for the reason he cites above. He settled

African-Americans, both in history and permanently in Rome in 1747. Though

in contemporary times. Shot in the he found no patrons for the kinds of
shoulder during World War I, Pippin be- buildings that he wished to design, he
lieved he would never be able to draw published prints of his design ideas in
again, but as his comment quoted above 1743, thereby inventing his unique oeu-
 PISANELLO, ANTONIO 527

vre of architecture on paper. His elegant erally satisfactory interpretation has yet

ETCHINGS and paintings included a se- emerged to unify The their ambiguities.

ries of views of Rome ( Vi?^M?a (iz Rom^, vividness and melodrama with which
c. —
1748-78) extraordinary vistas, Piranesi represented the ancient world
such as one of the Vatican seen from is an example of the romantic sensibil-

above (Veduta . . . Basilica Vaticana). In ity applied to a neoclassical style.

his embrace of ancient roman art and

architecture both in his art and in writ- Pisanello, Antonio
ing, Piranesi argued against those, like c. 1395-1455 • Italian •

wiNCKELMANN, who ptofessed the su- painter/sculptor • Renaissance

periority of greek art. Moreover, Pi- _ i » j j ; r
10 painting he added the art of
ranesi gave precedence to the mfluence
sculpture. Works of his in lead and
of ETRUSCAN ART on ancient Rome over
bronze are an Alfonso, King of
that of Greece. His interest in ancient
Aragon, a Philip, Prince of Milan, and
culture also led him to investigate
. . many other Italian princes, to whom
Egyptian antiquities, sparking a revival , , , r 1

., he was dear because of the eminence

in Egyptian decorative styles. Piranesi s , ,_ „
.... , ,
. .

of his art. (Bartolommeo razio,

imaginary prison interiors, with their
1453-57)
huge blocks of stone, barred windows,
iron rings, bridges, and zigzagging stair- Pisanello worked for the courts of
cases, are complex and exotic. His fa- Northern Italy; the sculpture alluded to
ther was a stonemason and builder, and in the quotation above consists mainly
a feeling of the tactility of masonry is of medallions cast in metal. As paper
strong in Piranesi's drawing. An early became increasingly available, artists
biographer suggests that he studied carried sketchbooks and recorded de-
stage design briefly, and prison interiors tails of things that would prove useful

were a theme among stage designers, to them. Pisanello's sketchbooks in-

Still, the originality and power of Pi- elude wonderful drawings of animals
ranesi's set of etchings entitled Fanciful and, disconcertingly, a page of studies
Inventions of Prisons (1749-50) are of hanged men. For a church in his
unique, and they have had great and en- native Verona, Pisanello painted Saint
during appeal. Some of the plates he re- George and the Princess (c. 1433-38)
worked later, in 1761, darkening the and followed his teacher, gentile, in
image and the mood. Piranesi also drew presenting his horses, with their elabo-
a series of grotesques, purely decora- rate trappings, in front and rear views.
tive conceits that went beyond earlier His princess is extravagantly dressed,
examples in the sense of excitement and in the distance we see towers and
and meaning that he gave to the de- two dangling corpses,
turrets, as well as

signs.They were phantasmagorias with Pisanello combined an odd mix of the

nudes, skeletons, snakes, shells, and an- real and the fantastic. This is also no-
cient ruins included among architec- table in his Vision of Saint Eustace (c.

tural and other strange, symbolic 1430s): Out hunting with his dogs, the
elements. These are all provocative de- saint is on the verge of slaying a deer
tails that entice speculation, but no gen- when he has a vision of the crucified
 —

528 PISANO, ANDREA

Christ between its antlers. Other ani- Pisano, in translation, means "from
mals are marvelously detailed, but all Pisa."
exist in a setting that disregards the al-

BERTian PERSPECTIVE. His drawings

show that Pisanello had mastered the Pisano, Giovanni
techniques of perspective, but it seems c. 1 250-13 20 • Italian • sculptor •

that he was unwilling to be dictated to Late Gothic

by theoretically or empirically based ra-
Now let us speak of the sculptors. . . .

tionality.
There was Giovanni, the son of
Maestro Nichola. (Ghiberti, mid- 14th
Pisano, Andrea
century)
c. IZ90-1348 • Italian • sculptor •

Late Gothic The son and student of Nicola (see

below), Giovanni went on to design the
In this year 1330, work was begun on
lower portion of the facade of the
the metal doors of San Giovanni.
Cathedral of Siena (c. 1284). He then
These are very beautiful and of
executed a pulpit (i 297-1 301) for Sant'
marvelous workmanship and value;
Andrea of Pistoia,40 years after his fa-
and they were molded in clay and then
ther's in Pisa. Both his and his father's
polished, and the figures gilded by a
pulpits have Nativity scenes carved in
master named Andrea Pisano. They
high RELIEF and contain the same fig-
were cast in fire of furnaces by
ures in similar placement, making for
Venetian masters. (Giovanni Villani,
fascinating stylistic comparisons. Their
14th century)
surfaces are equally crowded with fig-
Andrea is known for the gilded bronze ures, but where Nicola's solemn but
south doors of the Florence Baptistery, serene characters seem about to tumble
cast in 1336, which preceded the more out of their frame, Giovanni has estab-
famous doors by ghiberti in the next lished a stronger sense of spatial depth.
century. Andrea's designs are simple, Moreover, Giovanni's Virgin is not
elegant, and restrained. Unlike Ghib- larger than the other figures (to signify
erti's, which were cast by the cire per- her importance), as is Nicola's, and
due method (see bronze), Andrea's Giovanni's people make eye contact
RELIEFS were cast separately and then and interact, whereas those of his father

inserted into their frames. The casting seem to gaze impassively into space. In
and setting up of Andrea's door was a expression and in drapery, Giovanni's
great event, mentioned in several chron- style looks forward to sluter as much
icles of the time, one of which is quoted as it looks back to his father, ghib-
from above. The other sculptures to erti's effort to document the works of
which Andrea's name is attached are Giovanni in his Commentaries, quoted
the reliefs and statues on the Campanile from above, goes on to mistakenly at-

in Florence 1334-before 1348), pos-

(c. tribute the fountain of Perugia to him. It

sibly designed by GiOTTO. Andrea is not was actually the work of his father, but
related to Nicola or Giovanni Pisano Giovanni finished the project after his
 PISSARRO, CAMILLE 529

father died and he took charge of the The senior member of the impression-
WORKSHOP. ist group, Pissarro venerated the tradi-
tion of NATURALISM and the solidity of
Pisano, Nicola millet's art. But he did not support the
active c. 1258-84 • ItaHan sculptor • retrospective values held by William
Gothic MORRIS and others whom his own son,
Lucien, admired and followed. It was to
In the year 1260 Nicola Pisano carved
Lucien that, when he was 70, Pissarro
this noble work. May so gifted a hand
wrote the words quoted above. Born in
be praised as it deserves.
the Virgin Islands, the son of a French
The words quoted above are inscribed Jewish merchant, for a time Camille Pis-

on the earhest documented work by sarro took up the family business. After
Nicola, the pulpit of the baptistery at deciding to become an artist, he re-
Pisa. (In EARLY CHRISTIAN building pro- turned to France, where he had at-

grams both baptisteries and mau- tended boarding school, and lived at the
soleums were often independent edge of poverty until he was well over
structures.) Work started on the Pisan 60. Because of Pissarro's sympathy for
cathedral complex in 1053; the baptis- socialist causes,renoir refused to ex-
tery itself was begun in 11 53 (and hibit with him. He was close to seurat

the famous leaning bell tower in 1174). and siGNAC. cezanne admired Pissarro
The rich sculptural program for the more than any other of his contempo-
marble pulpit includes Corinthian-style raries, and GAUGUIN was indebted to

columns (see column orders) resting him. In the 1870s Pissarro's brushwork
on the backs of curly-maned lions. became more broken in the Impression-
A good deal of the carving derives ist mode, and in the mid-18 80s he

from Roman models: Nicola may have turned, for a few years, toward pointil-
worked for the Holy Roman Emperor lism. His greatest differences with the
Frederick II (ruled 1220-50), who Impressionist conventions had to do
sparked a revival of classical art. with subject and intention rather than
Nicola's carved panels, densely packed with style: Socialism and anarchism un-
with figures, look a good deal like derlie his choice of painting views of
Roman sarcophagi. In the course of his rural and urban landscapes rather than
life, Nicola and his son, pupil, and suc- the racetracks, the restaurants, and
cessor, Giovanni (see above), worked other leisure activities of the second
together. empire painted by degas and Renoir,
for example. Not only were Pissarro's
landscapes more sober, but from 1897
Pissarro, Camille
to 1903 he also painted a series of city
1 8 30-1903 • French • painter •
scenes looking down from the vantage
Realist/Impressionist/Neo-
points of various buildings. In these pic-
Impressionist
tures people are reduced to antlike
Decidedly, we no longer understand blots, as much a social commentary as
each other. an artistic observation of city life. One
 —

530 plane/planar

of Pissarro's fanswas Emile Zola, who were reduced to making copies of

wrote about The Banks of the Marne in copies (e.g., at the highest level is the
Winter (1866), a work Pissarro man- concept of a chair, which the philoso-
aged to exhibit at the salon, "M. Pis- pher can understand; at a lower level is

sarro is an unknown artist, whom no the fabricated chair, based on the idea;
one will likely mention. . . . This [pic- and lower still is the artist's image of a
ture] is no feast for the eyes. It is an aus- chair, based on the fabrication). Plato
tereand serious painting, showing an also criticized artists for distorting real
extreme concern for the truth and cor- proportions for the sake of appear-
rectness, a bleak and strong will. What ances. J. J. PoUitt suggests that artists
a clumsy fellow you are, sir —you are like SCOPAS, who was Plato's contem-
the one artist I like." porary, may have aimed to elevate the
intellectual status of their profession by
plane/planar portraying the personification of ideas
A plane is flat surface. (See picture such as peace, wealth, and pathos, or
plane) emotion. The artist could thus be giving
form to concepts rather than merely
plastic/plasticity copying things seen. For Plato a simu-
From the Greek word plastos, meaning lacrum — any representation of an
"formed," the general reference of plas- idea — is inferior to the idea, but the
tic is to a solid but malleable substance, concept of the simulacrum is of particu-
such as clay or wax. Sculpture and ce- lar interest to art theorists and histori-

ramics are called plastic arts. In paint- ans of the POSTMODERN.

ing, plastic or plasticity applies to the

apparent roundness, solidity, and defin- Platonic Academy

ition of a form. See ACADEMY

Plato plein air

4Z7(?)-347 BCE • Greek • Outdoor or plein air painting has a long
philosopher history preceding impressionism, in
which it became a modus operandi.
Measure and commensurability are
DURER, for example, made on-site
everywhere identified with beauty and
landscape studies in watercolor,
excellence.
which he used later for studio paintings.

Plato was a student of Socrates and By the 17th century, working on the
teacher of Aristotle. He endeavored, spot and recording what
saw the eye
among other things, to distinguish coherent with an interest in natural-
essence from appearance, thought from —
ism became commonplace. During
feeling, and idea from image. Hierarchi- the 1 8th century, outdoor sketching in
cally minded, he held artists and the fine oil, small studies from nature, was
arts inlow esteem, believing that the standard training; in fact, it was part of
"real" world of ideal prototypes was the curriculum of the French Academy
accessible to philosophers through rea- in Rome (see prix de rome). During
son and contemplation, but that artists the first three decades of the 19th cen-
 PLURALISM 531

tury, English painters also concerned vogue, received the name of

themselves with the natural landscape monochrome.
(e.g., CONSTABLE and members of the
NORWICH school), but all these Agreatdealof what we know about an-
painters completed their landscapes in cient art and artists we owe to Pliny the

the studio. That was true, too, of mid- Elder. His 37-volume work. Natural
19th-century PRE-RAPHAELITE painters. History, was published in 77 ce. Besides
devoted to the study of nature, who ex- an investigation of the natural sciences,
ecuted precise and highly detailed ren- he left the earliest preserved history of
— of grass, blade by blade, for
derings art.The comment quoted above is from
example — to describe what
as efforts book 35. Pliny valued Greek painting of
they saw as exactingly permanent the 5th and 4th centuries bce most
rather than as a record of the momen- highly, and his texts had great influence

tary effect. Their French contem- on Italian renaissance writers and

poraries, painters of the barbizon artists, although they were unable to see
SCHOOL, were primarily plein air the originals. He enumerated some of
artists, and they narrowed the gap be- the most famous works of Greek sculp-

tween the canvas painted outdoors and ture to be found in Rome as well as de-

the finished work. The decisive step was scribing techniques used to make them,
taken in 1866 when monet devised a including accounts of bronze casting
special easel with an elaborate system of and marble carving. In his preface he
pulleys, and had a trench dug in the gar- notes that he has read 2,000 volumes,
den so that his huge canvas could be by Greek and Latin authors. During the
and lowered while he painted
raised eruption of Mount Vesuvius (see pom-
Women in the Garden. This was peii), Pliny's intention of recording

groundbreaking, so to speak, in its ef- events ended in his death, as described

fort to capture the fleeting effects of by nephew
his Pliny (called "the
light and air and an illusion of spon- Younger"), whose narrative is the old-
taneity in the figures in the scene. With est-surviving description of a major nat-
this fully plein air painting, Monet thus ural disaster in Western literature.

set the agenda for Impressionism. While Pliny the Elder is still a source for

information on Greek art, scholars

today are wary when using such author-
„,. , „, , ities as he, remembering, first, that Pliny
Pliny the Elder , , r r l
„ ... lived from 300 to 500 years arter the
,

23/24-79 CE • Roman • public •

11 1 i j u 1 1

rr- ,, 1- ,1 • artists he described, and second, that he

official/naturalist/histonan . . , ,

may have been motivated

, ,
as much by
The origin of painting is obscure. . . . political, moral, rhetorical, and propa-
All, however, agree that painting began gandistic motives as by objective curios-
with the outlining of man's shadow; ity.

this was the first stage, in the second a

single color was employed, and after Pluralism
the discovery of more elaborate Term used to describe American art
methods this style, which is still in during the 1970s, a movement that was
532L POINTILLISM (DIVISIONISM)

characterized by a diversity of styles, contours of the statue to be carved.

techniques, and approaches, process Then extraneous material is removed so
and CONCEPTUAL earth and site
art, that the duplication may be worked to
and INSTALLATION sculpture, photore- the finished stages of reproduction.
alism, NEW IMAGE, PHOTOGRAPHY,
VIDEO, and much performance work Pollaiuolo, Antonio del
of the '70s is subsumed under the term c. 1432-1498 • Italian •

"Pluralism." In addition to such identi- painter/sculptor • Renaissance

fiable approaches, certain artists whose
He always copied Nature as closely as
work crosses or ignores the above cate-
possible, and has here represented an
gorizations are known as Pluralists. The
archer drawing the bowstring to his
work of many women came to the fore-
breast and bending down to charge it,
ground during this era, as did that of
putting all the force of his body into
black and Hispanic artists. Besides
the action, for we may see the swelling
coming to be known as the Pluralist era,
of his veins and muscles and the
the decade of the '70s is also seen as the
manner in which he is holding his
first POSTMODERN period.
breath. (Vasari, mid-i6th century)
pointillism (divisionism)
The body under stress, and often in vio-
A process also called optical painting,
lent action, was of particular interest to
pointillism is the application of tiny
Pollaiuolo. His technique was to outline
dots of brilliant color on the canvas.
the contours of his figures and delineate
These dots merge in the viewer's eye.
their muscles, as described by the quo-
(See seurat)
tation from VASARI above in reference

pointing to Pollaiuolo's painting Saint Sebastian

A procedure invented to produce faith- (1475). In his ENGRAVING Battle of the
ful replicas was
of sculptures, pointing Ten Nudes 1470-75), the fighting
(c.

mastered by ancient Romans whose figures wield saber, hatchet, bow, and
passion for Greek art led to an industry dagger in a crowded melee set against a

of reproduction (see also roman art). tangle of foliage. Several of the figures
Today a pointing machine, based on the seem to mirror each other, so that we
same principle that the Romans em- see a pose from two points of view. His
ployed, is used to enlarge, decrease the paintings and sculptures of Hercules,
dimensions of, or produce an exact commissioned by the medici family,
copy of a three-dimensional work. The are Florentine metaphors — Hercules
principle involves marking numerous was the legendary founder of Florence,
points on the surface of the prototype, and the Medicis wanted to link their
adjusting the machine to the desired de- reputation with him. The explosion of
gree of enlargement, contraction, or du- energy as Hercules lifts Antaeus (who
plication, and drilling in corresponding was powerful only so long as his feet
points, to appropriate depths, on the touched the ground) lacks precedent. It

roughly hewn stone (or other material) is thought that Pollaiuolo watched, or
to be shaped. Once a sufficient number perhaps even performed, autopsies to
of these points are made, they define the understand how the body works. Con-
 POLLOCK, JACKSON 533

versely, his Portrait of a Young Woman since this way I can walk around it,

(1460s), a beautiful profile of sweet dig- work from the four sides and literally

nity personified, is quintessentially still. be in the painting. This is akin to the

Ironically, less immobile is his sculp- method of Indian sand painters of the
tural program for the bronze Tomb of West.
Pope Sixtus IV (1484-93). The portrait
of the recumbent pope, surrounded by Pollock broke with traditions of paint-
animated allegorical figures, is lifelike ing that reached back to art's begin-
and anything but flattering. nings. He threw away pencil and brush
and ignored conventions of subject. In a

Pollock, Griselda painting such as Autumn Rhythm: No.

born 1949 • English • art historian 30, 19 JO (1950), the title really tells
nothing of the artist's intentions as he
What does [the negation of women in
spattered black paint and threaded it in
art] reveal about the structures and
curving, scribbled-looking lines, or
ideologies of art history, how it defined
skeins. Black lines are superimposed on
what is and what is not art, to whom
an off-white base and combined with
it accords the status of artist and what
other subtle colors. you choose any
If
that status means?
single black line and pursue it, you lose
An early and foremost feminist art his- yourself on a visual roller coaster,
torian. Pollock moved the study of constantly colliding with other roller
women in art and women artists to a coasters. Foremost of the pioneering
new plateau. She turned scholarly at- ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONIST painters of
tention toward analysis of the underly- the 1940s and 1950s, Pollock accom-
ing conditions within which art history plished what is now famously called
exists. In Old Mistresses: Women, Art, drip painting by laying his canvas on
and Ideology (written with Rozika the floor, as in the quotation above.
Parker, 1981), she insisted that "the Standing over it, he poured paint out of
way the history of art has been studied a can as he made his way around the
and evaluated is not the exercise of neu- canvas, guiding the stream of paint only
tral 'objective' scholarship but an ideo- minimally. "I prefer sticks, trowels,
logical practice." This is a point of view knives and dripping, fluid paint or
that changed the playing field entirely, a heavy impasto with sand, broken
shifting it from an arena where equality glass and other foreign matter added,"
was sought to one where routinely un- he said. Although spontaneity and
derstood meanings, presumptions, and serendipity were invited into the
values are contested. process, the artist was in control, not
only mentally but with his whole physi-
cal being as well. "I have no fears about
Pollock, Jackson
making changes, destroying the image,
191Z-1956 • American • painter •
etc., because the painting has a life of its
Abstract Expressionist
own. I try to let it come through," he
On the floor, I am more at ease. I feel said. Pollock'sapproach inspired his
nearer, more a part of the painting, contemporaries, each of whom, newly
534 POLYCHROME

liberated from conventional painting, great disaster. (Pausanias, 2nd century

sought his or her individual technique of ce, describing the sack of Troy as
self-expression. Where some of his painted by Polygnotos in the Cnidian
paintings, such as Autumn Rhythm, are meetinghouse at Delphi)
melodious, others are somber. He was
an alcoholic; despair and self-destruc- Polygnotos is credited with revolution-
tion hounded him, and his death was ary innovations that we can only imag-
sudden and violent —on an August night ine, for none of his paintings survives,

in 1956, he was driving under the influ- He abandoned the traditional use of
enceof alcohol when his car went off the head profiles (in conjunction with for-
road. He and one of his two female pas- ward-facing or frontal torsos), and,
sengers were killed, de kooning said more significantly, instead of organiz-

about Pollock in 1956, ". . . every so ing figures on a straight line, he placed

often a painter has to destroy painting, them at various levels on the painted
Cezanne did it, Picasso did it with Cu- surface. As simple and apparently
bism. Then Pollock did it. He busted our minor as this manipulation may seem,
idea of a picture all to hell. Then there its implications are great because it

could be new paintings again." Pollock treats those figures as though they ex-
was married to krasner. ist in real space, a step en route to the
systematization of perspective that
polychrome would come about in another 1,000
A combination of the Greek words poly, years. Polygnotos limited his palette to
for "many," and khroma, meaning black, red, white, and ocher (almost as
"color," the word "polychrome" de- though he were a painter of vases), and
scribes an object that has many colors, he broke with the archaic convention
The term is applied mainly to sculpture, of the expressionless face, moving
and its root is a reminder that, while toward a show of emotional reaction
only vague traces of color remain, (pathos) and moral purpose (ethos).
GREEK and other ancient sculpture. The path Polygnotos blazed is rarely
both architectural and freestanding, apparent on vases, our only remain-
were originally polychromed. The prac- ing tangible references for painting of
tice of painting sculpture was also that era; however, one fine example,
popular in medieval art and that of known as Muse and Maiden (c. 440
both the ITALIAN and northern bce), is by the Achilles Painter. Against
renaissance. a white ground, which provided a better

background on which to draw than

lolydoros either red or black, the design in this
See agesander
instance shows a distinct effort to

p I
imply not only recession, or moving
back in space, but also a bit of land-
mid-5th century bce • Greek •
scape. Another vase painter who is
painter • Early Classical
thought to have been influenced by
The look on the faces of all of them is Polygnotos is known as the Niobid
that of people who have suffered a Painter.
 —

POMPEII 535

Polykleitos ryphoros was considered the standard

active c. 464-420 bce • Greek for the ideal of Greek Classical beauty.
sculptor • High Classical Another of Polykleitos's well-known
exemplars of ratio and proportion is
He is considered to have brought the
Diadoumenos {Youth Binding a Fillet
scientificknowledge of statuary to
Round His Head; c. 430 bce). In com-
perfection, and to have systematized
petition with PHEIDIAS for a commis-
the art of which Pheidias had revealed
sion to sculpt an Amazon for the
the possibilities . . . the only man who
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, Polyk-
has embodied art itself in a work of
leitos won. (See also canon)
art. (Pliny the Elder, ist century ce)

Polykleitos of Argos, master of the polyptych

CLASSICAL male athletic figure, wrote a From the Greek for "many folds," a
on
treatise art known as the Canon, polyptych is usually an altarpiece
which was influential not only during made up more than three parts.
of (See

his own time but also for centuries af- also DIPTYCH and triptych)
terward (see viTRUVius). Polykleitos's
concern was a useful definition of sym- Pompeii
metria: ratio and proportion, the "com- Approximately six and four miles, re-
mensurability of parts." The Greek spectively, from the summit of Mount
obsession with finding perfect relation- Vesuvius, the towns of Pompeii and
ships, expressed in numerical measure- HERCULANEUM were embalmed by its

ments, was at the foundation of their eruption on the morning of August 24

search for beauty and harmony —the in 79 CE. Layers of pumice and ash
IDEAL. This ideal had spiritual or moral more than 16 feet deep buried Pompeii,
value, not only aesthetic. Polykleitos's preserving it so effectively that archae-
written dissertation is lost,was but it ologists have uncovered tables still set

embodied in his bronze sculpture Do- with meals and a bakery containing
ryphoros (Spear Bearer; c. 450-440 loaves of bread put in the oven a few
bce), which was fashioned to illustrate seconds before disaster struck. While
his Canon, as stated in the comment by the slow-moving mud flowing into Her-
PLINY that is quoted above. The original culaneum gave its population time to
of that statue has been lost too, but it flee, inhabitants of Pompeii were taken
survives in Roman marble copies, by surprise, their daily lives stopped as
through which it has become a familiar if by a freeze-frame. About 2,000
image. As did myron's Discobolos, people —one-tenth of the population
Polykleitos's sculpture captured a perished. Excavations begun in 1748,
pause, a moment when opposing forces and continuing today, provide extraor-
are in balance (bent left arm stabilized dinary insights to life at that moment in

by straight, weight-bearing right leg, time, including examples of graffiti and

bent left leg offset by straight right advertisements, as well as architecture,
arm), although the dynamic symmetry wall paintings, and mosaics. Since the
of his figure "unwound," in contrast
is late 1980s, computers have been used
to the tight coil of Myron's athlete. Do- to create "knowledge models" of Pom-
536 PONT-AVEN, SCHOOL OF

peii and surrounding areas, coordinat- second glance, not at all that, and a
ing new maps with individual finds strange cast of characters, including a
(well over 12,000 entries), color images small nude boy who nonchalantly
of artifacts and FRESCoes, in addition to scratches his leg, surround the main ac-

technical data, excavation records, and tion. An altarpiece painted in

journals dating back to 1862. This un- 1525-28 in Florence is Pontormo's

precedented graphic and verbal docu- masterpiece. It is as strange as it can be,
mentation assists both in conservation yet somehow moving and beautiful.

and in making information about the Two youths carry the (presumably)
ancient city available to the public in an dead Christ, but both are on tiptoe,

interactive format. though one is crouching and neither

seems to, or could, considering their
Pont-Aven, School of poses, actually heft any weight. Al-
Refers to the artists colony that gath- though it is sometimes called Entomb-
ered around gauguin and Bernard in ment, it is uncertain whether they mean
the late 18 80s at the small coastal town to lift Christ to the waiting arms of God
of Pont-Aven, in Brittany, France. the Father (whose image was originally
above the altar in the dome) or to lower
Pontormo, Jacopo da him from Mary's lap to the tomb (alter-
1494-15 56 • Italian • painter • nate titles are Descent from the Cross
Mannerist and Lamentation). Further complicat-
ing interpretation, behind Christ there
[The painter] is overbold, indeed,
is a head to which a body cannot be as-
wishing to imitate with pigments all
signed, there are odd lengths of fabric,
the things produced by nature, so
and a cluster of hands of uncertain
that they will look real, and even to
improve them so that his pictures
ownership appear in the center —the
area of the painting usually allocated to
may be rich and full of varied
an important figure or aspect in Renais-
details.
sance works. The style is linear, color
Pontormo's comment, above, sounds is bright and strange — hot pink, light

more contrived than immodest, but in green, flame red — and utterly unnat-
either instance, it provides no clue to ural. Its precedent, the historian Marcia
how very strange his paintings are. He Hall points out, is in Michelangelo's
would pretend to construct symmetry Sistine Chapel. The bizarre incon-
only to corrupt it, just as he might paint gruities, the disappearance of rational
a staircase that goes nowhere or a scene space, let alone depth, and the overall
so inexplicable that it seems invented disorienting effect of Pontormo'swork
for the sole purpose of disorienting the are characteristics of mannerism. Ac-
viewer. Early FRESCoes show that Pon- cording to vasari, Pontormo had stud-
tormo was already playing with the ied with LEONARDO, PiERO di Cosimo,

"rules" of the Italian renaissance — and ANDREA del Sarto. He was as eccen-
in the Visitation (15 14-16), a seemingly tric as his paintings, becoming a recluse
balanced pyramidal composition is, at in the studio he reached by climbing a
 POPOVA, LIUBOV 537

ladder, which he then drew in after him- might claim to be emotionally engaged
self. with the "subject" of their art, espe-

cially because of its self-expressive na-

Pop Art ture, Pop artists claim detachment. This

Short for "popular," and with subject is ultimately paradoxical, as the ab-
matter and techniques borrowed from stractions of the former seem removed
commercial art (advertisements, comic from the pleasures and pains of daily
strips, packaging). Pop Art, like hap- life, while the images of the latter are
PENiNGs, was a reaction against ab- quickly recognized as part of the very
STRACT EXPRESSIONISM, particularly in fabric of the quotidian. The emergence
defiance of attitudes such as green- of Pop marks a philosophical change
berg's rebuff of "kitsch." Pop artists of direction from inward-looking exis-
portray clearly recognizable objects tentialism and its concern with the in-

from the everyday world and the mass dividual's fate to an outward-looking
media, and their attachment to com- observation of the material world,
mercialism led to their being named
New Vulgarians. In their spirit of mov- Popova, Liubov
ing art out of the artist's head and back 1889-19Z4 • Russian • painter •

into the world, rauschenberg and Cubist/Futurist/Constructivist

JOHNS are considered the forerunners, if
No artistic success has given me as
not the founders, of Pop. Pop itself was
much pleasure as the sight of a peasant
ushered in with exhibitions in America
buying a length of material designed
in 1962.Henry Geldzhaler, a friend of
by me.
WARHOL, who became a curator at the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, was a Her sure hand and brilliant colors
supporter and promoter of Pop and emerged early in Popova's short career,
artists, hockney painted a portrait of She went to Paris in 19 12 and studied
him — Henry Geldzahler and Christo- with cubist painters. To this and fu-
pher Scott (1969) — using one of the turism's influence she added the Syn-
stylistic techniques of Pop: the kind of thetic Cubist use of incorporating
flat colors and surface an airbrush writing into her images, but in her case
provides, and sharp, clear outlines. Be- Russian words in the Cyrillic alphabet,

sides allmanner of advertising art. Pop She described the "architectonic" value
artists used comic books as a source of a painting as "Energetics=direction
of ideas. Artists whose names are of volumes-i-planes and lines or their
associated with the movement are DINE, vestiges-(-all colors." This formula, to
OLDENBURG, INDIANA, LiCHTENSTEiN, the extent that it is comprehensible to
Warhol, wesselmann, and rosen- an observer, is visible in a work such as

QUIST. HAMILTON and Edouardo Pao- The Traveler (191 5-16), a painting in
lozzi (born 1924) were leading pioneers which faceted, volumetric forms in bold

of English Pop in the 1950s, forming reds, blues, and greens are pressed
what was called the Independent against one another to give a sense of
Group. While Abstract Expressionists both controlled depth and energetic
538 POPULAR CULTURE

or dynamic movement. Certainly the subjects for the art of Jacques-Louis

Cubist forms and Futurist dynamic are DAVID and couRBET, van gogh and
visible, and trying to discern a recogniz- SLOAN, but the people of those classes
able hint, such as a profile or a glove, is were neither its patrons nor its audi-
endlessly challenging. Before she died of ence, and to the extent that it was
scarlet fever, at the age of 35, Popova bought, it remained securely in the bas-

had joined those Russian revolutionary tions of fine art and high culture. Art
artists who renounced easel painting in historians long resisted the challenge of
favor of practical applied and industrial popular culture, primarily by teaching
art. She triumphantly designed for the theCANON, which is accused on the one
theater, textiles (about which she com- hand of being slow to change and on the
ments in the quotation above), and other of being all too quick to "lower"
what she called "Space-Force Construc- its standards. more paradoxically,
Still

tions," first using plywood, an indus- even as the argument to open the
trial material, and covering it with canonical gates gains ground and for-
mechanistic forms. These developed merly marginalized artists are exhibited
into extraordinary stage sets built up on in mainstream museums (see outsider
a framework of scaffolding and the we witness
art), sellout blockbusters of
principle of functionality —ideas copied HIGH ART such The Greek Miracle
as
many Her influence on
times since. (1992-93) and CEZANNE (1996). It may
CONSTRUCTIVISM was important. be the greatest irony of the intrinsically
ironic postmodern era that, as the
popular culture great Unwashed finally show interest in

In contrast to a culture of the "elite," art made for the elite, the elite have
which Merriam-Webster's Collegiate begun to lust after art made for the
Dictionary (1997 edition) defines as many.
"the best of a class," popular culture
belongs to "the great Unwashed," as Porter, Fairfield
Henry Peter, Lord Brougham, a 19th- 1907-1975 • American pamter •

century British peer, is said to have de- Modernist

scribed the masses. Mass culture, as it
Before the war I was much influenced
was called before the term "popular
by some German refugees, radicals,
culture" became . . . popular, designates
Marxists, but not Trotskyists, or, of
FOLK ART, commercial, advertising, il-
course, not Leninists or Stalinists. And
lustration, most GRAPHIC arts, and, in
one thing that impressed me was their
general, the low as opposed to high or
manners in argument. They NEVER
"fine art." The distinction between high
interrupted. They also really listened,
art and popular culture was upheld by
evenwhen what you said was by no
art historians, even as the boundaries
means new to them.
began to blur in art itself, with the rise

of photography in the 19th century, Good manners, described in the quota-

and, during the 1950S-60S, the chal- tion above, characterize the people
lenge of POP ART. True, peasants, work- Porter painted, although they were usu-
ers, and revolutionary ideas were ally members of his upper-middle-class
 portrait/portraiture 539

family and social circle. In a sense he is meshed in the value system of their soci-
the polar opposite of hopper, whose ety," Richard Brilliant writes in a study

characters are alienated in an un- of the topic. "Making portraits is a re-

friendly, seedy environment of hard sponse to the natural human tendency

edges and implied want. Yet Porter's to think about oneself, of oneself in re-

people, despite their privileged, airy, lation to others, and of others in appar-
leafy, warm, and luminous surround- ent relation to themselves and to

ings, alsoseem isolated from one an- others. . . . Portraiture challenges the
other, and the impending disaster one transience or irrelevancy of human ex-

senses in Hopper becomes, in Porter's istence." Portraiture began in 5th-

paintings, a sense of the fragility of century bce Greece in the form of

good fortune. Porter once said that his full-figure statues, which were largely
style was a reaction to the powerful generic, or typological. In the latter part

critic GREENBERG, who proclaimed that of the 4th century bce, they became in-

FiGURATiVEpainting wasoutof date: "I creasingly specific, especially in por-

thought, 'if that'swhat he says, I think I traits of Alexander the Great and in the
will do just exactly what he says I can't subsequent Hellenistic era. It was in

do! That's all I will do.' " Porter, too, Rome that both an accurate and expres-
was an art critic, writing for ArtNews sive presentation of physiognomy flour-

and The Nation. He tended to describe ished.Romans' reverence for ancestral

the works he had under review by death masks probably contributed to
evaluating the process of their construe- the rapid and extensive development of
tion, so to speak, relationships between Roman portraiture. (This is described
parts, use of materials, the effect of the by pliny the Elder: "In the halls of our
whole. There was definite opinion but ancestors, wax models of faces were
no emotional excess, always a distance displayed to furnish likenesses in fu-
in his writing, as, indeed, there was in neral processions.") During the Italian
his painting. and northern renaissances and
later, major artists fabricated both por-
portrait/portraiture traits and self-portraits. At times por-
Employing any of a variety of mediums traits of donors were included on the
(from sculpture to photograph), por- wings or in the central panel of an al-
traiture produces a recognizable image tarpiece. ghiberti included a small,
designed to capture the physical, and bronze self-portrait head on his second
perhaps personality, traits of a specific set of doors for the Florence Baptistery,
individual. For the art historian, how- Sometimes a portrait, rather like an in-

ever, keeping the work's audience as ventory, records the individual's wealth
well as its artist and subject in mind, the and status (holbein's Henry VIII,
portrait becomes an unusually signifi- 1539-40) or heroism (Jaques-Louis
cant document. "Portraits exist at the david's Napoleon at Saint Bernard,
interface between art and social life and 1800). While superficial likeness may
the pressure toconform to social norms be what defines the portrait, the "read-
enters into their composition because ing" of portraits is far more complex,
both the artist and the subject are en- for reasons such as those cited by Bril-
 —

540 post-impressionism/post-impressionist

liant and because, as Oscar Wilde momentary appearance. Often

fleeting,

wrote, "Every portrait that is painted they wished to return to art what Im-
with feeling is a portrait of the artist, pressionism had removed. Cezanne, for
not of the sitter." It is also, one should example, was interested in a more per-
add, equally a portrait of the period, manent underlying structure and com-
Wilde's own fictional Portrait of position.

Dorian Gray, in which the live subject

of the painting remains idealized and Postmodern/Postmodernism

immutable while his painted image A movement that began around i960,
changes to show the real depravity of Although Postmodernism applauds the
Dorian Gray's life, highlights the notion death of Modernism, and any definition
of portraiture going distances and in di- of Postmodern depends on a definition
rections beyond surface likeness. After of modern, not only are both terms
the middle of the 19th century, on the fluid, but there is also ongoing discus-
presumption that cameras could do the sion about whether Postmodernism is

job faster and better, photography distinct from or actually a continuation

in the service of portraiture lowered of Modernism. In general. Modern art

interest in, if not esteem for, much and architecture, as they developed dur-
traditional portrait painting. But by ing the 19th and zoth centuries, were
the 1990s, interest in portraiture re- conscious reactions to social and politi-
emerged, and the portrait was rein- cal change, especially as wrought by the

vented by artists as various as neel. Industrial Revolution. To the extent

CLOSE, and schnabel. that Modern "isms" establish a for-
mal attitude to both the making and
Post-Impressionism/Post- the critiquing of art. Postmodernism re-
Impressionist jects that approach in favor of eclecti-

iMPRESSiONisTs had achieved recogni- cism. Where Modern rejects historic

tion by 1882 and held their last group references such as classical conven-
show in 1886. By then the gauntlet was temple fronts on buildings)
tions (e.g.,
in the hands of several painters in newer and renaissance adaptations (e.g.,
styles, each of whom expressed an biblical stories in painting). Postmodern
individual response to the tenets of Im- art and architecture embrace them and,
pressionism. For want of a better term, moreover, willfully combine distinct pe-
they are called Post-Impressionists riod styles. Postmodernism rejects no-
a phrase coined by fry, who was their tions of "purity" and the concept of
champion. In its strictest application, artistic authority, appropriation is a
Post-Impressionism refers to five paint- byword and irony is a trait of Postmod-
ers: CEZANNE, TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, seu- ernism. The historian Charles Jencks
rat, GAUGUIN, and van gogh. More has made a list of descriptive terms that
broadly, the Post-Impressionist cate- apply to Postmodern architecture, but
gory includes the approach of painters that also characterize the movement
who developed out of Impressionism more generally. Ideological values
but argued with some of its themes or on this list include " 'popular' and plu-
intents, such as its absorption with the ralist, semiotic form, traditions and
 —
1

POTTERY (ceramics) 54

choice . . . elitist and participative, "Painterly (which Wolfflin applied to

piecemeal, architect as representative Baroque art to separate it from Renais-
and activist." Stylistic values include sance art) means, among other things,
"hybrid expression, complexity, vari- the blurred, broken, loose definition
able space with surprises, conventional of color and contour. The opposite of
and abstract form, eclectic, semiotic ar- painterly is clear, unbroken, and sharp
ticulation . . . pro-organic and applied definition, which Wolfflin called 'lin-

ornament, pro-representation, pro- ear.' " ("Painterly" is the term Green-

metaphor, pro-historical reference, pro- berg used for Abstract Expressionist
humour, pro-symbolic." Helen Searing works by Jackson pollock, hofmann,
makes the point that "for most of the de kooning, kline, and others.)
twentieth century, space (universal and
fluid) and rationalized structure have PostStructuralism
been considered the only important A development (not a contradiction) of
architectural concerns. Now [i.e., structuralism, in which it has its

the 1980s] the enclosing membrane roots. PostStructuralism is a critical ap-

again takes on weight, mass, figurative proach pioneered by the French

content, to create tangible boundaries philosopher Jacques Derrida (see semi-
which mark place and set up hierarchies OTics). PostStructuralism disputes the
of movement and activity." In arts assumption that if one looks carefully
besides architecture, pluralism is and gathers enough appropriate infor-

sometimes used as an alternative mation, systems or structures will re-

to Postmodernism, or other (sub) veal themselves, enabling mysteries to

categories are suggested, such as yield their secrets and meaning and
neo-expressionism and Neo-Concept- truth —such as an artist's intention and
ualism. Speaking generally, Postmod- the "message" of the work — to be un-

ern artists and architects include derstood. To a poststructuralist critic

SHERMAN, TANSEY, SALLE, FISCHL, there can be no revelation because there

CLEMENTE, VENTURi, Michael GRAVES, is no By show-

single, or singular, truth.

and Philip johnson. ing that there is always an unending

complex of signifiers that identify what
Post-Painterly (Color Field) a sign — for example, a cat — is not, plus

Abstraction an equally interminable list of substitu-

In organizing an exhibit in 1964, tions for each of those, Derrida reveals

GREENBERG used the term "Post- the impermanence and the "absent
Painterly Abstraction" to describe the presence" of meaning. Meaning shifts
works of the 31 artists shown. Included constantly. Derrida used the term "J//-
were frankenthaler, Ellsworth ference" to describe how meaning is

KELLY, LOUIS, NOLAND, Frank STELLA, Constantly deferred. (See also decon-
and the Canadian bush. These artists, struction)
both HARD edge and color field, dif-

fered from the gestural or "action" pottery (ceramics)

painters of abstract expressionism. People have shaped clay and baked it

As Greenberg described the distinction, in the sun or by fire — into utilitarian

54^ POTTERY (ceramics)

vessels and sculptures since prehistoric were interspersed by narrative scenes in

times. GLAZES have been used since at which human and animal figures were
least ancient Egypt, where glazed reduced to symbolic, abstract forms. In-
canopic jars stored the organs of the deed, now vases as tall as 6 feet served

mummified deceased. A great step for- as grave markers, especially at the Dipy-

ward from the technique of shaping ob- lon cemetery outside the city of Athens.
jects entirely by hand was taken with The dead were both cremated and in-
the invention of the potter's wheel, terred: Some pots (AMPHORAe) held fu-

known in Iran as early as 4000 bce (and nerary ashes; some (kraters, with
believed to have inspired wheeled trans- holes in the bottom) held honey, wine,
portation in Sumer c. 3 zoo bce). Intro- and other offerings intended to nourish

duced on Crete around 2000 bce, the the dead buried below. Scenes painted
potter's wheel enabled the "throwing" on the outside of such vessels related to

of pots, as the mechanized process is a funeral. During the orientalizing

known, with thinner walls and more period, fantastic animals appeared on
complex shapes. These vessels, called pots, or vases. This was true especially
eggshell ware, were patterned after met- during the early 7th century bce, when,
alwork. Outstanding among them was having pioneered the black-figure
a type named Kamares ware after the TECHNIQUE of painting, potters in the
sacred minoan cave where they were mercantile city of Corinth produced the
first discovered, around 1900. Kamares finest ware. Signatures on pottery first

decorations are characterized by bold, appeared in the beginning of the 6th

fanciful, and colorful painted geometric Around 530 bce, a break-
century bce.
designs against a dark background, through was made in Athens with
such as that on Pitcher from Phaistos (c. development of the red-figure tech-
1 800-1700 bce). Wheel-thrown pot- nique, which allowed painters the op-
tery led to a thriving industry and the portunity to elaborate detail. White
production of pots with increasingly in- backgrounds came briefly and not very
ventive and often amusing designs, such popularly into play during the mid-5th
as The Octopus Jar (c. 1500 bce), with century bce; although the white ground
its staring eyes and waving tentacles gave painters greater freedom to exper-
covered with suction cups. Huge stor- iment with ideas of depth perception,
age pots— p/Y^o/ — found in the Palace their work paled in comparison with
of Knossos were made for storing oil, the great strides reportedly being made
grain, wine, and honey. Some pithoi by wall painters (see polygnotos), and
were used for burial, as were decorated vase painting declined. Although no fe-

bathtub-shaped pottery coffins. male artist ever achieved fame in Greek

Around 800 bce, during the geomet- art, the decoration of a red-figured vase
ric PERIOD, Athens became the main of c. 450 BCE has a scene in which a vase

center for pottery production. Black de- painter, surrounded by his assistants, is

signs on red clay, with a veritable dic- crowned by Athena. Among the work-
tionary of geometric forms, were ers portrayed is a female painter work-
contained within bands, or friezes, and ing on a large pot. Most scenes on
 POUSSIN, NICOLAS 543

pottery used myth and legend as pounce

metaphors for current concerns. Along Pouncing was an ingenious way of mak-
with decorative techniques and styles, ing copies of a picture: Outlines of
a variety of pottery shapes were de- forms in the picture to be reproduced
veloped for different purposes. Pot- were drawn on a flat surface —generally
sherds —fragments of broken pottery paper — and pricked with tiny holes.
—are the most common archaeological The pricked original was then placed
finds, and are used as the primary dat- over the surface on which it was to be
ing index for discoveries at a particular duplicated and dabbed, or "pounced,"
site. Local clays vary so much that, once with powdered color or charcoal in a

fired, colors range from white to dark "pounce bag" of loosely woven cloth.
brown. In the past, dating potsherds de- This provided a dotted outline for the
pended largely on knowledge of chang- new image. For work on fresco or on
ing pottery styles. Today, stylistic other large surfaces, the picture was
analysis is supplemented by analysis of pounced from a cartoon.
radiocarbon and ther-
the clay, plus
MOLUMiNESCENCE dating. Poussin, Nicolas
Ancient Greek painted pottery is 1594-1665 • French • painter •
studied by art historians more widely Baroque Classicism
than is that of other regions or periods
/ neglected nothing.
partly because almost no examples of
ancient Greek wall paintings remain, Before he was 18, Poussin ran away
and because their iconographically rich from home to study art, an endeavor his

repertoire of representation is so exten- parents disapproved He had two dis-

of.

sive. However, one should also take appointing starts, then reached Rome at
note of the refined, white-glazed ceram- last in i6z4, with the encouragement of
ics of China that inspired 9th-century the most famous Italian poet of his age,
Islamic potters to invent a tin-based Giovanni Battista Marino. He worked
glaze in an effort at imitation. The is- in the studio of domenichino for a
lamic technique, which achieved its time. Poussin slowly became known,
own magnificence (especially during the and was backed by Cassiano dal Pozzo,
Ottoman Empire with Iznik ware), was a cultivated and learned art patron
the basis for exquisite Italian majolica with a passion for classical antiqui-
(or maiolica) of the 15th and i6th cen- ties. This Classical affinity grew in

turies, as well as French faience, Dutch Poussin, too. In his earlier work Poussin
Delftware, and other ceramics of cen- had borrowed from and enriched his
tral Europe and Britain. In the United repertoire with references to artists such
States, potteries were a particularly ac- as TITIAN. Whether due to the poor re-
tiveand innovative part of the arts ception of a major altarpiece he had
and crafts movement of 18 80-1 920, painted or because in 1629-30 he was
exemplified by the renowned Rook- ill with what was called the French sick-
wood Pottery of Cincinnati and the ness (venereal disease), when he recov-
Newcomb Pottery of New Orleans. ered he changed his way of life as well
544 POUSSINISTES vs. RUBENISTES

as his style and subjects of painting. contemporary, famous for his own
Pozzo, secretary to Cardinal Francesco maxim, Cogito ergo sum, "I think,

BARBERiNi, remained his client, but therefore I am." That motto, emblem-
Poussin retired from competition for atic of the age of enlightenment in

grand, public commissions for projects which they lived, also fits the organized,

like churches and palaces. His pictures contemplative images of Poussin,

became smaller, more poetic, and in- whose ideas influenced the doctrines
creasingly Classical. Poussin spoke of promoted by the French Academy (see
the spectator "reading" his paintings: LINE vs. color). In 1640 Poussin was
"... just as the twenty-six letters of the lured back to Paris to live and work at
alphabet serve to formulate our words the Louvre; however, the scale and
and to express our thoughts, so the lin- grandeur of his commissions there were
eaments of the human body serve to ex- ill suited to him, and after a year and a
press the soul's passions and show
to half, he returned to Rome. Despite his
outside what is in one's mind." To read wealth, he chose to live simply: When a
Poussin is to read poses, gestures, and man pitied him for having no servants,
facial expression. Yet there is a stillness he in turn consoled the man for having
in his works that led bernini, gazing at many.
one of Poussin's paintings, to exclaim,
"What silence!" Poussin's figures seem Poussinistes vs. Rubenistes
frozen in place, like a tableau vivant. The stylistic conflict surrounding line
This is nowhere clearer than in his sec- vs. COLOR is sometimes named for the
ond version of Et in Arcadia Ego, two artists who exemplified the di-
painted c. 1655, during the peak of his chotomy, POUSSIN (line) and rubens
accomplishments (an earlier version ex- (color).

ists from c. 1628/29). It is a masterpiece

of both stylistic clarity and interpreta- Powers, Hiram
tive enigma. What one superficially 1 805-1 873 • American • sculptor •
reads is that a stately woman and three Neoclassicist
shepherds are gathered at a tombstone
Make me as I am, Mr. Powers, and be
in an arcadian setting where they are
true to nature always. . . . I have no
reading the tombstone's inscription
desire to look young when I feel old.
(also the title of the painting), the am-
(President Andrew Jackson, 1835)
biguous words /, too, in Arcadia or.
Even in Arcadia [am] I. The meaning(s) Powers sculpted the marble bust An-
of this work is a favorite puzzle of drew Jackson (1835) with the fidelity
scholars, panofsky wrote a famous and lines of age the president asked of
essay about it in 1936, "Et in Arcadia him in the quotation above. Yet Pow-
ego: On the Conception of Transience ers's classicism shows in the Roman

in Poussin and Watteau." To the regu- drapery he hung from Jackson's shoul-
larity, clarity, and measure of Classical ders. Soon after that commission, a
style, Poussin added the geometrical, wealthy patron from Cincinnati, where
rational mathematics of Descartes, his Powers worked before going to Wash-
 PRAXITELES 545

ington, sponsored a trip to Italy for the carried up to Christ. Earth and heaven,
promising sculptor. Powers settled in this world and the other, fuse in bril-

Florence in 1837 and spent the rest of liant floating euphoria to achieve the
his life there. In 1843 he sculpted a life- mystical experience of making the spiri-
size nude, inspired by Greek Venus fig- tualand terrestrial world one. Pozzo
ures, The Greek Slave. The
called had became a lay brother of the Jesuit
primary reference was to the Greek ef- order in 1665, at the age of 23. He was
forts, during the 1820s, to win their 38 when he was called to Rome for
freedom from the Ottoman Turks, and Saint Ignazio, but he was at first ig-

a secondary reference was to the issue nored because the man who summoned
of American slavery. The work was sent him had died. After he was finally able

home, where its nudity rather than its to execute the commission, he ex-
political implications caused consterna- plained it in detail, from which the
tion when it toured the country. How- quotation above is excerpted,
ever, excuses on Powers's behalf
included sermons such as one by a min- Praxiteles
ister who declared, ''The Greek Slave is active c. 370-330 bce • Greek •

clothed all over with sentiment, shel- sculptor • Late Classical

tered, protected by it from every pro-
Seeing her Cnidian self [Aphrodite]
fane eye."
cried 'Oh, ye gods'. Where did
Praxiteles see me naked?' Plato, c.
Pozzo, Andrea
early 4th century bce
1 642-1 709 • Italian • painter •

Baroque None of his original work survives, but

we have a 2nd-century or later marble
In the middle of the vault I have
copy of Hermes and Diony-
Praxiteles'
painted the figure of Jesus, who sends
sus (c. 340-330 bce), found in the Tem-
forth a ray of light to the heart of
ple of Hera at Olympia. Copies of his
Ignatius, which is then transmitted by
APHRODITE OF CNiDOS are varied, and
him to the most distant hearts of the
it must be taken on faith that, by repu-
four parts of the world.
tation, she was synonymous with per-
Of all the BAROQUE illusionistic ceil- fection. Breaking a long tradition,
ings, Pozzo's Glorification of Saint Ig- perhaps for the first time, Praxiteles
natius 1688-94) for the Church of
(c. presented female nudity as erotically
Saint Ignazio in Rome is the most spec- suggestive. According to pliny the
tacular. For the ultimate example of di elder, the people of Cnidos, who
sotto in su ("from below upward"; see owned the statue, boldly refused the
perspective), first seen in mantegna's offer of King Nikodemes to discharge
Camera degli Sposi (1465-74), the their public debt in exchange for it.

artist worked his way up the walls, sim- Pliny wrote, "Multitudes have sailed to
ulating the continuation of the architec- Cnidos to look at it." Praxiteles' statues

ture until the ceiling seems to burst are known for the sinuous, relaxed, S-
open to the heavens as Saint Ignatius is shaped curve of their bodies, quite op-
546 PRECISIONISM

posite to the taut, athletic figures of ear- There is no sign of human intervention,
Uer artists (e.g., myron and polyk- such as brushstroke, on the canvas, and
LEiTOs). Unhke most classical Greek usually no sign of human beings in the
sculptors, who worked in bronze, Prax- pictures, either. These works seem out-
iteles sculpted primarily in marble, side of time. It is in technique, and the
which reputedly became silken in his exclusion of people, rather than in her
hands. Although still idealized rather subject matter, that O'Keeffe is a Preci-
than individualized (and their surfaces sionist.

often tinted), Praxitelian figures are

not heroic; rather, they appear soft, predella
dreamy, effete, alluding to a very differ- See altarpiece
ent sensuality from that of their prede-
cessors. Praxiteles is also the creator of Prendergast, Maurice
the adolescent male body in sculpture, 1859-1924 • American • painter •
as seen in copies of Apollo Sauroctonos, Post-Impressionist/Modern
or Lizard Slayer, and the Marble Faun
Prendergast. What does that name
celebrated by Nathaniel Hawthorne,
bring to the mind? Pictures gay,
who, seeing it first in 1858, found him-
joyous. Trees and silver skies. Deep
self "sensible of a peculiar charm in it: a
and orange rocks. People
blue sea in
sylvan beauty and homeliness, friendly
movement, holiday folk in their
and wild at once." Hawthorn's i860
saffron, violet, white, pearl, tan.
novel. The Marble Faun, spread the
(Charles Hovey Pepper, 19 10)
fame and popularity of the sculpture.
Although he exhibited with The eight
Precisionism in 1908, Prendergast did not pursue the
In the wakeWorld War I, feelings of
of Socialist concerns of those in the group
patriotism mixed with a measure of who were known as the ashcan
anti-European sentiment contributed to painters. It has been noted that Prender-
the forging of a new modern style in gast was the first American to truly un-
the United States. This style was gener- derstand French modernism while it

ally named Precisionism but also called was developing. His outlined shapes.
Cubist Realism because it evolved from neither solidified nor shaded, were
the earlier convention of seeing objects filled in with short thick strokes of
as flat geometric shapes. Artists work- bright color; they give something like a
ing in this mode included sheeler and mosaic effect. The illusion of depth
demuth, and in some ways o'keeffe. comes from overlapping forms rather
Precisionists idolized Americana, from than perspective, and his figures tend
Colonial houses and Shaker furniture to to move across the canvas in horizontal
the newest in technology and industry. bands. Prendergast's imprint is so
Their forms were hard-edged, pristine, lively, exultant, and distinctive that his
and executed to look as though the park and beach scenes seem to proclaim
painting might have been created by a his signature at a glance. Promenade at
machine rather than a man or woman. Nantasket (c. 1900), with its parade of
 PRE-RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD 547

Strollers and the ocean in the back- ment's early stages, and closely linked
ground, is the sort of picture that the with literature, ruskin, also still in his

critic Pepper refers to in the quotation zos at the time, was one of their guiding
above. lights, reinforcing the centrality of na-
ture and the idea that every detail in a

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood painting should have symbolic mean-

One of the few movements named by its ing — as in the Medieval world, animals
own participants, and that began at a and plants represented particular
specific time and place: September 1848 virtues and vices. Because they were a
at the London home of one of its found- "secret society" with a manifesto of
ing members, MiLLAis, age 19. William their own, the PRB members were
Holman hunt, 21 and the driving force highly suspect and their paintings sav-
of the group, and rossetti, also 21, agely criticized at the first exhibition, in

were present. These three, students at 1850, when their movement became
the Royal Academy of Art, spearheaded known They published a
(see millais).

PRB (as their group became known) in journal called The Germ. The PRB was
reaction against the sterility of acade- hardly alone in its turn toward Me-
Mic art and training. They renounced dievalism, as pugin's slightly earlier
all art from Raphael to their time and promotion of gothic architecture and
looked back to medieval art and leg- its moral foundations testifies. The re-

ends for ideas. They were also inspired Houses of Parliament (designed in
built

by the NAZARENES, Germans who began 1835 by Sir Charles Barry and Pugin)
working in Rome some 40 years earlier had a Neo-Gothic style. With growing
and whose elaborate allegories and Me- nationalism, the various countries in
dievalism appealed to them. The thrust Europe each looked back into its histor-

of the PRB manifesto was to study na- With their literary interests,
ical past.

ture, where they could find "genuine Chaucer was dusted off by Pre-
ideas." They rejected idealized and arti- Raphaelite painters, and illustrated
ficial forms of beauty such as were ex- both in painting (brown's Chaucer,
pressed by the late renaissance school 1851) and print (Chaucer, published in

in general, Raphael in particular, as 1896 by William morris's Kelmscott

well as the grand manner of the acad- Press). The Arthurian legends, Shake-

emy. They sought a new look to express speare's and Marlowe's plays, and the
their interest in an elaborate new tech- poems of Tennyson also provided inspi-
nique, laying transparent colors on a ration. The PRB attracted a number of

wet white ground. It was a painstaking followers. Each of its members devel-
process, pursued inch by inch, much oped his or her more individualized in-
like fresco painters had proceeded, terests and styles (there were several

centuries earlier, on wet plaster. They women who were attracted to the
wanted a high, fresh, sunlit effect, with movement), but only Hunt among
clear, sharp focus, nearly microscopic the front-runners remained true to the
in attention to detail. PRB paintings Brotherhood's ideals. By i860 Rossetti,
were heavily moralizing in the move- painting sensuous women, moved
 —

548 PRIMARY STRUCTURES

closer to the interests of aestheti- primitive, primitivism

ciSM, while Millais worked a good deal From word meaning "first,"
the root
in portraiture and the Scottish land- these terms, when applied to art, sug-
scape. gest that subsequent work will be more
advanced and better. The discomfort
Primary Structures caused by using "primitive" is com-
An alternative term for minimalist art pounded by a grouping of prehistoric,

used in 1966 to name a groundbreaking African, Oceanic, and American Indian

exhibition at the Jewish Museum in arts under the catchall heading of
New York City, where Minimalist "primitive" (and sometimes "naive"),
sculpture was shown for the first time: as well as that of unschooled European
Primary Structures: Younger American or American artists (e.g., Henri rous-
and British Sculptors. seau and moses). Moreover, because it

was used by Westerners to describe art

Primaticcio, Francesco made by non-Western "Others," primi-
1504/05-1570 • Italian • sculptor, tive is now seen as a distinction used by
painter, architect • Mannerist colonial powers to describe colonized

, , ^/ I T7 peoples (see orientalizing). Even

When the Emperor Charles V came to ,, , •

when ,

the noble savage

1
romanti-
Fontainebleau
,
m 1^40, with only
, tf J.-
......
cized, critics insist, a patronizing, judg-
is
. . . ,

twelve men, trusting himself to King 1 « 1

• » 1 •

„ * ,
' mental, ethnocentric attitude is
Francis, Rosso and Francesco .
t^ , ,1
. .

implicit. 1 o avoid the pejorative conno-

Primaticcio of Bologna between them . ,
r li
, , •
I ;
tations or primitive, it is preferable to
arranged the tournaments instituted by , ., «f-
, , , ^ , .
describe art as, more e.g., African, or
the king in honour of his guest. ... ,, ,. , ,„,, , ,

, , ,
specifically, e.g., Yoruban. Whether the
(Vasari, mid- 1 6th century « » j •

terms naive and folk art are appro-

In his early 20s, Primaticcio joined the priate for work of artists such as Rous-

studio of GiULio Romano while he was seau, Grandma Moses, pippin, and
in Mantua. He left for France in 1532 others is debatable, but there are no
and began work on the palace of agreed-upon alternatives.
FONTAINEBLEAU, joining ROSSO there.
His figures — female nudes, such as the print
marble wall sculptures in the Room of An image that is produced by printing.
the Duchess d'Etampes (1541-44) Prints are often named according to
are attenuated, delicate, and lithe, with their specificmethod of reproduc-
small heads and long legs. Primaticcio tion: an engraving from the engrav-
planned some of the most important ing process, a lithograph from
decorations and events at Fontaine- lithography, an aquatint from
bleau, as Vasari notes above, but even AQUATiNTing, etc. A photograph is also

his "permanent" works are gone, considered a print. As is true of illumi-

known only through drawings and en- nated manuscripts, which predated
cravings. Toward the end of his life he them, prints are generally small, meant
practiced architecture at Fontainebleau, to be seen at close range, and lend them-
but his buildings do not survive. selves to private rather than public con-
 PRINTING 549

templation. Though each individual ution of printed copies of paintings and

print may have a restricted audience, its sculptures made the compositions and
original image may be reproduced in ideas of important works of art widely

large multiples. Consequently, and available to other, often distant artists

paradoxically, an individual print uiti- unable to look at the original. Painters
mately has a wider public distribution and sculptors sometimes prepared
than does a singular "public" work of copies of their own work for printed re-

art such as a painting or sculpture. It production, but that was usually done
may be argued that the painting and by specialists, occasionally to the dis-

sculpture are also reproduced and may of the originating artist: durer
widely available by means of photogra- complained that raimondi plagiarized
phy; however, they are intended by his work. Not only did Raimondi popu-
their maker to be seen in their unique, larize both Raphael's and giulio Ro-
original state with what the theorist mano's paintings, with their approval,

Walter benjamin called their "aura" but he is also the person who truly es-

intact. Use of the print as a medium of tablished engraving as a reproductive

mass communication has given it a di- medium. Besides learning from prints,
dactic role in movements, beginning, many painters and sculptors received
most significantly, with the Protestant their artistic education as apprentices in

Reformation. the craft of printmaking copley (e.g.,

and homer). And apart from what

printing might be called the secondary purposes
There are four basic methods of print- described so far, printmaking itself be-

ing. INTAGLIO is the process in which came an art form, especially in the

the image is carved or cut into the ma- hands of schongauer, Diirer, and
trix from which the print will be taken, rembrandt.
Others are relief (e.g., woodblock). If a picture is copied directly onto the
planographic (i.e., using flat surfaces; printing matrix —wood or metal —the
see lithography), and stencil (in image it prints is backward, unless spe-
which an opening is made or left cial measures are taken to reverse it (see

through which an image emerges, e.g., offset). The number of reproductions,

silk-screen). The printing of images or prints, depends entirely on the type
on paper had revolutionary signifi- of process used — a monotype yields a
cance. It began with wood-block print- single print, a lithograph may yield
ing in the first decades of the 15th thousands. Photography, as mentioned
century and then, in the second quarter above, and film, prints in their own
of the century, intaglio (metal-plate en- right, fall within this category, and
graving and etching) produced ever computer graphics are the most influen-
larger numbers of inexpensive images, tial of contemporary methods for both

During the i6th century, such images creating and repeating images that are
were used for propagandistic purposes sometimes, although not always, trans-
by promoters of both the Reformation lated into prints on paper. Apart from
and the Counter-Reformation. Persua- fine art prints, which are often num-
sion aside, the development and distrib- bered and signed by the artist, printed
 —

550 PRIX DE ROME

posters provide affordable art for a the ROCOCO style, were Prix de Rome
widely diverse population, democratiz- laureates, the primary impact of study
ing what would otherwise remain an es- in Rome on both painters and sculptors
sentially elite pleasure. was a NEOCLASSICAL style and the pro-
duction of HISTORY PAINTINGS, in con-
Prix de Rome cert with the ACADEMIC hierarchy.
Established in the early i66os, this prize Other Prix winners were houdon,
enabled a student at the French Acad- Jacques-Louis david, and bougue-
emy to study in Rome for three to five REAU. In the late 19th century the im-
years at the expense of the state. In portance of the Prix declined, and in
1666 a French branch of the Parisian 1968 it was abolished. At the ecole
Academy was established in Rome it- des BEAUX-ARTS in Paris, the current
self. Originally, the scholarship — for French Academy, the Prix de Rome pic-
which the student had to execute a tures, hanging in proximity to one an-
painting in a given number of days other, provide a history of the taste that
under strict —
supervision was awarded dominated the Academy over more
only to painters, but printmakers, ar- than two centuries. Beginning in 1894,
chitects, and musicians were later in- a Prix de Rome was also offered by the
cluded. The declared purpose was to American Academy of Fine Arts for stu-
enable French artists to study master- dents to study at the American Acad-
pieces of ANTIQUITY and to absorb the emy in Rome.
quality described by the word gravita,
that typically ROMAN grandeur and Process art
They were not in Rome to
severity. An outgrowth minimalism in which
of
study contemporary Italian art, for the procedures and materials used for
French authority in all spheres of Ufe making an object, and the signs or
political and social as well as artistic symptoms of its being made (e.g., saw
was surpassing that of Italy. Through marks, and the weight of its own form),
the French Academy in Rome, French are central to the finished work. (See
artists were able to win local commis- also Robert morris and serra)
sions and competitions, and the French
absorption with antiquity renewed such Proun
interest in Italy itself (e.g., see albani, See LissiTZKY
wiNCKELMANN, and PiRANESi). Indeed,
the Frenchman Le brun was made titu- provenance
lar head of the Roman Academy of The known record of the whereabouts
Saint Luke in 1676-77, a post his and ownership of a work of art, from its

deputy, Charles Errard (c. 1606-89), creation to the present, constitutes its

director of the French Academy in provenance. Provenance is increasingly

Rome, filled on his behalf. Thus, French significant. Without evidence of its

academicians were, "symbolically at past, one cannot be sure that a painting

least," as the wittkower
historian or sculpture has not been obtained ille-

writes, "masters of Rome." Although gally. This is especially critical for

BOUCHER and fragonard, artists of ANCIENT works that depend on archae-
 PUCELLE, JEAN 55 I

ological records to document when and writings to understand the patriarchal

where they were discovered, and who society with which women have had
has owned them since then. A once ca- to contend. Feminist theorists are es-
sual attitude toward provenance on the pecially interested in exposing the
part of museums is recently becoming importance of visual images in con-
more rigorous. Fraudulent documenta- structing sexual differences, how the
tion is still problematic. male artist/audience has used woman as
a visual sign (see semiotics and gaze).
psalter "... through psychoanalytical theory
A collection of the biblical psalms, be- we can recognize the specificity of vi-

lieved to have been written by King sual performance and address," writes
David. Psalters were richly illustrated, Griselda pollock. "The construction
especially during the medieval era. of sexuahty and its underpinning sexual
Among the books Saint Augustine is be- difference is profoundly implicated in

lieved to have taken to England in 597 looking and the 'scopic field.' Visual
is a luxurious psalter, once bound in sil- representation is a privileged site (for-
ver, that still exists. It is known as give the Freudian pun)."
the Cotton Vespasian A. I, now in the
British Library. It may, however, have Pucelle, Jean
been made in the first half of the 8th active c. 1319-34 • French • painter
century well after Augustine died in • High Gothic
604.
. . . a very small book of
Hours . . . that Pucelle illuminated.
psychoanalysis
(will of Queen Jeanne d'Evreux; lived
From the beginning of his researches,
1310-1371)
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) applied
his psychoanalytic theories to art. In Pucelle's masterpiece is a book of
19 10 he wrote Leonardo da Vinci and a HOURS given to Queen Jeanne d'Evreux
Memory of His Childhood, which of France by her husband, Charles FV, c.

traces Leonardo's presumed homosex- 1325-28; book and artist are men-
uality and his creativity to events or fan- tioned in the queen's will quoted from
tasies of his childhood. This essay above. It is only ^Vz by 2'/2 inches, yet

continues to prompt discussion among a marvel of refinement and detail. Pu-

art historians as well as among psychol- celle used grisaille — monochromatic
ogists. Artists, always sensitive to new ink washes — for shaping and model-
ideas, were in turn inspired by Freud ing figures, and color to pick out se-

and Jung
his successors, especially Carl lected details. The figures are elegant
(1875-1961), to explore the subcon- and sway with High gothic sinuosity;
scious mind; the results are most no- the fabric of their clothing is elaborately
table in surrealism and abstract draped. The use of marginalia (figures,
expressionism. Historians, too, have decoration, or scenes in the margins of
used psychoanalytic theory in their in- the pages) enlivens the main text or il-

terpretations of art. feminists, while lustration and draws in the spectator.

faulting Freud's sexist outlook, use his Pucelle is also known as the artist who
552. PUGET, PIERRE

brought to France duccio's innovative Pugin, Augustus Welby

ideas about spatial relations, specifi- Northmore
cally by placing a figure of Mary, in a 1812-1852 • French/English •

scene of the Annunciation, inside a sort architect/writer • Gothic revival

of cubicle with receding side walls and
. . . the external and internal
ceiling, and the angel Gabriel kneeling
appearance of an edifice should be
inside an entryway that is clearly de-
illustrative of, and in accordance
fined. Giovanni pisano's spatial inno-
with, the purpose for which it is
vations and emotional expression are
designed.
also cited as influences on Pucelle.

If Pugin's preference was for Gothic ar-

Puget, Pierre chitecture, his life reads like a "Gothic

1 620-1 694 • French • sculptor • romance" —shipwrecked in 1830, mar-
Baroque ried in 1 8 3 1 to a wife who died in 1832,

/ thrive on grand works, am buoyed

married again in 1833 — this wife died

up when work on them, and marble

I
I
in 1844 —married again in 1849, went
mad, and died in 1852. His book Con-
trembles before me, no matter how
trasts (1836) emerged from the early
large the project.
desecration and misery caused by the
Despite his great talent, Puget's mo- Industrial Revolution to proclaim a
ment in the sun was brief — both liter- connection between artistic style and
ally and figuratively. He was anathema moral condition. He denounced Greek
to the taste promoted by Colbert at the style, as it had been revived in neoclas-
court of Louis XIV, the putative Sun siciSM, as pagan and sinful, and he be-
King, and it was not until shortly before lieved that the ills of his era were due to
Colbert's death that his most astound- the demise of Catholicism preceding the
ing sculpture, the marble Milo of Cro- arrival of industrialization. For the
ton Attacked by a Lion (1671-82), was frontispiece to An Apology for the Re-
accepted there. Milo was an ancient vival of Christian Architecture in Eng-
Greek athlete attacked and killed by a land (1843), Pugin designed a city of
lion after his hand had become wedged Gothic towers. His rationale was co-
in a tree trunk. Puget's Milo has the gent, not mystical, in describing the fit-

emotional intensity, popped veins, and ness and logic of the Gothic style to
twisting body of the baroque style, yet building requirements in England. He
it also has elements of Hellenistic art: was, however, as opposed to the
The pose is an echo of the priest lao- "castellated" or crenellated style (see
cooN (ist century ce). That the taste walpole) was to the false front of
as he
for Puget'swork was short lived may Neoclassical temples on Christian
have had as much to do with his own churches. The connection that Pugin
arrogance as with the ephemeral nature made between ornament and structure,
of taste at court. However, both his as in the quotation above, allies him
work and his personality appealed to with the concept that "form should fol-

ROMANTIC artists, DELACROIX in partic- low function," an idea proclaimed

ular. decades later by sullivan.
 PUVIS DE CHAVANNES, PIERRE 553

Purism continued the ancient tradition of wall

A variant of leger's cubist machine painting. After France lost the Franco-
aesthetic, Purism was developed about Prussian War of 1870-71, Puvis por-
19 1 8 by LE CORBUSIER and the painter trayed all the French provinces as
Amedee Ozenfant (1886-1966). They models of beauty and fertility, a paean
intended to simpUfy and, to their minds, to France. He covered multitudes of
purify Cubism by ridding it of the deco- walls, not only in France but also at the
rative elements with which it had be- Boston Public Library (by mckim,
come permeated. Their manifesto, After MEAD and white). He was not univer-
Cubism, was published in 191 8. sally appreciated during his lifetime,
however: In 1884 Edmond de gon-
putto, putti (pi.) COURT called one of his paintings "a
From Latin putus, for "little man," dismal apology for paint" and added,
putti are chubby, often winged figures "this Puvis de Chavannes nonsense has
who cavort in renaissance, baroque, really gone on quite long enough."
and ROCOCO art especially. Originally While his painting is decorative and
from pagan mythology, where they rep- seemingly anachronistic, Puvis never-
resent Eros, god of love (son of Venus), theless inspired diverse artists, from
they were quickly adapted to Christian GAUGUIN to van gogh and picasso.
symbolism: Carved on a surface of the SYMBOLISTS him their
claimed —
4th-century Christian Good Shepherd spokesman Sar Peladan called him "the
sarcophagus, small cherubs/putti crush greatest master of our time" — but he
grapes in a wine press —the wine, once denied the affiliation and professed
sacred to Bacchus, became a symbol of to have more affinity for the pre-
the Eucharist. RAPHAELiTE painter burne-jones.
However, the mysterious, ambiguous
Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre affect of his paintings, the half-light he

1824-1898 French • painter favored, plus his own melancholy na-

Symbolist ture, make the Symbolist connection
more insistent than would a similarly
/ have a weakness I scarcely dare to
simplified image painted by flaxman,
avow. [It] consists in preferring rather
for example. Like Flaxman, Puvis did
mournful aspects to all others, low
wish to restore the serious and noble in-
skies, solitary plains, discreet in hue,
tentions of academic art. His mural
where each tuft of grass plays its little
Summer (i 891), at the Hotel de Ville in
tune to the indolent breath of the wind
Paris, is his masterpiece. Alternating
of midday. I wait impatiently for
. . .

blue, violet, green, and gold in the land-

the bad weather to come, and I am
scape, and dreamy, beautiful. Classical
already negotiating with a seller of
nudes, he creates the epitome of har-
umbrellas. I assure you that bad
mony. During a period when French
weather has more life than good.
culture was polarized by extremist po-
Using a limited range of colors, chalky litical factions and many in the nation

surface texture, and simplified, out- were looking for a definition of French-
lined, idealized classical figures, Puvis ness, Puvis seemed to embody the grand
 —

554 PYTHAGORAS

French tradition at its most serene. Yet have been considerable, as the assess-
he was also a resource for modern ment of Rhys Carpenter,
the historian
painters hke denis and Gauguin, who quoted above, suggests. Through study-
evolved the theory of synthetism — ing music, Pythagoras discovered the
calling for a simplification of lines, significance of measure (length of
color, and form and a suppression of all string/where it was plucked/number of
detail —with Puvis as one of their points vibrations) in relation to the beauty or
of reference. ugliness of sound. This led to the idea
that proper numerical proportions
Pythagoras commensurability of parts —gives order
late 6th century bce • Greek • and beauty to things. Measure,
all

mathematician/philosopher order, and harmony — Pythagorean

values promoted by his disciples
It is an impressive discovery when the
supported doctrines such as those ex-
human mind first catches a glimpse of
pressed by POLYKLEiTos in his Canon
the eternal supersensuous laws ruling
and the architecture of Greek temples
the seemingly casual appearances of
(see PARTHENON). At the core of Pyth-
the world of sense. This moment came
agorean tradition is the belief in an im-
to the Greeks early in their career in
mutable IDEAL, a concept that helps to
the course of Pythagorean and other
explain an essential similarity of Greek
geometric investigations. (Rhys
temples, all of which employ the same
Carpenter, 1959)
architectural elements (rectangular
Little is known about Pythago-
directly floor plan, post-and-lintel construction,
ras, whose ideas were not written down colonnades, pediments) — rather than
until about a century after his own endeavoring to invent new systems.
time, but his influence on the arts may
 Q

quadratura quattrocento
Wall decoration painted with architec- From the Italian, meaning "four hun-
tural elements — sometimes enhanc- dred," actually refers to the 1400s or,
ing actual architectural details — that more commonly in English, the 15th
provides illusionary structural effects, century.
COLUMNS, pediments, ARCHes, even
doors may be painted, mantegna's Queer Theory
ceiling in the Camera degli Sposi (1465- See gender studies
74) and Michelangelo's Sistine
Chapel Ceiling (1508-12) are famous Quidor, John
examples from the Italian renais- 1801-1881 • American •
SANCE. The idea of quadratura goes painter/illustrator • Romantic
back to ROMAN art and
reached
...
zenith m baroque Til
where Italy, artists
•
its .
In
„
all
.
,, ,
the time
.

. ,
we were with
.
,

, f , .

.,.,.,.
who specialized in this work were called
, , ,, ,
Quidor
,
. . . I do not remember of his
, , ,

111
,

, ^ •
, r giving us anything but easel room and
,„.._,,.
quadratunsti. Quadratura, like that of
the Sistine Chapel, gives a sense of
, one or two very
/^i 1 t
common
t^h-
engravings to
• v

, ,
, . ,, . copy. (Charles Loring tliiot, n.d.)
structure, clearly marking oft sections
of the wall or ceiling. It can also be seen In his own time, Quidor was known as
as a form of trompe l'oeil, especially a painter of signs and fire engine panels,
when the quadratura is made to be but the pictures for which he is now re-

"read" by the viewer as actual architec- membered were inspired by stories told
tural forms. by his fellow New Yorker Washington
Irving. Quidor painted in a satirical vein

quadro riportato derived from hogarth, but more

The technique of "framing" pictures on manic and bizarre. The Money Diggers
walls and ceilings, especially vaulted (1832), from an Irving tale, mixes the
ceilings, so that they look as if they grotesque and frightening with a claus-
were hanging in a gallery rather than trophobic ghostliness as the surrepti-
creating perspective illusions. See car- tious diggers work by night. The black
RACCi's ceiling fresco for the Galleria pit seems to hold the darkest fears of all

Farnese (i 597-1 601) and reni's Au- who might look, or fall, into it. "The
rora (1614). dark pit represents, however, not only
556 QUIDOR, JOHN

— par-
mystery and unfulfilled visions a Wesley Jarvis, for not fulfilling his
ody of Jacksonian aspirations — but an obligations.Quidor won the case,
over-invented image of the mind of When he himself had students, Quidor
man," writes the historian Bryan Jay also stinted his pupils, according to the
Wolf. Quidor was an apprentice to a comment made by one of them, who is

portrait painter for four years, and quoted above,

brought suit against his master, John
 K

backwards, as he went to contemplate

radio carbon dating
A scientific means of determining the
his work at a proper distance, and,
age of materials derived from plants or
when resolved on the necessary point
to be touched, his step forward was
animals, such as those made of wood or
ivory, based on the fact that, once dead,
magnificent. I see him, in my mind's
eye, with his hand under his chin,
organic material loses its store of car-
contemplating his picture; which
bon 14 at a predictable rate. When dat-
ing an inorganic object, one made of position always brought me in mind of
a figure of Jupiter which I have
BRONZE, for example, or any work that
somewhere seen. (Sir Walter Scott, c.
would be ruined by taking the sample
i8z6)
that radio carbon dating requires, scien-
tists might be able to substitute a pre-
sumably contemporary object (e.g., Born in Edinburgh, Raeburn spent his
something found at the same stratum life and died there. Although he was
of an archaeological dig), or, perhaps, sometimes called the Scottish
the frame of a painting, to date the REYNOLDS, and though he once met Sir

object under study. As is true of den- Joshua Reynolds and did in fact incor-

drochronology, radio carbon mea- porate some of the virtuosity of his

suring determines only the earliest style, Raeburn did not feel compelled
plausible date something may have to compete on the London scene, Reyn-
been made — it is always possible that olds's turf. He exhibited there, toyed
the material was not used for many with the idea of relocating, but resisted.
years after the tree was cut down or the He had been trained as a jeweler, and
PARCHMENT (for another example) was learned to paint by copying. As the por-
prepared. (See also thermolumines- traitist of Scotland — it was said that
CENCE dating) every Scot above the level of a crofter
seems to have had the means to have
himself and family portrayed by Rae-
Raeburn, Sir Henry
1756-1823 • Scottish • pamter •
burn — he developed his own bold,
spontaneous, and expressive style. Sir
Romantic
Walter Scott, who is quoted above, was
/ never knew Raeburn, I may say, till painted no fewer than six times by Rae-
the painting of my last portrait. His burn. Though was uncom-
the practice
conversation was rich, and he told his mon at the time he adopted it, Raeburn
story well. His manly stride painted his sitters directly on the can-
 —

558 RAIMONDI, MARCANTONIO

vas, as he saw them, swiftly and with in 1506), Marcantonio estabUshed the
certitude. When he was successful, importance of printing to art. His
as with the beautiful Miss Eleanor copies of the foremost artists' paintings
Urquhart (c. 1793), the result is splen- were widely disseminated and studied
did. The freshness and beauty of the sit- by artists throughout the Western
ter is captured by the touch of his brush, world. Not until the invention of pho-
and her direct gaze mesmerizes the tography, 300 years after Marcanto-
viewer, as must have entranced the
it nio's death, was the significance of the

artist. The sketched-in sky and land- print eclipsed. Marcantonio's images
scape attract admiration while leading are useful to art historians in many
the eye back to the sitter's face. For ways; for instance, from a portrait he
every success such as this, however, engraved of the Italian writer Pietro
Raeburn produced several portraits in Aretino, one scholar was able to iden-
which a lack of enthusiasm and much tify an unknown figure in a painting by
reworking seem to have gotten the Raphael. Marcantonio himself ap-
upper hand. Just two or three years peared, in person, as one of the bearers
after painting Miss Urquhart, Raeburn of the pope's chair in Raphael's Ex-
painted Mrs. George Hill, the subject of pulsion of Heliodorus (
1 5 1 2-1 4 )

which is wearing what appears to be the Raphael is the other. After c. 15 10,
very same dress. She is similarly seated, Marcantonio worked mainly for
but a bit farther away from the artist Raphael, and his prints gave Raphael's
and the viewer. It is clear that the same compositions a popularity previously
enchantment was not there. Raeburn enjoyed by no other artist in history. In

was, nevertheless, so successful that 15 24, when he copied a series of erotic

during a 9 A.M.-5:30 p.m. workday, he pictures by giulio Romano, Pope
painted a succession of three or four sit- Clement VII ordered Marcantonio's im-
ters. He also speculated in real estate prisonment. Aretino, mentioned above,
and enjoyed the great Scottish game of composed sonnets to accompany
golf. Marcantonio's prints, and had to flee
Rome. He escaped imprisonment, but
Raimondi, Marcantonio was brutally beaten when he returned
c. 1470/82-15Z7/34 • Italian • to Rome,
printmaker • Renaissance

[It was during] the two decades of

first

the sixteenth century that the mature Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio, or

image of Venus was formed, and one Santi)
of the chief elements in its formation 1483-1520 • Italian •

was, no doubt, the wide diffusion of painter/architect • Renaissance

engravings by Marcantonio and his
. . . but the most graceful of all was
imitators. (Arthur Clark, 1953)
Raphael of Urbino, who, studying the
More than any other artist, even durer labors of both the ancients and the
(whose Life of the Virgin he plagiarized modern masters, selected the best
 RAPHAEL (RAFFAELLO SANZIO, OR SANTi) 559

from each. . . . Nature herself was calm, controlled spirituality, that both
vanquished by his colors. (Vasari, mid- Michelangelo and Leonardo lacked. He
i6th century) aspired to a universal religion that rec-
onciled Christianity and paganism, and
Raphael's oeuvre seems restrained in strove to unify spiritual and material
comparison to those of the other two beauty. His Vatican commissions in-
High Italian renaissance,
stars of the cluded a FRESCO regarding the doctrine
LEONARDO and MICHELANGELO. In of transubstantiation, which was heat-
temperament as well as pictorial ex- edly argued at the time: In his Disputa
pression, Raphael appears to have been {Disputation over the Sacrament; c.

more task oriented and less interested in 1508-10), while the heavenly host is

psychological conflict than was suspended overhead, learned but earth-

Leonardo, and not obsessed, as bound theologians debate their convic-
Michelangelo was, with the muscular tions about the matter. In the same
beauty of the human form. (They were room with Disputa Raphael painted his
older than he by thirty and eight years, renowned School of Athens (c. 1510-
respectively; he died a year before Leo- 12, so named during the i8th century).
nardo, and was outlived by Michelan- Here plato and Aristotle, amid a gath-
gelo.) But Raphael was strongly affected ering of pre-Christian philosophers and
by the accomplishments of both artists, scientists, also avidly deliberate their

absorbing much what he recognized

of ideas. This painting, expressing clarity,

as their innovations, as he had absorbed harmony, spatial integrity, and classi-

the influence of his early mentor, pe- cal references, is emblematic of High
RUGINO. Raphael's Marriage of the Vir- Italian Renaissance values. Besides his
gin (i 504), for example, closely follows own self-portrait, Raphael is thought to
the sedate, orderly composition and have painted his colleagues, including
tranquil disposition of Perugino's Michelangelo, among the ancient
Christ Delivering the Keys of the King- philosophers. Raphael was a supreme
don^ to Saint Peter (c. 1480-82). It is colorist, believed to be the first who
wrong, however, to describe Raphael matched his mode of applying paint, as
as a chameleon; while he may have well as the colors themselves, to the
adapted the stylistic innovations of oth- mood he wished to evoke. His many
ers, he used them according to his own Madonnas are beautiful and serene,
creative interpretation. He shared sev- none more so than the Sistine Madonna
eral of their patrons, and was working (c. 151 3-14), who walks on clouds, sur-
at the Vatican for Pope Julius II while rounded by barely visible, cloudlike
Michelangelo was painting the Sistine angels; and the portraits of his contem-
Chapel What he was able to see
ceiling. poraries, especially that of his friend
of Michelangelo's work which was — Baldassare Castiglione (c. 15 14-15),
limited, as Michelangelo was quite se- are sophisticated in their suggestion of
cretive — seemed to impress Raphael character. Before his premature death,
profoundly. Still, Raphael had an intel- at 37, Raphael's paintings, while still

lectual detachment, combined with a tightly controlled, seem more tor-

560 RAUSCHENBERG, ROBERT

mented, as in the exorcism in the lower called "Combine Paintings," rather

part of the Transfiguration of Christ than ASSEMBLAGES, which they resem-
(1517-20), which is combined with an ble. Bed (1955), for example, uses fa-
extremely intense vision of Christ in the miliar objects and substances —pillow,
upper portion. Raphael received archi- quilt, toothpaste, fingernail polish. It is

tectural commissions —
bramante's
at also a means of seeing oneself through
death in 15 14 Raphael assumed the vivid associations with external, famil-
post of papal architect — but little of his iar (or previously familiar) objects.
architectural work remains. He was Rauschenberg's effort to eliminate the
also named Superintendent of Antiqui- artist from the work is explicit in one of
ties, which gave him power over all ex- his most notorious endeavors. Erased
cavations in the papal dominions. One de Kooning Drawing (1953), in which
of his projects was to map ancient he spent two months using an eraser to
Rome and its monuments. annihilate de Kooning's individual
identity from one of de Kooning's own
Rauschenberg, Robert drawings —and failed.

born 1925 • American •

Modern/" Combine Painting" Rayonism (Rayonnism)

An outgrowth of cubism in its fragmen-
/ want my paintings to be reflections
tation and faceting of form, and allied
of life . . . your self-visualization is a
to FUTURISM in its emphasis on dy-
reflection of your surroundings.
namic, linear light rays, the movement
Rauschenberg studied at black moun- called Rayonism was started in 19 12 by
tain COLLEGE, where he covered can- LARIONOV and goncharova. It was in-
vases with flat white paint. This was spired by contemporary scientific work
meant to direct a viewer's attention being done in the field of space and
away from the mind and intention of time.
the painter and toward the outside
world, for which the canvases served to Rayonnant style
reflect shadows and ambient colors See GOTHIC
in the environment. He was attuned

to the ideas of cage, for whose pivotal

Read, Herbert
Sir
"Event," staged in 1952, Rauschen-
1 893-1968 • English • poet/art
berg's White Paintings provided a back-
historian
drop. From the discovery of the "self"
by probing deeply into the psyche, as In spite of my intellectual pretensions I

pursued by DE KOONING and Jackson am by birth and tradition a peasant. I

POLLOCK, Rauschenberg moved to un- despise the whole industrial epoch —

derstanding of the environment from not only for the plutocracy which it

which the "self" is formed. "I don't has raised to power but also for the
mess around with my subconscious. I industrial proletariat which it has
try to keep wide-awake," he once said. drained from the land. The only class
Rauschenberg began making what he in the community for which I feel any
 REALISM 561

real sympathy is the agricultural class, what is represented is what the eye sees.
including the genuine remnants of the These terms confound the definition
landed aristocracy. seeker and the writer. One means of
drawing a circle around realism is to
Read's "intellectual pretensions" in- consider its prefixes, photorealism,
cluded teaching and writing prolifically. MAGIC REALISM, SURREALISM, Superreal-
Education through Art (1943) is one of ism, HyperreaVism. For the 19th-
his outstanding contributions. As a sup- century movement called realism, with
porter of the group unit one and editor a capital R, see below.
of their text, Unit One: The Modern
Movement in English Architecture, Realism-^
Painting and Sculpture (1934), he With a capital R, Realism refers to a
praised their "contemporary spirit," mid-i9th-century movement. Preceded
commending "that thing which is rec- by ROMANTICISM and succeeded by
ognized as peculiarly of today in paint- SYMBOLISM, Realism flourished pri-

ing, sculpture and architecture." Read marily in France from about 1840 until
did not appreciate all contemporary art; the 1 870s. Portrayal of the contempo-
in CONSTRUCTIVISM, ABSTRACT EXPRES- rary world was characteristic of Real-
SIONISM, and later movements he saw ism. HISTORY PAINTING and idealized
only nihilism and "deep despair." The and imaginary subjects were rejected;
quotation above is from Poetry and An- beauty and literary references were not
archism (1938). an issue. (See courbet) The Realist was
like a reporter on a fact-finding mission,
ready-made showing things and people as they ap-

See DUCHAMP peared before the artist's (theoretically,

at least) impartial, objective eye. If the

realism^ Realist was scrupulous in recording de-

In art, any manifestation of realism or tails —of shoes, for example— it was not
Realism (see below) is essentially repre- for the sake of the details themselves so
sentational. With a lower case r, the much what they revealed about
as for
meaning of realism changes continu- the subject's character and circum-
ally: For PLATO, the ideal form was stances. There was an underlying politi-
real and versions of it on earth were cal agenda; many of these artists were,
copies. Thus, it is problematic to say as the historian Linda Nochlin writes,
that the immediately tangible, visible "creating a visual compendium of so-
world is "real." Add the subjective and cial injustices tat the same time] they
relative nature of such "presentist" (im- were also finding ways for declaring the
position of standards, values, and atti- heroism, dignity and probity of manual
tude of the present on the past) views of labor, without resorting to traditional
"reality," and the problem compounds. symbolism or other hallowed pictorial

Art historians, in trying to sidestep con- devices." Upheavals of the French Rev-
troversy over "realism," may substitute olution of 1848 coincided with the
NATURALISM or VERISM to suggest that growth of the style, and Realism was at
562 reception/response theory

its peak during the second empire, a also adopted reception theory as a
time of social and political cynicism. method of study: "Reception theory ex-
Courbet is often identified as the defin- amines the Iviewer's] role in [art,] and
ing Realist painter, and The Stone- as such is a fairly novel development.
breakers (1849) is an outstanding Indeed one might very well periodize
example. Courbet's sympathies were the history of modern . . . theory in
certainly Socialist. Emile Zola and three stages: a preoccupation with the
Honore de Balzac were to literature as [artist] (Romanticism and the 19th cen-
Courbet was to painting. But not all tury); an exclusive concern with the text
who painted in a Realist mode shared [(Formalism)]; and a marked shift of
their political convictions. And not all attention to the [viewer] over recent
were strictly Realists in all their work. years. . . . For [art] to happen, the [au-
The English artist brown, usually cate- dience] is quite as vital as the
gorized as a PRE-RAPHAELITE, may be author/[artist]." One ("historicizing")
considered a Realist in a painting such approach of reception study ascertains
as Work (185Z, 1856-63), a contempo- how a work was received by its contem-
rary street scene that records a collec- porary public. Another approach is to
tion of laborers, shoppers, and assess current attitudes.
strollers — a medley of classes, occupa-
tions, and preoccupations. American recession
Realists include eakins and homer, im- See picture plane
pressionism is sometimes viewed as a
stage or continuation of Realism in the red-figure technique
attention it pays to what the eye sees. A style of painting pottery, developed
During the later 20th century, two New in Athens c. 530 bce, that uses, or re-
Realisms appeared, one represented by serves, the natural color of the clay for
artists hke estes, freud, neel, close, the pictorial decoration,which is set
FISH, HANSON, and FLACK. Other terms against an applied black background.
for their style or method are Super-, Red-figure work soon replaced its pre-
hyper-, and photorealism. Another decessor, black-figure technique.
sort of New Realism is that practiced by Among its advantages, it enabled the
tinguely and others, referring to their painter to manipulate glazes for raised
materials rather than their style. effects. But most important, the clay
color enabled artists to paint in details
reception/response theory with fine, wiry lines. This flexibility al-

Sometimes known as reception aesthet- lowed vase painters to experiment with

ics, reception or response studies anatomy, foreshortening, and the con-
examine the role of the audience of a cept of recession (see picture plane),
work of art in giving meaning to that and to present the first known example
work. With appropriate substitutions in of contrapposto. This is found on the
brackets, Terry Eagleton's description Revelers kylix signed by the brygos
of reception theory in his book Literary painter, C. 490 BCE. ANDOKIDES is
Theory 1983)
( is a useful explanation of known as the first to use the red-figure
its operation in art history, which method. Many of the earliest examples
 REGIONALISM 563

of red-figure technique were on vases 1890S. After 1900, having survived ill-

that did not make the switch from black ness and personal religious crisis, his
figures to red immediately. Rather, the work changed, becoming brighter and
red technique would be used on one more spiritual. Vases of flowers in bril-
side and black on the other, giving the liant colors, often with anemones

name "bilingual" to such pottery. among them, was one of his themes,
and these proved popular with Ameri-
Redon, Odilon can collectors after a number of
1 840-19 1 6 • French • Redon's pictures were exhibited in the

painter/printmaker • Symbolist 19 1 3 ARMORY SHOW.

The sense of mystery is a matter of
reflectography
being all the time amid the equivocal,
This technique, developed in the 1970s,
in double and triple aspects, and hints
is used to reveal underdrawings of
of aspects (images within images),
paintings. Film that is sensitive to the
forms which are coming to birth, or
infrared spectrum penetrates beneath
which will come to birth according to
the surface and projects drawings and
the state of mind of the observer.
PENTiMENTi onto a television monitor,
Redon believed his own originality to where they may be photographed.
be in fashioning beings that are "impos-
sible according to the laws of possibil- Regionalism
ity." Among his bizarre creatures were During the 1920s and 1930s, "regional-
free-floating eyeballs (from the idea of ist" SCHOOLS that focused on local his-

an all-seeing eye of God); a boa con- tory, landscape, and culture took hold
strictor whose uncoiling head becomes throughout the American Midwest.
the figure of a man; severed heads; and Preceded by writers like Hamlin Gar-
weirdly preposterous creatures as in land, Willa Gather, Booth Tarkington,
The Grinning Spider (1881), which and Sinclair Lewis, whose books ex-
seems to be winking as well as grinning. plored rural life, painters also took up
Redon was influenced by goya's prints the subject. The Regionalist movement
and "Black Paintings" (e.g., Saturn De- was motivated in part by the national-
vouring His Children, 1 819-23 and) lit- ism that followed World War I and by
erature. Like MOREAU, Redon is the self-absorption that accompanied
sometimes labeled a "literary" symbol- 1929 and the subse-
the Great Crash of
ist: Edgar Allan Poe (translated into quent Great Depression. European-
French by baudelaire and Mallarme) born ideas that had gained currency
inspired Redon. His use of masks, after the 19 13 armory show were vig-

snakelike monsters, detached heads, orously rejected by Regionalists. Al-

and dangerous women was characteris- though the artists were not united by
tic of Symbolist painters. At first Redon any particular style of painting, local
worked only in black and white, pri- anecdotes and lore, scenery, values, and
marily charcoal drawings and lithog- problems and concerns, from weather
raphy. He began experimenting with to crime and politics, were subjects they
color in his paintings during the mid- held in common. The most familiar
 .

564 REINHARDT, AD

names among these artists are curry, face surrounding it. Relief carving is

BENTON, and WOOD. subtractive —extraneous material is re-

moved from the surface to achieve the

Reinhardt, Ad desired effect. If not carved, plastic ma-
1913-1967 • American • painter • terials such as clay, plaster, and wax
Abstraction/proto-Minimalist might be shaped by modeling or mold-
ing the raised surfaces. Metal relief, re-
The one thing to say about art is that
pousse, is hammered from the back
it is one thing. Art is art-as-art and
side, raising the design on the face.
everything else is everything else. Art-
Low relief, also basso rilievo in Ital-
as-art is nothing but art. Art is not
ian, or bas-relief in French: The design
what is not art. The one standard
. . .

projects only slightly from its back-

in art is oneness and fineness. The . . .

ground, and its surface may be some-

one thing to say about the best art is
what Tombstones are often
flattened.
the breathlessness, lifelessness . .

decorated with low relief. Extremely

spacelessness and timelessness. This
low, thin, or shallow relief, called
is always the end of art.
was perfected by
rilievo schiacciato,

To the extent that abstract expres- donatello in works such as the

sionism, especially in the hands of ac- bronze Miracle of the Irascible Son
tion painters, was emotional thus — (1443-53). With this technique, dis-
—
"romantic" and an autobiographical tance and perspective are achieved by
record of gesture, Reinhardt opposed it. optical suggestion rather than by sculp-
In paring down canvases to the visual tural projection.

expression of a color, he expanded High relief— sculpted figures that

them, at the same time, to the vast pos- stand out substantially from the surface
sibilities of the darkness and relative plane, which makes them more easily

lightness of a single color. The duality visible from a distance. Pedimental

in comments such as that quoted above sculpture is likely to be high relief.

is also evident in his work. When he Medium relief— SLppVies to sculpted

speaks of the "end" of art, the word surfaces between high and low, all of
might be understood both as goal and which definitions are relative rather

as finality. He painted large geometric than exact.

lines of red against red, blue against Sunken relief— a kind of intaglio
blue, in perfectly symmetrical composi- (used frequently in ancient Egypt) in
tions. In the 1960s he worked all in which the composition is carved out of
black, varying the value of a black form the flat surface. Instead of removing the
by deepening it with a color (e.g.. Black background, the design itself is sub-
Painting No. ^4, 1964). Reinhardt was tracted and appears beneath or behind
influenced by malevich, and he in turn the surface plane, as on a butter mold.
had a strong influence on minimalists. Variations in the depth of relief cre-
ate a play of light and shadow and sense
relief ofmovement. Many works employ a
With the exception of "sunken relief," mix of relief to achieve their effects.
relief sculpture protrudes from the sur- An example is saint-gaudens's Rob-
 REMBRANDT HARMENSZ. VAN RIJN 565

ert Gould Shaw Memorial in Boston dynamics of the world in which he op-
(1884-97), 3 tribute to African- erated, examining records of his deal-
American soldiers in the Civil War. ers, friends, students, and customers
The general on his horse is a nearly and even searching for evidence that
freestanding equestrian statue; the was missing: "no one ever asked Rem-
marching soldiers with their rifles stand brandt to be the godfather of their
out in high relief against the wall behind child, or even to witness a document for
him; the foremost soldiers are the most them," Schwartz writes. He concluded
detached, and the more distant troops that Rembrandt failed to attract impor-
are in somewhat lower relief. The Angel tant commissions and patrons due to
of Victory, carved above their heads, is his nasty personality: "bitter, vindic-
in medium to low relief. Thus, in a rela- tive, attacking the adversary with
tively shallow space, Saint-Gaudens has all means, fair and foul . . . under-
created a scene that has a great sense of handed and untrustworthy even to his
depth. friends . . . arrogant to those who ad-
mired him." Schwartz is apologetic for
reliquary thus characterizing an artist who is fa-

A container to hold the remains of mous for the insights with which he
saints, or objects associated with them. painted men and women, a sensitivity
(See also cult of saints) that naturally leads his admirers to as-
sume he must have been of good char-
Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn acter. "It would hurt me if the reader
1 606-1 669 • Dutch • painter • thought that I was painting too black a
Baroque picture of Rembrandt, leaving out evi-
dence of his humanity," Schwartz
Rembrandt's style seems to have
writes. "Believe me, this is not so. If
communicated itself to those who
anything I have spared him of even
write about him. In the literature on
worse, such as the testimony that he
Rembrandt, the artist soaks up all the
stole some of the savings of his daugh-
light . . . while all the other people in
ter, Cornelia, half of which belong to
his life are shadows in the background
Ihis son] Titus's widow."
of whom we are told nothing more
Complicating doubts about the
than their name and function. (Gary
artist's integrity is the work of the Rem-
Schwartz, 1985)
brandt Research Project (RRP), a team
Unanswered questions about Rem- of Dutch art scholars that has been ex-
brandt are mountainously troublesome amining the entire known body of his
because his reputation is simultane- work The constantly ex-
since 1968.
ously so lofty and so controversial. panding and contracting number of
While that makes thinking about Rem- paintings attributed to him once
brandt exciting for art historians, it reached nearly 1,000. Informed esti-

makes writing about him treacherous, mates now put the number closer to
as Schwartz, who is quoted above, sug- 300. Even one of "his" best-loved
gests. Schwartz himself brought the paintings, the Polish Rider (1655), was
artist into focus by looking at the social thrown into doubt for several years (see
566 REMINGTON, FREDERIC

drost). While such information is his paintings and etchings. Best

bound to disappoint those who roman- known among his etchings is the Hun-
ticize his art as the work of a single, in- dred Guilder Print (c. 1648), the subject
spired genius, it is not disconcerting to of which is Christ healing the sick. The
the scholar Svetlana Alpers. She be- title alludes to the high price allegedly
lieves thatRembrandt succeeded in his paid soon after the work was made. It

goals, which were "mastery in the stu- exemplifies Rembrandt's magisterial

dio and the establishment of value in handling of light and shadow, awe and
the marketplace." Students worked spirituality, even in black and white.
with him throughout his career; names His wide-ranging subjects include lively

of more than 50 were recorded. He group portraits {Syndics of the Cloth-

wished to be free from catering to indi- makers' Guild, 1662; see gaze), mov-
vidual patrons and chose to sell the ing biblical subjects (Prodigal Son, c.

works from his large studio on the open 1665), pictures of his family {Titus at
market. His art became, mutatis mutan- His Desk, 1655), and an extraordinary
dis, a —
commodity a concept that trou- sequence of self-portraits, in a variety of
bles some historians even more than costumes, that map his physiognomy
does de-attribution. Regardless of his and record his various self-images, or

motives or success, Rembrandt, who role-playing. Though surviving docu-

spent lavishly on his house as well as his ments recorded his business, located in

collections of art and other objects, fell Amsterdam, there is little in his own
deeply in debt, especially with creditors words to describe his ideas; however,
to whom he owed paintings. At one one of his students did write down one
point, he had to declare bankruptcy. of Rembrandt's answers to a pupil who
However fluctuating Rembrandt's was asking too many questions: "Take
reputation, the characteristics of "a it as a rule to use properly what you al-

Rembrandt" are unmistakable. Con- ready know; then you will come to
ventions of the BAROQUE are recogniz- learn soon enough the hidden things
able: significant contrasts of light and about which you ask."
shadow, movement and drama; not the
energetic drama of his contemporary Remington, Frederic
RUBENS, but a more introspective, silent 1 861-1909 • American •

drama. In fact theatrics was a particular painter/sculptor • Western/Romantic

interest; Rembrandt was a great collec-
Big art is the process of elimination.
tor of costumes and other parapherna-
Cut down and out— do your hardest
lia, from gold chains to brass helmets,
work outside the picture, and let your
that he used as props in his paintings.
audience take away something to think
His use of his medium was also theatri-
about— to imagine.
cal — Rembrandt applied paint thickly,
so that it embodied texture (sometimes In the 1 8 30s catlin went West to doc-
itwas even sculptural) and imparted ument the life of Native Americans; in
meaning in and of itself. His use of the 1859 documented the
bierstadt
medium to expressive effect was in- scenery of the West; and in the late
creased by the perpetual reworking of 1 880s Remington, from upstate New
 RENI, GUIDO 567

York, began to portray the new popular him in Paradise. was unable to
But I

hero, the western cowboy. He became ascend so high, and I sought him on
the most popular magazine illustrator earth in vain. So, I had to look to the
on the subject. His cowboy was the idea of beauty conceived in my mind.
heroic broncobuster, and he showed the
frontier as a life and death struggle. One Reni studied academy founded
in the

of his best-known paintings is a dra- by the carracci family in Bologna. He

matic picture of eight cowboys on their went on to Rome and was, briefly,
horses galloping straight toward among the caravaggisti. But he was
the viewer with a band of Indians in accused, by the artist himself, of "steal-
hot pursuit — A Dash for the Timber ing" caravaggio's and Reni
style,

(1889). He probably used muybridge's changed to a more ethereal art, which

motion photographs to understand the he alludes to in the quotation above.
horse in Remington began
full gallop. His contemporaries then praised his re-

sculpting, also cowboys, in 1895. He finement and likened his style to that of
portrayed what his contemporary Fred- an angel, as he would have hoped. This
erick Jackson Turner called the "rest- heaven-inspired touch was at most its

less, nervous energy; that dominant eloquent in his ceiling fresco Aurora

individualism, working for good and (1614), in the Casino Rospigliosi,

for evil, and withal that buoyancy and Rome. This framed, or quadro ripor-
exuberance which comes with free- TATO, picture shows the airborne god-
dom." But the West saw it
as he first dess. Dawn, spreading flowers on the
changed rapidly. In 1903 Remington earth and leading the way for Apollo.
said, "My West . . . put on its hat, took His chariot is drawn by dappled horses
up its blankets, and marched off the and is surrounded by dancing maidens,
board." His words echo those of Turner who represent the hours. Concern with
who said, "And now, four centuries time was central to the spirit of the

from the discovery of America, at the BAROQUE age. As PANOFSKY wrote,

end of a hundred years of life under the "No period has been so obsessed with
Constitution, the frontier has gone, and the depth and width, the horror and the
with its going has closed the first period sublimity of the concept of time as the
of American history." Baroque, the period in which man
found himself confronted with the infi-

Renaissance nite as a quality of the universe instead

See ITALIAN RENAISSANCE and NORTH- of as a prerogative of God." According

ERN RENAISSANCE to his biographer, malvasia, Reni was
asexual, and phobic about women.
Other than his mother, with whom he
Reni, Guido
lived, Reni would not allow them in his
1575-1642 • Italian • painter •
house, fearing both witchcraft and
Baroque
was devoted to the
poisoning. Yet he
/ should have liked to have an angelic Virgin Mary. He made his own self-
brush and heavenly forms for portrait as a beautiful woman in a tur-

delineating the Archangel, and to see ban in one scene in the cycle of the Life
568 RENOIR, PIERRE-AUGUSTE

of Saint Benedict. His paintings may ever softer and more lightly fused. This
have been considered celestial during is especially evident in Renoir's paint-
his lifetime, but Reni's star fell so far ings of rosy-cheeked women, children,
that at the start of the 20th century and nudes, who have the tactility

BERENSON would say, "We turn from Renoir, quoted above, describes as "ca-
Guido Reni with disgust unspeakable." ressing" the canvas. His buxom, sculp-
If Reni seemed insipid and hypocritical tural-looking nudes in Bathers (c.

then, today his style and grace and his 1884-87) were inspired by studies of
points of reference are again interesting. CLASSICAL examples. Like Praxiteles,
Renoir depended on his models to the
Renoir, Pierre-Auguste extent that his wife remarked that their
1 841-19 1 9 • French • painter • housemaids were chosen if "their skin
Impressionist took the light well."

It is not enough for a painter to be a

Repin, Ilya
clever craftsman; he must love to
1844-1930 • Russian pamter
"caress " his canvas too.
Academic Realist
Renoir made his debut in 1864 when he
Life, life! Why do painters pass it by?!
participated in the salon for the first
The devil may take it, I shall quit all
time. He studied with gleyre, be-
these resurrections of the dead, all
friended bazille, sisley, and monet,
these populist-ethnographic scenes,
and participated fully in the pleasures of
move to Saint Petersburg and begin
the SECOND empire recorded by im-
painting pictures on the . . most
.

pressionists. As Bazille and Sisley had

pulsating reality that surrounds us,
painted the same still life (an event
that is understandable to us, and that
two years later
that Renoir recorded),
excites us more than all the events of
Renoir and Monet, working together,
the past.
painted the same outdoor scene. La
Grenouillere (1869), several times. La In rebellion against the Saint Petersburg
Grenouillere was a fashionable bathing Academy's promotion of typical acad-
spa with an outdoor cafe on the Seine emic subject matter, 1870 Repin and
in
near Bougival. Their canvases diverge his colleagues formed a group called
in several ways that distinguish their ap- wanderers, so named because they
proaches and interpretation: Renoir's aimed to show their works in traveling
colors are softer and more subtle, his exhibitions. After 1880 Repin's impor-
touch skips more lightly over the sur- tant paintings were in response to polit-
face. Whereas Renoir's screen of trees is and he wrote the passage
ical events,

painted predominantly in blue-greens, quoted above in a letter expressing his

Monet's are yellow-green. Moreover, interest in the life of his times and the
the tendencies of each, as seen in this world around him. In They Did Not
juxtaposition, became more pro- Expect Him (1884), the unexpected
nounced in their later works. While homecoming of a political exile takes
Monet's brushwork and vision was in- his family, sitting in the parlor, by sur-
creasingly broken, Renoir's became prise. Repin's huge painting Ivan the
 REREDOS 569

Terrible Kills His Son (1885, more than serve the purpose. Repoussoir generally
6V2 feet high and nearly SVi feet serves to frame a landscape, and gives
wide), while based on the past, served depth to the scene behind the fore-
an anti-czarist sentiment with melodra- grounded figures, claude Lorraine is

matic pathos: The half-mad Ivan, hav- known for his repoussoir approach,

ing attacked in a rage, sits on the floor

with his dying son in his arms. Politics reproduction

aside, the picture created a public up- As recently as 1971, the historian
roar because of its graphic rendition of W. Eugene Kleinbauer listed non-
gore and suffering. People fainted and reproducibility and uniqueness as
riots threatened when it was exhibited, intrinsic characteristics of a work of art,

to the extent that mounted policemen a point of view subverted by the Ger-
were called crowd control. A pro-
in for man theorist Walter benjamin. Since
fessor of anatomy gave a lecture on the the early 20th century, the concepts
picture from a medical standpoint; he of art and reproduction have been
maintained that such profuse bleeding changing. While prints were always in
could not result from a head wound. As the realm of fine art, photography
a portraitist, Repin painted Tolstoy and joined them then, dada period pho-
other important people of his time. He tomontages and duchamp "ready-
worked at Abramtsevo, the Russian mades" made art from what was
artist colony, and, ironically, in 1894 already a reproduction, and later
returned to the Saint Petersburg Acad- warhol used reproduced images, such
emy, where he became a professor of as news photographs, to compose an
history painting. image that would again be reproduced.
Sweeping technological advances allow
repousse artists to work with everything from
relief sculpture is often shaped by photocopy machines to computers;
hammering a sheet of pliable metal, value is placed on vision and imagina-
from tin to gold, into a hollow mold, tion, not skill of execution. The defini-

creating a raised design on the front sur- tion of reproduction is stretched when a

face. Figures on the dervini krater conceptual artist like lewitt designs
(4th-2nd century bce) and bronze re- instructions for others to execute: Per-
liefs on the pulpit at San Lorenzo, Flo- haps they reproduce knowledge, post-
rence, by donatello (c. 1457) are modern theorists challenge and play
examples of such repousse sculpture. with notions of originality and call into

question not only the hierarchy of orig-

repoussoir inal versus copy but also the entire con-

From the French meaning "to push cept of uniqueness. This is exemplified
back," the repoussoir is a composi- by sherman, who makes photographs
tional technique designed to direct the of photographs made by other artists,

viewer's attention as he or she contem-

plates a picture. Figures and/or trees reredos
placed in the front of the picture, often. From the French for "behind," the rere-
although not always, at the side(s), may dos in a church is a painted or sculp-
570 RETABLE

tured screen that stands behind the Reynolds, Sir Joshua

altar. 1723-1792 • English • painter •

Romantic/Grand Manner
retable
[Painting] ought to be as far removed
Same as reredos
from the vulgar idea of imitation as
the refined civilized state in which we
Rewald, John
removed from a gross state of
live, is
born 19 1 2 • German/American • art
nature; and those who have not
historian
cultivated their imaginations, which

Realizing that it was too late for him the majority of mankind certainly have

to form pupils, Cezanne decided to not, may be said, in regard to the arts,

leave to posterity what might be called to continue in this state of nature.

a system of painting. Despite his
The comment above is from Reynolds's
frequently expressed contempt for
Discourses onArt(ij-j^), an influential
theories, he now did not hesitate to
doctrine of the eclectic grand manner.
formulate some of his own, glad to be
He was the first president of the Royal
sought after and to have his advice
Academy and his preaching of this
esteemed.
grandiosity had great impact. So did his
Known for their scholarly rigor, Re- disapproving judgments on Nether-
wald's writings, especially on impres- landish art rendered in his Journey to
sionism, beginning during the 1940s, Flanders and Holland, written in 1781
established the interpretative approach and first published in 1797 (for exam-
to the movement. Rewald's formalism ple, see STEEN, CUYP, and van der hey-
held sway until, during the last decades den). His attitude of disdain extended
of the 20th century, newer approaches to the other side of the Atlantic: In re-
(e.g., contextual) prevailed. Rewald's sponse to the American copley, who
books include History of Impression- had sent his best painting, Boy with a
ism (1946) and Post-Impressionism: Squirrel (1765), to London, Reynolds
From Van Gogh to Gauguin (1956). He advised Copley to bring his talent to Eu-
is the authority on the work of rope before it was too Some of his
late.

CEZANNE, whose studio he visited in the contemporaries (e.g., Gainsborough)

early 1930s; although Cezanne had were interested in the "natural" world,
died some 25 years earlier, the studio but Reynolds's goal was to transcend
was still virtually unchanged. Rewald base nature, as in the quotation above,
wrote the commentary quoted above and to glorify on canvas individuals
for the magazine ArtNews in 1948. In who merited it. Thus, Reynolds did not
1996 Rewald's authoritative two- strive to report an accurate likeness of
volume CATALOGUE RAISONNE, The his sitter so much as to orchestrate a

Paintings of Paul Cezanne, was pub- fantasy. He found landscape interesting

lished. Rewald taught at the University to the extent that it expressed the great-
of Chicago and at the City University of ness of his sitter. The effect of his ideas

New York. is beautifully illustrated by comparing

 RIACE BRONZES 57I

two same man that are

portraits of the gods. Rhytons have an extensive history
conveniently located in the same place, in ancient civilizations. The simplest
in Amherst College's Mead Art among them, elongated cones with
Museum (Amherst, Massachusetts). wide necks, are seen in several wall
Reynolds's portrait of Lord Jeffery paintings, such as The Cupbearer (c.

Amherst (1765) presents a handsome, 1500 bce) from the Palace of Knossos
youthful, pensive hero in full armor on Crete (see minoan art). Some ex-
with a sword at his side, his helmet sit- quisite and renowned rhytons are those
ting on a map. (Amherst had been made with finely carved animal heads, for ex-
Britain's commander in chief in Amer- ample, the famous black stone bull's
ica by William Pitt — his assignment: to head (c. 1 500-1450 bce), also from
rout the French.) Dark storm clouds Knossos. Its eyes are painted crystal, its

pass behind him, but the lower portion muzzle has shell inlay, and decorative
of the sky is light, a conceit intimating incising shows its curly, shaggy fur. A
that, thanks to Sir Jeffery's efforts, the gold rhyton, in the shape of a lion's
land was now safe. (This metaphor head, made some 1,100 years later, the
pleased Reynolds, who used it for other Achaemenid Gold Vessel (c. 5th century
military victors.) Five years before bce), is from Persepolis, where, after
Reynolds painted him, blackburn, a ruling for two centuries, the Achae-
little-known English-trained artist who menid Dynasty was ended by the con-
worked in America, also made a por- quests of Alexander the Great in 331
trait of Sir Jeffery. Already 43 at the BCE.
time of Blackburn's portrait, Amherst
looks it. He has a double chin and Riace Bronzes
flushed cheeks, and wears his "red Found in 1972, these are two Early
coat" with its brass buttons straining classical statues, life-size figures

over a middle-aged paunch. He is named for the site where divers discov-
against a plain dark background and ered them — in the sea off Riace, on the
stares directly out of the picture at the Calabrian coast. Where these bronzes
viewer, rather than gazing pensively were originally cast or installed is un-
into the beyond, as in Reynolds's por- known, and some argue that they were

trait. The comparison highlights not made by different artists or work-

only the artifice of the Grand Manner, shops. Their measurements are virtu-
but also its use as a coordinate of polit- ally identical, though added details

ical aggrandizement. differ, and it is clear that they follow the

same prototype. Presumed to represent

rhyton warriors, each is 6 feet tall, bearded,

From the Greek for "flowing," a rhyton and muscular; their lips and nipples are
is a drinking vessel often shaped like an copper, teeth silver, and eyes, now in-

animal's horn or in the shape of an ani- complete, were ivory and glass paste.
mal's head. It may be made of pottery, While recognized as Greek, their iden-

stone, or metal, and is also used for tity and that of their maker(s) is a puz-

libations, or liquid offerings, to the zle, and they are the subject of much
 .

572. RIBERA, JUSEPE DE (LO SPAGNOLETTO)

conjecture. To some they are the pinna- artist, caUing him by his nickname
cle of Early Classical style; to others "Spagnoletto" (Little Spaniard) in Don
they are as troublesome as they are in- Juan, quoted from above. The real Don
triguing: Scholars wonder, for example, Juan, who led an uprising against the

why their faces seem somewhat individ- regent queen mother and put down a re-
ualized while their bodies are so similar, bellion against Spanish rule in Naples,
was painted, on horseback, by Ribera in
Ribera, Jusepe de (Lo his late, more mellow style. This Don

Spagnoletto) Juan also seduced Ribera's daughter.

1591-165Z • Spanish • painter • velazquez visited Ribera and was in-
Baroque fluenced by his countryman's work.

Spagnoletto tainted his brush with all

Ricci,
*" Sebastiano
."
the blood of all the sainted. (Lord '
,7
1 659-1 73 4 • Italian • pamter

Ribera was the favorite painter of the ^, , ,. ., , ^

1- 1
XT I ve heard It said ... that, as soon as
Spanish viceroys
,

who
,

lived in Naples,
1

n j
,„ ., ,TT andj
,
. ^
,,
,
he arrived in Rome ;
began to study
then under Spanish rule. He
,

which was ,
, ,

had studied
, ,

in
r.
Rome, where 1 II
he ab-
„
Raphael s
,

,
,, ,
frescoes,
,

...
^.

he immediately
1

„; ^
. wanted to return to Venice, saying that
sorbed caravaggio's style, and was in , / .
. .
,
the style of that great
;
man might ;

Naples
^ when Caravaggio fled there in • ; •
/r»- t
1 J
compromise his own. (Pierre-Jean
1606 after killing a man. Ribera started », .
^ .

cu-
Mariette, c. 1853)
, ,
A 1
•

a school or his own, producing religious

and the
paintings such as Saint Jerome At the age of 12, Ricci was working in

Angel of Judgment (i6z6) which shows the studio of an artist who rejected the

the intense lighting, dark background, strong contrasts of light and dark
and dramatic effect inspired by Car- (chiaroscuro) popular among
avaggio. Boy with a Clubfoot {164Z/ baroque artists. In 1681 he fled Venice
52?) is a street urchin with a grin on his after threatening to kill a woman he had
face and a note in his hand that reads, seduced. His travels took him to the
"Give me alms, for the love of God." major Italian cities and provided an ed-
Ribera's Martyrdom of Saint Philip (c. ucation as well as contacts and commis-
1630; previously thought to be of Saint sions. In Bologna he ran off with
Bartholomew) is an example of the another painter's daughter and would
BAROQUE taste for cruelty and blood- have been punished by death had not
shed (also apparent in guercino's Duke Ranuccio saved his neck and of-

treatment of the same subject). Justifi- fered refuge in his palace in Rome — but
cation for the horrifying scenes is the he did not stay long in Rome, according
notion of mystical transcendence and to Mariette, who is quoted above. Ricci
ecstasy enjoyed by those who are lifted returned to Venice in 1696, married,
above bodily sensation in their union and at the turn of the century, as the

with God. The emotion Ribera ex- foremost painter of his generation,
pressed was appreciated by romantic launched Venetian painting into a new
poets like Byron, who wrote about the age — for most of the 17th century
 —

RIEGL, ALOIS 573

VENICE had had little excitement in of the wall surfaces," as he told his
artistic realms. Ricci's style was fluid clients. He preferred reddish brown
and dynamic in a rococo manner, his granite, but he played different colors
subjects largely biblical and mythologi- and textures of stone against each
cal and their spirit highly energized, other, and even used boulders in one ex-
often joyful. Ricci's drawings and traordinary design for a gatehouse,
sketches were decorative and airy, ex- Richardson built libraries, houses,
traordinarily skillful and beautiful, es- churches, and commercial buildings
pecially when he worked in pen and his most renowned building after Trin-

brown ink wash, as he did on Saint ity Church (completed with interior
Mary Magdalene Anointing Christ's decoration by la farge and dedicated
Feet (c. 1725). in 1877) was the Marshall Field Ware-

house (1885-87; destroyed 1930) in

Richardson, Henry Hobson Chicago. He was working on it when he
1 83 8-1 8 86 • American • architect • died at the age of 48. He was a huge
Richardsonian Romanesque man, almost 400 pounds, and his build-
ings were also huge, but they were in-
The architect acts on his building, but
creasingly simplified in form and
his building reacts on him — helps to
decoration as his style matured. It was
build itself . . . and if when [a building]
characteristic that the massing and defi-
is begun it fails to look as it should, it
nition of his buildings' facades clearly
is not only the architect's privilege but
expressed the size and shape of the inte-
his duty to alter it in any way he can.
rior spaces that they covered. Richard-

Richardson was the first American ar- son's students included McKim and
chitect to gain an international reputa- White of mckim, mead and white,
tion. He was born in Louisiana and and sullivan came under his influence,
educated at Harvard and at the ecole
DES beaux-arts. Richardson integrated Riegl, Alois
an interest in medieval art with his 18 58-1905 • Austrian • art

own genius, developing a style that has historian

become known as Richardsonian Ro- „ , .
r 1 r 1 j
Every style aims at faithful rendering
manesque. In 1872 he won his first
... a competition tor
major commission in
r
.

of nature
j
and nothing
;
• /

else,
;
but each
/

... r^- ^,
the design of Trinity Church Boston,
,
•

in
T,
,

has
.

Its own conception Of Nature.

/- > t

forwhich the designs of two or three Riegl used the term Kunstwollen to ex-
ROMANESQUE churches in France and press a "will-to-form," his concept of
Spain were combined and transformed, the creative spirit or driving force that is

This inspiration was based on illustra- part of an age and inspires the creation
tions —he did not actually see the build- of art. He built on the romantic evolu-
ings firsthand until 1882. Rusticated tion powered by what hegel called
(rough, or quarry-faced) stone, rich and Weltgeist, meaning "world spirit."
bold in texture, was his favorite and sig- Riegl believed that every work of art is a
nature building material. He wanted to link in a chain of development. A major
achieve "a quiet and massive treatment change along the chain is progress from
574 RIEMENSCHNEIDER, TILMAN

tactile to optic, both a necessity and its vibrant, lacy architectural details, is

motivation for continued development. like the Flamboyant or flamelike trac-

As examples of tactile or haptic art he ery in Lategothic architecture, and

cites the clearly outlined, flattened Riemenschneider's drapery has those
forms in (objective) images with little or deep, expressive folds also characteris-
no sense of depth, like ancient Egyptian tic of the courtly International Style.
carvings. Optic forms, which depend on Yet the faces of the Virgin and Christ
light and modeling, have depth and look more like those of plain people
are more subjectively felt, as, for exam- rather than of aristocrats. Unlike many
ple, a MICHELANGELO Sculpture. Riegl's of his contemporaries, Riemenschnei-
distinctions have been parodied by der did not choose to paint or gild a
imagining that, for instance, an ancient major part of this altarpiece. For one
Egyptian actually saw people as flat thing, that made it less costly. But his
shapes, in profile. The problem with decision could have been more circum-
Riegl's idea is that he understood each spect: an effort to avoid accusations of
phase in art's progress as racially based, ostentation such as were directed
and considered the Germanic tribes, works of art designed
against for the
being more inclined to subjectivity, as Roman Catholic Church in this period,
able to move art's evolution to a higher just before the Protestant Reformation.
plane. It is significant that the Holy Blood Al-
tarpiece 1501-05) in Rothenburg, Ger-
(

Riemenschneider, Tilman many, was left intact when the town

c. 1460-153 1 • German • sculptor adopted the Reformed faith in the
• Northern Renaissance 1520S.

To wit: below in the predella next to

Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas
the sacrament niche, two angels, one
1 88 8-1 964 • Dutch • architect/
kneeling, about one and one half feet
designer • Modern/De Stijl
high, and two others placed on its side;
further, in the shrine the Last Supper No one had ever looked at this little

of Jesus Christ with His Twelve lane before this house was built here.

Apostles and all other things There was a dirty crumbling wall with
pertaining to it, each figure about four weeds growing in front of it. Over
feet high. . . . (Contract for Holy Blood there was a small farm. It was a very
Altarpiece, 1501) rural spot, and this sort of fitted in. It
was a deserted place, where anyone
Riemenschneider carved images in
who wanted to pee just did against this
stone as well as many in lindenwood,
wall. And we said, "yes, this is just
. . .

for which he is best known. The one de-

right, let's build it here."
scribed in the contract quoted above is a
29V2-foot-high shrine, the Holy Blood In the quotation above, Rietveld de-
Altarpiece, that holds a relic of the Holy scribes how he and his client Truus
Blood in a crystal that is embedded in a Schroder chose the site in Utrecht where
cross. The intricacy of his carving, with they built the Schroder house (1924).
 RIIS, JACOB 575

The strict, rational, geometric forms of preciated by Theodore rousseau, who

the house seem a three-dimensional ex- wrote the passage quoted above close to
pression of mondrian's compositions. a century after Rigaud's death.
Both the house and his Red-Blue Chair
(19Z3), which Rietveld said he had in Riis, Jacob
mind when designing the house, are 1 849-1914 • Danish/American •

seminal icons of modernism. A furni- photographer • Documentary

ture maker before he practiced architec-
Among would be
the Italians hands
ture, Rietveld designed the chair
sometimes placed on knives and on
specifically for mass production. It is
when the party disturbed the
composed of two long boards — red stilettos

of the owners. They could be

back, blue seat — set into a black, scaf-
rest

appeased by being greeted with smiles,

foldlike, rectangular frame. Its abstract
for an Italian will almost always
geometry is more perfect than its
and be put in a good
return a smile
anatomical comfort.
humor. Then the powder would be
exploded and the photographers take
Rigaud, Hyacinthe
to their heels without waiting to
1659-1743 • French • painter •
witness the surprise of the victims.
Baroque
Working as reporter for The New York
All the particular, special majesty of a
Tribune after he came to America from
portrait of Louis XIV by he Brun or
Denmark in 1870, Riis used his camera
Rigaud will by conquered by the
to expose the plight of the unfortunate
humility of a tuft of grass clearly lit by
and the sordid life of the slums. He also
a ray of sun. (Theodore Rousseau,
gave illustrated lectures in his reformist
1859)
endeavor. In contrast to painters like
Court painter for the "Sun King," and HENRI, LUKS, and SLOAN, Riis presented
most renowned for the portrait Louis the people in his pictures in all their mis-
XIV (1701): Swathed in ermine and ery: "pictures of reeking, murder-
wearing a royal blue cape embroidered stained, god-forsaken alleys and
with gold fleurs-de-lis, his long hair poverty stricken tenements" is how
curling over his shoulder, Louis points they were described in a contemporary
his toe in the dainty manner of the min- account. In Poverty Gap: An English
uet, a dance that became popular at his Coal-Heaver's Home (c. 1889) is an ex-
court. A scrupulous record of opulence, ample. As a result of Riis's photographs
the painting is also a sympathetic like- (many published in his book How the
ness of the king, who patronized art Other Half Lives: Studies Among the
most shows the
lavishly; vibrant color Tenements of New York, 1890), some
French interest in flemish art that was tenements were torn down and new
supplanting the earlier emphasis on housing was built. One of his pictures,
DRAWING upheld by poussin's follow- Bandits' Roost, Mulberry Street, New
ers (see also line vs. color). But York (c. 1888), in which he pho-
Rigaud's portrait of Louis was not ap- tographed a menacing gang of men and
576 RILEY, BRIDGET

boys, was used as evidence in a murder the intention of her work: experimenta-
trial. No one questions that Riis was the tion with perceptual illusion and the
leader in American social documentary neural-retinal experience of seeing. Her
photography, or that his crusade was paintings play visual havoc with the
effective, but in recent years scholars eye: with repetitive lines, shapes and
have brought his ethics and intentions patterns, her images seem to advance
under their own sharp focus. They find and recede, sometimes with dizzying ef-

not only that he was self-serving, but fect. The result might be equated to the
also that he disregarded the humanity effect of music as Riley describes it in

and integrity of his subjects, wreaking the quotation above. She began her ex-
havoc with the dangerous "flash pow- periments using only black and white
der" he invented for taking pictures, as paint. Later she added gradations of
he himself describes in the account, gray, and later still color. Winter Palace
quoted above, of his crew's outings. (198 1 ), for example, is a sequence of
Calling his character into question as narrow vertical stripes in blues, reds,
well, it seems clear that Riis was uncon- yellows, black and white.
scionably bigoted regarding the people
he championed. Following Riis, social Rimmer, William
documentary photography was taken 18 16-1879 • American •

up by Lewis Hine (i 874-1940). Hine sculptor/painter/physician • Romantic

was far less confrontational than Riis as
The scene is the interior of an Oriental
he recorded the plight of immigrants,
sanctuary, into which a murderer is
following them from their arrival on
fleeing for refuge, while in the distance
Ellis Island to jobs in factories and coal
an avenger is seen hurrying to
mines, where young children were often
intercept him. A shadow projected into
exploited.
the right hand corner indicates that
other pursuers are behind. {Providence
Riley, Bridget
Daily Journal, n.d.)
born 193 1 • English • painter • Op
Art The strange circumstances of Rimmer's
life are reflected in the inexplicably
In music, you listen, your ear is doing
bizarre sculpture and paintings he pro-
something, you become aware of more
duced. He was persuaded, by his fa-
than you are actually listening to.
ther's own insistence, that, as the
A founder of op art in the 1960s, grandson of Louis XVI, he was the
Riley became known through a series rightful heir to the French throne. A be-
of exhibitions during that decade. lief in the threat of assassination hov-
One exhibit, The Responsive Eye, at the ered over his childhood. He took a
Museum of Modern Art in New York variety of jobs to support his art, from
in 1964, used her painting for the cover soap-maker to sign-maker; he took care
of CATALOGUE, and she became in-
its of the sick, and, aside from some tutor-
ternationally known. The title, "re- ing by a physician, was mainly self-

sponsive eye," serves well to describe taught in medicine. Rimmer also held
 —

RIVERA, DIEGO 577

numerous posts teaching drawing and Artists for Black Art Liberation, she
anatomy. Unlike other 19th-century confronted the Whitney Museum of
American sculptors, Rimmer did not go American Art with requests for repre-
abroad and thus did not adopt the neo- sentation, and the group staged a series

CLASSiciSM of, for example, powers or of demonstrations that culminated with

CRAWFORD. ROMANTICISM is a Conve- the Whitney's December sculpture
nient label for his work, which is cer- show. That year 22 of the 103 exhib-
tainly evocative of strong emotion, itors were women, compared to 8 out of
but it is a fantasy- or perhaps visionary- 143 the year before. Welcome or not,
based emotion; one might call it the improvement was considered to-
symbolic, if only the symbols were un- kenism. Ringgold's art is also bound up
derstandable. His best-known sculpture in sociopolitical concerns. She fabri-
is Dying Centaur (c. 1871), a small (21 cates larger-than-life soft sculptures
inches high) bronze representing the —Aunt Bessie and Aunt Edith (1974)
death throes of a man with a muscular as part of a performance that depicts
torso and body of a horse. The painting, the life of American black women. She
Flight and Pursuit (1872.), shows a travels and narrates this and other series

bearded man in a short tunic with a in which stories about various family
knife in his belt and a cape on one members are told. The figures of Bessie

shoulder running through the hall of a and Edith are clothed in richly textured,

Moorish building. His flight is paral- boldly colored and patterned African
leled by that of another shadowy figure textiles, details drawn from African
in the distance. Although the analysis of sculpture. Ringgold often installs these
a contemporary reporter, writing for a figures with real props, in settings that
daily newspaper, quoted above, weaves evoke African-American and Latino
one story, in fact this picture is one of "yard shows." Yard shows conjure up
ART history's most perplexing riddles. magic through both made and found
objects.
Ringgold, Faith
born 1930 • American • Rivera, Diego
installation/performance • Feminist 1 886-1957 • Mexican • painter •
Social Realist
If your work is to survive for the next
generation, hearing about it by word [This is] the beginning of the

of mouth is not good enough. It simply realization of my life's dream.

has to be seen, and the museum is the
A Mexican artist who studied
leading
place for that.
and worked in Paris for many years,
Ringgold's concern in the quotation Rivera returned home in 1921 to sup-
above was also expressed in activism: In port the new, revolutionary govern-
1970 Ringgold was among feminists ment and participate in its program of
who brought to public attention the MURAL painting —the preeminent form
museums to exhibit women's
failure of of public art. His politics were Marxist,
work. With Women Students and and a theme of great importance for
578 RIVERS, LARRY

him and for his wife, kahlo, was the tions on his behalf, but ultimately the
pre Columbian/pre-colonial history of mural was destroyed. Nevertheless, the
his country. His commissions in Mex- spirit of Rivera's art served as an exam-

ico City included murals for the court- ple for American artists, during the De-
yard of the Ministry of Education, pression especially. (See works
where one of his scenes, known as PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION; see also
Night of the Rich (1923-28), shows the OROZCO and siqueiros)
debauchery of wealthy Europeans. He
packed his figures tightly together, ex- Rivers, Larry
aggerated their size, shape, and behav- born 1923 • American • painter •
ior, and used strong colors and Abstraction/figuration
simplified forms. Rivera's impact on the
7 wanted to do something the New
younger generation was great, both in
York art world would consider
Mexico and in the United States, where
disgusting, dead and absurd. I was
he had several mural commissions.
branded a rebel against the rebellious
One, in the early 1930s, was for the
abstract expressionists, which made
Ford Motor Company's River Rouge
me a reactionary.
plant. It is a vast celebration of industry
and workers, with gigantic machines A student of baziotes and of hof-
that bear some correlation to ancient MANN, Rivers absorbed the abstract
sculptures of Aztec gods. Controversy EXPRESSIONIST Style, but he used recog-
surrounded Rivera's projects: Local nizable representations, sometimes
critics found sacrilegious and/or Com- writing, sometimes as figures, making
munist and/or obscene the murals he his own defiant gesture, as described
painted at the Detroit Institute of Arts. above. In The Studio (1956), for exam-
When a large group of factory workers ple, a series of figures is presented al-

took on the responsibility of guarding most as scenes in sequential frames, yet

his murals, Rivera's gratitude was ex- they do not seem to have any narrative
pressed in the comment quoted above. relationship to one another. Some are
In New York City, where he was com- clothed, others are nude, some are
missioned to paint murals under the clearly painted, others are partial, or
title Men at the Crossroads Looking sketchy; but details—such as the check-
with Hope and High Vision to the ered pattern of a dress — are In distinct.

Choosing of a Neiv and Better Future a twist of abstract convention. Rivers

(1933) at Rockefeller Center, the irony seems to use these figures themselves as
of an avowed Communist working for a abstract patterning. The effect of the

leading capitalist ended in disaster. The i6-foot-long The Studio is of coher-

controversy came to a head when Nel- ence, even without a narrative connec-
son Rockefeller asked him to paint out tion. The story, or connection, is

the easily recognizable face of Lenin. distinctly made by the artist's hand, as
Rivera's refusal led to his being fired surely as it is in the signature works by
from the project; there were demonstra- Jackson pollock and de kooning.
 ROBERT, HUBERT 579

Robbia, Luca della do a finished picture? (Diderot,

c. 1399/1400-1482 • Italian • 1781)
sculptor/potter • Renaissance
As much as Diderot admired Robert's
. . . he devoted himself so thoroughly
painting, his remark quoted above,
to sculpture that he did nothing else,
made salon review, reflected
in his last
spending all his days in chiseling, and
a preference for tighter brushwork,
his nights in designing. So diligent was
more like that of poussin. Robert's
he that frequently at night, when
feet grew cold, he would put them
his

in a
scenes of ruins — inspired by piranesi
and panini, his friends during an 11-
basket of shavings, such as carpenters
leave by planing, to keep them warm,
year stay in Rome — brought him suc-
cess when he returned to Paris in 1765,
so that he need not leave his designing.
and earned him the nickname Robert of
(Vasari, mid- 1 6th century)
the Ruins (e.g., Pont de Garde). He was
Luca's best-known work is the 17-foot- also a friend and traveling companion
long marble choir gallery or Cantoria of FRAGONARD, with whom he ex-
he carved for the Florence Cathedral changed stylistic, though not thematic,
(1431-38). It is filled with music- influence. One of the first curators at

making children, donatello also the Louvre, Robert presented a suite of

carved a Cantoria (1433-39) that was oil sketches for the museum's proposed
placed opposite Luca's, and comparing renovations (under the Ancien Regime,
the two shows Luca stricter in his clas- soon to be overthrown). Included in this

sicism and quite restrained next to Do- series is Project for the Disposition of
natello's exuberant, wildly gleeful the Grande Galerie (1796), a rendering

merrymakers. Luca went on to develop of his ideal picture gallery: a long corri-
a formula for glazed terra-cotta, usually dor with skylights, divided into ample
decorated with white figures on a blue bays and hung with triple rows of pic-

background, that ornamented many tures. Sculpture is interspersed along

buildings in Florence. Thus, from the the floor, and animated visitors as well
difficult beginnings described by vasari as artists are portrayed studying the art

above, he achieved success. His family works. Among the artists in the in-
joined in and carried on the thriving tended gallery none other than
is

business that he started with his inven- Robert himself, carefully copying one
tion. of the paintings. The not-so-grand fi-

nale of Robert's sequence of solutions

to specific design problems at the Lou-
Robert, Hubert
vre was Imaginary View of the Grand
173 3-1 808 • French •
Galerie in Ruins, in which he portrayed
painter/etcher/landscape designer •
a melodramatic view of cataclysmic dis-
Rococo/Romantic
aster resulting from neglect. Only the
But Robert, you have been making APOLLO BELVEDERE remains standing in

sketches for so long, couldn't you the ruins —and sure enough, it is being
580 ROBINSON, THEODORE

copied by an intractable artist. The myself an illustrator. I'm not sure what
statue looks quite green in the dusty the difference is. All I know is that

light, but perhaps it is meant to be the whatever type of work I do, I try to
bronze replica cast for Francis I c. 1 540. give it my very best. Art has been my
Or could Robert have painted it in an- life.

ticipation of the arrival of the original

Belvedere in Paris? Pope Pius VI would Rockwell was the chronicler of small-
surrender the Belvedere to the French in town life, local people, neighborhood
February 1797. (It was received in a tri- children, and ordinary situations like
umphal procession in July 1798, but Thanksgiving dinner and going to the
was sent back to Rome in 181 6.) doctor. He worked most often as the il-
Robert's building project was carried lustrator for The Saturday Evening
forward, but not until the zoth century. Post, averaging about six covers per

year for 47 years. His wide-ranging, in-

Robinson, Theodore sightful social commentary included a
See AMERICAN IMPRESSIONISM nostalgic picture of a child offering her
doll up for the physician's stethoscope.
rocaille
Doctor and Doll (1929), and The Prob-
French for "rock- or grotto-work," this
lem We All Live With (1964)— a small
term refers to the highly ornamental black child walking to school protected
decoration of the rococo style. Ro-
by four deputy U.S. marshals. The
caille was derived from the decoration
background for the latter picture is a
of grottoes with irregular shells and
dirty wall with a shadow of graffiti
stones. It is asymmetrical and abstract,
reading "nigger" and the splatter of
extravagantly curved into shell- and
a smashed tomato. The child, at a
coral-like forms. These forms might be the height of the
viewer's-eye level, is
carved from wood or molded in plaster
marshals' elbows, and they are cropped
and were often gilded. They were ap-
above the shoulders. Rockwell usually
plied to walls, ceilings, mirrors, and
signed his works —each cover was made
painting— with
door and picture frames. Exotic
from a full-scale small,
seashells, avidly collected during the
stamplike letters, but he signed The
1 8th century, inspired much rocaille
Problem We All Live With in large
decoration. One of the most spectacular script on the ground between the men's
examples is the decoration of the Salon
feet and beneath those of the little girl.
de la Princesse (1735-39) at the Hotel
de Soubise in Paris, designed by Ger-
Rococo
main Boffrand (1667-1754). Combines barroco, the Portuguese
word for a large, irregularly shaped
Rockwell, Norman
pearl, from which baroque is said to be
1 894-1978 • American illustrator
derived, and rocaille, the ornamental
• realist
rock-and-shell motif used as decorative
Some people have been kind enough to ornament. Rococo style became popu-
call me a fine artist. I've always called lar in France during the 1720s. It was an
 RODIN, AUGUSTE 58 I

outgrowth of the Baroque (or, as some- bought in Paris in 1925, and used it for

times defined, a continuation of such outlandish points of view — nick-

Baroque) and is extremely ornamental, named "Rodchenko perspectives" in
favoring pastel colors, gold embellish- Moscow —that
comrades took him
ment, daintiness, delicacy, curving to task for veering from their politi-
forms, and a generally lighthearted cal goals. His enthusiasm about
mood. It is seen as a reaction to the the camera's possibilities is evident in
heaviness and solemnity of the Ba- the quotation above and in his photo-
roque, and also to the formality of the graph Assembling for a Demonstration
court of Louis XIV. Originating in (1928). This is taken from high above
France, Rococo's influence spread to ground, looking down on apartment
other countries. It is found in arch- balconies with their own onlookers and
itecture and interior design (e.g., on the scene of a rally in the street
NEUMANN), DECORATIVE ARTS,
the below. The vertiginous angle of vision,
sculpture (falconet), and painting lighting, and drama of Rodchenko's

(WATTEAU, fragonard, and TiEPOLo). photographs had an impact on other

Rococo was gradually superseded, be- photographers and on filmmakers, in-
ginning in the 1750s, by neoclassical eluding Sergei Eisenstein.
influence.
Rodin, Auguste
Rodchenko, Alexander 1840-1917 • French • sculptor •

1891-1956 • Russian • Impressionist/Expressionist

sculptor/painter/designer/photographer _, .... .i .
what.
•
, »
The vulgar readily imagine that
• Constructivist ,
.

they consider ugly

. ...
m existence
.

is not
^

We are discovering all the miracles of fit subject for the artist. They would
photography as if in some wonderful like to forbid us to represent what
fantasy, and they are becoming a displeases and offends them in nature.

staggering reality. It is a great error on their part. What is

.
, ,

Rodchenko experimented with con-

II commonly called ugliness in nature
r u
, r 1

r r
. .
1 • <^^" ^^ ^^t become full of great beauty.
STRUCTiviST ideas, and in Hanging
Construction (1920) he introduced ac- Although he ultimately became the out-
tual movement (in contrast to the sug- standing sculptor of the 19th century,
gestion of movement) into sculpture. Rodin was denied recognition for many
He did it with a multitude of circles years. He was not accepted at the ecole
within circles, decreasing in diameter, des beaux-arts, but studied anatomi-
and suspended so that they would move cal drawing with barye at the Natural
slowly in currents of air. Committed to History Museum in Paris. He also went
the Russian revolution, he supported its to Italy and there studied the early mas-
Utilitarian goals for art and devoted his ters. In defiance of the academy, Rodin
efforts to engineering, architecture, and submitted The Man with the Broken
industrial design. But he became so en- Nose (1863-64) to the salon. It was
amored of a hand-held camera he beautifully modeled and highly fin-
582 ROLL

ished, but was rejected because its

it suited every known portrait of Balzac
frank realism^ was incompatible with and even contacted Balzac's former tai-

the idealism promoted by the academy, lor before he found a model with Balza-
Also, because Rodin had left the back of cian dimensions. The years of study,
the head unfinished, it was considered numerous models, and struggles to de-
an incomplete fragment. But as the his- fine his subject culminated in a draped
torian H. H. Arnason writes, "Rodin body that looms eerily, a cloaked
looked at Donatello and Michelangelo mountain of a man with a strange, mas-
as though they were masters of his own sive head. Beneath his robe, Rodin im-

time to whom he was apprenticed, and plies, is a sexual power that fuels the

thus he achieved the anomaly of turning author's intellectual creativity — in a

their own gods against the academi- prior nude study he had modeled a
cians." Rodin remained confirmed and powerful, robust man grasping his
uncompromising in his vision and, Ar- penis with his right hand and clasping
nason maintains, "re-charted the course his right forearm with his left hand,
of sculpture almost single-handedly." This is a plunge into Freudian ideas at
The Age of Bronze (1875-76), his first themoment that Freud was becoming
major signed work, was accepted by the known (though not by Rodin), but
Salon of 1877, though its truth to life whether it is Balzac or Rodin whose iso-
brought accusations that he had cast it lation, genius, torment, and sexuality
from a living man. In time his work be- we observe in this statue is debatable,
came increasingly expressive, especially The work was not accepted by the Writ-
through the roughness of surface tex- ers' Association, which had commis-

ture and the drama, tension, and energy sioned it, but Rodin said, "Nothing I
he was able to impart to his forms. As have ever done satisfied me so much,
an IMPRESSIONIST, he stopped and so- because nothing ever cost me so much;
lidified movement and experimented nothing sums up so profoundly what I
with effects of lights on the surface of believe to be the secret law of my art."
solid objects. Unlike Impressionists but
akin to expressionists, he was inter- roll
ested in the power of emotion. This is See scroll
clearly seen in the despair of six bronze

figures, heroic hostages, a group known Roman art

as The Burghers of Calais (1886). In 509 BCE-312 ce
1880 Rodin was commissioned to ere- In 509 bce an ancient Latin people,
ate a modern counterpart to ghiberti's whose origins are unknown, overthrew
Florentine Gates of Paradise (finished the etruscans, established a republic
1452), The Gates of Hell. He completed headquartered Rome, and launched a
in

some 200 figures, several of which, in- program of conquest. By about 200 ce,
eluding The Thinker, evolved into indi- Rome was the capital of the largest em-
vidual sculptures, but he never pire ever known, reaching from Scot-
completed the project. His Monument land to Arabia. Roman history is

to Balzac was started in 1891,some 40 divided into two periods. The first was
years after Balzac's death. Rodin con- the Republican (509-27 bce), during
 ROMAN ART 583

which energy was devoted to expansion lary and Greek mythological characters
and the artistic legacy is largely com- mixed with contemporary individuals,
memorative sculpture; coinage; portrai- including Augustus and his family, for
ture; religious, urban, and domestic its Thus did he claim au-
decoration.
architecture; and interior decoration. It thority over both past and present,
was during the second. Imperial period while declaring the Golden Age to be a
(27 BCE-c. 31Z ce) that Roman art de- contemporary reality of which he was
veloped its most distinctive characteris- the benevolent provider. Although
tics. began concurrently with the
It scholars debate the exact meaning of its

reign of Emperor Augustus and ended sculptural program, there is little doubt
approximately with the adoption of thatthe Ara Pi^ds served a propagandis-
Christianity under Emperor Constan- tic purpose. Later examples of Roman
tine. Though awed and strongly influ- self-promotion equestrian
include
enced by the Greeks, whose lands they statues and great triumphal monuments

conquered and whose artand artists such the arch of titus and the col-
they brought back to Rome, ultimately umn of trajan. It has been written that
Roman art mirrored their cultural Rome was a city in which statues out-
differences. Romans were interested numbered people. Two public invento-
in individuals rather than the types ries of the late 300s ce list almost 4,000
and prototypes that had preoccupied bronze statues in addition to 36 tri-

Greeks, for example. Yet, paradoxi- umphal arches, 22 equestrian statues,

cally, in contrast to the fame of many and many other individual works. That
artists in ancient Greece, Roman artists does not even touch on the countless
rarely signed their works, and few of marble statues and busts on public
their names have come down to us. buildings, or on privately owned works.
Most significantly, beginning with Au- The ancient city's population reached
gustus, artbecame a purposeful agent about one million, so the hyperbolic-
for propaganda and change. "Augustus sounding statement actually could have
reformed public opinion and private at- been true.
titudes by means of an effective, con- Important distinctions should be
gratulatory rhetoric, presented by made between Greek and Roman archi-
works of art and literature of extraordi- tecture. Where Greek temples allowed

nary quality and persuasive authority," scant provision for people entering and
Richard Brilliant writes. "After his moving about inside, Roman builders
reign Roman art was forever defined by (as well as city planners) excelled in de-

the agendas established and pursued by signing interior spaces for the comfort,
Augustan artists and architects, if not circulation, and control of people (see

necessarily by the formal language colosseum); entrances to buildings

adopted The Ara Pads
in their pursuit." were well defined, and interiors were
Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace; awe inspiring (pantheon). Roman ar-
1 3-9 bce) is the outstanding example of chitectural innovation was advanced by

this monumental rhetoric. Augustus the development of concrete and vault-

used Greek precedents from the classi- ing systems (see arch). In contrast to
CAL era as the altar's stylistic vocabu- the Greeks' traditional awe of and re-
584 ROMANESQUE

spect for the natural landscape, Ro- gence from Latin of the Romance Ian-

mans were, from the start, intent on al- guages (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
tering and shaping nature for their own French, etc.). The Romanesque period
needs and pleasures — in terms of gar- was marked by the ascendancy to
dens as well as buildings.One might, power of monastic orders, a feudal aris-
for example, compare how the Greek tocracy supported by the manorial sys-
Theater at Epidauros (c. 350 bce) is fit- tem, the cult of saints, and great
ted into the side of a hill, following its popularity of pilgrimages to visit saints'

contours, while in contrast, Romans shrines and relics; and the fervor of the
were more likely to build their theaters Crusades, the first of which was in
and amphitheaters on level ground, or 1095. Also during the Romanesque pe-
to transform the landscape to accom- riod, in 1054, the final break between
modate their design. Whereas the Greek the Eastern Orthodox and Western
theater was open to the air, the Roman Roman Churches took place. Ro-
structure, which often had a roof, was manesque architecture evolved from the
enclosed inside walls. Rome's instinct, Roman basilica, with an oblong plan,
writes the architectural historian round ARCHes, heavy walls (a core of
SCULLY, "is to enclose, to keep nature rubble faced with concrete), masonry
out, to trust in the manmade environ- vaults (groin and tunnel), and clerestory
ment as a total construction. . .
." windows. Romanesque sculptural re-
Domestic architecture, preserved espe- liefs and paintings tell the Christian
cially at pompeii and herculaneum, story with highly animated figures,
enclosed the all-important family. (For often unnaturally shortened or elon-
styles of Roman wall paintings, see gated to fill all available space. Expres-
mural.) As persuasively as Augustus sive Last Judgment scenes fill the
heralded the glory of Rome, so was the semicircular space above the main por-
breakup and erratic decline of the Em- tal, or the tympanum (see gisleber-
pire reflected in later works such as the Tus); the central post of the portal —the
marble portraits Caracalla (Z15 ce) trumeau — might be transformed by
and Philip the Arab (240s ce); both em- twisting and turning figures, humans
perors look wary and haunted. That and beasts, such as Lions and the
anxiety was later translated into late Prophet Jeremiah (f) at Saint Pierre,

antique style, rigid and frontal, em- Moissac (early 12th century). Author
bodied in the cluster of rulers entitled portraits are illuminated
found in

Tetrarchs (c. 305 ce), who huddle manuscripts, including eadwine in

together as if for mutual protection, the Canterbury Psalter (c. 11 50). Vivid
and in the gigantic head Constantine accounts of contemporary events, like

(c. 330 ce), of the first Christian ruler. the conquest of England, are illustrated
in the bayeaux tapestry (1070-80).
Romanesque
Mid-i ith to mid-i2th century. The Ro- Romanticism
manesque was so named in the 19th A broad cultural manifestation that is

century by a French scholar who con- not a style, but may incorporate styles
nected the art of this period to the emer- like neoclassicism and realism^. Ro-
 ROMNEY, GEORGE 585

manticism is conventionally dated from 1818-19, and Turner's Snowstorm:

the late i8th through the early 19th Steamboat Off a Harbour's Mouth,
century. It cuts across national bound- 1842), and people in distress (Dela-
aries, finding expression in England croix, Massacre at Chios, 1824).
(e.g., turner), Germany (friedrich),
and France (gericault and Dela- Romney, George
croix, though Delacroix shunned the 1734-1802 • English pamter
label). Yet, as it has no clear beginning, Grand Manner
middle, or end, no common denom-
The fortunate chance which led him to
inator of style, and no all-encompassing
a cultivation of the particular art he
definition satisfies, it is more helpful to
was destined to profess was simply
look at Romanticism as a concept
this. In his youth he observed great
rather than as a movement. Gericault
singularity of countenance in a
may be seen as a turning point, moving
stranger at church; his parents, to
away from the rationalism of the en-
whom he spoke of it, desired him to
lightenment and from Neoclassical
describe the person. He seized on a
restraint (e.g., Jacques-Louis david)
pencil, and delineated the features
toward the highly personalized treat-
from memory with such strength of
ment of the modern subject matter that
resemblance as amazed and delighted
will eventually characterize Realism-
his affectionate parents. (William
(e.g., courbet). There was a shift in
Hayley, 1809)
emphasis from imitating the visual
world to expressing emotions; bywords Hayley may have romanticized the
of Romanticism are imagination, sin- "fortunate chance" that led Romney to
cerity, sensibility, spontaneity, individ- his profession, as quoted above, but
uality, and inner truth (as opposed to Romney is among the top 1 8th-century
timeless, universal values). As Baude- British portrait painters, a list that in-
laire wrote in 1846, "Romanticism is cludes REYNOLDS, GAINSBOROUGH,
precisely situated neither in choice of RAEBURN, and Sir Thomas Lawrence.
subjects nor in exact truth, but in a They all painted heroic men, beautiful
mode of feeling." The stereotype of women, and children that are above av-
"The Artist" as tormented genius, the erage. Flattery of the English upper
outsider who dies young (e.g., Geri- classes — more than insight into psy-
cault), originates during this period. chology, character, or truth —was their

Romanticism thrived on the late i8th goal. Romney wished for success in his-
century's cult of the sublime, its con- tory PAINTING and could not achieve it,
cern with mystery, and interest in me- but his portraits satisfied his clients; his
dieval ideas and works, goethe was a colors were rich, the sitters' glances in-
Romantic apologist. Some recurring telligent. He settled in London and
Romantic themes include personifica- competed Gainsborough and
with
tion of ideas (rude's and Delacroix's Reynolds. Wt had a falling out over
personifications of Liberty), images of money with was thus
the latter, and
nature's power vs. human vulnerability never elected to the Royal Academy,
(Gericault's The Raft of the Medusa, which Reynolds headed. Romney's
 «

586 ROSA, SALVATOR

Story took an interesting turn in 1782 advocacy of Stoicism, a detached and

when, near the age of 50, he fell madly incorruptible private morality, distinct

in love with a 17-year-old —the famous from the church or state. This is illus-

Emma. He painted her more than 50 trated by his painting Fortune (1659),

times. She married Sir William Hamil- in which a nude woman profligately

ton, whose portrait Romney also showers a cornucopia of riches on vari-

painted but probably no more than ous animals including a goat and don-
once, and she became the mistress of key. This painting nearly caused him to

Britain's naval hero Lord Nelson. Rom- be jailed for the presumed allusion to
ney's obsession persisted until his political (papal) patronage. But despite
health broke, his talent weakened, and his stoic proclamations, Rosa was an in-

he retired to the north of England, re- curable romantic, and it was the imagi-

joining his wife whom he had aban- native appeal of his rugged, agitated
doned 27 years earlier. She nursed him landscapes of crags and cliffs, with wild
until he died, quite senile, at the age of animals and bandits in the wings —the
68. very opposite of poussin's tranquil Ar-
cadia —that especially influenced later

Rosa, Salvator painters, leading to the taste for the

161 5-1673 • Italian • painter • sublime that would, in turn, inspire

Baroque romantic artists.

. . . go to a brickmaker as they work to

Rosenquist, James
order.
born 1933 • American • painter •

Embattled, effusive, contrary, Rosa Pop Art

hated to work on commission, as his , ... , , .
^
/-

/ decided to make pictures of

comment quoted above makes clear. He . , ^ ;j ^j; //
,
fragments, images that would spill off
showed his work as widely and often as , j / j •
^
the canvas instead of recede into
he could, especially m the two ma or , ^ , ^ ,u , r
... I thought each fragment would
public exhibitions held
^
year.
'
Rome each
He also kept a large selection or
1 1 1

m
•
r.

.be It
,

speed,
., r j ^ jrr .
identified at a different rate of
, /j ^
would paint
and ^ ^/
them as j ,;
. r

that I
^ r
, , i 1

where potential
pictures in his studio , „ -n r .; ;* 1 1

; , , , , , , 1
reahstically as possible. Then l thought
buyers could browse through them and , j r r.j
1 1 r
, , , . „, . , . about the kind of imagery I d use ... 1
make their selection. Their choices, , r j .; .
... r
wanted to find images that were in a
andJ
.
, ,

however, did not fail to infuriate „ , ; > j

nether-nether-land.
frustrate him: "Always they want my
small landscapes, always, always, my The comment quoted above, made in

small ones," he wrote. Famous and relation to the paintings Rosenquist

sought after for those small landscapes began in i960, aptly describes his work.
and for his small exotic scenes, espe- It leaves out one major component,
cially esoteric images of witchcraft, he however: the large scale of his composi-
wanted to be appreciated for his large, ¥-111 (1965), for example a se-
tions. —
allegorical, and history paintings, the quence relating to the Air Force
great dramas, heroic tragedies. Rosa ex- fighter-bomber, painted when the

pressed an intellectual attraction to and United States began to bomb North

 ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (GABRIEL CHARLES) 587

Vietnam —although painted on canvas, sculptor. His important tomb sculpture

is an 86-foot-long mural. His colors are (c. 1446-48) of an eminent humanist
a gaudy, Day-Glo assault. "Rosen- scholar, the Florentine Chancellor
quist's ingenuities as a formal artist Leonardo Bruni, is set into a wall niche

have floated to the top. And the subject in Santa Croce, Florence. This work es-

is clearer: the vicissitudes of a certain tablished a standard and prototype.

kind of American dream," hughes Bernardo placed Bruni, in white marble
wrote in 1986. and holding one of his books, lying
above his bier. There is little religious
imagery in this highly decorative tomb.
Rossellino, Bernardo, Antonio, considered the more gifted of
c. 1407/10-1460, Antonio, the two, created an extraordinarily or-
c. 1427/28-1479 • Italian • namental tomb (1461-66) for the Car-
sculptors • Renaissance dinal of Portugal in San Miniato al
Monte, Florence. This is the work de-
At San Miniato al Monte, a monastery
scribed by VASARI in the quotation
of the white monks outside the walls
above. Where earlier tombs were re-
of Florence, [Antonio] was employed
strained and stolid, Antonio's angels
to make tomb of the Cardinal of
the
and PUTTI are caught in full motion and
Portugal, which was executed so
emotion, and even the cardinal seems to
marvelously and with such diligence
be sleeping content. From the center of
and art that no artist can ever expect
a wreath above the tomb, the benevo-
to see anything to surpass it for finish
lent Virgin and Child smile down on
and grace. . . . It contains angels which
him. This foretells an increasing interest
in their grace and beauty, with their
in the human and momentary over the
draperies and attitudes, seem not
sublime and eternal.
marble creations but living beings.
One of them holds the cardinal's
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (Gabriel
crown of virginity, as he is said to
Charles)
have died chaste; another raises
1 828-1 8 82 • English • painter •
the palm of victory which he won
Pre-Raphaelite
against the world. (Vasari, mid-i6th
century) Lo! it is done. Above the long, lithe
throat The mouth's mould testifies of
I
All five Rossellino brothers were stone-
voice and kiss, I The shadowed eyes
cutters from Settignano, a village on a
remember and foresee. I Her face is
hill in Tuscany known for its sculptors,
made her shrine. Let all men note I
including desiderio da settignano
That in all years (O Love! Thy gift is
and MICHELANGELO, who lived there
this) I They that would look on her
when young. Bernardo and Antonio are
must come to me.
the most renowned of the brothers, and
the nickname, Rossellino, which means Rossetti's father (Gabriel Pasquale Ros-
"little redhead," was first Antonio's setti) was a Neapolitan poet and Dante
and later given to the whole family. scholar who had fought patriotically
Bernardo was an architect as well as a for a constitution against the Austrian
588 ROSSI, ALDO

king Ferdinand. He was forced to flee William morris. In 1868 she became
Italy and London, where he
settled in his mistress. Rossetti's paintings in-

taught at King's College. At the age of spired passion in their beholders: A con-
13 young Rossetti —
whose adopted temporary wrote about Bocca Baciatd's
name testifies to his and his father's lit- owner, "Boyce has bought it and will I

erary interests —spent his time reading expect kiss the dear thing's lips away
and illustrating Shakespeare, goethe, before you come to see it." (burne-
Byron, and Scott. For him, art and liter- jONEs's pictures also attracted kisses.)
ature were inseparable, and although The women in Rossetti's series appear
undecided whether painting or poetry tightly confined, pushed to the front of
should be his profession, was under- it the PICTURE PLANE, often with flowery
stood that the former could be more lu- wallpaper behind them that seems to
crative. At 20 he was the instigator cramp their freedom even more. These
when he, with friends and fellow Royal women are "being seen, while unsee-
Academy of Arts students William Hol- ing,''' the historian Griselda pollock
man hunt and millais, launched the writes. They serve, fetishlike, to identify
PRE-RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD. The and enable male sexual self-definition
three began to forge the first true Pre- in a circle of bourgeois intellectuals and

Raphaelite manner in which outlines artists. "This is therefore a question of

were hard, poses stiff and awkward, sexuality and the mode of representa-
and shadows were not cast. In time tion. .Rossetti's works predate
. .

Rossetti's subjects changed from leg- Freud and the Hollywood cinema. But
ends and NARRATIVE topics to a series of out of the same formations and its or-
bust-length pictures of beautiful, sensu- deals came both the analytic theories of
ous, extravagantly costumed, lan- Freud and the representational project
guorous, melancholy women. Fanny of classic Hollywood cinema," Pollock
Cornforth, his mistress for 10 years, concludes.
was the model for the first in the series
that began, in 1859, with Bocca Baci- Rossi, Aide
ata.The title is inspired by a poem of 1931-1997 • Italian • architect •

BOCCACCIO that says, "The mouth that Modern/neorationalism

has been kissed loses not its freshness;
/ saw the structure of the body as a
still it renews itself even as does the
series of fractures to be reassembled.
moon." The obsessive series continued
during the 1860s. Another model was In the quotation above, Rossi is describ-

Elizabeth Siddall, a frail, consumptive, ing an idea that changed his career as an
tragic "shop girl" whom he fell in love architect —the impulse to reconcile di-

with and married in i860. She died of verse parts. came after an automobile
It

an overdose of laudanum in 1862. He accident he had in 1971, and is pre-

painted a memorial to her as his "Beat- scient of the timeless, spare, and surreal

rice" {Beata Beatrix, c. 1864-70), an al- design he did soon afterward for the
lusion to the Beatrice who was Dante's Cemetery of San Cataldo (1971) in
muse. Still another model was Jane Bur- Moderno, Italy. Rossi was preoccupied
den Morris, the wife of his friend with combining geometrical shapes in
 ROSSO FIORENTINO (GIOVANNI BATTISTA ROSSO) 589

bold and original ways, while looking wax over plaster, allowed him great lee-
back to the work of ledoux and boul- way in the melding of different shapes.
LEE. This absorption is expressed in the Rosso's ideas and accomplishments
town hall (1986-90), in Borgoricco, were highly praised by Italian futur-
Italy. In this building are allusions to in- ists, who both shared and exaggerated
dustry, such as the form of a smoke- them, especially the idea of a dynamic
stack, and to local domestic shapes, fusion of a subject and its setting.
such as houses with slanting roofs. He Rosso's comment, quoted above, refers
also combines the soft texture and color to Baudelaire's essay entitled "Why Is

of brick with the harder look of con- Sculpture So Boring?" (1846), and a
crete. longer article of 1859. Rosso added,
"What is important for me in art is to
Rosso, Medardo make people forget matter. The sculptor
1 8 58-1928 • Italian • sculptor • must, through a summary of the impres-
Impressionist sions he receives, communicate every-
thing that has touched his own feelings,
Was not [Baudelaire] right to treat
so that, looking at his work, one can feel
sculpture as an inferior art when he
completely the emotion that he felt
saw sculptors make a being into a
when he was observing nature."
material entity in space, while in
actuality every object is part of a
Rosso Fiorentino (Giovanni
totality and this totality is dominated
Battista Rosso)
by a tonality which extends into
1494-1 540 • Italian • painter •
infinity just as light does?
Mannerist
Rosso spent much of his career in Paris,
Besides his skill in painting. Rosso
read baudelaire, and met rodin, who
possessed a handsome presence, was
admired his work and, Rosso later in-
gracious and grave in speech, an
sisted, copied it. Trained as a painter, he
accomplished musician and a well-
was a boldly experimental artist who
versed philosopher, while more
endeavored to capture in three-
important than all were his poetical
dimensional form the effects that im-
fancy in the composition of figures, his
pressionist painters sought to convey
bold and solid design, light style,
on canvas: the immediate, momentary
beautiful composition and the
impact of the visual world, the effect of
forcefulness of his grotesques. (Vasari,
light on the subject, and the dynamics
mid-i6th century)
of a subject in its environment. Also, as
in traditional painting. Rosso wanted to Rosso's compositions, like those of his
see the sculpted form from a single friend pontormo, convey a sense of
viewpoint, in opposition to the conven- utter instability, but where Pontormo's
tion of sculpture as a three-dimensional Descent from the Cross (also known as
object to be seen from all sides. The the Entombment or Lamentation;
Concierge (1883) is an impression of a 1525-28) intimates a kind of floating
head emerging from a roughly textured, weightlessness, Rosso's Descent from
undefined form. The material he used. the Cross (also Deposition; 15 21) has
590 ROTHENBERG, SUSAN

the opposite effect. Here it seems that meant to me. My formalist side was
the gesticulating men who have chmbed denying my content side. Eventually,
the ladder, and Christ himself, will all I began tearing it apart to find out
momentarily crash to the ground and what it meant. It obviously became
crush the mourners below. Like most a vehicle for certain kinds of
Mannerists, Rosso (a nickname mean- emotions.
ing "redhead") forced his figures into
unreasonably compressed space, creat- Rothenberg painted her first horse in
ing a feeling of tremendous anxiety (see 1974 in a sienna color like the earth and
mannerism). That anxiety is soon ex- in an outline style like those of prehis-

plosive in Moses Defending the Daugh- toric cave paintings. She continued
?ers o/^/ef/7ro (1523): a swirling mass of painting horses, in part, she said, to
entangled, muscular bodies caught in a avoid painting people. She described
violent melee. Anyone who tries to her images as "placement in space," a
name the participants, and to translate formalist idea, as alluded to above,
the scene, ends up in a quandary. Rosso Although the animal is always recogniz-
lived through the 1527 sack of Rome, able as a horse, it is never only that, and
and one would be less surprised by his it is often sabotaged by interruptions of
Moses had he painted it after that. In one kind or another: For example, by
1530 Rosso went to work for francis i dividing the canvas on which a horse is

and became a founder of the school of painted into different colors, Rothen-
FONTAiNEBLEAU, where he shared the berg maintains the integrity of the
limelight with primaticcio. vasari's painting surface over that of her sub-
appreciation of Rosso, quoted from ject. Later, as her comment also sug-
above, includes a long anecdote about gests, she painted strange, dismembered
the painter's fondness for his pet parts oi the horse, such as Untitled (Up-
baboon: "loving it like himself." The side-Down Horse Legs), 1979. In her
baboon, for its part, was fond of a later works the horse only occasionally

handsome apprentice called Battistino, appears, as Rothenberg alludes rather

for whom the animal stole grapes from to her new life in the New Mexico
the friar's garden. The story has all desert, where she settled with her hus-
the earmarks of slapstick comedy, with band, nauman, in 1989. In these, as the
the baboon getting caught, wreaking critic Michael Kimmelman writes, "The

havoc, being restrained by a ball painting is thick but no longer clotted,

and chain made by Rosso, but taking the images often fantastical and light-
his revenge on the humorless friar in headed, and they occasionally refer to
the end. the animals and the red earth ..."

Rothenberg, Susan Rothko, Mark

born 1945 • American • painter • 1903-1970 • American • painter •
New Image Abstract Expressionist

In the early years, I had ambiguous The unfriendliness of society to his

feelings about the horse and what it activity is difficult for the artist to
 — s 1

ROUAULT, GEORGES 59

accept. Yet this very hostility can act as rotolus

a lever for true liberation. Freed from a A long manuscript roll or scroll.
false sense of security and community,
the artist can abandon his plastic Rouault, Georges
bank-book, just as he has abandoned 1871-1958 • French • painter •
other forms of security. Both the sense Expressionist
of community and of security depend r r. • »

, . „ .
... ,
in Pans there were hours tn Braque
on the familiar, tree of them, ,
, , ,, r r 1
outlandish studio above the roofs of
transcendental experiences become
Montmartre, visits with Matisse in his
possible.
garden at Calmart, talks at the
Gustave Moreau Museum with
Rothko traveled from boyhood in Rus-
Rouault, pale and pinched, to whom
sia, to adolescence in Portland, Oregon,
Quinn had been regularly sending
to maturity as a founding member of
$600 a year above his purchases.
the New York group of abstract ex-
(Aline Saarinen, 1958)
pressionists. His artistic journey in-

cluded a spell at Yale University and With forms delineated by thick black
studies at the Art Students League in outlines that are filled with intense
New York with weber. He kept ap- color, Rouault's paintings immediately
pointments with fairly standard current call to mind stained glass windows,
styles until he arrived at his extraordi- The connection is not accidental, as
nary and groundbreaking paintings of Rouault was apprenticed to a stained-
color —color, that is, expressing both glass artisan in his youth. As were many
the subject and the object, covering an artists of his time, Rouault was much

entire canvas. Sometimes two great rec- affected by injustice and by the bour-
tanglesof colors, albeit without edges geois complacency that overlooked it.

for example. Orange and Tan (1954) Prostitution seems to symbolize the so-
— meet as boiling blood might meet cial decay that absorbed him, and he
blazing sun, an image that seems to ex- painted prostitutes with bitter repul-
press Motherwell's description of sion, rather than with the sympathy ex-
Rothko as a cauldron of "seething pressed by other artists of the era (e.g.,

anger [that] would sometimes blow up, toulouse-lautrec). Later, religious

completely irrationally." Among his paintings, taken from the Gospels, as
late works are the canvases he painted well as clowns and saints, were his sub-
for the walls of a chapel in Houston, ject. The Old King (1916-36), with its

Texas, in 1968 — very large, almost heavy black outlines, thickly laid-on
monochromatic canvases that steep a paint, and sense of tragedy, is among
viewer in what seem to be endless his best-known works, moreau's fa-
depths of darkness. For some these vorite student, Rouault was the first cu-
murals bring transcendence; for others, rator of the museum in Paris devoted to
morbidity. Rothko himself must his teacher's was there that the
work. It

have been among the latter, for he com- American patron and collector John
mitted suicide not long after finishing Quinn, following his art world itiner-
them. ary, went to visit Rouault, as described
 —

59^ ROUSSEAU, HENRI

by Saarinen in the passage quoted at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris.

above. Those who saw his work marveled at it

and urged him to keep his "naivete."

Rousseau, Henri Though he admired the academic
1 844-19 ID • French • painter • painters of the Salon, its juries rejected

"Naive"/Personal fantasy him. He exhibited at the unjuried Sa-

lons, which he commemorated in his
The hungry lion, throwing himself
1906 painting, Liberty Inviting Artists
upon the antelope, devours him; the
to Take Part in the Twenty-second Exhi-
panther stands by awaiting the
bition of the Societe des Artistes In-
moment when he, too, can claim his
dependants. Many of Rousseau's
share. Birds of prey have ripped out
paintings are of lions and other wild an-
pieces of flesh from the poor animal
imals, and they are usually more peace-
that sheds a tear!
able than The Hungry Lion, described
In the words quoted above, Rousseau above. On the frame of The Sleeping
described The Hungry Lion (1905), Gypsy (1897) Rousseau inscribed,
which was on exhibit at the salon "The feline, though ferocious, is loath
d'automne of 1905. Works by ma- to leap upon its prey, who, overcome by
TISSE, DERAIN, BRAQUE, ROUAULT, fatigue, lies in a deep sleep." This is his

VLAMiNCK, DUFY, and Others hung best-known work and, naivete notwith-
nearby. It was this salon at which the standing, it is extremely sophisticated
critic Louis Vauxcelles first used the the lion's tufted tail, juxtaposed with
word "fauves," or "wild beasts," to de- the full moon, somehow distributes and
scribe the paintings he saw, and thereby anchors the weight of the figures below.
named a new movement (see fauve). It The colors, placement of forms, and the
is often said that Rousseau's Hungry inexplicable mystery of the event por-
Lion what prompted Vauxcelles's
is trayed contribute to making this one of
comment. Rousseau was mythologized, the most unforgettable pictures in the
primarily by the poet/critic apolli- Western world.
NAiRE, who told this anecdote: "Rous-
seau had so strong a sense of reality that Rousseau, Theodore
when he painted a fantastic subject, he 181 2-1867 • French • painter •

sometimes took fright and, trembling Barbizon School

all over, had to open the window." Tra-
Good God, what endless talk to say
ditionally called douanier, which means
that in art it is better to be honest than
customs inspector, Rousseau was never
clever! But the times belong to the
that. Rather, he was a gabelou, an em-
spiteful, and we talk to the mute and
ployee of the municipal toll service.
the deaf.
Putting aside diverse erroneous stories,
he was an untutored, unsophisticated Rousseau and other barbizon school
"Sunday painter" who left his job and artists had been painting landscapes for

lived in poverty to devote himself to his some 30 years and were professionally
avocation. He found the animal and recognized, though not popular, when
botanical specimens that he painted he made the comment above. It con-
 ROZANOVA, OLGA 593

eluded his answer to a critic's question Rozanova, Olga

work of
regarding his preference for the 1886-1918 • Russian • painter •

INGRES or of DELACROIX. Rousseau was Constructivist

equally emphatic in explaining that he
Only modern Art has advocated the
chose Delacroix despite "his exaggera-
full and serious importance of such
tions, his mistakes, his visible failures,
principles as pictorial dynamism,
because he belongs only to himself,
volume and equilibrium, weight and
because he represents the spirit, the
weightlessness, linear and plane
form, the language of his time." That
displacement, rhythm as a legitimate
Rousseau "belonged to himself" is im-
division of space, design, plane and
plicit: After the mid-i830s, his republi-
surface dimension, texture, color
can sympathies excluded him from
correlation and others. Suffice it to
showing in the SALON. His politics hav-
enumerate these principles . . . to be
ing ended his career in a conventional
convinced that they are the
sense, he cultivated the position of out-
qualitative . . . New Basis which
siderand protester. His Oak Trees in
proves the "Self sufficient" significance
the Gorge of Apremont (1850-52)
of the New Art. They are principles,
looks like a family portrait of magnifi-
hitherto unknown, which signify
cent trees. In fact the oaks, near a house
the rise of a new era in creation —
Rousseau owned, were endangered by
an era of purely artistic
plans to introduce a pine plantation
achievements.
where they stood, baudelaire, George
Sand, and thore (with Baudelaire, an Rozanova's constructivism follows
important art critic) came to his sup- the "truth-to-materials" dictate of
port. Despite his left-wing inclinations tatlin in the use of paint itself. Her re-

and those of his literary supporters, markable, small (just over 2 feet high)
Rousseau's clients were rich and con- Untitled (Green Stripe), 19 17, covers a
servative,and included Baron Nathan canvas with cream-colored paint and a
de Rothschild. Rousseau himself was thick green stripe down The
the center.
very well-to-do: His studio was in one surface is textured and patterned, and
of the richest sections of Paris, he at- derives its entire character from the very
tended the opera regularly, and he col- paint-ness of paint: its color and sub-
lected rare coins. At the same time, he stance, its intrinsic qualities expressed
painted and promoted the undeveloped according to how thickly/thinly, heav-
landscape and humble rural peasant. As ily/lightly, up and down or at an angle it

the historian Gary Tinterow writes, has been applied to the canvas. Need-
"There was a dramatic dichotomy be- less to say, the canvas, too, with its par-
tween the life Rousseau led and the ticular weave, size, and any other
vision he promoted." millet was intrinsic quality, expresses its own ma-
Rousseau's closest friend, and at his terial presence. This painting antici-
bedside when he died. pated Newman's work some 30 years
later. Rozanova threw herself into the
Royal Academy of Arts Russian revolutionary spirit and col-
See ACADEMY lapsed in an aerodrome while putting
594 RUBENISTES

Up posters to mark the first anniversary and in when he was 26, one
1603, of
of the October Revolution. them, Vincenzo gonzaga, duke of
Mantua, sent him to Spain on his first
Rubenistes mission as a political ambassador. He
See LINE vs. COLOR returned to Antwerp at his mother's
death in 1608 and became court painter
Rubens, Peter Paul to the Archduke Albert and his wife Is-

1 577-1640 • Flemish • painter • abella, with special permission to re-

Baroque main in Antwerp (the court was at

, J , , . . Brussels). Well mannered, with many

I do not know what to praise most in . •
, , , ,
languages and social graces, he would
my friend Rubens: his mastery of
later receive more diplomatic assign-
painting . . . or his knowledge of all
ments. His favored position enabled
aspects of belles lettres, or finally, that
him to sidestep the local guild and
fine judgment which inevitably attends
freely establish his immense studio, ex-
such fascinating conversation.
empt from registering his students.
(Gaspard Scioppius, 1607) i
Thus, although it is believed that he had
Because the vastness as well as the vari- a great many assistants, the number is

ety of Rubens's accomplishments is uncertain. Contemporary accounts de-

daunting, it is instructive, if not sober- scribe a busy scene in which numerous
ing, to note his inauspicious back- young men worked on paintings for
ground. His father, Jan, a lawyer, which Rubens had made sketches and
became a Calvinist and was forced to to which he would apply the finishing
flee Antwerp when the city became touches. Meanwhile, he had Tacitus
Catholic under the Spanish in 1568. read aloud to him as he painted, lis-
(Peter Paul was born in Westphalia.) tened, dictated letters, and answered
Jan was convicted of adultery with his visitors' questions. His well-organized
employer, Anne of Saxony, Princess of and highly efficient workshop was ex-
Orange, and sent to the castle's dun- panded to include a staff of printmakers
geon. As one historian has commented, who copied his paintings for repro-
"Letters from Rubens's mother . . . duction (see also print and print-
written to her jailed husband and in en- ing). Rubens had to
Occasionally
treaty to the House of Nassau suggest replace a painting that a client com-
that Rubens may have inherited his plained was unsatisfactory, but he re-
strength and nobility of character from minded clients that if they wished
his mother." Returning home to something entirely by his own hand,
Antwerp with his mother after his fa- that should be specified in the contract,
ther's death, Rubens apprenticed with As specialization had grown, so did col-
three different artists and then traveled laboration, and Rubens frequently
to Italy,where he avidly studied the worked in partnership with others: Jan
works of the major Italian artists, from bruegel, snyders, jordaens, and van
caravaggio and correggio to man- dyck among them. It has been said that
TEGNA, and also the art of antiquity, no artist in the southern Netherlands
His clients were among the nobility, was unaffected by Rubens, and that is
 RUDE, FRANCOIS 595

probably accurate, if not an understate- icon painter Theophanes, the elder

ment. However, he was not primarily a monk Prokhor from Grodets and the
successful entrepreneur; it must be monk Andrej Ruhlev. They finished the
stressed that Rubens was an inventive same year. {Trojtskaja Chronicle,

genius at his art. His figure paintings of 1408)

nude women especially led to coinage of
the term "Rubenesque." His portraits, The Trojtskaja Chronicle, quoted from
while as exacting in details of fashion, above, was composed in Moscow,
fabric, and jewels, broke with earlier where Rublev worked with and was in-

traditions of formality, first by invent- fluenced by theophanes the Greek,

ing informal poses and then by his sen- Rublev went on to develop an individ-
sitivity to the personality of his subject, ual style and become a highly renowned
His HISTORY PAINTINGS explode with Russian artist. Best known is Rublev's
BAROQUE energy and powerful illumi- Old Testament Trinity (c. 1410). It was
nation, their composition frequently ex- made to hang on an iconostasis the —
ploiting a diagonal movement that screen that divides the sanctuary of an
increases their energy. This is true of Orthodox church from the rest of the
two of his major altarpieces. Raising interior. Rublev's vivid colors, strong

of the Cross (1610-11) and Descent enough to be seen in candlelight and

from the Cross (161 2-14). In both, the
overwhelming presence and muscular
tension of the bodies are unmistakable,
yet Christ seems both physically solid
and weightless at the same time. Rubens
was a devout Catholic, closely associ-
through the smoke of incense, were also
sophisticated juxtapositions of comple-
mentary colors: blue and green folds of
drapery contrasted with a red robe
and gilded wings. This picture of three
graceful angels seated around a table il-

ated with the Jesuits. He was also hap- lustrates the biblical story of Abraham
pily married — twice, in fact; after his and Sarah welcoming three strangers
first wife died, he remarried in 1630, at who were, in fact, divine beings. It

the age of 53. His bride, Helene Four- serves as a prefiguration of the Holy
ment, was 16. She was his model for Trinity (see typology).
several paintings, including the well-
known, full-length image of a nude in a Rude, Francois
fur coat, Het Pelsken The (
Little Fur, or 1784-185 5 • French sculptor
Venus, c. 1635-39). Romantic

"Who is persecuting me?" growled the

Rublev, Andrei painter [Ingres], who hated
c. 1370-1430 • Russian pamter interruption. "It is a river-god who is

Late Byzantine waiting," answered [Madame Ingres],

who had taken Rude for a model.
In the spring of that year [140s] the
(Philip Gilbert Hamerton, 1878)
stone church of the holy Annunciation
in the Grand Prince's palace— not the The dialogue quoted above is reported
one that is standing now— began to be by Hamerton in his brief biography of
painted. The masters were the Greek Rude to describe the sculptor's appear-
596 RUDOLPH, PAUL

ance in advanced age. Rude had a "vast Rudolph, Paul

white beard," as alluded to in the 1918-1997 • American • architect •
"river-god" description. His friendly Modern
visit to INGRES aside. Rude was more ,^,, . , . , ^^,,
,. , •
, 1 . 1
I r
Why cant we ,
enioy design? Why not
ahgned with the impassioned style or .
^ W7i
, . ,
, 1 , . picturesquenessf why do we have
; #
to
Ingres s rival, Delacroix, than with his ,
. .

, , T-L- • be so grim?
cool neoclassical
, 1
host s style. This is

evident in the fervently nationalistic Rudolph was one of the two (with
high relief he sculpted for the Arc de kahn) most influential architects of the

Triomphe in Paris. The work, popularly 1960s. His authority derived from his
known as "La Marseillaise," though of- own works and through his position as

ficially named The Departure of the head of Yale University's School of Ar-
Volunteers in 1792 (1833-36), seems chitecture from
1957 to 1965. His de-
related to the HELLENISTIC frieze at sign for the Art and Architecture
Pergamon (see pergamene school), building at the New Haven campus
Rude dramatized the idea of French vol- (1960-63) is one of his best known,
unteers heroically marching off to de- This austere, textured-concrete struc-
fend the borders of the Republic against ture was set on fire in the 1960s by stu-
foreign enemies in the 1792 revolution; dents who saw its design as symbolic of
his own father had been among the vol- the administration's suppression of cre-
unteers whom the sculpture commemo- ative life on campus. If his work, and
rated. Francois Rude had supported that of his teachers (he studied under
Napoleon's return from Elba and left gropius Harvard University), lost
at

France to live in Brussels for 1 2 years of favor, it was in part because he was too
theBourbon Restoration. The Arc de rigorously grouped with the bauhaus
Triomphe project was Louis Phillipe's style that he, in fact, abandoned. That is
effort at national reconciliation. While the import of the words above, spoken
some of the troops Rude carved are in in an address to the American Institute

the heroic nude tradition, he dressed of Architects in 1950, as reported by a

others in classical armor. The patri- Harvard classmate of Rudolph's. The
otic surmounted by a winged
group is Yale building was less brutal than
female, the "Genius of Liberty," who, sculptural on the exterior, and more in-
though fully robed and armed, never- ventive than severe: Within its 10 sto-
theless brings to mind the spirit of ries he nested 37 levels of interlocking
Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People space, changing and ceiling levels

(1830). Later,
statue. Napoleon Awakening to Immor-
^d'//Yy (1845-47), which depicts the hero
roused from his slumber on a rock,
below him the corpse of an imperial
Rude made a bronze heights, and playing wide and narrow
and large and small areas against
one another. Fossils and shells were
embedded in the walls, and plaster
casts of classical sculpture were dis-

eaglewhose wings resemble those of his erectly placed. Joseph Giovannini, a

"Genius of Liberty." It is one of the student of Rudolph's at Yale, speaks
most tremendous sculptures of the 19th of "the symphonic complexity of
century. his composition, conceived at a time
 RUNGE, PHILIPP OTTO 597

when simplicity was the cardinal transience and vulnerability of civiliza-

virtue." tion and religion. But the mood is not

entirely morose, for in the distance a

Ruisdael (also Ruysdael), Jacob rainbow arcs onto the scene. This paint-
van ing foretells the awe of the sublime that
162.8/29-1682 • Dutch • painter • would be formulated in the next cen-
Baroque tury. There is another, equally awesome
side of Ruisdael's landscape. In View of
While the weather in van Goyen's
Haarlem (c. 1675), ^he flat horizon is
pictures makes you feel: it's going to
barely interrupted by the distant skyline
rain, you feel with Ruisdael's rather:
of the city, the bright blue, cloud-filled
it's been raining, a fresh breeze has
sky owns the canvas, filling two-thirds
driven the rain away. (Max J.
of it, and beneath the moody sky,
Friedlander, 1949)
people too tiny to distinguish spread on
In the mid-iyth century, building on the ground long strips of fabric to be
earlier landscape painting that was bleached in the sun. The juxtaposition
strongly influenced by Italian style (see of human fragility and the power of na-
elsheimer), a new and different vigor ture is again intense, and once more
became apparent in Northern European Ruisdael holds out promise, now in

painting, especially in the work of Ruis- patches of sunlight that shine on the rib-
dael. He was interested in a variety of bons of white, the symbol of human
geographic features, from sand dunes labor. To the description quoted above
near his home in Haarlem to the dra- friedlander adds, "... in him Dutch
matically wooded countryside near landscape-painting reaches its peak. In
Germany. He painted thickly, in im- this I am at least obeying the idea of him
PASTO, and boldly, turning trees into that has become current —indeed,
players in a windy drama. Ruisdael's something of a convention."
work represents the classical phase of
Dutch landscape painting, in which the Runge, Philipp Otto
atmospheric effects earlier achieved 1777-1810 • German •

with TONAL PAINTING are combined painter/theorist • Romantic

with a more structured composition. In
. . . each leaf and each blade of grass
Bentheim Castle (1653), a hill rises
teems with life and stirs beneath me,
from the right of the canvas to peak in
resounds together in a single
the left quadrant —an asymmetrical but all

chord. . . . I hear and feel the living

diagonal, baroque movement. The
breath of God who holds and carries
Jewish Cemetery (two versions, both c.
the world, in whom all lives and
mid- 1 660s) is an imaginary scene filled
works; here is the highest that we
with the power of untamed nature:
divine— God!
stormy sky, ruins of a church in the
background, one broken and another Northern Germany and Scandinavia
strangely gesticulating tree in the fore- were the first places where the use of
ground, and three tombstones, one landscape to express spirituality was
bathed in eerie light. The theme is the found. Runge and his contemporary.
 —

598 RUSH, WILLIAM

FRIEDRICH, received their early training A woodcarver in the craft tradition.

at the Academy in Copenhagen, where Rush worked in Philadelphia and re-

Jens Juel (174 5-1 802), a successful por- ceived commissions for a number of
traitist as well as a landscapist, taught. ship's figureheads forwhich Watson,
Runge wanted to develop a new art of quoted above, acknowledged him in the
symbolic forms and color —he wrote a Annals of Philadelphia. Aspiring to a
on color theories from which
treatise more "elevated" career. Rush became
GOETHE borrowed and often used — one of the founders, with peale, of the
childlike genies as well as flowers to ex- Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
press the manifestation of the Divine in 1805. Water Nymph and Bittern (c.

and the sense of ecstasy when "every- 1809), a sculpture carved in wood and
thing harmonizes in one great chord." painted white to imitate marble, was for
His unfulfilled ambition was to create a a fountain outside a small neoclassi-
series, The Four Times of Day, for a cal pump house, the Fairmount Water-
chapel dedicated to the new mystical re- works, that brought in water from the
ligion of nature that he followed, and Schuylkill River. The pump house was
that is suggested in the quotation above. designed by latrobe. Rush's sculpture,
He died at 33 with only a small part of and the crowd in the surrounding park
his visionary project completed. In gathered to celebrate Independence Day J

Morning (1808), genie-like infants in the Early Republic, was firstimmor-

emerge from the blossom of a great talized by John Lewis Krimmel
white lily — a symbol of divine knowl- (.'*-! 8zz) in the painting Fourth of July
edge and purity. The goddess Aurora in Center Square, Philadelphia (1810-
walks on air above the earth where a iz). (The picture also contains a moral-
baby, alluding to the Christ child, lies izing statement in that the scene is half
on a bed of flowers. This combination in full sun and half in shadow, and
of pagan and Christian mythology has a those revelers in the shadow are clearly
transcendent radiance of light and imbibing of spirits while the figures in
color. Runge's highly personal symbol- sunlight — including Rush's sculpture
ism was difficult for others to appreci- the more finely dressed, are sober and
ate, and he spent the final seven years of well mannered. Interestingly, while a
his life in Hamburg, supported by his naughty little black child is in the shade,

brother. a black couple, standing near the foun-

tain, is A contemporary commen-
not.)

tator wrote, "We are much gratified

Rush, William
that Mr. Rush begins to employ his
1 75 6-1 83 3 • American • sculptor •
chisel on subjects more durable, and
Neoclassicist
more likely to perpetuate his fame, than
Few Citizens of Philadelphia are those he has in general hitherto exe-
more deserving of commendation cuted." Ironically, the wood rotted in
for their excellence in their and Rush was all
the fountain's spray
profession than this gentleman, but forgotten until eakins painted
as a shipcarver. (John Watson, William Rush Carving His Allegorical
1845) Figure of the Schuylkill River in 1877.
 RUSSELL, MORGAN 599

For his research, Eakins had both Krim- his ROMANTIC vision, the artist was
mel's painting and a bronze cast that meant to be a seeing, feeling creature,
had been made at mid-century. "an instrument of such tenderness and
sensitiveness that nothing shall be left
Ruskin, John unrecorded." Ruskin did much to free

1819-1900 • Enghsh • art from the grip of neoclassicism.

writer/painter • Romantic Following the publication of his earlier

book, The Stones of Venice (1851-53),

Great nations write their
where he fervently advocated the use of
autobiographies in three manuscripts:
GOTHIC architecture as the true Christ-
the book of their deeds, the book of
ian styleand described the classical
their words, and the book of their art.
Roman examples as pagan and de-
Not one of these can be understood
based, the fashion for forming collec-
unless we read the two others; but of
tions of ancient Roman sculpture faded.
the three, the only quite trustworthy
Ruskin's indictment of industrializa-
one is the last.
tion, mass production, and the resultant
Though Ruskin was an accompHshed social and economic problems was also

artist, his importance was as art critic influential. He was an enthusiastic

and social reformer, and the sweep of champion of the pre-raphaelites,
his tone embodied in the quotation
is many of whom were inspired by him.
above. He grew up in a privileged at- William morris was among his follow-

mosphere where he could give himself ers. Ruskin's personal life collapsed in a
over to contemplating what was beauti- kind of tragicomedy. His marriage was
ful and unique in art. Even before he en- annulled on the ground that it was not
tered Christ College, Oxford, Ruskin consummated (his "wife" then married
had published essays on natural science millais), sordid involvement with
and and had written in defense of
art young women led to one of them com-
the artist he held above all others, mitting suicide, and he lost, on princi-

TURNER. After leaving the university, he ple, a famous libel case brought against
continued his writings about Turner, him by whistler, whose work Ruskin
and in the preface to the third edition of had described as "flinging a pot of paint
Modern Painters, Volume I (1873), in the public's face."

Ruskin wrote, "The work now laid be-

fore the public originated in indignation

Russell, Morgan
at the shallow and false criticism of the
1886-1953 • American • painter •
periodicals of the day on the works of
Modern/Synchromist
the great living artist [Turner] to whom
it principally refers." gombrich wrote The word was born . . . by my
about Modern Painters, "This vast trea- searching a title for my canvas . . . at
tise is perhaps the last and most persua- the Salon— a title that would apply to
sive book in the tradition that starts painting and not to the subject. My
with Pliny and Vasari in which the his- first idea was .Synphonie but
. . I . . .

tory of art is interpreted as progress found that Syn was "with" and
toward visual truth." To Ruskin, with "phone" sound— the word
600 RUYSCH, RACHEL

"chrome" . . . immediately flashed in her Willem van Aelst (c.

teacher,
my mind . . . and there you are. 1625-C. 1683 ?), was to construct asym-
metrical bouquets in a sort of S-curve.
Among Russell's teachers was the ash- These were set against a dark back-
can painter henri, but he also studied ground and rendered clearly and pre-
in Paris and was acquainted with mem- cisely, in Her family
rich colors.
bers of the avant-garde in literature as encouraged her interests, and her fa-
well as art.About 191 1, Russell collab- ther, a well-known professor of botany
orated with macdonald-wright, and and anatomy, was also an amateur
it was Russell who exhibited the first painter. (Her mother was an architect.)
synchromist painting. His best- The flowers by Ruysch and other Dutch
known work, Synchromy in Orange: To flower painters are, for the most part,
Form (19 1 3-14), evolved from a draw- cultivated specimens, often from a hot-
ing of Michelangelo's sculpture house rather than the garden. They thus
Dying Slave (15 13-16). This origin re- signify privilege and wealth as well as
mains visible in Russell's shaping of the scientific interest: During the 17th cen-

forms containing segments of orange, tury, just about every ship captain who
red, blue, and green patches. They are left Holland had instructions to bring
structured in curves that echo the ex- back botanical specimens. The first

travagant contrapposto of Michelan- botanical gardens had been founded in

gelo's slave. Holland at the end of the i6th century,
and the process of observation, classifi-

Ruysch, Rachel cation, and botanical drawing flour-

1664-1750 • Dutch pamter ished. Rare specimens of flowers were
Baroque coveted — tulips, introduced from what
is now Turkey, became a stock market
As the creator of pictures of perfect
commodity. This brought about an eco-
beauty she was heaped with
nomic disaster known as tulipomania.
commissions and honours, but her
Perhaps Ruysch was attentive to the
poise never altered. She never
symbolic meaning of the particular
succumbed to flattery and demand, but
flowers in her bouquets, and perhaps,
continued to work as fastidiously as
as did painters of vanitas still lifes,
ever. (Germaine Greer, 1979)
she made reference to the transience of
Flower paintings by Ruysch, a native of life, but she seems to have been most in-

Amsterdam, were held in high esteem terested in the meticulous representa-

and earned her a fortune as well as tion of her subjects with the most
fame. During the 60-odd years of her skilled, perfect artistry that could be
working life, flower still lifes gained achieved. A close look at Roses, Con-
and then declined in popularity. She volvulus, Poppiesand Other Flowers in
and her husband, Juriaen Pool (1665- an Urn on a Stone Ledge (c. 1745) re-
1745), a portraitist, were court painters veals moths, butterflies, beetles, and
to the Elector Palatine in Diisseldorf other bugs so that the picture is really
from 1708 until the prince's death in not still at all, but, rather, teeming with
1716. Ruysch's style, in line with that of life.
 RYDER, ALBERT PINKHAM 6oi

Ryder, Albert Pinkham simplify shapes so that they become

1 847-19 1 7 • American • painter • geometric forms, and in this he became
Visionary a tremendous influence on modern
artists, who regarded him with rever-
I saw nature springing into life upon
ence. His was a struggle to describe the
my dead canvas. It was better than
source and depth of his very core of
nature, for it was vibrating with the
being. "Have you ever seen an inch
of new creation. Exultantly I
thrill
worm crawl up a leaf or twig, and then
painted until the sun sank below the
clinging to the very end, revolve in the
horizon, then I raced around the fields
air, feeling for something to reach
like a colt let loose, and literally
something? That's like me. I am trying
bellowed for joy.
to find something out there beyond the
Ryder had a strange, haunting, individ- place on which I have a footing," he
ual style. He is often grouped with said. His paintings, most of which are
another American of the period, blake- night landscapes or seascapes — he was
LOCK, because both painted unsettling born in coastal New Bedford, Massa-
landscapes in eerie light and built them chusetts — are mysterious, evocative,
up in thick impasto. Ryder developed and scary (e.g.. Moonlight Marine,
an increasingly original technique, ap- 1880s, and Toilers of the Sea, c. 1882),
plying layer upon layer, constantly re- as if haunted by all the sailors who left

working a picture and using not only New Bedford and never returned. The
paint but other substances such as more famous and well off Ryder be-
grease, candle wax, and bitumen as came, the more eccentric, bedraggled,
well. The end was unstable paint-
result and reclusive he was, living in poverty
ings that simply decompose them- and walking the back streets of New
selves — fall apart — a conservator's York City at night.
nightmare. Ryder's approach was to
Saar, Betye of fetishism and voodoo images, mys-
born 19Z6 • American • mixed teries, and rituals, as in the quotation
media • Pluralist above.

. . . everywhere there are secrets and

everywhere revelations.
Saarinen, Eero
Saar, a Californian who raised three 1910-1961 • Finnish/American •

children before she returned to school architect • Modern

for her teaching credentials, was greatly
7 think of architecture as the total of
influenced by an exhibit in Pasadena, in
mans man-made physical
the late 1960s, of Cornell's boxes.
surroundings. The only thing I leave
She, too, used mostly found objects and
out is nature. You might say it is
small shadow-box-like constructions to
man-made nature. It is the total of
present ideas about African-American
everything we have around us,
life. Humor and pain are combined in
starting from the largest city plan,
The Liberation of Aunt jemima (1972).
including the streets we drive on
Roughly 8 by 12 inches, the advertising
and its telephone poles and signs,
"Mammy" stereotype of Aunt Jemima
down to the building and house we
is wickedly and wonderfully subverted.
work and live in and does not end
The old figure of smiling Jemima with a
until we consider the chair we sit
bandanna on her head turns leering and
in and the ash tray we dump our
dangerous, holding shotguns. The
pipe in.
1970s was a decade filled with art often
called PLURALIST because it was not Son and partner of Eliel (see below),
characterized by the emergence of a sin- Eero was for a time an advocate of the
gle new style. On the other hand, new INTERNATIONAL STYLE in architecture,

political and social consciousness drove but his interest in sculpture and an
much of it. FEMINIST thought and art almost romantic expressiveness mani-
had a commanding role, and encour- fested themselves in his later architec-
aged the examination of exploitation, tural designs. This is apparent in the

racism, discrimination, and sexism on Trans World Airlines (TWA) Terminal

many fronts. Saar's Feminist and an- (1956-62) Kennedy International
at
tiracist images included an exploration Airport in New York. The roof of the
 SACCHI, ANDREA 603

building curves like the wings of a bird, all facets of design, including industrial,

and both the interior and exterior ap- interior, and furniture. Saarinen's pop-
propriately imply the concept of flight. ularity rivaled that of Frank Lloyd
It has, however, been called both beau- WRIGHT. His son, Eero (see above),

tifully sculptural and a hodgepodge of joined his father's practice in 1937.

styles, perhaps because of the inclusion,
in the interior, of heavy, GAUDi-like Sacchi, Andrea
curving surfaces. 599-1661
c. 1 • Italian • painter •

Baroque
Saarinen, Eliel
. . . a master whose great worth is well
1 873-1950 • Finnish • architect •
known. (Bellori, c. 1625)
Modern
BELLORi's appreciation of Sacchi had
Indeed, at the time began to think of
I
much do with Sacchi having taught
to
architecture it was not considered an
MARATTA, Bellori's favorite painter.
art in the part of the world which I
Sacchi was renowned in Rome not only
knew.
for his painting but also for his "argu-
The time to which Saarinen refers in the ment" with CORTONA at the Academy
quotation above is the early 1890s. In of Saint Luke in Rome. The controversy
searching for new came
expression, he was a theoretical question about
to advocate a national romanticism whether large paintings with numerous
that manifested itself in a Finnish ver- iigures— grand i opere— were better, as
sion of the ARTS AND CRAFTS move- Cortona believed, than those with just a

ment. He persisted in his studies and few figures —Sacchi's preference. Sacchi
travels, and became the leading Finnish supported the doctrine of ut pictura
and an inspiration to aalto,
architect POESis —using the example from Greek
among others. His best-known design poetic tragedy in which the greatest ef-

in Finland is the railway station at fect was achieved by a minimum num-

Helsinki (1904-14). Saarinen entered a ber of actors. While it is not certain that
competition in 1922 to design a sky- the debate between Sacchi and Cortona
scraper known as the Chicago Tribune actually took place, its topic was one of
Tower for one of that city's news- significant concern. Both artists deco-
papers. While the elegant look of its rated the barberini palace where Sac-
facade was medieval, it was more chi was employed and housed, initially

MODERN in appearance than the forth- along with three slaves, a gardener, a
rightly Gothic detailing in the design dwarf, and an old nurse. But by the end
by Raymond Hood (1881-1934), who of his stay, Sacchi's improved status ele-
won the commission. Saarinen took vated him to a rank alongside writers,
second place. He moved permanently to poets, and secretaries. His ceiling
the United States in 1923 and became fresco Divine Wisdom, painted in
director of the Cranbrook Academy in 1629-31 (in which the Sun, blazing
Bloomfield, Michigan, which he also forth from Wisdom's breast, was one of
designed. The school still specializes in the Barberini family insignias), is in cool
604 SACRA CONVERSAZIONE (SACRED CONVERSATION)

and subtle blues, greens, and grays, a Saenredam, Pieter Jansz.

distinct contrast to Cortona's ceiling in 1597-1665 • Dutch • painter •

the same palace. Baroque

/ J / made this sketched drawinp from a

sacra conversazione (sacred ,. .
, , , ;, ,
, bte and neat drawms., which I had
conversation) .* ^ ,_ * ^ ,, ,

, ... •
I J, drawn from life as perfectly as possible
Named well arter it had become a con- ,. / '
.^
on a medium sheet of paper iy/2
vention in its own right, sacra conver-
kermer foot measurement high and
sazione refers to a type of image of the
about 10 inches of the same
seated Madonna and Child in which she
measurement wide in the year 1641 on
is flanked by saints who sometimes, al-
the i^th, 1 6th, lyth, i8th, 19th and
though not always, seem to be talking
zoth of July working on it assiduously
with one another. The origin of such a
from morning 'till night.
group is uncertain, but an early prece-
dent was the Madonna and Child En- Local schools of Dutch painting were
throned with Saints painted by Fra usually characterized by a dominant
ANGELico as an altarpiece for the and mention of 17th-century
style,

church of the San Marco Monastery in Haarlem brings to mind hals and his
Florence (c. 1440-45). One of the most followers. However, at least at first
spectacular examples, by Giovanni glance, nothing could be further from
BELLINI, was the center panel for his the lively portraits and scenes of every-
San Giobbe Altarpiece (c. 1480). This is day life Haarlem conjures up than
that
a towering monument, more than 15 paintings by Saenredam. Known pri-
feet high, painted on wood, with the marily for imposing, whitewashed
Madonna enthroned above figures who church interiors with scrupulous details
include Saint Francis and Saint Sebast- and tiny figures, his paintings evoke a
ian. The art historian John Shearman luminous serenity within an elaborately
traces several outstanding examples of constructed perspective. He has been
the sacra conversazione, often the cen- called the "first portraitist of architec-
ter of an altarpiece, and discusses who ture," and in following that analogy we
commissioned them and their original discover that, as in looking at human
placement in a church or chapel. He portraits, a careful, informed considera-
demonstrates how, through gesture and tion is extremely revealing. In the inte-
glance, spectators on the outside, look- rior of Saint Bavo at Haarlem, painted
ing at the work (originally, no doubt, in 1630 (a church he painted several
patrons who contracted for the paint- times; this version is at the Louvre),
ing), are addressed by figures inside the Saenredam included a tomb with a
picture and are thus, in effect, drawn sculpture of a kneeling bishop, and a
into the Virgin's retinue. He goes so far plaque behind it. Neither was ever actu-
as to say that in certain instances the dy- ally in the church, even when it was a
namic of a scene makes no sense until Catholic place of worship — Catholi-
we, the viewers, are factored in to com- cism was forbidden in Haarlem as of
plete it. 1 58 1. This and other anomalies — for
 SAINT-GAUDENS, AUGUSTUS 605

example, why he painted details, such strange structures sharply drawn. Both
as chandeliers, that had not yet been dreamlike and more unreal than any
installed — may be explained only by dream. In the Third Sleep (1944) is one
conjecture. As part of his process, such painting. Sage wrote poetry
Saenredam made exactly measured throughout her life, and five volumes of
drawings (as he described above) that her poems were published. The passage
were sometimes traced onto the canvas quoted above, written in 1959, was in
after being turned into more precise answer to a letter requesting her
perspective studies. As his panoramic thoughts on "the arts today."
views encompass more than what a sin-

gle person could see from one point, his Saint-Gaudens, Augustus
perspectival method is another subject 1 848-1907 • American • sculptor •

of study. It is known that Saenredam Realist

was hunchback and a
a cripple, and
/ have dwelt at considerable length on
that he was buried in Saint Bavo, the
the likeness of Saint-Gaudens' work to
church whose measure he took so often.
that of an epoch which he has deeply
studied and deeply loves, because it
Sage, Kay
seemed to me that in that way only I
1898-1963 • American • painter •
could show its great technical merit;
Surrealist
but it by no means follows that his

7 have no comments to make about the work is not original. On the contrary,
arts of today and know nothing of the he could not show the spirit of the
origins of "Suspension Bridge for the Renaissance if he were not strongly
Swallows" except that I painted it. I individual. (Kenyon Cox, 1908)
have no particular reason for painting
Saint-Gaudens grew up in New York
anything except that I see it in my
City, where he was apprenticed to a
mind and have a desire to transfer it to
cameo carver. Later he studied bronze
canvas.
casting at the ecole des beaux-arts in

For the most part self-taught, Sage drew Paris, and then spent several years in

and painted constantly. Her first solo Italy. His ability to work at both tiny,
exhibit was in Milan in 1936. She was delicate, very low relief portraits and
influenced by de chirico while she enormous freestanding memorials indi-

lived in Italy during the first half of her cates his artistic range. He insisted that

life. She then went to Paris and met tan- his monumental sculptures be more
guy, whom she married in 1940. They than simply the memorialized figure:
lived together in Woodbury, Connecti- He surrounded them with evidence of
cut. A year before Tanguy's death, a their moral or spiritual importance,
joint retrospective of their work was using a pedestal or background wall to
held at the Wadsworth Atheneum in carry a pertinent symbol or inscription.
Hartford, Connecticut. In the surreal- The 1884-96 Robert Gould Shaw
empty
ist vein, her landscapes are vast, Memorial in Boston, the inscription on
spaces with inexplicable shadows and which reads "... they gave proof that
6o6 SAINT PHALLE, NIKI DE

Americans of African descent possess There is a playful absurdity in much of

the pride, devotion and courage of the Saint Phalle's works. The Nanas, for ex-
patriot soldier," is one of his greatest ample, are large female figures, un-
accomplishments. This young, white shapely but full of movement. They
Civil War officer who led an African- were up on chicken-wire frames
built
American regiment against insur- covered with fabric and yarn. One
mountable odds and died at the head of Nana of c. 1965 is exceedingly buxom
his troops rides his steed with rigid dig- with a small head, and is covered with
nity, much as is portrayed the subject of hearts of different colors and designs.
DONATELLo's EQUESTRIAN Statue Gat- The largest heart shape is in the center

tamelata. This is not, however, a free- of her bosom and is filled with daisies,
standing monument, but more like a is Saint Phalle was married to tinguely,
gigantic shadow box. The variation with whom she collaborated on several
from the nearly freestanding Shaw to works, of which the giant Hon (1966),
the shallow-carved Angel of Death a massive reclining woman whose inte-
against the background wall is a tour de riorwas a playground, may be the best
force (see relief). Equally heroic, in its known. Saint Phalle's Tarot Garden in
very different way, is memor-
a bronze Tuscany, which she worked on during
ial to the wife of his good friend Henry the 1990s, is a collection of twenty-two
Adams [The Adams Memorial, enormous, colorful sculptures that are
1886-91), who had committed suicide, whimsical, strange, and sometimes as
The struggle for a means to portray ominous as a grinning death's head,
such grief took Saint-Gaudens five

years to resolve, but the result is unsen- Salle, David

timental: A massive, seated figure, en- born 1952 • American •

veloped in a shroud that does not quite painter/mixed media • Neo-

cover her face, the figure is a synthesis Expressionist/appropriation
of unbearable sorrow and eternal rest.
Everything in this world is
A contemporary appreciation of Saint-
simultaneously itself and a
Gaudens by cox is quoted from above.
representation of the idea of itself. This
was in a sense my big art epiphany. . . .

Saint Phalle, Niki de The pleasures and challenges of

Born 1930 • French/American • simultaneity continue to be one of the
sculptor • Feminist driving forces in my life.

/ wanted the outside world to be mine, Salle has borrowed from everything:
also. Very early I got the message that pornographic magazines, sex manuals,
MEN HAD POWER AND I comic books, gericault, courbet, and
WANTED IT./ YES, I WOULD JOHNS. In Tennyson (1983), a nude
STEAL THEIR FIRE FROM THEM. woman seen from behind stretches di-
Iwould not accept the boundaries that agonally across a canvas that is well
my mother tried to impose on my life over 9 feet long. She is painted in
because I was a woman. ACRYLIC, her sand-colored flesh set
 —

SALON 607

against a sandy beach. The word TEN- i8th century and Stendhal (Marie-
NYSON is printed across her body, and Henri Beyle, 1783-1842) during the
in a slash of turquoise blue on the left, a 19th. After the Revolution, Salons were
plaster ear is affixed to the canvas. All no longer controlled by the Academy,
these images, or signs, simultaneously although the jury that selected pictures
themselves and representations, as Salle for exhibition (following academic
says in the quotation above, are, or may standards) was usually conservative
be, references to other art works. For nevertheless. During the 19th century
example, Johns used the name Ten- the Salon left the Louvre for a building
nyson in one of his paintings, and he on the Champs-Elysees. In 1863, ac-
used an ear in his painting of a target, knowledging protests by artists whose
The ear also brings to mind the self- work had been turned down by the
mutilation of van GOGH. These associa- jury. Napoleon authorized the Salon

tions are just a few that may lead the des Refuses. The Salon des Refuses was
observer to experience the "pleasures mobbed by a public that came largely to
and challenges" of which Salle speaks, deride the art, especially Manet's De-
although the reaction may be quite the jeuner sur I'herbe (1863), but it is seen
opposite: As many people scoff at as ad- as a turning point toward the beginning
mire his work, and he is among the of modern art. Despite dissenters,
more controversial artists in America. many artists still submitted to the offi-

and by the early 1880s there

cial Salon,

Salon were some 7,000 submissions, of which

Salon is the French word for a "living almost 4,000 were exhibited. In 1881
room" or "parlor", and by extension the Societe des Artistes Fran^ais took
fashionable intellectual gatherings, over the running of the Salon from the
That the term has also come to signify government. Three years later a group
art exhibitions in Paris evolves from the (led by seurat and signac) broke away
history of the Louvre and its role as a and founded the Salon des Indepen-
place for showing art. In 1699, mem- dants, which enabled artists rejected by
bers of the Royal Academy (Academic show their works.
the official Salon to
Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture), Henri rousseau, whose paintings never
housed at the Louvre, obtained permis- would have been seen by the public
sion from Louis XIV, who had estab- were it not for the Salon des Indepen-
lished his residence at Versailles, to dants, commemorated it on canvas in

use the Grande Galerie at the Louvre 1906: Liberty Inviting Artists to Take
for a public exhibition of its members' Part in the Twenty-second Exhibition of
work. The exhibit was a great success the Societe des Artistes Independants.
and beginning in 1725 exhibitions were Other groups continued to break away;
held at the end of the Grand Galerie, in in 1890 puvis de chavannes held the
the —
Grand Salon the Salon Carre Salon du Champs de Mars (named for
from which the term "Salon" as art its location); matisse and bonnard,

show derives. Salons were reviewed by the salon d'automne in 1903. The
well-known writers like diderot in the history of the French Salon, as of exhi-
6o8 SALON d'automne

bitions everywhere and throughout movement called

19th century an occult
history (see armory show and degen- Rosicrucianism was promoted by an
erate art), reflects the continual strug- extravagant extrovert, Josephan
gle for acknowledgment, authority, and Peladan, who invented for himself the
power between the continuously evolv- mysterious honorarium Sar. Named
ing establishment and the persistently after a perhaps mythical 15th-century
challenging avant-garde. (See also exhi- visionary Christian Rosenkreutz, Rosi-
bition) crucianism had attracted an odd mix of
moral and religious reformers and fol-

Salon d'Automne lowers over the centuries, including

The Salon des Independants (see above) Rene Descartes. Rosenkreutz was re-

played a vital role in French art from its ported to have discovered the secret
foundation 1884 until the mid-
in wisdom of the East on a pilgrimage, and
1890S. Then its importance waned, it was claimed that Peladan, on his trip

until MATISSE in 1901 and dufy in to the Holy Land, rediscovered the au-
1902 were among the showing artists thentic tomb of Jesus in the Mosque of
there. In 1903 the Salon d'Automne Omar. In 1892 Peladan started a
was founded by the architect Frantz SALON, named Rose Croix based on
-i-

Jourdain, the critic Ivanhoe Ram- the mystical brotherhood. The purpose
bosson, and several painters, including of the Salon de la Rose Croix was to
-i-

ROUAULT and vuillard. The concept promote symbolist art. Among Pela-
was to avoid the rigidity of the official, dan's goals were to "ruin Realism," re-
juried Salons and of the jury-free In- form taste, and create a school of
dependants, which were often over- idealist art. history painting was un-
crowded with insubstantial efforts. The acceptable, as were portraits; patriotic,
new venture was sponsored by avant- military, and rustic scenes; landscapes

garde artists who would rotate respon- or seascapes; and humor, flowers, and
sibility for jury duty. Moreover, they so forth. The "Catholic ideal and Mys-
would hold exhibitions in the fall — in ticism" had highest priority, followed
part because the Independants show by Legend, Myth, Allegory, and the
was in the summer and in part to show Dream. These Salons ran for five years,
painting made outdoors during the pre- and while the major French Symbolists
ceding summer. Many of those who had (e.g., moreau and redon) did not ex-

shown with the Independants sup- hibit there, the young rouault, artists

ported the Autumn Salon, among them connected with gauguin, members of
MATISSE, BONNARD, REDON, RENOIR, the Belgian group Les XX (see Les
and CEZANNE. It was
1905 exhi-
at their vingt), the Swiss artist hodler, and
bition, when Henri rousseau, vlam- the Dutchman Jan Toorop (1858-
INCK, and DERAiN joined them, that the 1928) did.
FAUVE movement was named.
Salon des Independants
See SALON
Salon de la Rose -1- Croix
In the competition for a spiritual as well Salon des Refuses
as an artistic following, at the end of the See SALON
 —

SANDRART, JOACHIM VON 609

Samaras, Lucas San Vitale (as well as the Church of

born 1936 • Greek/American • Sant' ApoUinare in Classe, Ravenna's
sculptor/photographer • port). On an interior wall of San Vitale
Modern/Assemblage a large mosaic (12 feet long) shows the
emperor Justinian in the center of his
/ wait until dark before I take out the
retinue, churchmen and soldiers. On
camera. Fewer interruptions.
the opposite wall is his wife, Theodora,
Nostalgia, cuddliness and other warm
and her retinue. With oval faces and
feelings of the night envelop my psyche
large, staring eyes, all the figures are
and chase away logic, anxiety and the
forward-facing (frontal), elongated,
needs of other people. I have the radio
and beautifully robed; Justinian and
or TV on as an emotionally steady
Theodora are crowned and bejeweled.
artificial waterfall. It camouflages
These decorations exemplify the shim-
extraneous sounds from other
mering beauty of mosaic composition,
apartments.
and they also have provoked lively dis-

Born in Greece, Samaras became an cussion among art historians. Whether

American citizen in 1955. The latent they represent political affirmations of
horror of his early work is manifest in Justinian's claims to "divine kingship"
Photo-Transformation (1973-74), in as the earthly counterpart of Christ or
which his own face is distorted into a show a more self-effacing Justinian,
depraved menace, the epitome of evil. participating in the ancient pagan tradi-

He explored the concept of repeatedly tion of a processional offering to a god,

reflected images with Mirrored Room remains controversial. In either case, it

(1966). He also uses familiar objects seems that Justinian and Theodora did
containers, books, mirrors, and string not attend the dedication ceremonies
—with objects that provide a sense of for the Church of San Vitale, and may
danger: nails, knives, razor blades. not, in fact, have ever set foot in
Sometimes these items are painted in Ravenna.
harsh colors.
Sandrart, Joachim von
San Vitale 1606-1688 • German •

The plan of thebyzantine Church of writer/painter/printmaker • Baroque

San Vitale in Ravenna, commissioned
/ went to school in Frankfurt not far
in 526 and dedicated 547, is essen-
in
from Uffenbach's house, and often did
tially an elaborated octagon with a cen-
him small service; whereupon, if he
tral DOME area encircled by excedra, or
was in a good mood, he would show
semicircular niches, which are, in turn,
me these beautiful drawings of
encircled by an ambulatory or aisle. A
(Matthias Griinewald] . . . which had
MOSAIC in the sanctuary apse (niche)
been assembled into a book.
shows Christ seated on the globe. He is

flanked by Saint Vitalis, the 4th-century Known for his writing about art rather

Italian martyr for whom the church is than his own works. Sandrart's treatise

named, and Saint Ecclesius, the arian Teutsche Academie {German Academy;
bishop of Ravenna who commissioned 1675-79) was modeled on precedents
6lO SANGALLO, ANTONIO DA, THE YOUNGER

set by VASARi and van mander; how- The letter Michelangelo wrote to Giu-
ever, he had far less of a sense of history liano, quoted from above, concerned
than did Vasari. His text is interesting Michelangelo's arguments with Pope
mostly for its anecdotal information on Julius II about his work on Julius's
contemporary artists and because it tomb. Giuliano, also employed by the
presents a picture of the taste in Euro- Pope, was the favorite architect of
pean aristocratic circles of the 17th cen- Lorenzo (the Magnificent) medici, for
tury. He does not shy av^^ay from being whom he designed the Villa Medici at
both personal and judgmental. He re- Poggio a Caiano in the 1480s. Giuliano
ported, for example, that van laer was was devoted to the Early Renaissance

melancholic, and that parents paid style of brunelleschi, with its symme-
REMBRANDT ICG florins annually to try, simplicity and clarity. An outstand-
teach their children. He also wrote that ing example of his work is the small

Rembrandt earned up to 2,500 florins Church of Santa Maria delle Carceri

each year from selling his students' (148 5-1492). It is the first Italian re-
work; it has been said that Sandrart was naissance church with a true central
a man who liked to count other people's plan: a dome above the square center of
money, and that he probably exagger- a Greek cross of which the four arms
ated. Sandrart's appreciation of grune- are each one-half the width of the
wald is expressed in the quotation square. Giuliano's nephew, Antonio da
above, taken from his book, and he is Sangallo the younger (1483-1546), was
credited with having named Griinewald also an architect in Rome. He was
as the painter of the famous Isenheim Raphael's assistant as architect at Saint

Altarpiece. Peter's beginning in 15 16, and after

Raphael's death he became the church's

Sangallo, Antonio da, the chief architect. Upon his own death
Younger Michelangelo succeeded him as arch-
See SANGALLO below itect of Saint Peter's. Antonio's most re-
nowned work is the prodigious Farnese
Palace in Rome which he began in 15 19
Sangallo, Giuliano da
and which was also completed by
1445-1516 •
Michelangelo.
architect/engineer/sculptor Italian

• Renaissance
Sansovino, Jacopo (also Tatti)
/ from a letter sent by you that
learn
1486-1570 • Italian • architect •
the pope was angry at my departure,
High Renaissance/Mannerist
that he is willing to place the money at
my disposal and to carry out what was The conceptions which spring from the
agreed upon between us; also that I heights of your genius have added to
am to come back and fear nothing. . . . the splendors of the liberal city we
Now you write to me on behalf of the have chosen for our home. . . . Good
Pope, and in similar manner you will has sprung from the evil of the Sack of
read this letter to the Pope. Rome, in that in Venice, this place of
(Michelangelo, 1506) God, you carve your sculptures and
 SARGENT, JOHN SINGER 6ll

construct your buildings. (Pietro of the reformist's social conscience, he

Aretino, i6th century) is frequently marginalized as an artist
lacking depth. An American art histo-

Jacopo adopted the name of the sculp- rian, Barbara Novak, has written that
tor who trained him, Andrea Sanso- his reputation "will perhaps stabilize it-

vino. He moved to Venice after the sack self when he is excused for paintings
of Rome in 1527 and became the city's like The Wyndham Sisters." That is an
chief architect. There had been Httle 1899 portrait of three elegant ladies
building of note in Venice since Saint —
ensconced seeming even to float in —
Mark's Cathedral (begun in 1063), and billows of opulence: silk and satin, bro-
Jacopo established a new, equally if not cade, and flowers. It is a very large can-

more extravagant idiom. As one might vas,more than 9 V2 feet high and 7 wide,
expect, his masterpiece, the State Li- that portrays them in their drawing
brary (begun 1537), is lavishly orna- room, overseen by a full-length portrait
mented with sculpture: life-size statues of their mother, which is itself flanked
along the rooftop, decorative garlands by small, oval portrait heads: a family
above the heavily adorned windows. tree in full bloom. Providing an alter-

The arcade at street level was inspired nate point of view, the British critic fry
by the colosseum, and it is said that wrote, "Since Sir Thomas Lawrence's
Sansovino subtly harmonized his build- time, no one has been able thus to seize
ing with the Doge's Palace, which the exact cachet of fashionable life, or
stands across the Piazza San Marco. It to render it in paint with a smartness
might also be said that he combined as and piquancy which so exactly corre-
many rich decorations and conceits as spond to the social atmosphere itself.
he could reasonably assemble. It is little Such works must have an enduring in-

wonder that art historians have diffi- terest to posterity simply as perfect
culty deciding how to categorize his records of the style and manners of a
style. particular period." (Shortly after Sar-
gent's death, however. Fry wrote a
Santorini scathing and damaging review of the
See THERA artist.) A third perspective was ex-
pressed in 1994 by Trevor Fairbrother,
Sargent, John Singer a Sargent biographer, who endeavored
18 56-1925 • American • painter • to contemporize appreciation of the
Aesthetic artist by casting him in a homoerotic
context "prudishly avoided by most
A knock-down insolence of talent.
scholars." Sargent actually ran afoul of
(Henry James, 1870s)
a quite different sort of prudish man-
Born in Florence to wealthy, cultured ners in Paris when he painted a famous
American parents, Sargent spent his life society beauty in a deep-cut black dress
in Europe as an expatriate; he was 20 as Madame X (1S8 4). One narrow, jew-
years old before he even visited the eled strap had slipped off her shoulder
United States. Probably because he in the original version, but Sargent ad-
painted the international elite with little justed that by repainting it after the pic-
6l2 SASSETTA (STEFANO DI GIOVANNI)

ture's scandalous debut. After that, and berenson heaped extravagant praise,

a subsequent decline of commissions, an excerpt from which is quoted above.

Sargent moved from Paris to London. In the picture, the center panel of a
When he was selling Madame X to the large altarpiece. Saint Francis levitates
Metropolitan Museum of Art some 30 above an azure sea, arms extended, eyes
years later, Sargent wrote, "I suppose it heavenward. His halo is inscribed with
is the best thing I have done." Besides words that identify him as Patriarch of

portraits and wonderfully moody the Poor. Despite the pursuit of a style
scenes of Venice and Algiers, Sargent that Florentines considered passe, and
worked in watercolor, informal, ex- without being scientific about it, Sas-
perimental, and personal pictures that setta actually did produce believable
he called "snapshots" and "making the depth of field and credibly weighty
best of an emergency." These guarantee forms, although that was not his moti-

his standing as a watercolorist of the vation — he was inspired by religious

first order. It should be remarked that rapture. In the 20th century, Berenson's
Sargent named velAzquez as a great effusions were largely responsible for
inspiration. Sassetta's well-deserved popularity. It

must be added, however, that Berenson

Sassetta (Stefano di Giovanni) himself owned the panel to which he ac-
c. 1392-1450 • Italian • painter • corded such superiority, first in an arti-

Late Medieval/Early Renaissance cle and later in a book.

There is but one picture in European

Savage, Augusta
art which approaches this panel in its
1892-1962 • American • sculptor •
suggestions of an ecstatic harmony
Realist
with the Spirit of all things. It is

Raphael's Transfiguration. / refer of / have created nothing really beautiful,

course to the upper part only. (Bernard really lasting. But if I can inspire one
Berenson, 19 10) of these youngsters to develop the
know they possess, then my
talent I
Only 45 miles south of Florence, artists
monument will be in their work. No
in SIENA were quite aware of the new ra-
one could ask for more than that.
tionality of the ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
and its devotion to perspective and As one of the youngsters she inspired
MODELING. But they and their patrons was Jacob lawrence. Savage's wish,
maintained their preference for the old expressed in the quotation above, came
style of pointed ARCHes, gold back- true. Yet that self-effacing comment
grounds, and extravagant decorative contradicts another made to the same
surfaces, on altarpieces especially. person, who arrived at Savage's apart-
Sassetta (an unexplained nickname) ment excited after having heard Marian
was a Sienese artist with a mystical bent Anderson sing: "I'm just as important,
that was well expressed in his paintings just as much an artist as Marian Ander-

of Saint Francis for the Borgo San Se- son, and you don't act like that after
polcro altarpiece (1437-44) on which being with me." If she was torn between
 —

SCHAMBERG, MORTON 613

pursuing her own art and encouraging themselves by Savonarola's preaching,

that of others, she was also thwarted by they turned against the medici family,
prejudice against her as both an who were forced to flee the city in 1494.
African-American and a woman. She That same year the doom Savonarola
was, for example, denied the opportu- had prophesied seemed to come true
nity to apply for admission to a summer with the arrival of the armies of the
art school for American women be- French king Charles VIII and the end of
cause the idea of her traveling with a peace that had reigned for some 40
whites was anathema to the judges. She years. Savonarola himself was tortured,
pursued sculpting, receiving some sup- hanged, and burned for sedition and
port as well as discouragement. She was heresy by the Spanish pope Alexander
skilled at expressing character in her VI in 1498. Inspired by Savonarola's
bronze portraits. Much of her work has sermons, an apocalyptic fervor and ob-
been lost, but one fine sculpture is session with death gripped Florence.
Gamin (1929), a fond likeness of a While the mood he embodied and the
street-smart youth who wears his cap at words he spoke had on a
their effect
a rakish angle and looks at the viewer great many artists, botticelli and
with defiant curiosity: bravado com- MICHELANGELO are the most prominent
bined with innocence and a whiff of artists believed to have come under
anxiety. Savonarola's influence.

Savonarola, Girolamo Schamberg, Morton

1452-1498 • Italian • monk 1 881-19 1 8 • American •

sculptor/painter • Dada/Precisionist
The devil, through the instrumentality
of wicked prelates, has destroyed the God-creation of man in man's image I

temple of God. . . . In the primitive Machine- creation of man in man's

Church, the chalices were of wood, image I God-Machine. (Paul B.
and the prelates of gold. Now-a-days Haviland, 1915)
the Church has prelates of wood and
SHEELER and Schamberg were class-
chalices of gold.
mates at the Pennsylvania Academy of
A Dominican monk and religious re- the Fine Arts (studying under chase).
former, Savonarola preached against They traveled to Paris together in 1906,
the immoral excess he saw in Florence, shared an apartment and studio in

as well as the rampant corruption in the Philadelphia, traveled again in 1908 to

Church. His impassioned sermons London, Paris, and Italy, then lived in a
moved crowds of thousands to tears Bucks County, Pennsylvania, farm-
his followers were known as piagnoni, house. They worked together, collabo-
"weepers," and under his influence they rating in a photographic venture. Later
built great fires, known as Bonfires of they became members of the arens-
the Vanities, to destroy things like musi- BERG CIRCLE. Schamberg was the first
cal instruments, playing cards, fancy American to paint diagrammatic ma-
clothes, and works of art. Enflamed chine parts, but it is his sculpture God
 —

614 SCHAPIRO, MEYER

(c. 19 1 8) for which he is famous —and ing its larger social, intellectual, and his-

infamous. This is a piece of plumbing (a torical contexts, and also its association
metal trap) set upside down inside a with other disciplines, including an-
miter box. The historian Abraham A. thropology, psychology, linguistics,
Davidson believes that the "sculpture" and philosophy.
and its title may have been inspired by
Paul B. Haviland's writings about ma- Schapiro, Miriam
chines, especially the equation, or lines, born 1923 • American •

quoted above. The Arensbergs owned constructions • Decorative art

Schamberg's God. t 1 1 1
I wanted and express a part
to explore

of my life which I had always

Schapiro, Meyer
dismissed— my homemaking, my
1904-1996 • American • art
nesting. I wanted to validate the
historian
traditional activities of women, to
The humanity of art lies in the artist connect myself to the unknown
and not simply in what he represents. women artists who made quilts, who
It is the painter's constructive activity, had done the invisible "women's
his power of impressing a work with work " of civilizaiton.

....
feeling and the qualities of thought
that give humanity to art.
„„.

1
,

With CHICAGO, Schapiro established

t- • »
the feminist Art Program, dedicated to
^

t^
, .

1 1
•
, , ,

1
,

Schapiro came to this country from training women artists, at the new Cali-
Lithuania when he was three, and was fornia Institute of the Arts (CalArts).
introduced to art in evening classes She celebrated typically female crafts,
taught by sloan at Brooklyn's Hebrew and a number of her creations were
Settlement House. His dissertation was called femmage, a conflation of female
on "The Romanesque Sculpture of and collage. Anatomy of a Kimono
Moissac," and his degree was the first (1976) is a 52-foot-long work on can-
Ph.D. in the field of fine arts and ar- vas with fabric, a monument to female
chaeology awarded by Columbia Uni- striving and accomplishment, with rich
versity, where he began teaching in colors and patterns. It also expresses
1928 and spent his academic career. Schapiro's interest in cubist allusions
The historian David Rosand wrote of that use stripes as geometric divisions.
him: "In the anonymous art of the Mid- But this great sequence of patterns and
die Ages Schapiro discovered the artist, forms — which alone covered the walls
the human maker; he intuited the feel- of a gallery in which it was exhibited
ing individual responsible for the inven- achieved Schapiro's goals as she later
tion of such expressive form." Schapiro described them: "As always since my
also wrote on the art of every age, as conversion to Feminism in 1970, I

well as Theory and Philosophy of Art: wanted to speak directly to women. I

Style, Artists, and Society (1994). He chose the kimono as a ceremonial robe
was ahead of his generation in his ap- for thenew woman. I wanted her to be
proach to art as a means of understand- dressed in the power of her own of-
 —

SCHINKEL, KARL FRIEDRICH 615

fice. . . remembered that men

. Later I Schinkel, Karl Friedrich
also wore kimonos and so the piece 1781-1841 • German •

eventually had an androgynous quality, architect/painter •

Nice. ..." Neoclassicist/Gothic revival

Our mind is not free if it is not the

Schiele, Egon
master of its imagination; the freedom
1890-1918 • Austrian •
of the mind is manifest in every victory
painter/draftsman • Expressionist
over self, every resistance to external
At last! At last! At last! At last enticements, every elimination of an
alleviation of pain. At last paper, obstacle to this goal. Every moment of
pencils, brush, colors for drawing and freedom is blessed.

writing.
Schinkel painted with romantic fervor
Encouraged by klimt, who was 28 and designed theatrical sets before be-

years his senior, Schiele reacted to the coming a successful architect — ulti-

older artist's style: What is elegant and mately, one of the most important
decorative in Klimt is harsh, discordant, architects of the 19th century. He was
and angry in Schiele; Klimt's apprecia- known as gentle, modest, kind, and
tive eroticism becomes almost malevo- consumed by the ethic that is described
lent in Schiele. In The Self Seer II, Death in the quotation above. New opportu-
and the Man (19 11), painted with thick, nities for building opened in Prussia in

brutal brushstrokes in murky colors, a 1 8 1 5 after the final defeat of Napoleon.

rigid, staring man, perhaps Schiele's In 1 8 10 Schinkel had abandoned his

self-portrait, is shadowed and seem- short career as an independent architect

ingly embraced by a figure of death. towork for the state, and in 1830 he be-
The painting is eerily prophetic came head of the Public Works Depart-
Schiele died in the influenza epidemic of ment. As Berlin, the capital of Prussia,
1 9 1 8 Before that, in April
. 1 9 1 2, he was expanded, Schinkel had much to do
arrested and held, for 24 days, for "im- with shaping the look of the city. In

morality" and "seduction of a minor." concert with the intellectual and literary
It was alleged that by careless or willful force German romanticism, he
of
display of erotic drawings in his studio looked back to German gothic archi-
while sketching child models, Schiele tecture for inspiration. This is evident in
had contributed to their corruption. At the Kreuzberg Monument (completed
first he had no materials, but after a few 1821, see WAR memorial). But he was
days of confinement he was given paper also an advocate of Greek revival — he is

and pencil, and that is when he wrote known as a "romantic classicist" —and
the words quoted above. His skill in the classical influence in his work is

drawing was superb, and he specialized spectacularly evident in the design of

in provocative paintings and drawings the Altes Museum (Old Museum),
ofwomen. His series of self-portraits which has a line of 18 slender Ionic

show a man tormented by anxiety and columns along the facade (see column
obsessed with sexuality. orders). Originally planned for the
6l6 SCHLEMMER, OSKAR

museum's interior but installed out- tion, associated with Dionysus and the
doors instead (for the pleasure of pedes- rational illumination attributed to

trians, at the urging of King Friedrich Apollo. It also has reference to the dy-

Wilhelm III) is a great granite basin in- namic of the Dionysian/Apollonian di-

spired by a porphyrybowl from the chotomy in Friedrich Nietzsche's The

Roman emperor Nero's house. Set on a Birth of Tragedy (1872). Schlemmer's
tall base so that its highly polished sur- work was exhibited in the Nazi degen-
face would reflect surrounding architec- erate art show of 1937.
ture and passersby, this attraction was
recorded in meticulous detail in a paint- Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl
ing, The Granite Bowl in the Lust- See Die brucke
garten, Berlin (1832), by Johann
Erdmann Hummel (1769-1852). Schnabel, Julian
born 195 1 • American • painter •

Schlemmer, Oskar Neo-Expressionist

1888-1943 • German • mi j- ^
^, All my images are subordinate ^to the
*i1

painter/sculptor/designer
^ ^ o • Abstract / • .• ^10 ^1
notion of painting. . . . those who
1

[Art is] Dionysian in origin, think painting is just about itself, I'm
Apollonian in manifestation, symbol saying the opposite.
of a unity of nature and spirit. „, ,.^ ^ j
' -^ '
The contradictory comments quoted
Schlemmer taught bauhaus from at the above give pause to anyone endeavor-
1920 to 1929. His work was eclectic, ing to understand Schnabel's philoso-
combining elements of de chirico's phy of art.The problem is exacerbated
strange perspectives with the machine by the advertising and promotional as-
aesthetic of leger. His figures were sault that accompanied his meteoric rise

— he has been com-

greatly simplified to fame in 1979. Reeking of oppor-
pared to giotto — and somewhat ro- tunism, it was a campaign that caused
botic. Figures Resting in Space {Room great dismay among thoughtful artists

of Rest), 1925, is a painting with all as well as critics, historians, and deal-
those qualities: The floor is a forward- ers. Cutting through all the rhetoric to

tilting plane and three figures are stiff, the work itself shows Schnabel break-
geometric, and ambiguous; the largest ing some new ground or at least —
figure stands in the foreground, a dark crockery. The Patient and the Doctors
silhouette with its back to us and its legs (1978) composed of broken dishes on
is

blocked by the shape of a head. On the painted wooden planes. "I wanted to
far wall is what appears to be a large make something that was exploding as
opening in a thick concrete wall, but much as I wanted to make something
there is nothing to see beyond it. that was cohesive," he explained. His
Schlemmer designed for the theater, inspiration, he said, was GAUof's use of

painted public murals, and sculpted, broken ceramic tile. (The title remains
His comment, quoted above, alludes to unexplained.) Boisterously experimen-
the ecstatic inspiration, if not inebria- tal, Schnabel used an emblem of Ameri-
 SCHOOL 617

can kitsch, painting on black velvet, and Schongauer learned the skill of metal
made his ow^n "velvet paintings." Ge- ENGRAVING from a family of gold-
ography Lesson (1980) is one of four smiths. He began to make prints shortly

paintings from a series entitled Huge after Gutenberg's invention of movable

Wall Symbolizing the Fate's Inaccessi- type led to the printing press. Schon-
bility. Recognizable elements include a gauer's designs were often reproduced
blood red deer, a classical column, a for other artists to use as prototypes. He
globe that could be the moon or the became an extraordinarily sophisti-
world, and a barren tree that becomes cated printmaker, manipulating lines,
confused with the deer's antlers. Indis- creating contrasts of open areas with
tinct faces, as if of people in a crowd, dense or highly patterned ones, and
surround the boldly painted figures. achieving tones, texture, and depth that
brought him international fame. A
Scholasticism prime example of his skill is The Temp-
Strictly speaking, scholasticism means tation of Saint Anthony (c. 1475), in
"that which is taught in schools." The which the saint is beleaguered by con-
dominant theological and philosophical geries of hairy, spiky devils that seem a
worldview of the late medieval period, cross between the demons of gisleber-
with its origins in France, Scholasticism Tus and those of bosch. The approach-
endeavored to reconcile classical phi- ing turn of the century brought angst,
losophy with Christianity, to defend and with it apocalyptic fears, which
Christian faith with reason. Scholastics makes this a timely image, durer ad-
believed the Greeks, particularly Aristo- mired Schongauer and was en route to
tle, to be the masters of natural knowl- visit him when Schongauer died. Lam-

edge and the Bible to be the source of all bert Lombard (c. 1505-66), himself an
revelation. Saint Thomas Aquinas accomplished painter admired by
(i2Z5?-iz74) was the leading Scholas- vasari, corresponded with Vasari to
tic theologian. The expression of provide information about Netherlan-
Scholasticism in art is seen in the dish artists. His estimation of Schon-
GOTHIC cathedral, a declaration of Me- gauer is quoted above.
dieval intellectual genius in the service
of faith. school
This term, when combined with the
name of a major artist or region, pre-
Schongauer, Martin
sumes a unifying influence. "School of"
c.1435/50-1491 • German •
may also be used to describe a work of
printmaker • Northern Renaissance
uncertain "authorship" by comparing it

Truly, we must render him undying with similar but securely assignable
thanks for leading us to the gate of works. For example, paintings that are
perfection in art; he worked by the very much Rembrandt's may be
like

sweat of his brow for this goal. designated School of Rembrandt. An

(Lambert Lombard, in a letter to influential teacher or a workshop mas-
Vasari, 1565) ter is implied. The poetic, light-infused
6l8 SCHOOL OF LONDON

15th-century paintings by the bellinis Schwitters, Kurt

that seem representative of Venice may 1887-1948 • German • painter •

be consigned to the Venetian school. Dada/Merz

The HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL, however,
7 am a painter and I nail my pictures
has less to do with the region than with
together.
the subjects that were painted. The
PONT-AVEN SCHOOL could as well be Schwitters's comment, quoted above,
named the Gauguin-Bernard School, as was made by way of introducing
GAUGUIN and Bernard were the mag- himself to the dada painter Raoul
nets to the place. The one thing Hausmann. With grosz and others,
"school" usually does not mean, in this Hausmann was a member of the Berlin
art historical context, is a place with Dada group. Club Dada, which denied
desks and classes. Schwitters membership. He launched
his own Dadaist group in Hanover in
School of London 1923, which he called Merz — art histo-

See KiTAj rians offer a number of derivations for

theword including: i from kommerz
( )

School of Paris or "commerce," (z) literally "some-

In retreat from Russian Utilitarianism thing cast off," like junk, and (3 ) a non-

(see constructivism), German infla- sense word like Dada itself. Schwitters
tion, cynicism (see new objectivity), said, "The word 'Merz' had no meaning

American isolationism and provin- when I formed it. Now it has the mean-
cialism (see AMERICAN SCENE and ing which I gave it. The meaning of the
regionalism), and other perceived dis- concept 'Merz' changes with the change
advantages, a new wave of foreign in the insight of those who continue to
artists settled in Paris after World War work with it." Schwitters created what
I. While the School of Paris is some- he called Merzbilder, which are col-
times extended to include all mod- lages with discarded stuff — tickets,

ernist painters between the two World stamps, receipts, bits of torn papers,
Wars, most art historians use the term price tags — (e.g., Merz 19, 192.0), and
to refer to a particular group with He also
they have a surprising elegance.
expressionist tendencies known as scavenged non-paper junk and made
les maudits (the cursed, or wretched). RELIEF constructions, the pictures that,
Many were Jews, plagued by pov- as he said, he "nailed together." When
erty, alienation, and the pervasive the Nazis drove him from Germany in
anti-Semitism. Best known among 1935, Schwitters was constructing a
painters in the School of Paris are Merzbau, originally an abstract assem-
MODIGLIANI, PASCIN, SOUTINE, CHA- blage of rusty tin cans, newspapers, and
GALL, and UTRiLLO. After World War II pieces of broken furniture. He named it

another group of painters used the Cathedral of Erotic Misery, and it con-
School of Paris title. They were largely tained secret panels that hid other ob-
disciples of a French teacher, Roger Bis- jects or tiny scenes. Later he replaced
siere (1888-1964), and painted in a the junk with abstract forms made of
nonrepresentational style. wood. It filled one room of a house and
 SCOREL, JAN VAN 619

was growing into another on the second the mausoleum of halicarnassus,

floor when he left for Norway, where and as an architect he designed the tern-

he started his second Merzbau. Forced pie at Tegea from which the heads, de-
by the German invasion to move again, scribed above, were salvaged,
he built yet another in England. The
only one to survive, the third Merzbau Jan van
Scorel,
is preserved at the University of 1495-1562 • Netherlandish •

Newcastle. Schwitters's Merzbau is a painter • Northern Renaissance

forerunner of later trends, especially _ „ , , ,
/- o
Soon Scorel departed for Stayer in
installation art. ^ , , 1 ,
Larinthia, where his work was in great

c CI / 1 \
demand by most of the nobility. He
Scopas (also Skopas)
.

active mid-4th centurv

, ,

BCE •
^1
Greek • .
j ,

,
,
stayed with a baronet, a great lover of
,

,,
r

who rewarded him well and

pictures,
, , ,

sculptor/architect • Late
wanted him to marry his own
Classical/proto-Hellenistic
daughter. (Carel van Mander, c. 1604)
There is, by the hand of . . . [Scopas] a
In his commentary above, van mander
colossal seated figure of Ares in the
does not say whether it was Jan van
temple . . . besides a nude Aphrodite in
Scorel's artistic talent or his charm that
thesame place which surpasses the
attracted the baronet. However, van
famous Aphrodite of Praxiteles and
Scorel's extensive travels, besides his so-
would make any other spot famous.
journ with the baronet, are well docu-
(Phny the Elder, ist century ce)
mented. He left the Netherlands in
Scopas is known as the artist who 1518 and traveled first through North-
showed pathos, or strong emotion, ex- ern and then Southern Europe, and even
pressions of suffering and despair, to made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. As had
the extent that he established what may durer before him, he made fine, if
be called a Scopadic convention. This somewhat dramatized, drawings of the
anguish is seen especially in the deeply sights that interested him, especially in
set eyes and furrowed brow on marble the Alps. He was impressed by Italian
heads like those in Hercules and Tele- art, and in fact served for a time as the
phos 340 bce) from the west pedi-
(c. administrator in charge of antiquities
ment of the Temple of Athena Alea at under a Dutch pope in the Vatican. In a

Tegea. No specific sculptures can be un- sense he brought the Italian renais-
equivocally attributed to him, but Sco- sance home with him, assimilating
pas is credited with inspiring the style, poses and subject matter, and, for ex-
This interest in emotion, reportedly ex- ample, in Mary Magdalen
1530) (c.

plored a century earlier in the work of dressing the figure in a beautiful Venet-
POLYGNOTOS and interrupted by the ian costume. He had a large workshop
cool rationalism and idealism of the that was based on Italian practices. Van
High classical period, forecast the de- Scorel emulated Michelangelo's reds,
velopment of emotional excess seen in golds, and blues in the Entry of Christ
HELLENISTIC works, like the LAOCOON. into Jerusalem (1527) —the real
Scopas also worked on the sculpture for Jerusalem as he had seen it for himself.
620 SCRIPTORIUM

Yet withal those borrowings, there is ing Christian Hturgical manuscripts was
something relentlessly Northern — in- a major occupation of the scriptoria. In

tense —
and serious about his cast of the i6th century, the printing press
characters. He had joined the Haarlem gained a foothold and scriptoria be-
Confraternity of Pilgrims to Jerusalem, came all but obsolete. (See also illumi-
and painted a group portrait for their nated manuscript and hiberno
chapel in 1528-29. With its subjects saxon)
seated in double file and shown in

three-quarter view, from the waist up, scroll (also rotolus, roll)
this kind of group portrait is in a tradi- A manuscript, usually of papyrus or
tion that reaches back to geertgen tot parchment, like the Egyptian Book of
Sint Jans and forward to hals and rem- the Dead and the Hebrew Torah, which
BRANDT, who would more successfully must be unrolled to be read. The scroll
break out of the shooting-gallery effect preceded the codex. The word biblion
of heads lined up in a row. Despite the originally meant a book in the form of a
uniform placement and egalitarian papyrus roll, and is the root of the word
treatment van Scorel gives the men, he "bible."
has discovered and portrayed the indi-
viduality of each, resulting in a fascinat- Scully, Vincent
ing parade of faces. Moreover, he sits born 1920 • American •

among them, looking out at us above architectural historian

his inscription, which reads in part, "I
. . . the relationship of manmade
am Jan van Scorel, painter and canon of
structures to the natural world offers,
Saint Mary's . . . pray that I might pro-
in my view at least, the richest and
ceed in virtue."
most valuable physical and intellectual

experience that architecture can show,

scriptorium
and it is the one that has been most
From meaning "to
the Latin scribere
neglected by Western architectural
write," a scriptorium is the place where
critics and historians. many
There are
manuscripts are produced. The first
reasons for this. Foremost among
monastery as a religious center of schol-
them, perhaps, is the blindness of the
arship was founded in the early 500s.
contemporary urban world to
The curriculum of liberal arts included
everything that is not itself, to nature
selected classical writings, so to pro-
most of all.
vide such texts, certain monasteries es-
tablished scriptoria to copy the classics. Educated at Yale University, Scully also
It is unlikely that the early Benedictine teaches there and at the University of
scribes had high esteem for the texts Miami. He has written pioneering stud-
they duplicated, but thanks to their ies on American 19th-century domestic
efforts many valuable Latin writings architecture — identifying
in wood
from the ancient world have been pre- styles known as Shingle and —and Stick
served.(Many were also preserved by on modern architects Frank Lloyd
ISLAMIC scholars.) Of course, produc- wright and kahn. From 1955 to 1963,
 SEAL 621

he studied the relationship between ar- scumbling

chitecture and its environment in Probably derived from the word
Greece, and his best-known book, The "scum," in reference to the layer of film

Earth, the and the Gods

Temple, that rises to the surface of a liquid.
(196Z), introduced a new way of think- In painting, scumbling refers to un-
ing about the dynamic between the blended, "open" brushstrokes of
Greek temple and its landscape. He opaque paint that are applied on top of
found that the individual temple was a dried layer of a different color but that
built to represent the character of the allow the lower layer of paint to show
individual god to whom it was dedi- through. Scumbling gives a broken,
cated, not only in the subtle specifics of rough, or uneven effect to the brushed-
its structure, but also in the lay of the on color. It is a painterly manner, or
land around it. He sees conscious syn- style, with the artist's "hand" or touch
drama in the orchestration of a
ergy and on the canvas made visible, titian was
dynamic between the natural and the an early pioneer in the self-expressive
man-made. For example, Apollo, the technique of scumbling, which he used
rational, civilizing god who subjugated selectively.

the reigning earth goddess, is worshiped

at Delphi in a wild landscape that he Scuola Metafisica (Metaphysical
dominates, standing firm and secure, School)
triumphant against unruly (mother) na- See carrA and de chirico
ture.

seal
sculpture Both the object that makes the impres-
From a Latin root meaning "to carve," sion, usually a carved stone, ivory, or
the term "sculpture" broadens to in- metal matrix, and the impression itself,

elude three-dimensional objects shaped usually on clay or wax, are called seals.
or constructed by processes other than Affixing a seal as proof of ownership or
carving: forming with clay, molding in of a transaction, as well as a means of
casts, designing with neon, and using securing property before locks were in-
prefabricated materials. Until the 20th vented, dates back to ancient civiliza-
century, human and animal figures — in tions. To discourage theft, a seal — like a

action or in repose, alone or in combi- lump of clay securing a string on a box

nation with others —were the predomi- or a wax seal on a document might —
nant subjects of sculpture. With those have a "magic" or apotropaic design
figures sculptors explored mass, line, stamped into it. Seal impressions are
texture, light, movement, and especially made by both cylinders and stamps,
the interdependence of volume and The earliest-known seals are from the
space. While those interests persist, the Neolithic period in Mesopotamia. The
redefinition of sculpture during the idea of using seals spread from Syria to
20th century has included abstract art the Aegean. Next to pottery, seals are
as well as self-destructing objects (see the largest category of archaeological
tinguely) and earth and site works. finds from the Aegean Bronze Age.
622 SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO (SEBASTIANO LUCIANi)

Many of the well over 5,000 of these Sebastiano del Piombo

Aegean seals, mostly from Crete and (Sebastiano Luciani)
carved on ivory, have two or more 1485/86-1547 • Italian • painter •

sides. They often have animal designs, Renaissance

and many are masterpieces of miniature
/ have delayed [my work] so long
sculpture. Later matrices were flat, en-
because I do not want Raphael to see
graved stones or gems (perhaps set into
my picture until he has finished his.
rings), or sometimes engraved metals:
bronze, silver, or gold. They were used Sebastiano was working on The Raising
to make impressions on a substance of Lazarus (1519) when his patron.
called sealing wax, a mixture of turpen- Cardinal Giulio de' medici, commis-
tine, beeswax, and pigment, usually sioned RAPHAEL to paint Transfigura-
vermilion. Seals were used for impor- tion (1517-20). The cardinal was
tant papers, such as a Roman deed lighting the fire of competition, not so
recording the sale of a slave boy in 166 much between two artists as be-
those
CE, which is now in the British Mu- tween MICHELANGELO, Sebastiano's
seum. During the medieval period es- sponsor, and Raphael. The cardinal
pecially, authenticated document seals also knew that Raphael would be less
often bore portrait heads of sovereigns. likely to assign his commission to a

During the nth century, seals were member of his workshop if he thought
hung from cords and, like coins, had de- that Michelangelo's protege was
signs on both sides. As duke of Nor- breathing down his neck. That explains
mandy, William the Conqueror used an the excerpt from a letter written by Se-
equestrian seal that showed him bastiano to Michelangelo quoted
armed for battle. When he became king above. Sebastiano's Venetian training
of England, he added the image of en- taught him the importance of landscape
throned ruler on the obverse, setting a asmore than background, and when he
trend of combining images of war and moved to Rome he showed painters
peace that was followed by later mon- there the dramatic contribution of
archs. The British seal of a ruler was weather and light to mood (see Venice).

kept by his or her chancellor, and any This is evident in The Raising of Laz-
document bearing the Great Seal was arus. He later conducted important ex-
received with absolute faith. Personal periments using oil paint on specially
and institutional seals of clergy, prepared walls. Where Leonardo had
knights, squires, colleges, churches, cor- failed before him, Sebastiano suc-
porations, and every other conceivable ceeded. The work, executed in 1516-
organization all bore their identifying 24, includes an image of the Flagella-
emblem, often heraldic and sometimes tion of Christ, surmounted by his own
carrying mottoes. Seals are still official ecstatic version of the Transfiguration,

emblems, but their importance and the located in the Borgherini Chapel at San
inventiveness of their design declined Pietro in Montorio, Rome. Christ's
after the medieval era. body, tied to a column, twists and
 SEGAL, GEORGE 623

Strains against his tormentors in a pose Second Style

based on Michelangelo's Rebellious See mural
Slave (before 1513). Sebastiano's suc-
cess with oil allowed darker shading Segal, George
and more muted coloring on walls, born 1924 • American • sculptor •
When the Medici cardinal became Pope New Realist
Clement VII, Sebastiano was his painter ^ ,

f , . . . . a summation of eestures and

or choice.
movements, of pilmg and heavmg. It

becomes a collection of each

c • //-.
Secession (German Sezession)
c • \

,,„.,
individual s
,
ideas about death.
, , ^
Some
During the 19th and early zoth cen-
were relaxed, some were rigid, some
turies, in Germany and Austria espe-
were drooped. It's a collection of a
cially, groups of artists who withdrew,
seriesof movements that are all
or seceded, from the prevailing style
ruminations on death.
and system of exhibiting art took the
name Secession for their movement. Se- Segal makes molds from living models
cession groups were started in Munich in white plaster. He sets these (usually)

in 1892, in Vienna (by klimt) in 1897, unpainted people in lifelike surround-

in Berlin (by Max Liebermann) in 1899. ings, INSTALLATIONS. They have a
Secession organizations were also haunting presence that leaves the
formed to promote the aesthetic appre- viewer with a ghostly afterimage. Most
ciation of photography: The Linked of his white statues appear in ordinary
Ring in London in 1892, renamed the places like a soda fountain or subway
Royal Photographic Society two years car Subway, 1986), shocking the
(e.g.,

later, may have been the first, stieglitz viewer into thinking about the everyday
formed the Photo-Secession in New in new contexts. But Holocaust, created
York City in 1902. Other major cities for San Francisco's Holocaust Memor-
also had Secession groups and move- ial, is its own context: a composition of
ments to sponsor new work and to pro- corpses strewn on the ground. Segal's
vide meeting and exhibition space for comment quoted above describes the
avant-garde artists. work for which he used his friends as
models. One of the figures in the instal-
Second Empire lation is not among the dead but stands
Covers the period in France when Louis looking out, over the sea, in a painfully
Napoleon (Napoleon III) was in power beautiful setting. "That contrast may in
(president 1848-52, emperor 1852- itself speak volumes —about the beauty
70). Architecture and the decorative of the world and the dark underside of
ARTS were eclectic, ranging from human nature," Segal said. There are
GOTHIC Revival to the Louis XVI style, two versions of Holocaust: a model un-
The fashion for Japanese art began in veiled to the public at the Jewish Mu-
the 1860S. Styles in painting included seum in New York in 1983 and the
REALISM^ and IMPRESSIONISM. outdoor work, unveiled the following
624 SEGERS (or SEGHERS), HERCULES

year in California on November 8, the tune was entered in van hoog-

eve of Kristallnacht. straten's book on painting under the
chapter heading quoted above. It was
Segers (or Seghers), Hercules Segers's reputedly melancholy disposi-

1589/90-1633/38 • Dutch • tion, combined with alcoholism and

painter/printmaker • Baroque poverty, that, according to contempo-
rary reports, led to his early death.
"How the artist should behave in the
face of adverse fortune" (Samuel van
semiodcs/semiosis
Hoogstraten, 1678)
Having to do with the study of "signs"
Despite his brief career, Segers had an (from the Greek sema). A sign, whether
enduring impact. There is a visionary in language, visual, or other arts, stands

quality in both his real and his imagi- (or is "coded") for something besides it-

nary landscapes. Mountain Landscape self. To the extent that visual images are
(c. 1630-35), for example, which thought of as "texts," "reading" or in-

shows the rocky descent to a valley, terpreting the connection between the
portrays the melodrama of light and sign (e.g., a picture of a cat) and the
shadow in both the sky and on the meaning it conveys (house pet, perhaps,

ground. Imaginary views make up the or hunter, or any number of meanings

bulk of his oeuvre. Segers was admired depending on context) involves know-
and collected by rembrandt, whose The term "semiotics" itself
ing the code.
own early landscape paintings Segers gained new meaning during the 20th
inspired; some of Segers's works were century. The American philosopher
even attributed to Rembrandt. Van Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914)
RUiSDAEL also shows Segers's influence. modernized semiotics in using it to
Segers's paintings and even his prints name the linguistic field that he
are rare today. He experimented with founded. Calling it semiology, the study
colored etchings, using only one plate, of signs was given its current impor-
but printing on colored paper and re- tance, in literature especially, by the
touching the prints with paint. Swiss linguist Ferdinande de Saussure
Lawrence Gowing has focused on three (1857-1913). (For the most part semi-
aspects of Segers's work that cast it in a otics, semiosis, and semiology are now
MODERNIST light: the concept that the used interchangeably.) Saussurian semi-
process of making art is, itself, part of otics investigates linguistic "signifiers"
the intention of the work; the notion (what carries meaning) and what is

that a work of art is anchored in a larger "signified" (the meanings carried), find-

scheme by being part of a series; and the ing meaning by a procedure of substitu-
inclusion and integration into the work tions and eliminations: "Cat" denotes
of accidents that occur during the cre- something with four paws, whiskers,
ative process. According to legend, fur, etc., because it is not "bat" or
Segers was so little appreciated that he "dog" or any other alternative. It is im-
had to use the household linens for his portant that there is not any logical
paintings and prints. His run of misfor- or necessary link between the signifier
 —

SERRA, RICHARD 625

c-a-t and the concept it signifies. On the any period one might choose — is a
contrary, that connection is an arbi- strategy that may be linked to Barthes's
trary one, dependent on cultural con- diminution of authorial integrity.) Sub-
text. Understanding this, it follows that sequently, the semiotic system of Peirce
language does not represent reality; and Saussure was amended by post-
rather, it establishes reality. Saussurian structuralist theorists and critics led
theorists believe that underlying struc- by Jacques Derrida (born 1930) and
tures and the rules that govern them are joined by Barthes. Poststructuralism
more important than the ways in which took the significant step of disputing the
they manifest themselves. In other fixedness and stability of a semiotic
words, the system through which mean- structure. Structuralism, Poststructural-
ing is determined more important
is ism, and DECONSTRUCTiON all relate to
than a particular meaning (see struc- semiotics, and all are approaches to un-
turalism). derstanding the meaning of meaning
Peircian semiotics relates to the vi- that is, how knowledge develops and is

sual arts more directly than does Saus- transmitted.

surian. Peirce presumed an audience to
interpretmeaning and posited a three- sepia
part system graphed on a triangle. At From the Latin for a "squidlike fish,"
the top is the "sign" and at the base an- sepia is derived from the dark, inky
gles are "object" and "interpretant." fluid secreted by one of the species, the
Rather than a system of substitutions cuttlefish. This fluid is brownish and is

and eliminations, for Peirce the sign used for pen drawings and wash (di-

points to the object, while the interpre- luted) painting. Brown-tinted pho-
tant recognizes and translates the im- tographs are also called sepia.
plied message. Both Saussure and Peirce
are Structuralists who presented scien- seriography
tific systems driven by the belief that See SILK-SCREEN
observation and analysis lead to truths.
Because the semiotic structure or sys- Serra, Richard
tem controlling a work of art exists born 1939 • American • sculptor •

prior to a particular artist's execution of Process art

it, the work will express itself through
The significance of the work is in its
the artist rather than vice versa. Roland
effort not in its intentions. And the
Barthes (191 5-1980) elaborated on the
effort is a state of mind, an activity, an
semiotic construct to overturn the ro-
interaction with the world.
mantic idea of the artist ("author" of
the text) as creative genius. Barthes's As had Robert morris and hesse, Serra
essay The Death of the Author (1977) moved from the object-centered art of
describes this idea of the individual cir- MINIMALISM to Concentrate on the
cumscribed by the system. (Thus, ap- process of the work's creation, as sug-
—
propriation using something from gested in the quotation above. Most
another medium, another artist, and PROCESS ART shows evidence of how it
 —

626 SEURAT, GEORGES

was made, but Serra took his a step fur- and forth, looking to reconcile inside
ther: He threw molten lead against the with out, vainly."
wall in the warehouse of the dealer Leo
Castelli in a work called Splashing

(1969), a combination of perfor- Seurat, Georges

mance and ACTION painting in which 1 8 59-1 89 1 • French • painter •
the result —lead cohered to the wall Neo-Impressionist
was removed and destroyed. More con-
They see poetry in what I have done.
troversial was Serra's Tilted Arc (1981).
No, I apply my method, and that is all
Commissioned by the federal govern-
there is to it.
ment for Foley Square New York, it
was a i2-foot-high, 1 20-foot-long sheet Seurat insisted that his art was a "for-

of hot-rolled steel, zVi inches thick. mula for optical painting" based on re-

Placed in the middle of the plaza, it peated, systematic observation of the

was, by intention, a barrier and inter- activity of color and light. It was not the
ruption of views, ambience, and circu- temporary, fugitive effect sought by im-
lation patterns. Serra's intrusion on pressionists that he was after. Instead,

public space might be compared to that Seurat wished to systematize the tech-
of CHRISTO, but where Christo was wel- niques Impressionists and other artists
come and celebrated, Serra was not. used to represent what is seen, and to
The public felt not only challenged, as it arrive at a rational, methodical way to
was supposed to be, but also bullied capture natural light and color. In
and offended. Tilted Arc was ultimately short, Seurat was after a permanent
dismantled and removed. For several truth. He did not need to work out-
years Serra worked on 16-foot steel doors —quickly, by natural light, as Im-
plates bent into elliptical shapes: pressionists did — rather, using his

Torqued Ellipses (1997), inspired by quasi-scientific approach, he could

BORROMiNi's Church of San Carlo alle work by artificial light, long into the
Quattro Fontane. These are wide bands night. The process was one Seurat him-
of steel standing on their edges, some- self called DivisiONiSM: colors divided,
what like architecture in that people or broken down, into their component
may enter them (but feel disoriented parts. The technique is more widely
when they do). They have been oiled known as pointillism, referring to the
and rusted and are colored in shades of application of pigment in minute dots.
orange, brown, silver, and gray. The Instead of blending paint before daub-
critic Michael Kimmelman writes, ing it on the canvas, Seurat achieved the
"What comes from this mix of big en- effects of color modulation by juxta-
closing forms with bent ones turns out posing unmixed colors, or hues. To rep-
to be shapes oddly impossible to resolve resent water, for example, he applied
in the mind. . . . To walk around the dots of blues, greens, and whites di-
outside of a sculpture doesn't really tell rectly on to the canvas, shading, light-
you what the inside is like, nor vice ening, and changing the look of the
versa, frustration that sends you back water according to the arrangement of
 —

SEVERINl, GINO 627

dots. The mind's eye of the viewer Seven Wonders of the Ancient
blends the dots and "sees" the wide World
range and variety of color as unified. Perhaps because of their interest in

How is it, then, that Seurat is so highly IDEAL prototypes, Greeks of the 3rd
regarded as an artist, as Arthur Danto and 2nd centuries bce devised a list of
writes, "a chilly geometrist, a chromatic outstanding monuments: (i) the Three
engineer, a scientific placer of bitsy Pyramids at Giza (c. 2500 bce) —of the
dots ... as obsessed by the logic of color seven, only this Wonder still stands; (2)
as Paolo Uccello is legended to have King Nebuchadnezzar's terraced gar-
been possessed by, almost drunk on, the den on the banks of the Euphrates, built

logic of hnear perspective"? As did uc- during the 6th century bce and known
CELLo's paintings, Seurat's paintings as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
transcend the technique he used to cre- this was already in ruins when the list

ate them. What was said of velAz- was made; (3) the 6th-century bce mar-
QUEz's Las Meninas (1656) might also ble Temple of Artemis at Ephesus; (4)
be said of Seurat's masterpiece, Sunday the statue Zeus at Olympia 5th century (

Afternoon on the Island of La Grande bce), sculpted by pheidias; (5) the

Jatte, 1884 (1884-86): It is also a "The- MAUSOLEUM OF HALICARNASSUS; (6)
ology of Painting." But it is a i9th-2oth the iio-foot-high bronze statue of He-
century theology with different goals lios known as the Colossus of Rhodes
and problems: a portrait of an age, (completed in 282 bce), said by pliny
rather than of individuals, inhabited by the Elder to have been made by Chares
the middle classes, not royalty. And the of Lindos, a pupil of lysippos, and to
tradition of painting, the artist's role, have been destroyed in an earthquake
concepts of vision and reflection, of illu- 56 years after it was completed; and (7)
mination, PERSPECTIVE, and COLOR, the Pharos of Alexandria (290 bce), a
have been updated to show a world in lighthouse more than 450 feet high that
which machine-made goods are mass marked the entry to the harbor. Five of
produced. Yet while the women wear the Seven Wonders were built by
corsets and bustles, they also mysteri- Greeks, although only Olympia was on
ously call to mind sculptures from their mainland —most were in lands

ancient Mesopotamia and from Egypt. conquered by Alexander the Great.

So, too, did Seurat's glimpses of
contemporary, popular Parisian enter-
Severini, Gino
tainment — musicians, the circus, the
1883-1966 • Italian painter
cancan dancers of Le Chahut (1889-
Futurist
90), as well as the geometric, empty
stillness of a coastline. Seurat died be- It is in the early years that one
fore he was 32, but he seems to have recognizes that dualism which is in the

forecast the major art movements to depths of each one of us, where
come, including cubism, precision- another person, unknown to ourselves,
ism, SURREALISM, and even mini- tends at the moment of the act of
malism. creation to supplant the person we
628 SFORZA FAMILY

believed or hoped ourselves to be. My from the name of a fortification — the

first contact with the art of Seurat, Castella Sforzesco — near the place of
whom I adopted for always as my The Sforza family
their ancestral origin.

master, helped me greatly to express had control of Milan beginning with

myself in accordance with the two Francesco (1401-1466), a military op-
simultaneous and often opposed portunist who secured his power
aspirations. through marriage and became duke of
Milan in 1450. filarete served in

In 19 10 Severini signed the futurist Francesco's court, designing the Os-

painters' manifesto. He brought to Fu- pedale Maggiore (begun 1456, further
turism influences he had absorbed additions in the 17th and i8th cen-
while Hving in Paris for several years: turies) and responsible for the decora-
the art and techniques of seurat and of tion of the principal tower of the castle.
CUBISM. Seurat's experiments made a (The tower was destroyed by an explo-
profound impression on Severini, as the sion in 1 521, but was rebuilt according
comment above makes clear. Ideas to the supposed plans for the original.)
about form derived from Cubism, espe- Filarete's Treatise of Architecture, writ-
cially that of reconciling different ten 1461-64, took the form of a dia-
points of view—the dualism of which logue with Francesco, and he named the
he also speaks above — were addition- imaginary city he described Sforzinda.
ally central to his thought. The melding Ludovico Sforza (1452-1508), known
of these stylist approaches is apparent as the Moor, perhaps because of his
in the painting Red Cross Train (19 14), skin tone, was a more dedicated sup-
in which Severini took up the subjects porter of the arts than was his father. In
ofwar and speed so dear to Futurists. fact, one of the most famous letters of

The picture is divided and energized the ITALIAN RENAISSANCE was written
with Futurism's dynamic horizontal to Ludovico by Leonardo in 1482.
lines; the train streaks through a geo- Seeking employment with the duke,
metrically sliced-up and reassembled Leonardo enumerated his skills, which
Cubist landscape, and, inspired by Seu- included plans for bridge design and
rat, the scene is colored with daubs of military prowess of all kinds, making
Divisionist brushstrokes. Severini also everything from armored cars to
used DivisiONiSM in purely nonobjec- cannons, ships, and, in time of peace,
TiVE paintings like Spherical Expansion architecture. Leonardo proposed to
of Light (Centrifugal), 19 14. This is a undertake a bronze horse "which shall
composition of geometric shapes made perpetuate with immortal glory and
up of dots of brilliant, interacting color, eternal honor" the name of Ludovico's
showing the inspiration of delaunay's father. Though Leonardo was hired,
ORPHiSM and the pure color harmonies and he did actually design a colossal fig-

on which it depends. ure of Francesco on horseback for

which sketches still exist, the bronze
Sforza family EQUESTRIAN Statue was never built (not,
This family name may derive from the at least, until the late 20th century). A
Italian forza, meaning "strong," or clay model of it was finished and stood
 SHEELER, CHARLES 629

in the courtyard of the palace, but the Shahn, Ben

invading armies of the French expelled 1898-1969 • American •

Ludovico in 1499 and used the statue painter/photographer •

for target practice. In his letter to Lu- Modern/Social Realist

dovico, Leonardo had barely men-
If I am to be a painter, I must show
tioned his skills as a painter; however,
the world how it looks through my
he did many of his most important
eyes.
paintings during the 20 years he spent
in Milan, including the Last Supper Shahn was among those artists who
(1495-97/98), which is in the refectory wished to direct attention to injustice in

of Santa Maria della Grazie (begun the hope of bringing about reform. His
1492). The design of the church is at- photographs documented the despair of
tributed to BRAMANTE, who is believed the Great Depression, and he completed
to have been working under the influ- 23 paintings inspired by the trial and
ence of Leonardo. execution of Nicola Sacco and Bar-
tolommeo Vanzetti. The Passion of
Sacco and Vanzetti (1931-32), for ex-
sfumato ample, shows the two anarchists, whose
From the Italian, means "smoky" and executions were the result of whipped-
refers to a technique that is epitomized up anti-Communist hysteria, in their

in the paintings of Leonardo, who in- coffins. Behind them stand three men,
vented it. As the word suggests, "sfu- com.missioned to investigate the trial,

mato" refers to a blending of color that who cleared the way for the death sen-
creates the smoky or foggy effect char- tence to be carried out. The figures are
acteristic of his paintings. It is particu- stilted and exaggerated in sharp, angu-
larly noticeable in distant views where lar forms. The colors are hard and the
atmospheric perspective is expressed effect bizarre. This is a powerful denun-
by a blurred, bluish cast. Like chiaros- ciation of American "justice."
curo, sfumato manipulates light and
dark; however, unlike the strong con- Sheeler, Charles
trasts that chiaroscuro exploits, sfu- 1883-1965 • American •

mato fuses the two.The mood of painter/photographer •

sfumato is one of harmony rather than Modern/Precisionist

drama. Leonardo's Mona Lisa (begun
In these paintings I sought to reduce
c. 1500-03) is a premier example of
natural forms to the borderline of
sfumato, which was used not only
abstraction, retaining only those forms
for the landscape background but
which I believed to be indispensable to
also to dissolve all of the picture's
the design of the picture.
contours, blending and fusing them
as if was seen through a mist.
all A Philadelphian and a member of the
Followers of Leonardo who worked ARENSBERG CIRCLE, Sheeler studied
with sfumato were Fra bartolom- with CHASE and traveled through Eu-
MEO, ANDREA del Sarto, and cor- rope before he began working as a com-
REGGIO. mercial photographer. His clients
630 SHERMAN, CINDY

included fashion magazines like Vogue, the body is less the sign than the symp-
and advertising agencies. He also took tom," Bryson explains (see semiotics),
pictures for himself, and these often and the characteristic they share is the
served as models for his paintings; both "affect of dread." Sherman became
were in sharp, hard-edged focus, seem- known for a series of 69 black-and-
ing to have been machine cut according white "self-portraits" entitled Film
to templates, and even mechanically Stills,which she began c. 1977. Al-
colored with flat paint. The quintessen- though she dressed herself up, and
tial PRECisiONiST, Sheeler created im- staged and took the pictures (her cam-
ages that are startling as much for the era on a tripod, the shutter released by a
excruciating exactitude of his detailed zo-foot-long cable), and although they
representation of, for example, the look like stills of a well-known movie
wheels of a locomotive (Rolling Power, star in a popular movie, they are all fic-

1939), as for the more abridged but just titious enough that they are indefinable
as awesome presence of industrialized either as self- or celebrity portraits.
form (American Landscape, 1930). And, as Bryson notes, an inexplicable,
In 19x7 Henry Ford commissioned anxious fear hovers over all of the situ-
Sheeler to photograph his new. Model ations she creates in her photographs.
A mass-production facilities at River In Untitled Film Still #3 (1977) she is

Rouge, near Detroit. Several paintings tightly cramped in the picture frame,

evolved from the 3 2 prints Sheeler made cropped below the waist and across the
at the factory. Two years later Sheeler forehead. She stands by a sink and
took a series of photographs of char- looks over one shoulder as if taken by
TRES Cathedral. There is rarely any surprise. As in each of her works, a nar-
human presence or movement in his im- rative is implied, but must be invented
ages, except perhaps from smoke or by the viewer. The series was completed
steam. People may be implied by their in 1980 and Sherman received the dis-

very absence, but the implication could comfiting acclaim she speaks of in the
be that they are obsolete. quotation above. She then began a se-

ries of photographs using anatomically

Sherman, Cindy correct body-part models from a med-
born 1954 • American • ical catalog. These, in color, are staged
photographer • Postmodern in bizarre settings, alluding to macabre
but, again, unknown circumstances
/ started feeling uncomfortable about
that one can only, or hardly, imagine.
being successful. I wanted to make
something that would be difficult for

some collector to hang over his couch. Shinn, Everett

1876-1953 • American • painter •
BRYSON has identified Cindy Sherman
Realist
as one of three "key practitioners of the
postmodern," along with the filmmaker . . . his distinct, whimsical humor. He
David Lynch and the photographer has done some marvelous work. He is
Joel-Peter Witkin. "The structure on full of enthusiastic interest in life, and
which each thinks about the image and his works are full of the beauty of his
 —

SIGNAC, PAUL 631

enthusiasm. (Robert Henri, 19 10) four decades of the 14th century, duc-
cio represented the elegant, refined
One of the journalist-illustrators who Sienese style (as themore solid, sculp-
followed HENRI to New
York City and tural figures of giotto characterized
became a member of both The eight Florence). Preceded by Guido da Siena
and the ashcan school, Shinn was the (active c. 1260), Duccio was followed

youngest of the group. Henri's descrip- by MARTINI, who carried the grace of
tion, quoted above, was written about Siena with him to avignon, where it

the Exhibition of Independent Artists in fortified the International Style of Late

1910 in which Shinn showed his work. GOTHIC art. One of the lorenzetti
In Philadelphia Shinn had studied with brothers left a panoramic view of Siena
ANSHUTZ, and he also studied in Paris. in the painting Good Government in

One of his best-known pictures is a the City (1338-39). The importance

typical Ashcan street scene: a snow- and influence of Siena declined after the

covered city street with a lone ragpicker bubonic plague of 1348, and the city
confronted, in the left middle ground, lost its eminence to Florence during the

by a threatening black cat. But unlike ITALIAN renaissance.

most Ashcan pictures, this one is not of
New York City, as its title. Early Morn- Signac, Paul
ing Paris (1901), tells us. While starkly 1863-193 5 • French • painter •
realistic, it is also strongly influenced by Neo-Impressionist
compositional elements — empty flat-
By the elimination of all muddy
tened foreground, decentered focus
mixtures, by the exclusive use of the
that made Japanese prints (see ukiyo-e)
optical mixture of pure colors, by a
so important to late-i9th-century
methodical divisionism and a strict
artists. Shinn was drawn to music halls
observation of the scientific theory of
and the theater, and painted scenes of
colors, the neoimpressionist insures a
such entertainment with unusual angles
maximum of luminosity, of color
of view reminiscent of manet and
intensity, and of harmony— a result
DEGAS. He also painted murals for Be-
that has never yet been obtained.
lasco's Stuyvesant Theater and the Oak
Room at the Plaza Hotel. Four years younger than seurat, whom
he met at the salon des independants
Sickert, Walter Richard of 1884, Signac worked with Seurat to
See LONDON GROUP develop the art and theory of neo-
impressionism in both his own paint-
Siena ing and in his manifesto-like book,
A city in Italy, capital of an independent ¥rom Delacroix to Neo-Impressionism
republic, some 45 miles south of Flo- (1899), from which the quotation
rence — probably a day's ride during above is taken. Signac was convinced
MEDIEVAL times. Siena was in fierce that through analyzing the color of an
commercial, political, and cultural object, the color of the light falling on it,

competition with Florence. Sienese art and the color of its reflection, he could
especially flourished during the first scientifically understand and success-
632 SIGNORELLI, LUCA

fully manipulate the effect of color in figures in painting so as to make them

painting. This was an intellectual exer- appear alive, although with art and
cise that fascinated other artists of his difficulty. . . . I do not wonder that
time. They compared and measured Luca's works were always highly
their own approaches against those of praised by Michelangelo, who in his

Signac. For example, matisse wrote, divine Last judgment in the chapel
"... Signac is preoccupied by comple- partly borrowed from Luca such
mentary colors and the theoretical things as angels, demons, the
knowledge of them will lead him to use arrangement of the heavens, and other
a certain tone in a certain place. I, on things in which Michelangelo imitated
the other hand, merely try to find a Luca's treatment, as all may see.

color that will fit my sensation. ... As a (Vasari, mid-i6th century)

matter of fact, I think that the theory of
complementary colors is not absolute. In his major work, FRESCOes at the
In studying the paintings of artists Orvieto Cathedral, contracted for in

whose knowledge of colors depends 1499 and executed between 1499 and
only upon instinct and sensibility and 1503, Signorelli shows that fascination
on a consistency of their sensations, it with the body in movement to which
would be possible to define certain laws VASARI refers in the quotation above. In
of color and so repudiate the limitations addition, however, the apocalyptic
of the accepted color theory." Signac's turn-of-the-century mood in which Sig-

paintings were never as inspired as Seu- norelli was working finds expression in
rat's,and seem more decorative and his Resurrection of the Dead, Damned
formulaic. However, his imaginative Consigned to Hell, and Preaching of the
portrait of the critic Felix Fenelon, who Antichrist, all scenes found in the Orvi-
coined the term "Neo-Impressionism," eto cycle. These have a tangle of devils,
is fascinating. Dressed as a magician, he demons, sinners —tortured and tortur-
stands in profile against a backdrop like ers — falling, floating, and flying in an
a gigantic whirligig with bold patterns altogether gruesome melee, medieval
on each of its sections. The title is as Last Judgment scenes, such as that of
decorative as the picture: Against the GiSLEBERTUS, inevitably come to mind.
Enamel of a Background Rhythmic However, Signorelli's nude, lean, and
with Beats and Angles, Tones and Col- muscular bodies, contorted by every
ors, Portrait ofM. Felix Fenelon in 1890 conceivable kind of physical pain, set a
(1890). new high-water mark. Michelan-
gelo's Last Judgment (1536-41) is dig-

nified by comparison. Toward the end

Signorelli, Luca
of his career, Signorelli returned to his
c. 1450-1523 • Italian • painter •
hometown, Cortona, and painted in a
Renaissance
more conventional style.
. . . his works were more highly valued
than almost any other master's, no silk-screen (serigraphy)
matter of what period, because he A method of printing in which the
showed the way to represent nude image is created on a porous fabric, orig-
 SINGERIE 633

inally silk, today usually cotton or syn- 1995) erases distinctions between them.
thetic. That portion of the design to be Contemplation of simulacra was taken
reproduced is left unblocked on the in several directions by historians,
screen (rather like a stencil). The screen philosophers, and critics; the effect was
is placed above the surface to be printed to remove the primacy and priority, the

on. The paint, or dye, is forced through sense of inviolability and value given to
the screen. Only one color is applied at a the "original" work of art. Strategically,
time, but several screens may be used for this had the same effect as the "death-of-

a variety of colors. The silk-screen proc- the-author" idea forwarded by Roland

ess, developed during the 20th century, Barthes (see semiotics). Jean Bau-
is used both on fabric (especially T-shirts drillard (born 1929), also a French
in recent years) and on paper, warhol philosopher, had far-reaching influence
practiced silk-screening extensively. with his essay The Precession of Simu-
lacra (1984), in which he reversed the
silverpoint (also metalpoint) priorities Deleuze had equalized,
A precursor of the pencil, which over- putting the simulacrum before the origi-
took silverpoint in the 17th century. nal. "It is no longer a question of imita-

The metalpoint — usually silver but tion, nor even of parody," he wrote. "It

sometimes lead, copper, or gold — is is rather a question of substituting signs

used to draw on paper covered with of the real for the real itself. . . . Illusion

enough of an abrasive coating so that is no longer possible because the real is

the metal leaves a precise, delicate line. no longer possible." To Baudrillard,

Silverpoint lines cannot be successfully America is the home of simulacra. And
erased. Thus, besides being refined and his simulacra, having taken over the
subtle in nature, silverpoint drawings "real," take on another order of reality

also require an evolved concept and ex- in which the original is lost.

acting skill. Over time they oxidize to a

light brown. An extraordinarily fine sil- singerie

verpoint self-portrait was drawn by From singe, French for "monkey," sin-

DiJRER in 1484 when he was only 13 gerie refers to the use of monkeys in art,

years old. Leonardo is also known for usually displaying human characteris-

his silverpoint drawings. tics and often dressed in clothing. Mon-

keys have a long history in art: As early

simulacrum, simulacra (pi.) as the Old Kingdom (c. 2700-2150

A Latin term derived from plato, who bce), they were imported into Egypt
used it to differentiate essence from ap- from farther south in Africa. Sometimes
pearance, idea from image. Since the these monkeys were trained to gather
1960s, in the wake of challenges to what fruit from branches beyond human

is "real," fueled not only by poststruc- reach. They are frequently pictured as-
TURALiSM but also by the flood of im- sisting in wine pressing and jumping
ages from all media, the term has taken through the rigging in ships. On the an-
on new meaning. Reversing the priority cient Aegean island of thera is a
given to model over copy, the French brightly colored fresco in what is
philosopher Gilles Deleuze (1925- known as the "room of the blue mon-
634 SINOPIA

monkeys are leaping,

keys." These large Siqueiros's Communist political ac-
reaching, and bounding on the walls. tivities brought some rewards spon- —
Since medieval times monkeys were sorship of his studies abroad and mural
shown to parody the behavior of commissions during the period from
human beings. In the 17th century, 1919 to 1924, for example — but they
monkeys human costume were incor-
in also resulted in repeated punishments.
porated into the elaborate grotesque His role in organizing Mexican workers
decor in the court of Louis XIV, and led to imprisonment and exile; the quo-
fanciful, lighthearted images of cavort- tation excerpted above is from the first

ing, dressed-up monkeys became a fa- artists manifesto, written in December

vorite theme for interior decoration in 1923, on behalf of El Sindicato —the
French rococo. Their decorative pop- union of which Siqueiros was elected
ularity declined with the arrival of the general secretary. (He fought in the
NEOCLASSICAL period. War during his expulsion
Spanish Civil
from Mexico.) One of the three most
sinopia important Mexican mural painters (see

A word derived from the Black Sea city also RIVERA and orozco), like his col-

of Sinop, known for its red-brown leagues Siqueiros received commissions

earth, "sinopia" refers both to the color to work in the United States. He painted
and to drawings made with it. These murals at the New School for Social
were usually preliminary drawings ap- Research in New York City, where
plied to the rough plaster of walls to be Jackson pollock was among his ap-

painted in fresco, especially in 14th- prentices. In fact, Siqueiros introduced

century Italy. Sinopia underdrawings Pollock and others to his experimental
were often replaced with cartoons by technique not only of using industrial
the 15th century. paint, but of splattering it on as well. In
Mexico City's Palacio de las Bellas
Artes, the country's foremost cultural
Siqueiros, David Alfaro
center, which was scheduled for com-
1 896-1974 • Mexican • painter •
pletion in 1910 but was delayed for 24
Social Realist
years by the Revolution, Siqueiros's
On our side are those who clamor for Democracy Freeing Herself— nude di

the disappearance of an old and cruel —

woman in chains is in the company of
order; in which you, worker of the murals by Rivera, Orozco, and
field who makes the earth fecund, have TAMAYO.
your crops taken by the rapaciousness
of the landowner and the politician,
while you burst with hunger; in which
Sirani, Elisabetta
you, worker of the city who run the
1638-1665 • Italian pamter •
factories, weave the cloth, and form
Baroque
with your hands all the comforts that
give pleasure to the prostitutes and / lived in adoration of that merit,
miscreants, while your own flesh is which in her was of supreme
broken with the cold. quality, and of that virtue, which
 —

SISLEY, ALFRED 635

was far from ordinary, and of Sisley, Alfred

that incomparable humility, 1839-1899 • French • painter •
indescribable modesty, inimitable Impressionist
goodness. (Carlo Cesare Malvasia,
Every picture shows a spot with
1678)
which the artist himself has fallen
in love.
Count malvasia's admiration of the
Bolognese artist Elisabetta Sirani was Born in France to English parents,
strong enough that he was able to per- Sisley studied at the studio of gleyre
suade her father, also an artist, to train with MONET, BAZILLE, and RENOIR. He
her, which he had been reluctant to was painting at barbizon in 1861, and
do. She studied the style of reni and was a close friend and frequent com-
excelled in half-length portraits. Melpo- panion of Renoir. Both men painted at
mene, the Muse of Tragedy (after 1655) Bazille's studio. Monet was a strong in-
is an image of the goddess, seated, with fluence and may have persuaded Sisley
a book in one hand, her tilted head rest- to devote himself to landscape painting.
ing on her other. She wears a loosely It is said that Sisley never quite broke
wound, Turkish-style turban on her out of Monet's orbit, but he worked
head, a conceit that had been used in there as an admirer, not an imitator.
self-portraits by van eyck and Rem- The differences between their paint-
brandt, and the mask of tragedy on the ings are best understood by the effects
table appears to gaze up at the Muse. they have on a viewer. Whereas a land-
Sirani's colors are rich and glowing, and scape of Sisley's will transmit that
she paid particular attention to folds feeling of the artist having fallen in
and shadows on various types and tex- love with at least some part of the
tures of fabric. Sirani opened her own scene, as he says in the comment
studio and was extremely successful, as above, a Monet landscape has a more
many anecdotes in Malvasia's writings detached and overall effect. Speaking
demonstrate. He describes streams about the sky, Sisley makes an interest-

of visitors journeying to Bologna to ing point: "Not only does it give the
watch her work. He records that picture depth through its successive
the Crown Prince watched her paint planes (for the sky, like the ground,
and ordered a Madonna for himself, has its planes), but through its form
which she accomplished with great and through its relations with the whole
haste in order that he might take it effect. ... I emphasize this part of land-

home with him. Her early, sudden scape because I would like to make
death has never been explained you understand the importance I at-

both poisoning and ulcers have been tach to it." In the painting Chestnut
blamed — but the entire city of Bologna Trees at La Celle-Saint-Cloud (1865),
mourned was given a mag-
her. Sirani although the sky is barely one-eighth
nificent funeral with specially commis- of the picture, the sense of depth
sioned music and oratory, and, as a Sisley bestows on complex as it is as
final gesture of esteem, she was buried that of the rocks, ground, and trees
next to Reni. below.
636 SIZE

Size cerns, for the building also forms a

A diluted glue that is used to reduce the backdrop for an arrangement of adver-
absorbency of canvas, stiffen paper tising signs, and these play with notions
and textiles, or fill in the porous surface of the printed word and meaning. Al-
of a wood PANEL, all for the purpose of though Sloan challenged those who
enhancing a ground for painting. read politics in his paintings, polemics
was the purpose of the drawings he did
Sloan, John for magazines like The Masses. In addi-

1871-1951 • American • painter • tion to championing the poor, he was a

Realist strong supporter of women's suffrage.

I'm not a Democrat, I'm of no party.

Sluter, Claus
I'm for change— for the operating
1 3 60-1406 • Netherlandish •
knife when a party rots in power.
sculptor • Late Gothic/International
Prominent among urban realists'. Style

Sloan studied at the Pennsylvania Acad-

Claus Sluter inhabited a house at
emy of the Fine Arts with anshutz, was
Dijon which the duke placed at his
a close associate of henri, exhibited
disposal; there he lived as a gentleman,
with The eight, and was a member of
but at the same time as a servant of the
the ASHCAN SCHOOL, where he was out-
court. . . . This serfdom of a great art
standing for both his Socialism and his
controlled by the will of a princely
insistent exposes of the plight of the un-
patron is tragic, but it is at the same
derclasses. Among his chosen subjects
time exalted by the heroic efforts of
were prostitutes and alcoholics (his
the great sculptor to shake off his
wife, a tormented soul, was both). He
shackles. (J. Huizinga, 1919)
insisted, however, that his paintings

were not political statements, as in the Sluter worked in the court of Duke
quotation above, and they certainly Philip the Bold of Burgundy (see val-
need no social doctrine to sustain the ois), and when the principal supervisor
strength of their composition, the loose, of Philip's main project at Dijon died,
powerfully expressive brushstrokes, Sluter took over as varlet de chambre.
and strong color. He was a spectator The duke's project was the grandiose,
who roamed the streets or gazed out of Carthusian monastery complex that in-

his window, and recorded what he saw eluded the Chartreuse (Charterhouse)
in both his diaries and his sketches. His de Champmol (1385-93). Sluter carved
paintings are full of emotion and atmos- massive, energetic figures for the main
phere. Among the best known is Hair- portal of this building, including those
dresser's Window (1907), a boisterous, of Philip and his wife, the Madonna,
humorous scene in which people on the and two saints. Not only have such for-

street look up at a bleached-blond hair- merly attached architectural figures

dresser in the process of dyeing a been detached from the structure by
client's hair. While anecdotal and an ar- Sluter, but also they are the focus of at-

chetype of spectatorship, it is also an tention rather than an ornament of the

example of design and significant con- building, and they seem to interact with
 SMITH, DAVID 637

one another across the spaces that sepa- the Middle Ages), J. Huizinga writes a
rate them. The best known of Sluter's fine appreciation of his art; a passage
sculptures was for the interior cloister; from the book is quoted above.
it includes a life-size portrayal of
Moses, as well as other Old Testament Smibert, John
prophets, and is known as the Well of 1688-175 1 • American • painter •
Moses (c. 1395-1406). The stone sculp- Colonial

. , Thy Fame, O Smibert, shall the Muse

, ,

pamted, but the color

, ,

is now mostly a 1 n- * •

„, ... . ,
,

rehearse, I
,
And sing her Sister- Art
t

in
gone. Ihe eyes and brow or Moses, r ^r /»* t>i
... ,
, , , ,. softer Verse.
1

(Mather Blyes, 1730)

v

even his long, knotted beard, radiate

fury. Two odd horns growing from the Born in Scotland, trained in Italy, Smib-
top of his head suggest he might even ert accepted Dean George Berkeley's in-
drive his followers back to Egypt —the vitation to teach drawing at the college

text of the scroll in his left hand reads, Berkeley intended to start in Bermuda.
"The children of Israel do not listen to They stopped in America and, as the
me." The horns result from Saint school was never funded by Parliament,
Jerome's translation of the Hebrew Smibert stayed and opened a studio in
Bible into Latin — the Vulgate — in the Boston. His most renowned picture is a

late 4th century. In the passage of Exo- group portrait of Berkeley and his en-

dus where Moses descends from Mount tourage, including the artist himself—
Sinai, the original text described light The Bermuda Group (Dean George
emanating from his face. Reluctant Berkeley and His Family; ijZ9).lfwas
to have light radiate from anyone Smibert's showpiece and led to the first
who predated Jesus, Jerome translated truly successful painting career in

"shining" with the word "horned." America. Before retiring in 1746, Smib-
(Other artists, including michelan- ert had painted more than 250 portraits

GELO, also gave Moses horns.) The en- and greatly influenced his successors
ergy of Sluter's figures, the intensity of feke and copley. The success that met
their emotions, the deep folds of their his work is suggested by the lines above
DRAPERY, were new and important steps taken from a long poem published in
beyond what had been done previously, the London Daily Courant of April 14,
They were not antithetical, however; 1730.
the direction of Late gothic sculpture
was toward greater expression and in- ^ . . p. • .

dividualization, and the dramatic stag-

1 906-1965 • American • sculptor
ing of religious mystery plays was also
Abstract Expressionist
influencing works of art. But the unique
dynamic of Sluter's style was recog- / do not work with a conscious and
nized, and was soon widely imitated, specific conviction about a piece of

Considering Sluter in The Waning of sculpture. It is always open to change

the Middle Ages (first published in and new association. It should be a
Dutch in 1919, recently retranslated celebration, one of surprise, not one
into English and retitled The Autumn of rehearsed.
638 SMITH, KIKI

For a period of time before World War changing, and that fluidity is not to be
II, Smith's work took its clues from lost.

SURREALISM. This is evident in Interior

(1937), a sculpture constructed of Smith has concentrated on images of

wrought steel with cast-iron spheres, the female body, and she often refers to

whose forms flow into one another to internal organs, bodily fluids, and iso-

create a kind of three-dimensional lated limbs. Her wish is to explore

drawing in air. Later, inspired by human identity and, as in the quotation

photographs of iron sculptures by above, the interactions between inside

GONZALEZ and PICASSO, Smith —whose and outside. Untitled of 1986 is a row
ancestors were blacksmiths, as his name of iz empty, identical, narrow-neck
suggests —explored the possibilities of bottles, elegant in appearance. On the
welding metal sculpture. "What associ- outside of each bottle is written, in ar-
ations [iron] possesses are those of this chaic lettering, the name of a human
century: power, structure, movement, fluid, including blood, tears, urine, and
progress, suspension, destruction, bru- semen. Significant to her work, she
tality," he said. He found materials briefly studied to be an emergency med-
from discarded parts of army tanks, ical technician. To Smith, the body is ir-

abandoned tools, and scraps from steel revocably linked to art, even in work
mills. In the early 1960s Smith's Cubi that has no figures in it: Art itself, with
series, large geometric forms in stainless its insides and outsides, is like a living

steel, usually placed outdoors, some- body, she believes. An embroidered

times reflect ambient light in a way that cloth, for example, is similar to skin;
challenges a viewer. With this series her own skin is covered with tattoos.
Smith moved in the direction of mini- She says, "I've also tried to make sculp-
malism; however, his explorations tures with tattoos, which comes from
were ended when he died in an automo- looking at African bronzes and Indian
bile accident, motherwell, a close art, with all the surface drawings on
friend, mourned his death with these them." The Sitter (1992.) is not tat-

words: "Oh, David, you were as deli- tooed. It is a disturbing sculpture of a

cate as Vivaldi and as strong as a Mack woman's back. The figure is installed in

truck." a corner of a room, facing the wall, and

thus immediately confined in space. She
sits on her hands with her head bowed,
Smith, Kiki
and her back is scored with deep gashes.
born 1954 • American • sculptor •
The physical and emotional distress im-
Feminist
plicit in this work raises questions
The and outside are constantly
inside about women's roles and suffering. And
in a shift of what you're letting go and like a thorn, it pricks the mind to re-
leaving behind— you're breathing in member a sensuous painting by Ingres
and out and that's becoming you and of a woman's back {The Bather of
then being expelled from you. . . . Valpingon, 1808), and another of man
You're something that's constantly ray that played on it, he Violin d'Ingres
 SMITHSON, ROBERT 639

(19x4). Tony SMITH (see below) was taken for cold Minimalist objectivity,
her father. an exhibition of his drawings, which are
capricious rather than systematic, and
Smith, Tony poetically intuitive rather than mathe-
1912-1980 • American • sculptor • matically engineered, reveal his sensual
Minimalist/Conceptual and spiritual approach to art. Smith's
,. , . , I
daughter, Kiki (see above), is a leading
Why didn
, ,

t you make it larger so that ,

, , , , ,
. contemporary sculptor,
it would loom over the observer?

/ was not making a monument. Smithson, Robert

193 8-1973 • American • sculptor •
Then why didnt you make It smaller .^ , . „.
, , ,
,. ,
Earth and Site
so that the observer could see over the
top? The scale of the Spiral Jetty tends to
fluctuate depending on where the
I was not making
° an object. , i o- j .
viewer happens to be. Size determines
an object, but scale determines art. A
The questions
^ addressed to Smith, and , , u r j ^ r
crack in the wall if viewed in terms of
his answers, in the exchange quoted , ^ ,, , .
,, j ^i
scale, not size, could be called the
above, concern a work entitled Die _ , _
'
.
, , , , , r Grand Canyon.
(196Z). It IS a black steel cube, 6 reet
square. High modern and minimalist Spiral Jetty (1970), Robert Smithson's
in the rigor with which it observes the best-known work, about which he com-
MiES VAN DER ROHE dictum that "less is ments above, was constructed at a re-

more," Die is also a post-Minimal, mote, abandoned industrial site with

CONCEPTUAL exercise. For one thing, the look of a science-fiction wasteland
Smith gave the specifications for mak- on the Great Salt Lake in Utah. It is a

ing it over the telephone and took no vast spiral, 1,500 feet long and 15 feet

part in its actual production. And the wide, made of black basalt, limestone,
ambiguity of its title is a play with Ian- and earth, that runs from the shore into
guage: Does the word "die" refer to the the lake. Because of its inaccessibility

casting process? to dice? to death? This and the fact that it was, before long, un-
indeterminacy of meaning is thoroughly dermined by the natural fluctuations of
POSTMODERN. When Smith was four the lake. Spiral Jetty could be appreci-
years old, he contracted tuberculosis, ated only in photographs and, primar-
The treatment then was isolation, and ily, in the film Smithson made about it.

he lived in a prefabricated house on the In the film he draws on geography,

family property that is sometimes said maps of prehistoric and contemporary
to have been the inspiration for his geo- sites, the geologic time, mythology, and

metric sculptures. He also attended ar- surveying. Frames of the giant earth-
chitecture school in Chicago in 1937, a moving machines used to construct Spi-
more direct, or at least supporting, ral Jetty metamorphose into dinosaurs

source of his preoccupation. Lest the and then robots. The conceptual span
geometric purity of his sculpture be mis- of Smithson's references and inspiration
640 SNYDERS, FRANS

matches the vastness of his creation. En- game, often a gutted buck surrounded
tropy —which has to do with the insta- by rabbits and birds, an abundance of
bihty of matter and its propensity for luscious fruits, perhaps a couple of
disorderly change — was an important hunting dogs, but usually no human fig-
theme, as was his interest in reclaiming, ures. His paint was thick, his colors
or at least transforming, industrial brilliant, his compositions dramatically
wastelands. Smithson was killed in a lighted and monumental. Sometimes
plane crash in 1973 while making an they illustrated popular sayings,
aerial survey of a site in Texas. proverbs, or perhaps one of Aesop's fa-

bles — all with an underlying moral mes-

Snyders, Frans sage.

1579-1657 • Flemish painter

Baroque Soane, Sir John
1753-1837 • English • architect •
Original by my hand and the eagle
Romantic
done by Snyders. (Peter Paul Rubens,
1618) He was certainly distinguished
looking: taller than common; and so
Snyders's father owned an inn in
thin as to appear taller; his age at this
Antwerp was frequented by artists.
that
time about seventy-three. He was
When he was just 14, Snyders became a
dressed entirely in black; his waistcoat
student of Pieter bruegel the Younger.
being of velvet, and he wore knee-
During his career he became a friend
and working partner of rubens, who
breeches with silk stockings. Of course
the exception to his black were his
described Prometheus Bound (c. 161 1)
cravat, shirt collar, and shirt frill
as "the flower of my stock," in a letter
of the period. . . . The Professor
of April 1 61 8, in which he also credited
unquestionably looked the Professor,
Snyders for the eagle, as quoted above.
and the gentleman. . . . A brown wig
This rapacious eagle, with an enormous
carried the elevation of his head to the
wingspread, plucks the liver from the
utmost attainable height; so that,
tormented Prometheus. Because Sny-
altogether, his physiognomy was
ders's specialty was still life painting,
suggestive of the picture which is
there seems to be an attention to detail
presented on the back of a spoon held
in the bird that separates it from the
vertically. (George Wightwick, 1851)
looser, more baroque style of Rubens;
however, it is generally agreed that the Wightwick, quoted above, worked for
collaboration was a successful one and Soane, and after Soane's death wrote
that Rubens probably composed the the description quoted above in his au-
overall design of the painting. Snyders tobiography. An element of austerity in

revitalized the type of market and Soane's architectural designs seems

kitchen still life with figures developed consistent with his physical appearance.
by aertsen, and in about 1610 in- The main source of this restraint was
vented the type of large picture that in- CLASSICAL, and it influenced American
cluded "trophies of the hunt": dead architects (e.g., latrobe and jeffer-
 —

SOCIETY ANONYME INC. 64I

son). Soane's Bank of England building below. Both Social and Socialist Real-
( 1
788-1 808 is an example of the sever-
) ism are less styles than philosophies or
ity of his interpretation of antiquity principles used in executing a work. But
the interior surfaces especially, which, in general they all endeavor to make art

beneath a domed roof that has arched that will be widely understood.
windows at its base, are unadorned. In-
corporated with the house that he built Socialist Realism
for himself in Lincoln's Inn Fields in Painters in the Soviet Union after the
London (i8 12-13) ^^^ a museum with Revolution were pressured to adopt a
an Egyptian sarcophagus as its center- style that would be more understand-
piece. The museum building is an intri- able and inspirational to the proletariat,
cate design of small, connecting rooms, and that was, above all, in harmony
sometimes one room inside another, with the objectives of socialism. This
sometimes changing levels, with open- work, glorifying the state's cultural and
ings appearing overhead and distorting technological values, is Socialist Real-
mirrors — all confounding one's sense of ism (as opposed to social realism).
stability, order, and boundaries. "This Distinguished among Russian Socialist

lack of faith in stability and security is Realists is the painter, sculptor, mo-
utterly un-Grecian and highly roman- saicist, and illustrator Aleksandr
tic," Nikolaus pevsner writes. "The Deineka (1899-1969). Few of the
Classical Revival ... is only one facet of movement's other artists are interna-

the Romantic Movement." tionally recognized, but Socialist Real-

ism reverberated in art like that of the

Social Realism Mexican muralists (e.g., rivera). In the

The most inclusive definition of Social United States, where the idea that art
Realism links it with 19th-century re- should represent the class struggle was
alism^ and artists, like courbet, who less overt, the style of Socialist Realism
were moved to protest inequities of was unstated but underlay many artistic

class through sympathetic representa- endeavors during the 1930s, especially

tions of the underprivileged as victims in public murals.
of the well-to-do. (An artist like the
18th-century painter chardin, whose Societe Anonyme Inc.
serene pictures of working-class people Organization founded in 1920 by
do not imply injustice, is not a Social Katherine Dreier (1877-1952), a
Realist.) kollwitz has been called the polemicist for and organizer of early
first of German Social Realists. Ameri- MODERNISM in America; duchamp;
can SCENE and works progress ad- and MAN RAY. They raised money to
ministration artists of the 1920s and provide exhibition opportunities for the
1930s, to the extent that they were mo- most progressive experiments, and the
tivated by social causes, were Social Re- Societe itself bought some of the works.
alists. RIVERA is a Social Realist, but It was, in effect if not officially, the first

also, considering his political affilia- modern art museum in America, a role
tions, is called a socialist realist, as soon eclipsed by the Museum of Mod-
642. SOCIETY OF INDEPENDENT ARTISTS

em Art, founded in New York City in soft ground etching

1929. In addition to many American See ETCHING
artists, kandinsky, schwitters, miro,
MALEVICH, PICABIA, and KLEE Were soft sculpture
among the European artists the Societe Works like those by oldenburg,
introduced to the American pubUc. Robert morris, hesse, and ringgold,
Dreier gave the Society's collection to made of soft material such as canvas,
Yale University in 1941 and the group latex, vinyl, or rope, as opposed to
dissolved in 1950. sculpture formed of stone, wood, metal,
or plaster.
Society of Independent Artists
An organization of artists that grew out Soutine, Chaim
of meetings held during 19 16 at the 1 893/4-1943 • Russian/French •

arensberg home in New York City, painter • School of

the society was formed in 19 17 with Paris/Expressionist
glackens as its first elected president.
I still see him approaching
Other supporters were duchamp, man
Rembrandt's canvases with a kind of
ray, bellows, Walter Pach, and Kath-
respectful fear. He stood for a long
erine Dreier (see societe anonyme).
time, went into a trance, and pranced
They proclaimed "no jury, no prizes,"
about shouting, "it's so beautiful it
as had sponsors of the earlier French
maddens me!" (Raymond Cogniat,
SALON DES INDEPENDANTS. Anyone
1953)
who paid the society annual dues of five
dollars and the initiation fee of one dol- Soutine was a friend of modigliani
lar could participate. The works were and also Jewish, but the similarity in the

arranged alphabetically, according to two artists' backgrounds ends there.

the artists' last names. The first exhibi- Soutine was born into an indigent fam-
tion was held April 10, 19 17, at the ily, the loth of II children. The story is

Grand Central Palace in New York told that at the age of seven he was
City, with a brass band on opening locked for three days and nights in a

night. With 2,500 works by 1,200 damp basement as punishment for

artists from 3 8 states and several Euro- stealing pennies to buy colored pencils.

pean countries, it was the largest exhibi- His personal torment, nightmares, bad
tion ever held in the city. There was a health, and seeming instability are told

wide range of styles, and more than by his paintings. Soutine's expressive

20,000 people visited the exhibit during brushstrokes often seem violent, like
its four-week run. Duchamp withdrew, those of van gogh, yet without van
however, when his "ready-made" uri- Gogh's directional control. Where
nal. Fountain, was rejected for exhibi- Modigliani stylized faces, exaggerating
tion. The society continued to hold features without distorting them, Sou-
exhibitions into the 1940s; however, its tine's exaggerations are true distor-
importance had dwindled significantly tions: In Womaft in Red (c. 1922), the
by then. strange person in a tawdry red dress
 SPENCER, SIR STANLEY 643

and big blue hat is a parody of a Essentially self-taught, Spencer painted

woman. But it is the strangeness of the scenes of everyday life as well as senti-
artist rather than his subjects that his mental subjects. Most unusual for her
pictures lead a viewer to contemplate. time, when she married in 1844 ^^r
Side of Beef (i9z$) is among Soutine's husband realized that she would be the
best-known paintings. It is an adapta- one to earn the family income, so he
tion of Rembrandt's Slaughtered Ox took care of the household as well as
(1655), which Soutine might have seen helping with her business affairs.

at the Louvre. He was a tireless visitor Spencer's genre pamtings are impor-
to that museum, and also made fre- tant in their representations of the do-
quent trips to The Hague, where he mestic sphere. Though she was more or
spent hours looking at Rembrandt's less forced to paint such pictures, as
paintings which the quotation above they were the only ones she, as a
describes. Soutine's Side of Beef is ac- woman, was able to sell, she imparted
companied by its own folklore: From both dignity and individuality to her fe-

day to day, blood was brought to his male subjects and their chores. She ran
studio from the butcher's shop to re- into trouble, however, when she domes-
fresh the decaying carcass he used as a ticated a male: The Young Husband:
model. Neighbors, offended by the FirstMarketing (1856) received terrible
smell, called the police. The same red in reviews and did not sell. Both her sup-
the dress of Woman in Red is now — the writer quoted above, for
porters
slashes of blood in the hanging carcass, example — and those who reviled her
which is set against bright bold blues. tended to fall into hyperbole character-
The metaphor of human suffering and istic of the Victorian era.
perhaps the concept of crucifixion is at
its rawest here. (For slaughtered ox
theme, see teniers.) Spencer, Sir Stanley
1891-1959 • English pamter
Romantic

Spencer, Lilly Martin Love is the essential power in the

1822-1902 • American pamter creation of art. And love is not a

Romantic/Genre talent.

Let Men . . . know that with the skill Little known outside of England, and
of her hands and the power of her not well celebrated there, Spencer
head, she sustains a family. . . . Aye, moved into the limelight, literally, in
sustains them a thousandfold, better 1996 when a play about his life entitled
than she could have done with the Stanley was produced and a major ret-
needle or the washtub, and gives out to rospective exhibition of his work
the world besides, the rich treasures opened. Spencer's neglect is largely due
which become the rays of sunshine in to his rejection of modernism, his in-

many a heart and home. (Francis Dana sistence on narrative pictures in familiar
Gage, mid-i850s) settings. Distinctly unstylish, commit-
 —

644 SPERO, NANCY

ted to the embodiment of form, color, piece of bread on the table next
texture, and tactility, he may best be un- to me.

derstood in the emotionally expressive

tradition of romanticism. As he insists Spero has defied convention through-
in the quotation above, it was love that out her career, working as a figura-
drove his creativity. "My capacity to tive artist during the 1960s when most
draw and paint has got nothing to do American artists were abstract ex-
with my vision; it's just a meaningless, pressionists, and ignoring their ten-
stupid habit," he also said. That people dency to overwhelm an audience with
and objects in his paintings are recog- the grandiose size of their canvases by
nizable, many of them members of his using the relatively small medium of
family, friends, and himself, does not paper. The language of discrimination
make their meanings clear. Nor does it against women interested her, and she
modify their underlying, unsettled, pas- used collage on rice paper in her best-

sionate distress. He painted his experi- known work, the Codex Artaud {i^jo-
ences as a medic in World War I with 71). This is filled with bizarre images
religious fervor, and later painted dis- a bent-over, headless body with four
turbing, erotic nudes of women he breasts, and a head with a thrust-out
loved, sometimes including himself in tongue that turns into a penis. The lat-

the picture. In Self-Portrait with Patricia ter is possibly the most direct interpre-
Preece (1936) Spencer is seen from the tation of the idea that language is

back, in the very front of the canvas, cut power, and that those who have power
off at the shoulders. His twisted neck is construct language. The "Artaud" of
oddly elongated and looks like nothing the title was a French surrealist
so much as that of a plucked chicken, writer, Antonin, whose madness freed
The reclining nude, also pushed to the him from the constrictions of language,
front of the picture plane, occupies The text of Codex Artaud, of which a
most of the canvas. She is cropped at the brief excerpt, in translation, is quoted
forehead and at her bent knees, which above, is in French. Since the Artaud se-

seem to cradle Spencer's head in a land- ries, Spero has worked on such themes
scape of hilly flesh. "God speaks elo- as the torture of women. Some of the
quently through the flesh," Spencer accompanying words are quotations
wrote. "That's why he made it." from reports of Amnesty International
accompanied by excerpts from an an-
cient Sumerian creation myth. Spero is

^ , T married to golub.
Spero, Nancy
born 1926 • American • painter • • j 1

^ . . Stained glass
Feminist „ . j 1 1
•
i
Refers to colored glass, primarily as
Itwas between eleven o'clock used in window designs. The color may
and midnight. For me the result be either intrinsic to or painted onto the
was an anxiety about death, and glass surface. Compositions made with
a rat that found its niche in a pieces of colored glass are held together
 STEEN, JAN 645

by strips of lead, or carries. Although Stankiewicz, Richard

stained glass was known and used pre- See JUNK art
viously, during the gothic period
architecture became, in effect, a frame- Steen, Jan
work for supporting stained-glass win- 1626-1679 Dutch • painter
dows. Installing these windows in Baroque
churches was avidly promoted by
. . . ;/ this extraordinary man had had
SUGER, for whom their colored light
the good fortune to have been born in
had spiritual meaning, theophilus de-
Italy, had he lived
instead of Holland,
scribed making stained-glass windows
in Rome instead of Leyden, and been
in his treatise On Diverse Arts (c.
blessed with Michael Angelo and
hoc), from building a furnace for fir-
Raffaelle for his masters, instead of
ing the glass to plotting the design (and
Brouwer and Van Gowen; the same
color scheme) on a flat board covered
sagacity and penetration which
with chalk; from tracing the design onto
distinguished so accurately the
the glass to cutting the glass; from fix-
different characters and expression in
ing the lead bands that serve to both
his vulgar figures, would, when exerted
outline picture forms and bind the
in the selection and imitation of what
pieces together to assembling the whole
was great and elevated in nature, have
and installing the window in an iron
been equally successful; and he now
frame. Twelfth-century windows on the
would have ranged with the great
west facade of chartres survive, as
pillars and supporters of our Art. (Sir
does most of the cathedral's 13th-
Joshua Reynolds, 1774)
century stained glass. The glassmaking
WORKSHOPS at Chartres were famous. Reynolds's assessment of the everyday
Firing painted details on the glass was domestic pictures Steen painted was the
part of the process early on, and later prevailing attitude toward genre paint-
became the preferred method of deco- ing for centuries. Dutch works like
rating windows. Working with stained Steen's have been awarded more atten-
glass, rather than painting it, was revi- tion and prestige since the 1960s and
talized during the 19th century. Wil- the writings of E. de Jongh, who saw the
liam MORRIS in England and tiffany moralizing intentions of emblem book
and LA farge in America were promi- sayings hidden in Dutch art. Even in

nent designers and innovators. The that context Steen stands out. His
architects sullivan, Frank Lloyd homes are not the tidy, polished interi-

WRIGHT, and HORTA and the artist van ors of vermeer; on the contrary, a "Jan
DOESBURG also designed elegant, ab- Steen household" to this day alludes to
stract, colored glass windows for a vari- one that is somewhat undisciplined and
ety of buildings. Notable religious untidy. Testimony that hals had influ-

designs were carried out by matisse ence on Steen is found in two of Steen's
(for a chapel in Vence, France) and by interior scenes in which paintings by
CHAGALL (for a synagogue in Jeru- Hals are shown hanging on the walls.
salem). There is also affectionate comedy in his
 —

646 STEICHEN, EDWARD

pictures. The Lovesick Girl (early ment) that allows manipulation of the
1660s) illustrates the saying "Love is a printed image during development,
sickness that no medicine can cure": A Thismade his pictures look as much if

doctor takes the pulse of a young not more like paintings than pho-
woman who is out of sorts, reacting to a tographs; even their titles, e.g.. The
letter she has just read. Lest the point be Pond, Moonrise (1903), indicate the ex-
missed, a small statue of Cupid stands pressive potential of the scene in

above the doorway, his arrow precisely painterly and poetic terms of light, line,

aimed at the lovelorn girl. That the pur- and color. In 1900 Steichen went to
pose of such paintings is primarily to Paris to study. He also acted as liaison
put flesh on abstract ideas was chal- between Stieglitz and the French avant-
lenged in a controversial book by Svet- garde, introducing their work to the
lana Alpers, published in 1983. Alpers United States through the 291 Gallery,
gives interpretation a secondary role After World War I Steichen devoted
and argues that Dutch genre scenes, himself to photography, to the extent
painted in a century during which opti- that he destroyed all of his paintings,
cal science made great advances, were He worked in fashion photography and
intended as visually descriptive repre- portraiture and after World War II was
sentations of Dutch life realism' for named head of the photography depart-
its own sake. Whether one looks at ment at the Museum Modern Art in
of
Steen's Self-Portrait Playing the Lute New York City. His comment quoted
(1663-65) as illustrating a proverb or above is taken from the publication, in
as reflecting what Steen saw when he 1939, of 41 Depression-era pho-
looked in a mirror, one cannot help but tographs.
see a man who had a rollicking sense of
humor. Stein, Gertrude
1 874-1946 • American •

Steichen, Edward author/collector

1 879-1973 • American • ^
And Ir was and stilln am satisfied
. , , / •
1

, 1 ,
•
T^- • 1- wtth
photographer/pamter • Pictorialist .
r , • • , ,

my portrait of me, it is I, and it is the

Have a look into the faces of the men only reproduction of me which is
and the women on these pages. Listen always I, for me.
to the story they tell. ^ .
. , , , r-
•

Gertrude and brother Leo Stem were

With STIEGLITZ, Steichen was a founder wealthy American expatriates living in

of the Photo-Secession group at 291 Paris early in the 20th century. They
Fifth Avenue in New York City in were among the first to appreciate the
1902. A painter as well as a photogra- fauve painters, and bought matisse's
pher, Steichen employed special maligned Woman with a Hat at the
processes to manipulate the printed 1905 exhibition (at which the critic

image — for example, he used a coating Louis Vauxcelles gave the Fauve move-
of pigmented, light-sensitive substance ment its name). Leo bought the family's
(gum arabic with watercolor pig- first picasso that same year. By 1906
 STELLA, FRANK 647

Gertrude had posed some 90 times for Stella, Frank

the famous portrait of her that Picasso born 1936 • American • painter •
painted and to which she refers in the Post-Painterly Abstraction
quotation above. Leo and Gertrude
My painting is based on the fact that
were avid collectors, and from 1905 to
only what can be seen there is there.
the onset ofWorld War I, the Stein
apartment was a vital and exciting Stella entered the art world's conscious-
showplace of avant-garde art and a ness in a 1959 exhibition at the Mu-
gathering place for the artistic and liter- seum of Modern Art called Sixteen
ary lights of the era. Matisse and Pi- Americans. His contemporaries were
casso met there for the first time. compelled to recognize his innovative

Visitors to the Saturday-night "salons" advance in a painting like The Marriage

ranged from the poet apollinaire and of Reason and Squalor II (1959), in

the painterlaurencin to the idiosyn- which a series of parallel white lines, at

cratic American collector barnes. equal distances from one another, form
Gertrude Stein wrote Four Saints in the top ends of two rectangles. The
Three Acts, which was scored by Virgil bases of the rectangles are somewhere
Thomson and had costumes and cello- below the bottom of the canvas. As
phane sets by stettheimer; was chore- with studying the threads, or skeins,
ographed by Frederick Ashton and that Jackson pollock wove, following
directed by John Houseman; and had one of Stella's lines to its presumed end
the first all-black cast in an American is impossible. Where a Pollock skein is

opera. In 1934 it premiered at the lost when it vanishes in the tangle,

Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Stella's line advances and retreats by
Connecticut, which bragged about hav- dint of its own declarative value and
ing one of the first fully equipped the- then vanishes into infinity, or at least
aters in an American museum. somewhere outside the canvas. In i960
Stella began to use bright, bold colors,
Stele (also stela) as in his "protractor" series of 1967.
From the Greek term for "standing These may have been inspired by inter-
block," the stele is an upright marker, lace designs on hiberno saxon manu-
usually a gravestone. Of special interest scripts, which he researched as a
to art historians are those from ancient student at Princeton University (e.g.,

Greece of the Late classical period. Agbatana I; 1968). Stella also made
The tragic plague and loss of the Pelo- canvases that were shaped to comple-
ponnesian War probably contributed to ment the geometric subjects he
the development of the melancholy im- painted — semicircular or triangular,
agery found in these steles. The Grave sometimes a series of one or the other.
Stele of Hegeso (c. 400 bce), a deli- This practice is a parody of the pre-
cately carved image in low relief of a scription that form should follow func-
seated woman and her servant examin- tion, considering that the function of
ing jewelry, is among the most notable abstract art is itself. Stella took color
of those steles. into uncharted territory, and on an
 .

648 STELLA, JOSEPH

enormous canvas his colors may be so cerpts from his commentary on the

strong as to almost defy the viewer's bridge are quoted above. Stella was
presence in the space it occupies. among the founders of the societe
ANONYME INC.
Stella,Joseph
1 877-1946 • American • painter • Stencil
Futurist See PRINTING

[It is a] weird metallic apparition

Stern, Robert
under a metallic sky, out of proportion
See POSTMODERNISM
with the winged lightness of its
arch . . massive dark towers
Stettheimer, Florine
dominating the surrounding tumult of
1871-1944 • American • painter •
surging skyscrapers with their gothic
"Rococo Subversive"
majesty sealed in the purity of their
arches . . . the shrine containing all the My attitude is one of Love I is all

of the new civilization,

efforts adoration I for all the fringes I all the

America — the eloquent meeting point color I all tinsel creation I . . . and the

of all the forces arising in a superb sky full of towers I and traffic in the

assertion of their powers, an streets I . . . and crystal fixtures I and

Apotheosis, my pictures . . .

The only American artist to come di- Only in the mid-1990s did Florine Stet-

rectly under the influence of the Italian theimer's witty, ethereal paintings begin
FUTURISTS — no doubt because he was to receive the critical attention they de-
born in Italy — immigrated to New serve. During her lifetime she had just a

York when he was 19 and returned to single one-person show, and her will

study in Italy and Paris between 1909 specified that her work be destroyed.
and 19 1 2. He was in Paris when the Fu- Fortunately, the willwas broken. Many
turists had their first exhibition there in fanciful scenes were peopled with her

February 19 12. The year after his re- two sisters, herself, and their friends
turn to the United States, Stella painted from the world of arts and letters. She
a brilliant example of Futurism's dy- lived in and loved New York, as shown

namism in Battle of Lights, Coney Is- in her poetry quoted above, and she

land (1913; one of a series).The painted a series of four Cathedral pic-

elements of Coney Island's amusement tures in honor of the city: Cathedrals of
park are fractured into multitudes of Broadway (1929), Cathedrals of Fifth
small, geometric, kaleidoscopic forms Avenue (193 1), Cathedrals of Wall
in strong, pure, bright colors. Slanted Street (1939), and Cathedrals of Art
"force lines" add to the painting's (1942). Part fantasy, part reality, and
honky-tonk glitter and energy. Stella all humorous, these are executed in her

painted Futurist interpretations of the characteristic light, bright colors and

Brooklyn Bridge, a subject that fasci- lighthearted style. Her elongated, float-

nated many of his contemporaries. Ex- ing, dimensionless figures are often car-
 —

STIJL, DE (the style) 649

icatures of the social, political, and art tographer himself, Stieglitz promoted
world elite with whom she socialized. photography as an art rather than for
The list includes the literary figure Carl its traditional role of documentation:
van Vechten, the Henry art critic The Steerage is one of his own artful

McBride, stieglitz, and duchamp. compositions in which people are seen

She also designed the stage set and cos- in terms of lines, shapes, and spaces.
tumes for Four Saints in Three Acts, The movement devoted to this purpose
written by stein. Stettheimer fits into was called Photo-Secession, formed by
no recognizable stylistic category, but Stieglitz and steichen in 1902. Among

the phrase "Rococo Subversive" used its members were Gertrude Kasebier

by the historian Linda Nochlin, fits (1 852-1934) and Clarence White

nicely. (1871-1925). Against institutions and
"isms" of all kinds, sometimes Stieglitz
Stieglitz, Alfred was as enigmatic as he was provocative,
1 864-1 946 • American • as is true of his comment quoted above.
photographer • Pictorialist

Stijl, De (The Style)

/ am the moment. I am the moment
Underlying De Stijl, a movement that
with of me and anyone is free to be
all
formed in Amsterdam in 19 17, was an
the moment with me. I want nothing
effort to impose clarity, certainty, and
from anyone. I have no theory about
order on the chaos caused by World
what the moment should bring. I am
War I. While America's reaction to the
not attempting to be in more than one
war was isolationist, politically as well
place at a time. I am merely the
as artistically, one of the European reac-
moment with all of me.
tions expressed through De Stijl was to

was probably the most signifi-

Stieglitz search for the spiritual through the ra-
cant influence on and motivation for tional. (Others dada and surreal-
the introduction of modern art in ism, for example — were entirely

America. His art gallery, founded in irrational.) Holland had been neutral
1905 and named 291 for its address on during the war, but the country was
Fifth Avenue in New York City, and his nevertheless beset by a sense of up-
publication Camera Work both pro- heaval. Prime movers of De Stijl were
moted the avant-garde. He not only the painter van doesburg, who
brought the newest innovations in Eu- launched a periodical called De Stijl,

ropean art, but also supported Ameri- and his close ally, until their split in

cans in their Modernist ventures. A 1924, mondrian. The movement was

group known as the Stieglitz Circle in- predicated on teachings of Theosophy,
cluded WEBER, DOVE, MARIN, HARTLEY, a spiritualism based on Oriental reli-

and o'keeffe, whom Stieglitz married gion. Aware of but rejecting other con-
and who became his subject in a series temporary styles, van Doesburg and
of photographs he made over 20 years. Mondrian on the primacy of
insisted

The first exhibition of American Mod- the straight line and its expression
ernists was held at 291 in 1909. A pho- through right angles and geometric
650 STILL, CLYFFORD E.

shapes. Their canvases were painted still life

with the primary colors, red, yellow, A branch of painting that, in essence,

and blue, and with neutral black, white, represents things standing The use
still.

and gray tones. De Stijl experimenta- of the term in English is derived from
tion with the straight line encouraged the Dutch stilleven — leven originally
typographical work with geometrical meant not only "life" but also "model."
letter shapes and architectural innova- From pliny the Elder's account of the
tions in what came to be the interna- rivalry between parrhasius and
TiONAL STYLE. Both Mondrian and the zeuxis, we know that Greek artists
American architect Frank Lloyd painted trompe l'oeils, and we may
WRIGHT influenced the building style surmise that they also painted more
whose most important De Stijl propo- conventional still lifes. Romans did;

nents were H. P. Berlage (i 856-1934) called xenia, these included the paint-
andj. P. Oud (i 890-1973). ingsof vegetables, fruits, and dead birds
that were fashionable on the walls of
domestic interiors in pompeii. A detail

Still, Clyfford E. from a Fourth Style wall painting from

1 904-1 9 80 • American • painter • herculaneum. Still Life with Peaches
Abstract Expressionist (c. 62-79 ce), shows green peaches

arranged on two shelves; with them is a

A great free joy surges through me
glass jar half-filled with water. The
when I work. And as the blues or reds
, , , , , . . , . artist painted the view through the
or blacks leap and quiver in their . .
, , j 1 r j
. . glass, through the water and the tar side
tenuous ambiance or rise in austere
of the jar, to the surface beyond.
thrust to carry their power infinitely
Whether such images had social or
beyond the bounds of the limiting
field, I move with them and find a
philosophical significance — reference
r , ., J to PLATO s comments on art, or allu-
resurrection from the moribund •
, /-

sions to man s
1

control over nature, tor

oppressions that held me only hours
instance — is open to discussion.
j- •
t-i
Ele-

ments of still life appeared as margina-

Still covered his canvases with thick lia in medieval manuscripts. Later, in

paint, seemingly applied with a trowel, northern renaissance paintings, still

The shapes on his dark backgrounds are life "passages" or details, like the fore-

indeterminate, but they are not globular ground columbine in van der goes's
or BiOMORPHic, nor are they recogniz- Portinari Altarpiece (c. 1473-78), were,
able FIGURES, though they are sugges- besides their exceptional beauty, sym-
tive of forms that individual viewers see bolicallycoded to represent ideas like
differently — e.g., 1946-H (Indian Red the Holy Ghost. The first autonomous
and Black); 1946. The goal he ex- still lifes were approximately concur-
pressed was to turn matter into spirit. rent in mid- 16th-century Italy and the
He believed in the transformative Netherlands. However, the "Golden
power of art and thought of himself as Age" of still life painting occurred dur-
something of a shaman. ing the 17th century in the Low Coun-
 STOSS, VIET 651

tries. At the end of the i6th century, tion and in metaphysical and metaphor-
when the Reformation reduced the de- ical intention, still life paintings have re-
mand for reHgious paintings and the mained at the bottom of the hierarchy
growing middle class provided a market in critical appreciation.

for other kinds of art, Netherlandish

artists became especially accomplished Stokes, Adrian
at independent still life pictures. But 1902-1972 • English •

scholars will argue that apparently sec- writer/painter • Aestheticist

ular subjects, like aertsen's Meat Still
Apart from the more or less irrelevant
Life (1551), make reference to religious
fact that I always want to do it I find I
topics, just as the humble but superb
can speak about my own painting only
fruitsand vegetables of the Spanish
in a negative way.
painter cotan seem sacred. Glorious
bouquets Dutch flower still lifes of
in Stokes praised works of art that deliver
the 17th and i8th centuries represent their message or meaning to the viewer
luxury, prestige, and the enormous immediately, without need for or re-

wealth that was needed to grow such course to particular knowledge or

botanical specimens (see ruysch). car- iconography. Because he believed that
AVAGGio sabotaged that kind of excess much of the best art of that kind was
when he painted overripe fruit begin- made in the 15th century, Stokes de-
ning to rot. Moreover, he painted it so vised the term "quattro cento" from the
that it seems to project from the canvas Italian word quattrocento, or the
into the viewer's world (for example 1 400s. piero della Francesca is Stokes's
Basket of Fruit, c. 1600). Still life {na- exemplar of the art he admired; he said
ture morte in French, "dead life") that Piero's colors and their relation-
ranked at the bottom of the French ships tell all one needs know of the
Academy's hierarchy, yet it persisted as story. The highly subjective and often
an artistic challenge (e.g., chardin). passionate aestheticism of Stokes's
America's first great portrait artist, analysis is found in The Quattro Cento
COPLEY, incorporated a masterful still (1932) and The Stones of Rimini
life of a water glass on a highly polished (1934). Stokes himself began to paint in
table in the painting he sent to London 1936, but while effusive in writing
for a critique of his skill. Still life also about the artists of the "quattro cento,"
played a central part for artists of im- he was stern regarding the "deficien-
pressionism and CUBISM. In American cies" of his own work, as intimated in
art, o'keeffe broke through traditions the quotation above.
to hold still life images, from skulls
to flowers, in uniquely close, tightly
Stoss, Viet
cropped focus, which she also hugely
c. 1445/50-1533 • German •
magnified. Still lifes have, in fact,
sculptor • Late Gothic
played almost every role possible in art,

from incidental to absolutely central. Stoss is to be reckoned with as one of

But despite enduring ambition in execu- the most gifted and individual masters
652 STRAND, PAUL

of Late Gothic sculpture. (James never was able to reclaim his earlier
Snyder, 1985) prestige.

Stoss was a contemporary of riemen-

SCHNEIDER, and like him carved com- Strand, Paul
plex painted wood altarpieces with 1 890-1976 • American •

numerous figures, elaborate scenes, and photographer • Pictorialist/Social

flamboyant decorative work. Stoss's Documentary

figures were more expressive than
Your photography is a record of your
Riemenschneider's, and his interpretive
living, for anyone who really sees.
approach was also distinctive. For
You may see and be affected by other
Death of the Virgin, the central scene of
people's ways, you may even use
the Saint Mary Altarpiece (1477-79)
them to find your own, but you will
for a church in Krakow, Poland, he
have eventually to free yourself of
chose to show Mary collapsing to her
them. That is what Nietzsche meant
knees, surrounded by apostles, rather
when he said, "I have just read
than the typical tableau of Mary dying
Schopenhauer, now I have to get
in bed. Moreover, he used the opportu-
rid of him." He knew how insidious
nity to exaggerate her drapery and that
other people's ways could be,
of all the apostles, with deep creases,
particularly those which have the
curves, and hard, sharp edges, thus
forcefulness of profound experience,
adding more drama than their faces
if you let them get between you and
show. (Indeed, if their robes were
your vision.
ironed out, so to speak, it would seem a
remarkably less troubling scenario.) Strand studied with Lewis Hine (see
The emotion he conveyed results in Riis) in New York City and later (1907)
Stoss's work being labeled "Gothic was introduced to the stieglitz Circle
Baroque." His style seems to mirror the (Strand had his first exhibition at the
turbulence of his own disposition and 291 Gallery in 19 16). He used abstrac-
fate as much as the scenes he portrayed. tion in his photographic compositions,
"In contrast to the prosperous career of examining machinery and other ob-
Riemenschneider, that of Stoss was a jects, much as precisionist painters
tragic melodrama of a true individual like SHEELER did. He also took tight,
who made concessions to no popular close-up photographs of plants that re-
tastes and was, in his later years, practi- semble o'keeffe's paintings. When he
cally an outcast in the artistic commu- went to New Mexico, Strand took pic-

nity of Nuremberg," writes James tures of same adobe church

the
Snyder, whose evaluation of Stoss's {Church, Ranchos de Taos, New Mex-
oeuvre is also quoted above. Stoss's ico, 193 1 ) that O'Keeffe painted. Both
troubles reached a critical point when treated the building abstractly, but were
he was prosecuted for forging a finan- also attentive to its tactile quality and
cial document. Though ultimately par- its texture, as well as that of the desert
doned by Emperor Maximilian, Stoss and the sky.
 STUART, GILBERT 653

Structuralism touched in a masterly style, as a

Sometime after 1950, structuralism likeness was inferior
it the . . .

emerged in France. It was an alternative complexion being too fair and too
to MARXISM, which focused on eco- florid, the forehead too flat, brows too

nomic forces, and to existentialism, high, eyes too full, nose too broad,
which concentrated on the individual's about the mouth too much inflated,
will and self-definition. Structuralism and the neck too long. Such were the
assumes that a system, set of rules, or estimates made by artists and others
truths may be discovered by rational during the lifetime of Washington. This
means (see semiotics). With its faith in is truth and should be a matter of
the human intellect, structuralism is a history. (Rembrandt Peale, i8th
HUMANiSTic approach. As an approach century)
to art history, structuralism is less

devoted to revealing the meaning of an For zoo years Americans have seen
individualwork of art than to under- George Washington with receding hair-
standing and making explicit the be- line and a gray wig that fluffs out over
liefs, practices, and conventions that his ears; deep-set, muddy brown,
enable the work to have taken the form heavy-lidded, expressionless eyes; high
and communicated the meaning it does. forehead and large nose; soft mouth
A structuralist study of visual narra- and jowly cheeks. This icon, which ap-
tive, like that carved onto the column pears on everything from the dollar bill

OF TRAJAN, for example, assumes that to advertisements for cherry pie, is

there is a correct way of "reading" or called the Atheneum head because it

understanding the story it tells, and the hung in the Boston Atheneum. It was
sculptural means of telling it, whether painted by Gilbert Stuart, first in 1796
the artist is following an old convention and at least 70 times subsequently.
or inventing a new one. poststruc- Stuart, who kept the original of the
TURALISM takes exception to this fixing Atheneum head tacked up in his studio,
of context, and deconstruction became so proficient at painting Wash-
demonstrates how understanding is ingtons that he could turn out one every
never secure but is always unstable, de- two hours; they were called his $100
ferred, subject to change, contingent, bills because that is what he charged for

and open ended. them. Charles Willson peale and his

son, Rembrandt Peale, who is quoted
above, both painted Washington from
Stuart, Gilbert
life, as did several others, but their opin-
175 5-1828 • American • painter •
ion of Stuart's painting was shared.
Federal
Why, then, did Stuart's image rise to the
On my return to Philadelphia in May status of national icon? One theory is

1796 saw for the first time, in

I that, in rebellion against European aris-

company with my father and uncle, tocracy, Americans wanted their heroes
Stuart's portrait. We all agreed that humble and plain. But perhaps it was
though beautifully painted and simply that Stuart's brilliance as a
654 STUBBS, GEORGE

painter and fame as a portraitist served the reins, the young groom a towel, and
to elevate this particular work. His style one cannot but notice how the human
was to brush on paint with fast, easy, figures are diminished in relation to the

and free gestures that captured spirit heroic horse. Elected an associate mem-
with spontaneity. He studied in Eng- ber of the Royal Academy, Stubbs did
land under west and was influenced by not become a full member because he
the style of Reynolds and romney. But never found time to paint the "presenta-
Stuart was irascible, volatile, a man of membership re-
tion picture" that full
excess in habits as well as moods. He quired. As were flaxman and Joseph
drank heavily and was always in debt. WRIGHT of Derby, Stubbs was commis-
Indebtedness caused him to move from sioned by Josiah Wedgwood, the in-
London, where he was successful, to novative and successful pottery
Ireland, where he both prospered and manufacturer, to execute designs for
again fell into debt serious enough to be production. Another of his clients, the
sent to prison. He fled to America in anatomist John Hunter, engaged Stubbs
1793, declaring that he was returning in 1772 to paint a rhinoceros that be-
home to make his fortune by painting longed to a menagerie in London's
George Washington. Strand. A series of paintings that does
not fit easily into Stubbs's oeuvre is

Stubbs, George Lion Devouring a Horse. He painted at

1724-1806 • English pamter least 17 known versions of a terrified
Romantic horse with a lion on its back. According
to an often repeated anecdote, Stubbs
Nature was and always is superior to
had seen such an attack while stopping
Art, whether Greek or Roman.
in North Africa on his way home from
While GAINSBOROUGH and Reynolds Italy. This may be a fabrication, but
painted portraits of English aristocracy, he did study the lion in a private
Stubbs painted their horses. An author- menagerie, and deliberately frightened
ity on anatomy and a superb, self- a horse to capture its expression of star-
taught technician, he first made his tled fear. The image of a lion attacking
living painting people. Then, after its prey is ancient, but Stubbs's render-
travel through Italy and avid studies ing of this uncontrollable violence
of anatomy that included dissecting presages a theme of the romantic
horses, he carved a unique and very suc- movement.
cessful niche; his clients included every
nobleman and member of the royal Study collection
family who owned a horse. Sometimes As the term itself implies, this refers to

he also painted the horses' owners, an art collection that serves primarily
grooms, or coachmen. One of his tri- an educational purpose. The term also
umphs is Hambeltonian, Rubbing implies a collection that is less than first

Down, shown at the Royal Academy in quality, for generally only the largest
1800. The horse is portrayed just after MUSEUMS can afford masterpieces,
winning in a spectacular finish an espe- and they are not part of colleges and
cially grueling race. The owner holds universities. Moreover, because of
 STYLE 655

space restrictions, large and medium- hibited in an international show of new

size museums can keep only a small per- and revolutionary art. Between 19 10
centage, the cream of their collection, and 19 14, Berlin was a vital city for art
on permanent display; the rest is in stor- and artists, thanks greatly to Walden,
age. (Scholars may make arrangements but that came to an end with World
to see them, however.) In the 1950s, the War I.
Yale University Art Gallery pioneered
in publicly exhibiting, rather than con- style
cealing, its furniture storage in such a The word is from the Latin stilus, the in-
way that it may be used for teaching, strument with which Romans wrote
Second-quality works are important for and thus expressed themselves. To the
educational purposes. The Smith Col- art historian, style is the expression of
lege Museum of Art, in Northampton, an individual or group in a culture dur-

Massachusetts, for example (which also ing a given period of time, and is an es-

owns several masterworks), has sential subject of inquiry. When a new

DEGAs's uncompleted The Daughter of style appears (e.g., American impres-
Jephthah (c. 1859-61), a work that re- sionism), it may be explained by travel
veals much about the artist's painting (e.g., see chase), migration (see animal
techniques. Another instructive work in style), trade (see ukiyo-e), or ideology
the same collection is courbet's The (e.g., the impulse of 15th-century Ital-
Preparation of the Dead Girl (c. ians to find inspiration in ancient Rome
1850-55). It formerly was called The during the Italian renaissance). Art
Preparation of the Bride; the name of historians as early as pliny the Elder
this painting was changed after x-rays and vasari discussed style, making
revealed that the original picture was judgments with implicit nationalistic,
painted over, in order to change the political, or other biases. Methods for
scene to a less morbid subject and, the analysis and explanation of style
probably, to enhance its economic have been the preoccupation of art his-

value after the artist himself had died. torians ever since. To the extent that
analysis of style (on which the practice
Sturm, Der The Assault) (
of connoisseurship depends) is bound
The name of an avant-garde period- up with the authentication of art for
ical and gallery founded in Berlin by purposes of buying and selling, it has
the poet, critic, musician Herwarth come under attack, especially since the
Walden. (Sturm und Drang is the name 1970s. But most historians examine
of a German romantic literary move- style for evidence of deeper meanings,
ment of the late i8th century.) Walden Still, it remains true, as Meyer scha-
showcased the work of German ex- piro wrote in 1953, "A theory of style
—
pressionists der blaue reiter and adequate to the psychological and his-

—
DiE BRUCKE as well as Italian futur- torical problems has still to be created.
ists and braque, derain, vlaminck. It waits for a deeper knowledge of the
ensor, klee, and delaunay. In 19 13, principles of form construction and ex-
the high point of the gallery, a room full pression and for a unified theory of the
of Henri Rousseau's paintings was ex- processes of social life in which the
656 SUB-ANTIQUE

practical means of life as well as emo- what was felt took precedence over re-
tional behavior are comprised." porting what was seen. The Sublime
could be felt in the wilderness land-
sub-Antique scapes of COLE, the roiling seas, ship-
The term "sub-Antique" is used to dis- wrecks, and storms of turner, the
tinguish styles that kept more or less of monsters of fuseli, the melodramas of
their own traditional expression despite John martin, and the ravaging beasts
strong, Greco-Roman influences after sculpted by barye. Architects of the
conquests by Alexander the Great, and, Sublime include boullee and soane.
later, the succession of Roman emper- Burke's assault on the clarity of ratio-
ors. Sub-Antique, sometimes called nalism led him to note, "Dark, con-
"pseudo-Classical," may be understood fused, uncertain images have a greater
as resistant to the classical spirit and power on the fancy to form the grander
authority. Regions where this is found passions than those which are more
include North Africa; the Nile Valley clear and determinate." The visionary
(see faiyum); Syria; Parathian and artist BLAKE dedicated his Book of job
Sasanian Mesopotamia and Persia; in- to Burke, who influenced the selection
land Asia Minor; and the island of of verses that Blake illustrated. The
Cyprus. These provincial styles, as the value placed on the intuitive and emo-
historian Ernst Kitzinger notes, in turn tional Romanticism was anticipated by
exerted influence in major cities of the the Sublime.
Roman Empire.
Suger, abbot of Saint-Denis
Sublime, the 1081-1151 • French • cleric/patron

In art and literature, during the i8th

When, out of my delight in the beauty
century, the idea of the Sublime was an
of the house of God, the loveliness of
antidote to the overriding rationality of
the many-colored gems has called me
the Scientific Revolution and the Age of
away from external cares, and worthy
ENLIGHTENMENT. It was expressed in
meditation has induced me to
Edmund Burke's A Philosophical In-
reflect . . . on the diversityof the sacred
quiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of
virtues: then it seems to me that by . . .

the Sublime and Beautiful (1757). This

the grace of God, I can be transported
Sublime, seen largely in nature, was a
from this inferior to that higher world
synonym for inexplicable grandeur,
in an anagogical manner.
awesome power, that which incites ter-
ror. Distinctive from the "beautiful," Suger, abbot of Saint-Denis, was an
which in theory implied balance and exceptionally effective churchman
harmony, it was also different from the and administrator. Dating back to car-
PICTURESQUE, a slightly later 18th- OLiNGiAN times, the Benedictine
century concept concerned with ir- monastery of Saint-Denis, just north of
regularity and The Sublime
variety. Paris, was an unusually wealthy and po-
manifested itself in many guises, com- litically important abbey. French kings
ing into its own during the romantic were buried there and it had the relics of
era, when the importance of revealing Saint Denis, the patron saint of France.
 SULLY, THOMAS 657

As chief adviser to the king, besides his own language. The nine-story Wain-
role as abbot, Suger secured a mutually wright Building in Saint Louis, Mis-
beneficial alliance between the monar- souri (1890-91), sets the direction, with
chy and the Church. His rebuilding of an exterior brick facade that reflects its

Saint-Denis between 1137 and 1144 structural frame. While true to their in-
marks the birth of gothic style. Suger ternal forms, his buildings are neverthe-
wrote ecstatically and in detail about less richly ornamented. For Sullivan,
his entire building enterprise. His radi- ornamentation was more than the com-
cal transformation was to replace the plexity and beauty recognized by most,
massive, heavy solidity of ROMANESQUE who praised his geometric, floral, and
architecture with thin walls, supported foliate patterns. To him these decora-
on the outside by buttresses, and creat- tions represented the conviction that
ing a soaring open interior space filled "man," the hero — athlete, street-paver,
with colored light shining through bridge-builder — must surrender his in-
STAINED GLASS windows. Suger's new dividual will to the supreme will of na-
style spread through France and the rest ture. Sullivan wanted his buildings to
of Europe, cistercian critics saw os- remind people of their bond to nature,
tentation and base materialism in and to find joy in that attachment.
Suger's love of worldly beauty and pre- Frank Lloyd wright was Sullivan's dis-
cious materials, but Suger rationalized ciple. Though he was fired for moon-
the art's anagogical, or mystical, power lighting while working for the firm of
as a means to transport the individual Sullivan and Adler (Dankmar Adler,
to a higher, spiritual realm, as the pas- 1 844-1 900, Sullivan's partner, was

sage quoted above shows. concerned more with engineering than

with design), Wright and Sullivan were
Sullivan, Louis later reconciled, and Wright was among

1 856-1924 • American • architect • those who remained faithful to the man

Modern he called "Master."

Form ever follows function.

Sully, Thomas
Though Sullivan's name and work are 1783-1872 • American pamter
less well known than his famous dictum Federal
that form should follow function,
Mr. Sully is, as we believe and sincerely
quoted above, and though he died in
hope, anchored safely in port for life.
poverty and disrepute, he is among the
He has portraits engaged in succession
giants of architectural history. Sullivan
for years to come at liberal prices. His
is credited with giving shape to the tall
fellow citizens of Philadelphia justly
building and establishing a theoretical
appreciate him as an artist and a man.
foundation for modern architecture in
(William Dunlap, 1834)
the United States. He insisted that mul-

tistory, skyscraper buildings escape the Sully was an eminent Philadelphia por-
CLASSICAL, Beaux-Arts traditions (de- trait painter for more than 50 years, as

spite his having studied at the ecole Dunlap, quoted above, wrote in his
DBS beaux-arts) and establish their three-volume history of art in America.
 —

658 SUPERREALISM

In the beginning he followed in stu- Russia, but Suprematism (like con-

art's footsteps, but later, after a trip to structivism) gained influence in Ger-
England and studies under west, he ac- many. In 1927 a publication of the
quired a style of his own.He brought BAUHAUS printed an essay by Malevich
idealism and the grand manner to in which he wrote, "To the Suprematist
his pictures, much in the style of Sir the visual phenomena of the objective
Thomas lawrence. On a visit to Scot- world are, in themselves, meaningless;

land in 18 17, Sully spent time with Sir the significant thing is feeling, as such,

Walter Scott and described to him a quite apart from the environment in

beautiful young Jew, Rebecca Gratz, to which it is called forth."

whom he had been introduced in 1 807
and whose portrait he would paint Surrealism
three times during the 1830s. There is In 1922 Andre Breton led a rebellion
much evidence that from Sully's de- against dada (in which he had earlier
scription she provided the model for a participated) on the grounds that it was
character, also called Rebecca, in becoming institutionalized. His group
Scott's popular novel Ivanhoe (1820). broke up the Dada Congress of Paris in

1922 (the last great Dada exhibition).

Superrealism In 1924 Breton drew up a "Manifesto
See PHOTOREALISM of Surrealism." Dominated by poets
and literary critics, the movement gave

support central significance to the importance

Refers to the basic material upon which of dreams and the subconscious, and
a work of art is painted canvas, Breton described Surrealism's purpose
wood, PAPER, plaster, ivory, or another as to "resolve the previously contradic-
surface. The support is often coated or tory conditions of dream and reality

prepared to receive paint, in which case into an absolute reality, a surreality."

it is covered by a ground, and the
ground is the actual surface onto which
paint is applied. Thus, in a panel paint-
ing, the wood panel is the support and
GESSO is the ground onto which paint is
applied.
PiCABiA, MAN RAY, and ERNST joined
Breton. Techniques for exploring the
unconscious world that so interested
them included automatism: Having
emptied the mind of preconceived no-
tions and achieved a passive state, the
artist might start to draw or paint.

Suprematism FROTTAGE (rubbing surface texture

Refers to a concept and style arrived at through paper) was another technique.
by MALEVICH in 191 3 when he "took While automatism was the prompt,
refuge in the square," thereby unbur- once the idea was received, the artist
dening his work of the "object" and de- took charge of executing the image with
vising as pure an abstract art as had full consciousness. Some artists whom
been painted to date. His manifesto was Surrealism tried to claim demurred
formulated and the Suprematist move- KAHLO and chagall). The first
(e.g.,

ment formed in 1915. After 1920, Ab- group show of Surrealist artists was
stract art was officially rejected in in 1925. Exhibitors included arp, de
 SYMBOLISM 659

CHiRico, Ernst, klee, Man Ray, mir6, quired the About 1660 he became
title.

and PICASSO, tanguy, duchamp, Pi- a lay brother and missionary with the
cabia, magritte, and dali joined later. Lazarist Fathers, but he seems to have
Besides being a revolutionary move- lost his sanity during a trip to the Ori-
ment in art and literature. Surrealism ent, was dismissed from the mission,
was also political. It maintained a and died in India in 1664. He is one of
steady Communist line during the the 17th century's most mysterious
1920s. Artists did not match writers in painters. In Visiting the Sick (from the
their propagandistic positions, but Pi- series the Seven Acts of Mercy, c.

casso was among those who passed 1651-52), he infused his humble sub-
through a Surrealistic phase and be- jects with stillness, solemnity, and quiet
came a Communist in protest against dignity. In his strong contrasting of
Franco's Fascism. With the Nazi inva- light and shadow, he seems stylistically

sion of Paris in the spring of 1940, most akin to the le nains and de la tour.
of the Surrealists, including Ernst, Tan-
guy, Dali, MASSON, MATTA, and Breton symbol/symbolic
himself, took refuge in the United A symbol signifies something other
States. Their influence on American ab- than itself. Symbols in art are devised by
stract EXPRESSIONIST artists was mo- association (e.g., the cross as a symbol
mentous. The most important gathering for Christ), evocation (the sword as a
place for Surrealists in America was phallus), or convention (a white lily for
Guggenheim's private gallery, called purity). Cesare Ripa's Iconologia
Art of This Century. (1593), an alphabetized dictionary of
symbols as well as attributes and per-
Sweerts, Michael sonifications, served as a standard ref-
1 61 8-1 664 • Flemish • painter • erence for artists for more than two
Baroque centuries (see emblem book). How-
[Sweerts] eats no meat, fasts almost
ever, some symbols —the fantastic cre-
ations in bosch's Garden of Earthly
every day, sleeps on a hard floor and
gives possessions to the poor; each
Delights (c. 1504), for example fall —
outside tradition.
week he takes communion three or
four times. (De Chameson, 1661)
Symbolism
Sweerts was one of the bamboccianti From c. 1885 to c. 1900, following and
and among the so-called Birds of a realism^ and impres-
in contrast to
Feather, as the association of Nether- sionism. Symbolism was a movement
landish artists in Rome was known. in literature (e.g., Stephane Mallarme
He returned home to Brussels and in and Paul Verlaine) as well as the visual
1656 received permission to open an arts. Inways an expression of roman-
academy for life drawing, especially for ticism. Symbolism was also subjective
painters of tapestry cartoons. It was and emotional rather than objective
not a success, however. He called him- and detached. The music of Richard
self an Eques, or knight, although it is Wagner was a source for much inspira-
not clear if, or how, he might have ac- tion and imagery. Stylistically, Symbol-
66o SYNCHROMISM

ist artists varied widely, but to the ex- paintings Synchromies. The catalyst for
tent that one can generalize, there was was a Canadian artist, Ernest
their ideas

an inclination to "synthesize" rather Percyval Tudor-Hart (1873-1954),

than describe what the eye saw, to
evoke rather than describe, to suggest
ideas by symbols rather than elaborate
on them in a reportorial manner. "To
conjure up the negated object, with
the help of allusive and always
direct words, which constantly efface
themselves in a complementary
lence . . . comes close to the act of cre-
ation," Mallarme wrote, neoplatonic
PHILOSOPHY, the occult, and neo-
Catholicism were intellectually fashion-
able in Symbolist circles. While some
explored religious mysticism, even Sa-
tanism, and/or the erotic, others were
interested inwhat was deemed "primi-
tive" and exotic. A "Symbolist Mani-
festo" stated that Symbolism's goals
were "to objectify the subjective
externalization of an idea) instead of
subjectifying the objective (nature seen
through the eyes of a temperament)."
Among whose names are con-
artists
nected with Symbolism are moreau,
PUVIS DE CHAVANNES, GAUGUIN, RYDER,
DENIS, REDON, and KLIMT. The NABIS,
Rosicrucians of the salon de la rose +
CROIX, and synthetism were part of
who promoted a system of color har-
monies that established correspon-
dences between tonal sound and color.
Their theory offered the idea that color
generates meaning and space in addi-
in- tion to form. Synchromism, which de-
clined after about three years, was
si- formulated at the same time as the
French movement orphism,
called
founded by delaunay, and was dis-
missed as merely an extension of im-
pressionism by the Americans.
Synchronic/Diachronic analysis
Used in connection with semiotics,
these terms concern the notion of move-
ment in time. "Synchrony," from the
Greek syn, meaning "together," and
(the chronos, meaning "time," describes a
study or analysis concerned with a par-
ticularmoment, and thus looks at lan-
guage, or a work of art, within a limited
time, place, and social system. Dia,
meaning "through," combined with the
Greek for time, refers to an analysis that
is attentive to evolution and change
over time; thus, diachronic studies are
historical.

Symbolism.
synesthesia
Synchromism In the visual arts, synesthesia refers to
In the early 1910s two American artists, the transfer, or translation, of nonvisual
MACDONALD-WRIGHT and RUSSELL, de- — sound, temperature or
sensations
veloped new concepts about using movement — to visual representations,
color, hence the combination, from the not only through color, the most ob-
Greek roots, syn, meaning "together," vious correlation (e.g., red for heat),
and chromatic, meaning "pertaining to but also through line and pattern.
color." They were the first American whistler gave a number of his paint-
artists to formulate a new aesthetic, ings titles of musical compositions, e.g..
complete with manifesto. They called Symphony in White No. II: The Little

themselves Synchromists and their White Girl (1864). dove experimented

 1

SYNTHETISM 66

with synesthesia in paintings like Fog Synthetism

Horns (19Z9), and mondrian's Broad- Word coined by Bernard and gauguin
way Boogie-Woogie 1942-43 pro-
{ ) to describe their effort to distill a deeper
vides still another example, munch, meaning from the natural world rather
KANDiNSKY, and BURCHFiELD are others than to represent accurately a mirror
who tried to render sensory experience image of what they saw.
in visual terms.

Synthetic Cubism
See CUBISM
 —

Tachisme (UArt Informel) on a black background. Her combina-

From the French word that means tions of these entirely abstract, geomet-
"spot" or "stain," Tachisme is the ric forms may begin to suggest
French version of American abstract representational shapes — a mouth, a
EXPRESSIONISM. Its painters were in the car — as clouds sometimes will do. Be-
second wave of the school of paris, sides painting, Taeuber-Arp was a
and a spokesman and theorist for the weaver, dancer, marionette maker, and
movement was the French critic Michel stage, furniture, and house designer,
Tapie (born 1909), whose tract on the among her multitude of skills. For 13
subject is entitled Un Art autre (1952). years she held the post of professor of
In it he writes, "Today, art must stupefy textile design at Zurich's School of Ap-
to be art . . . the true creators know that plied Arts. She appeared in dada per-
the only way for them to express the in- formances and met arp, whom she
evitability of their message is through married. They lived near Paris and col-
the extraordinary — paroxysm, magic, laborated from 1928 to 1940, when the
total ecstasy." German occupation of France caused
their return to Switzerland. That was
Taeuber-Arp, Sophie followed by her untimely death three
1889-1943 • Swiss • years later. She did not sign or date her
painter/designer • Abstraction work until the last two years of her life,
and she left behind very few writings.
. . . the wish to produce beautiful
The quotation above is from an article
things — when that wish is true and
she wrote in 1922..
profound— falls together with [one's]
striving for perfection.
Takis (Panayiotis Vassilakis)
Working with most basic forms
the born 1925 • Greek • sculptor •
circle, square, and rectangle and few — Nonobjective/Kinetic art
colors, Taeuber-Arp investigated many
. . . just the first in a series of acts
possible configurations. Much as mon-
against the stagnant policies of art
DRiAN experimented with straight lines
museums all over the world.
and right angles, she limited her shapes
and colors to simultaneously expand First Takis made experimental sculp-
their possibilities. Composition of Cir- tures of steel and wire with weights and
clesand Semicircles (1935) organizes springs that gave them motion (see ki-

those two shapes in blue, white, and red netic art). Then he experimented with
 TANGUY, YVES 663

magnetic fields and moving objects, and of native Mexicans emerge. He used
iron filings within them — for example, mainly earth colors, which was overly
Magnetic Ballets (1960s). In 1969, noted by critics, according to his com-
however, he attracted more attention ment quoted above. His simplified
than did his work: He and five friends figures, often merging with the back-
staged a sit-in at the Museum of Mod- ground, are idiosyncratic and easily rec-
ern Art in New York City when the cu- ognizable. Man against the Wall ( 1 960),
rator of the exhibition entitled The for example, combines geometric and
Machine as Seen at the End of the Me- biomorphic or globular masses; the
chanical Age would not replace a 10- "man" has a circle for a head and ab-
year-old work by Takis with a newer stract shapes for the rest of his body. He
one. Takis distributed a handbill refer- is a buff-colored form standing against
ring to this act of defiance and his hope, a muddy, green-brown wall in an envi-
as stated in the quotation above, that it ronment of muted colors. Tamayo
was just the beginning. In fact, he was a worked in New York during the late
catalyst for a loose coalition of young 1930s and 1940s, and during the 1950s
artists who felt alienated by the "art es- went to Paris, where he entered into an
tablishment." They formed the art artistic dialogue with picasso and ma-

workers' COALITION, and among their tisse. He rejected the political rhetoric
complaints were the exhibition of Mexican muralists
of the revolutionary
works by living artists without their (see rivera and siqueiros). At the

consent and curators' failure to consult mid-zoth century, Tamayo was one of
with artists about the installation and the most influential Latin American
maintenance of their work. painters.

Talbot, William Henry Fox Tanguy, Yves

See daguerre 1900-19 5 5 • French/American •

painter • Surrealist
Tamayo, Rufino
We had decided that nothing would be
1 899-199 1 • Mexican • painter •
defined I Unless according to the finger
Figurative abstraction
resting by chance on the controls of a
A lot has been said about my color, but broken machine. (Paul Eluard, 193Z)
they have not paid any attention to the
On seeing an early de chirico painting
arrangement of spaces. It's not all
in a shop window, Tanguy decided to
color.
become a painter, the story goes. He
Tamayo's parents were Zapotec Indi- visited Andre breton soon after, be-

ans, and interest in his country's came a SURREALIST, and developed ex-
ethnography led to his working, when pertise in technique and intimacy with
he was in his early 20s, as director of the the fantastic. He painted an idea of infi-

now famous National Museum of An- nite space as eerie desolation inhabited

thropology in Mexico City. In a paint- by unrecognizable objects — or crea-

ing like Animals (1941), inspired by tures. After a 1930 visit to Africa, his

pre-Columbian ceramics, the traditions paintings incorporated the illumination

 .

664 TANNER, HENRY OSSAWA

of blazing sunlight. Tanguy moved to Paris more accommodating; he

was far

the United States in 1939 and was mar- loved the city and settled there perma-
ried to sage. Multiplication of the Arcs nently, enrolling in the academie ju-

(1954), his last major painting, was de- lian. His best-known work, accepted
scribed by the critic James Thrall Soby at the salon of 1894, is The Thankful

as "a sort of boneyard of the world." Poor (1894), a painting that shows his
This boneyard is a terrestrial space interest in the quality of light, in this in-

packed with sharply contoured but un- stance a holy luminosity, and the quiet
recognizable forms, neither machines piety of good people — an elderly man
nor objects from nature, all beneath a and a boy seated at table saying grace,

sky that is almost alive but as soft in its In the tradition of millet, this is a sen-
appearance as the rest is hard. All that timental dramatization of religious
can be interpreted from his paintings is faith among the poor. Though some-
a sense of foreboding. Among those times, as in the instance just mentioned,

who appreciated Tanguy was the poet Tanner painted black people, and he
Paul Eluard. The last lines of his poem called race a "ghetto of isolation and
to Tanguy are quoted above. neglect," race was not his primary artis-

tic concern — religious subjects were his

Tanner, Henry Ossawa abiding themes, as his comment, quoted

1859-1937 • American • painter • above, suggests.
Realist
Tanning, Dorothea
Many painters of religious subjects
. ,
,,, , 1
borne. 19 10 • American • pamter •
forget that their pictures should be as „ ,

, , , , Surrealist
much works of art as are other
paintings with less holy subjects. A mon b . . . Max Ernst, le pi . . . du
Whenever such painters assume that monde, le ra . . . plumes, qui me . . .

because they are treating a more ^^ <- 1

, , , , , , ,
Tanning was one of several women
elevated subject than their brother 1 • j 1 1

^ who, in the 1930s, became interested in

artists
,
they may ,
be excused from
,
. . . • • j • 1
r
. .
the subconscious, eroticized impulses or
giving artistic value to their work or
SURREALISM. The quotation above is
from being careful about a color
from her painting To Max Ernst (c.
harmony, for instance, they simply
, , , , ,
1970); the words are inscribed on a par-
prove that they are less sincere than he 11 c a
•,
tially visible page of an open book. An
•
i 1 1

, , ,
...
who gives the subject his best , , , n 1 1 •
1

antique clock on the wall, a bed with

attention. ... ,
.
high posts, and a strange rurry creature
The son of a bishop of the African are also drawn on the page. (She mar-
Methodist Episcopal Church, Tanner ried ernst in 1948.) The subject of
grew up in Philadelphia, where he stud- Tanning's paintings often concerned
led with EAKiNS at the Pennsylvania the sexual fantasies and fears of young
Academy of Fine Arts. Though encour- girls, who appear in ambiguous spaces
aged by Eakins, as a black man Tanner and look both seductive and afraid,
faced many roadblocks in America. Palastra (1947) is one such painting,
 tApies, antoni 665

suffused with the sense of a mysterious ings are also amusing and steeped in
sexual force sweeping through the air. ideas he has absorbed from his read-
ing in poststructuralist theory. The
Tansey, Mark combination of independence and
born 1949 • American • painter • humor in Tansey's work is also ex-
Postmodern pressed in the comment, quoted above,
that he made in 1994.
/ love using the word illustration

because it's such a bad word in the art

tapestry
world. And I think I'll start using color
Incorporating the pictorial image into
soon in my work. I'm looking forward
the actual weaving of the fabric, tapes-
to it.
tries often served in place of mural
Tansey has been in the forefront of a re- medieval and in northern
painting in
vival of interest in representational and ITALIAN RENAISSANCE art. In the
painting since the 1980s. His best- northern countries, especially, they also
known work is Triumph of the New helped to allay the chill of winter.
York School (1984). It is a reference to Hand-woven from an artist's design,

the relocation of the center of artistic usually in silk and/or wool, tapestry
activity from Paris to New York after was the most expensive portable work
World War II. The protagonists are of art. bondol's Angers Apocalypse
dressed in army uniforms, a tank is (1373-82) is the earliest-surviving suite
parked nearby, and the fire and smoke of GOTHIC tapestries. The important
of war are in the distance. On scene are weaving centers of Europe were then in

recognizable portraits of important Flanders and France. During 15 15-16,

artistsand critics including picasso, RAPHAEL undertook a major project for
MATISSE, and the writer apollinaire Pope Leo X, the design of 10 tapestries
on the French side, Jackson pollock, for the Sistine Chapel. Their cartoons,
MOTHERWELL, and the critic green- widely distributed as prints, had great
berg on the American. Puddles of paint influence on later artists. The tapestries
on the ground are said to allude to Pol- were woven in Brussels. Artists had to
lock's famous "drip" technique, yet the keep in mind, when planning tapestry
one beneath Greenberg's feet reflects designs — as with illustrations for
not the man himself but, rather, the prints — that the finished work would
pedestal on which he stands. The pic- be in reverse.
ture is an ironic reference to France's
"surrender" of first place, and an art Tapies, Antoni
historical reference to the composition born 1923 • Spanish • painter • Art
of velAzquez's Surrender at Breda Informel/Abstract Expressionist
(1634-35). Triumph, in sepia tones, is a
Our senses lose their sharpness in the
single-color, or monochromatic, paint-
excess of bustle, garish colors, and
ing, as are most of his works, but his in-
noise by which we are always
terest in using color, as the comment
surrounded. We must conquer and
above suggests, is growing. His paint-
learn the most important sense of all:
666 TARBELL, EDMUND

being able and knowing how to (19 1 2), and by his statement that the
look . . . to concentrate on what we do, basic problem of constructed sculpture
having time to meditate, having a is the assertion of sculptural space
minimum of decency and freedom in rather than sculptural mass. On that
our lives. basis, Tatlin took the step of translating
the Synthetic cubist's collage into
Zen Buddhism was the means Tapies nonrepresentational, three-dimensional
found to conquer the bustle, garishness, sculpture. He did this first through a se-

and noise he speaks of above, and he ex- ries of reliefs composed of wood,
pressed the spirituahsm he experienced metal, and cardboard coated with plas-
in his paintings. He was also obsessed ter, GLAZES, and broken glass and sus-
with texture and "materiality," as he pended by wires. (Only illustrations of

put it, the "noumenal" or essential these works remain.) Tatlin also ex-
spirit of materials. He used somber pressed the idea that materials should
paint, varnishes, sand, and powdered be studied and used according to their
marble to create the effect of solidity he internal structural laws, the principles
sought. In Black Form on Gray Square of the "culture of materials," or "truth
(i960), the thick, pasty gray has the to materials," a concept of widespread
texture of ancient walls; a small dark influence. Tatlin's most famous cre-
keyhole shape on the bottom suggests ation was never realized but is known
alternately a head (surrounded by an in- by its model: Monument to the Third
scribed halo), the entry to a dark pas- International (1919-20). It was de-
sage, a lock, and whatever else one signed as a landmark architectural
might read into so simple and yet evoca- structure to span the Neva River in

tive a form. Leningrad. Inspired by the Eiffel

Tower — in the poem quoted above,

Tarbell, Edmund Tatlin's friend Mayakovsky enthusias-
See AMERICAN IMPRESSIONISM tically invites that French landmark to
Leningrad — Tatlin's tower moves up-
Tassi, Agostino ward as a tilted spiral frame. Its skele-
See GENTiLESCHi, Artemisia ton encloses a conference and meeting
room inside a glass cylinder that was
Tatlin, Vladimir meant to rotate 360 degrees once a

1885-1953 • Russian • sculptor • year. An administrative cone-shaped

Constructivist chamber would rotate once a month;
and, on top, a cube-shaped information
Come Tower! I To us I You— here I
office was to rotate daily. This tower
Are much more needed! I Steel-
was to be taller than the Eiffel Tower,
shining, smoke piercing, I We'll
about 1,300 feet high and, had it been
meet you. (Vladimir Mayakovsky,
built, would have been the biggest
192.3)
sculptural form ever constructed by hu-
Tatlin was inspired by picasso's three- mans. While it is likely that Tatlin's
dimensional creations such as Guitar tower, as an international meeting
 TEMPLE 667

place, was intended to accomplish what years. Teerlinc was influential in estab-

the biblical Tower of Babel did not, it lishing the imperial iconography of
received mostly unfavorable reviews, the Elizabethan court.
and did not sufficiently appeal to either

Trotsky or Lenin. Moreover, "By the tempera (egg tempera)

time the Soviet Union had mobilized Other water-soluble mediums were also
its construction industry and advanced used, but tempera usually refers to pig-
to greater technological capabilities . . . ment "tempered" by, or combined
Social Realism had been declared and with, raw egg (yolk, white, or whole)
. . . the die had been cast," writes the thinned by water. Used for panel paint-
historian Gail Harrison-Roman. Tatlin ing, tempera dries quickly and is flat

abandoned his constructivist explo- (rather than shiny or modulated) and

rations in the early 1920s, when the rev- opaque —shading effects were achieved
olutionary regime discouraged all by painting one color over another in

abstract experiments and supported fine, parallel lines (hatching) so that the
only practical enterprises that were use- background color showed through. In-

ful to the country's struggling economy. dividual artists varied recipes and ingre-
dients for tempera, and during the 15th
Tchelitchew, Pavel and 1 6th centuries, oil glazes were ap-
See NEO-ROMANTICISM plied over it more luminous
to achieve a
effect. Finally, oil painting came to be

Teerlinc, Levina used alone and tempera became rela-

active 1546, died 1576 • Flemish • tively unusual. Andrew \x^eth is one of
painter • Northern Renaissance the few recent artists who continue to
use tempera.
king's paintrix . . .

Levina Teerlinc was one of the best- temple

known NORTHERN RENAISSANCE Structures called temples are known
women painters (with van hemessen). from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia
Her was also an
father (Simon Bening) (e.g. see ur). Solomon's temple, the
artist. Teerlinc painted miniature por- First Temple in Jerusalem, was built in
traits (as her father had done) at the En- the loth century bce on the site where,
glish court where she first worked for by tradition, Isaac was bound. It was
—
Henry VIII her name appears in court destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II in 586
account books with the phrase quoted BCE. Oblong in floor plan, and divided
above — and then for three of his succes- into three equal sections, its precedents
sors, including Queen Elizabeth I. She are believed to have been in contempo-
was the only painter of portrait minia- rary Canaanite and Phoenician cul-
tures between the death of holbein the tures. The Second Temple was begun c.

Younger in 1543 and the arrival of 538 BCE by Jews returning from Baby-
milliard in 1570. Her annuity was lonian exile. At first it was a modest
larger than Holbein's had been, and replication of the earlier building, but in
Hilliard's did not equal it for almost zo time it expanded, and c. 20 bce, under
668 TEN, the/ten AMERICAN PAINTERS

Herod, was surrounded by a wall.

it umn orders) Testimony to the im-
Herod's Temple was ultimately de- portance, influence, and timelessness
stroyed and pillaged by Romans in 70 of the Greek temple is found in its

CE (see ARCH OF TiTUs). Between the continual revival throughout the cen-
First and Second Temples in Jerusalem, turies.

a prototype of the Greek temple was

being developed. Also rectangular, its Ten, The/Ten American Painters
floor plan was similarly divided into See AMERICAN IMPRESSIONISM
sections; however, the central space
(cella or naos) fulfilled the building's tenebrism
main purpose of housing a cult statue, Derived from the Latin tenebrae, for
rather than the congregation of wor- "darkness," tenebrism describes the use
shipers served by the Jewish temple. of large dark areas in painting, espe-
Most pagan Greek ceremonies were cially by 17th-century followers of car-
outdoors. By the 5th century BCE, the AVAGGio, like RiBERA. Ribcra worked in
stone, post-and-lintel (trabeated) con- Naples when it was under Spanish rule,

struction, supported by columns, had and his paintings, bought by Spaniards,

been standardized. The Greek temple's spread the taste for Caravaggism
essential form remained immutable among artists in Spain. These painters
even though details changed. For in- are sometimes called Tenebrists, al-
stance, while the number of columns though they were not an organized
varied, they always followed a given group and did not use the term them-
ratio, first 3:1 or z:i, and later z:i -I- i, selves. Whereas tenebrism emphasizes
so that theParthenon, an example of strong shadows, chiaroscuro refers

2:1 I, has 8 columns at each end and

-I- to a contrast of dark and light.

17 along each side. Temple pediments,

ornamented with reliefs, may have Teniers, David, the Younger
been inspired by mycenaean forms like 1 610-1690 • Flemish • painter •
the Lion Gate, in which a non-load- Baroque
bearing, triangular spacewas adorned
So I promise you by this letter
with sculpture. Greek temples were
before a notary and two witnesses
meant to be seen from the outside and
assembled that you shall have
thus expressed external space, defining
justice for your portions paid on
themselves against the landscape and
account . . . I protest to the high
sky. Their columns have been likened to
amount of the concessions and
the human form, which was, indeed, the
interests.
locus of Greek art. Considering the
APOTROPAic or cautionary pedimental Teniers was the son as well as the father
—
reliefs Medusa flanked by lions, and of painters of the same name, brou-
battles between Giants and Amazons or wer's peasant scenes had a lasting effect

Centaurs, for example — the martial on Teniers, though he was never as

regularity of the columns could suggest harsh or as brutal as Brouwer in his in-

metaphorical soldiers. (See also col- terpretations of "low life" (see genre).
 TERBRUGGHEN, HENDRICK 669

Teniers also embraced a much wider Tenniel, Sir John

range of subjects, including "high-life," 1820-1914 • English •

guard room, religious, and mythical cartoonist/illustrator • Victorian

arcadian landscapes; and even

scenes; satire

monkey satires (see singerie). He mar-

. . . a great artist and a great gentleman.
ried Anna Bruegel, daughter of Jan
(Arthur James Balfour, 1901)
BRUEGEL. Helene Fourment, rubens's
second wife, was the godmother of their Best and most widely known as the il-

first child. Teniers presents a charming
and amusing allusion to family har-
mony in The Artist with His Family (c.
1644), in which he, his wife, and chil-
dren make music on the terrace while a
monkey on a balustrade oversees the
scene. Family unity was disturbed,
however, when Tenier's children
lustrator of Lewis Carroll's Alice's Ad-
ventures in Wonderland (1865), Tenniel
actually had an extraordinary career as
a humorous and satirical artist for
Punch from 1850 to 1901, during
which time he made some 2,000 car-
toons and innumerable minor drawings
for the magazine, and more for associ-

brought suit against him in 1683 for ated publications. In recognition of the
withholding their inheritance after good humor and good taste with which
Anna's death. The quotation above is he examined British political life. Prime
part of Teniers's reaction to their com- Minister William Gladstone recom-
plaint. One of his paintings, also a pop- mended him for knighthood, which was
ular PRINT, was Butcher's Shop (1642). conferred on him in 1893. At a banquet
A theme that appeared frequently in the held at his retirement from Punch, A. J.

1 6th and 17th centuries (e.g., aertsen, Balfour, then leader of the House of
CARACCi, bruegel, and rembrandt), Commons, later prime minister (1902-
slaughtering oxen or pigswas a tradi- 05), made the comment quoted above.
tional "Labor of the Month," associ- Tenniel's drawing skills were as highly
ated with November. It had added praised as his "geniality of satire," and
meaning as a reminder of life's tran- that was all the more remarkable in that
sience (see VANiTAS and memento he had only one eye; he lost the other in
mori), and further invoked the parable a fencing accident when he was young.
of the Prodigal Son: To celebrate the
son's return, the father killed the fatted
Terbrugghen, Hendrick
calf. The symbolism even refers to the
i588?-i629 • Dutch • painter •
crucified Christ because, according to
Baroque
Saint Jerome, "The fatted calf ... is the
Savior Himself, on whose flesh we feed, Here lies Terbrugghen, surprised and
whose blood we drink daily." Thus, the taken unawares by death: I Deprived
slaughtered ox refers to the Holy Sacra- of the beloved light of life, I Thrust
ment. During the 1650s Teniers became into the dark grave, where flesh

court painter to Archduke Leopold Wil- becomes However the fame

dust, I

helm and produced 1 1 pictures for remains of what he did in his life, I In
Leopold's art collection. spite of all envious resentment.
 —

670 TERRA-COTTA

Uncertainty surrounds his early years, terial of the ETRUSCANS for architectural
but it is believed that Terbrugghen was ornaments. In 1990, one of the most
in Rome for a time, perhaps made two stunning archaeological finds in history
trips, and he was greatly influenced by was made in central China when a
CARAVAGGio. The influence deepened road-building crew accidentally uncov-
throughout his career, and is seen in the ered tens of thousands of terra-cotta fig-

contrasts of light and dark (chiar- ures from c. 100 BCE. Terra-cotta has
oscuro) and in the animation and long been painted and used decoratively
drama of his works. At the same time, (see robbia and clodion). Interest in
his interpretations were personal. Re- the material is periodically revived, and
thinking The Calling of Saint Matthew it was popular as art deco cladding
(1621), which Caravaggio had painted the surface covering or "skin" of a wall.
in 1 599/1600 (and Terbrugghen him- The American architect Louis sullivan
self had also done earlier), he com- found terra-cotta the perfect material
pletely changed the emphasis: He has for the intricate architectural orna-
moved the figure of Christ from right to ments he designed in projects like the

left, put him in shadow, and cropped Henry Babson Residence (1908-09) in
him so radically that he is only slightly Riverside, Illinois. The house itself was
visible; the other figures are more highly destroyed, but a decorative detail inset
lighted and are half-length. Unlike Car- in its facade is preserved: a molded and
avaggio's dark palette, Terbrugghen's modeled terra-cotta panel some 25 by
colors are pastels — blue, pale yellow, 23 inches, which combines naturalistic
soft white, violet, and red-brown — with foliage and geometric shapes. Delicate
a The emphasis
silvery tone. is on in detail, this ornament is colored yel-
Christ's pointing finger and on Saint low, green, blue, and purple, and was
Matthew, who is in a flood of light. set into a maroon-brick wall.
Matthew's face and the faces of those
who surround him are all highly expres-
Theophanes the Greek
sive. Terbrugghen was an important in-
c. 1330-after 1405 • Greek • painter
fluence on de LA tour. The quotation
• Late Byzantine
cited above is inscribed on Terbrug-
ghen's tomb. While he delineated and painted all

these things no one ever saw him

terra-cotta looking at models as some of our
From the Italian cotta for "cooked" and paintersdo who, being filled with
terra, meaning "earth," refers to fired doubt, constantly bend over them
but unglazed clay. Usually red, often casting their eyes hither and thither
used as bricks, terra-cotta was also and instead of painting with colors
employed for household items as the they gaze at the models as often as
"Frying Pan" from Syros, Cyclades they need to. He, however, seemed to
(c. 2500-2200 bce), an ii-inch- be painting with his hands, while his
diameter, elegantly incised object seem- feet moved without rest, his tongue
ingly made for display rather than conversed with mind
visitors, his

cooking. Terra-cotta was a favorite ma- dwelled on something lofty and wise.
 THERA (also SANTORINI) 67I

and his rational eyes contemplated that of his day. Two portable metal altars
beauty which is rational. (Epifanij the and a bejeweled book cover have been
Wise, in a letter written c, 141 5) attributed to him. His text, De diversis
artibus (On Diverse Arts), the preface
Most work by Theophanes, who appar- of which is quoted from above, contains
ently trained in Constantinople, is lost, instructions in goldsmithing, bronze
but he is reported to have been active in casting, painting, enameling, and work-
Moscow Novgorod, where
as well as ing in stained glass. Advice is also
his major surviving works are the fres- provided in other related areas. The
coes (1378) in the church there. Our light he throws on the medieval arts
Savior of the Transfiguration. One and their techniques is invaluable.
of Theophanes' innovations in his
icoNlike figures was to use strong par- Theosophy
allel brushstrokes in almost geometric See NABis
shapes to bring highlights to, for exam-
ple, the planes of a face. The freedom of Thera (also Santorini)
his style is alluded to in the letter quoted An island in the Aegean, Thera was
from above in which Epifanij the Wise, prospering during the Bronze Age until
as he was known, lavished praise on the itwas destroyed by volcanic eruptions
artist he called "a celebrated sage, a that sent steamy plumes of pumice and
most cunning philosopher ... a famous ash some 17 miles into the stratosphere.
illuminator of books and an excellent The cataclysms reconfigured the island
religious painter who painted with his and buried it in ash as deep as 100 feet
own hand more than forty stone in some places. A recent dating of the

churches." Theophanes was an impor- eruption at 1628 bce seems to discredit

tant influence on rub lev. a theory that it caused the biblical part-
ing of the Red Sea. Another abandoned
Theophilus theory is that it initiated a tsunami that
active c. iioo • German • ended minoan civilization on Crete.
monk/metalsmith/author • That Thera may have inspired plato's
Romanesque description of lost Atlantis, an ideal
city-state, is highly conjectural. It is as-
Theophilus, a humble priest, servant of
sumed that early tremors persuaded the
God, unworthy of the
the servants of
population to leave, as no human vic-
name and profession of monk, to all
tims have been found in archaeological
who wish to avoid and subdue sloth of
excavations. Excavations begun in
mind and wandering of the spirit by
1967 at Akrotiri, an urban site pre-
useful occupation of the hands and
served by volcanic ash, reveal an ad-
delightful contemplation of new
vanced civilization with a drainage
things: the recompense of heavenly
system beneath paved streets and mag-
reward!
nificent wall paintings in buildings. One
Theophilus pseudonym believed to
is a fresco, just 16 inches high but running
have belonged to Roger of Helmars- for 20 feet along three walls, is a mar-
hausen, one of the finest metalworkers itime narrative full of lively scenes.
672. THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING

which some scholars believe show like the panoramic landscapes painted
the island's pre-destruction coastline. by CANALETTO.
Other paintings show women, plants,
animals, birds, and fish (especially dol- Thore, Theophile (pseudonym W.
phins), and associate Thera with the Burger)
Minoan style. There is also evidence of 1 807-1869 • French • critic

influence from Egyptian, Cypriot, and

What a from the Greeks of David
fall
Mesopotamian cultures. It is believed
to the Greeks of M. Gerome! . . .

that Thera was a trade link connecting

David represented [them] with an
with Crete, the Greek mainland, and
austere conviction; M. Gerome offers
the ancient Near East.
to the young ladies of Paris a doll
undressed before disorderly, licentious
thermoluminescence dating
old satyrs, who smirk as though they
Used to date pottery, a process that
had a real naked woman before their
measures the amount of radiation ab-
eyes for the first time.
sorbed since the clay was fired. Adapt-
ing a thermoluminescence technique Politically left wing. Thore was exiled
used to measure zircon —developed for after the fall of the French Revolution-
examining lunar samples brought back ary government in 1848. He then lived
to earth — ancient bronzes are also in London, Switzerland, and Brussels.

being dated and redated. Using the pen name William Burger, he
produced a two-volume survey of the
Thiebaud, Wayne museums of Holland, and is well
born 1920 • American • painter • known for his single-handed resuscita-
New Realist tion of VERMEER with a series of three
articles that appeared in the Gazette des
. . . seeing rows of pies, or a tin of pie
Beaux-Arts in 1866. Thore was ada-
with a piece cut out of it and one piece
mant that contemporary artists reject
sitting beside it. These little vedute in
the routines of the past, as well as aes-
fragmented circumstances were always
THETiciSM, in favor of socially con-
poetic to me.
scious, crusading art. He was a friend

Thiebaud paints food —a lineup of five and champion of courbet and millet.
hot dogs in their rolls, slices of pie, The comment quoted above was his re-

shelves of cake on display in a glass view of the French salon of 186 i.

case —usually against an empty, off-
white background (e.g.. Pie Counter,
Thorvaldsen, Bertel
1963). Though he is sometimes related
1768/70-1844 • Danish • sculptor •
to POP ART, his pictures are less like
Romantic Classicist
commercial art than like a refined, aes-
thetic interpretation of Pop Art and There is a famous bas-relief of
Pop subjects. There is also great irony Thorvaldsen depicting "Sleep" of
and humor in his elegant treatment of which copies or casts arefound in all

junk food subjects, or vedute, as in the the northern cities. This charming
quotation above — Italian for "views," work has not been able to enter
 TIEPOLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (ALSO GIAMBATTISTA) 673

France, for we feel that honor requires by H. D. C. Martens entitled Pope Leo
us to reject all foreign products. XII Visiting Thorvaldsen's Studio on
(Marie-Henri Beyle [Stendhal], 1824) Saint Luke's Day, 1826 (1830) makes
dramatically clear (Saint luke is the pa-
The mantle of canova descended on tron saint of artists). Stendhal, quoted
Thorvaldsen, a Danish sculptor who above, also visited the studio. Thor-
studied in Rome. But where Canova valdsen's most famous work, which he
had followed the energetic expressive- was asked to design and whose subject
ness of the Greek Hellenistic style, was prescribed, commemorates the
Thorvaldsen looked at the still, more se- Royal Swiss Guards who died trying to
vere, CLASSICAL sculpture of the 5th protect Louis XVI when the Revolu-
century bce. In an era of romanticism, tionary militia stormed the Tuileries in
when the artist preferred to be un- Paris in 1792: The Lion of Lucerne
bounded by the patronage of church, (1819-21). This monument, about 30
state, or wealthy individuals, sculptors feet wide, is actually carved into the
were less able than painters to cut the sheer wall of limestone that rises above
bonds of official commissions because a small pond. The dying lion has the
of both the cost of their materials and appeal of Romantic pathos and Thor-
the intrinsic grand scale of major monu- valdsen thought of it as a national mon-
mental works, (barye was something of ument, honoring, as its inscription says,
an exception; however, his bronze ani- "The Loyalty and Virtue of the Swiss."
mals were usually relatively small.) In He may have been unaware that the op-
1803, Thorvaldsen broke one of the position saw the lion as a royalist sym-
barriers in the way of independence by bol. Regardless, it remains one of the
making, on his own initiative and at his most moving pieces of sculpture in his-

expense, a full-scale, over-life-size plas- tory. As in the case oi Jason, Thorvald-

ter model for a statue of Jason. After sen did not execute the carving of the
putting the model on exhibit, he re- finished sculpture; this was done by
ceived a commission to execute it in Lucas Ahorn (1789-1856).
marble (Jason with the Golden Fleece,
1803-28). Ironically, the result of this
Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista (also
significant innovation, while liberating,
Giambattista)
was also to challenge the profession:
1 696-1 770 • Italian • painter •
After the artist invested his time, talent,
Baroque/Rococo
and energy in the model, special crafts-

men carried out the actual finished Painters must try and succeed in large-

sculpture. This countermanded the Ro- scale works capable of pleasing the
mantic ideal of the work of art contain- and the nobility because it is they
rich

ing the soul of the artist. Thorvaldsen who make the fortunes of artists and
livedfrom 1797 to 1838 in Rome, not the other sort of people, who
where he became the "reigning mon- cannot buy valuable pictures. And so

arch of sculpture." His studio, filled the painter's spirit must alivays be

with original plasters, was the place for reaching out for the sublime, the
prominent people to stop, as a painting heroic, the perfect.
674 TIFFANY, LOUIS COMFORT

A Venetian painter of outsize drama, rope, and the most honored in his own
Tiepolo seems to straddle the baroque country ..."
and ROCOCO, moving from a relatively

somber to a much lighter palette. Tiffany, Louis Comfort

Within his huge theatrical battle scenes 1848-1933 • American •

and his illusionistic ceiling FRESCOes of painter/designer • Art Deco/Arts and

heavenly hosts transported on clouds, Crafts
he had an extraordinary skill at choreo-
The value attributed to color has been
graphing large numbers of figures, yet
denied by theorists who have started
his touch was both elegant and ener-
from an untenable assumption that
getic in presenting details. He was re-
there is a purity, a moral worth
puted to be able to paint a picture in less
attached to the absence of color, in
time than it would take another to mix
opposition to sensuousness and luxury
his colors. His frescoes were among the
in a bad sense attached to its presence.
last and most refined of the Italian tra-
This is a convenient theory for a vast
dition. But as VENICE had become artis-
majority of artists who are born
tically conservative by the i8th century,
without the peculiar eyes and senses
when he wished to move beyond the
that distinguish values and respond
darkness of the Baroque, he usually did
with sympathy to the vibrations of
so outside of Venice. His frescoes
light.
reached a peak in the Kaisersaal Resi-

denz in Wiirzburg (1751). In one room With GOTHIC Revival movement of

the
where he painted both ceiling and wall the 19th century came a new interest in
frescoes, The Marriage of Frederick STAINED GLASS. Louis Tiffany, son of
Barbarossa and Beatrice of Burgundy Charles Louis Tiffany (1812-1902), a
(c. 1751, on the wall) placed an event highly successful jeweler and silver-
that had occurred some 500 years ear- smith, studied painting in Paris for a
lier in a contemporary setting. Its the- year,and on his return home studied
atrical illusionism includes carved MEDIEVAL glassmaking techniques at a
PUTTi pulling back golden brocade cur- glasshouse in Brooklyn. He experi-
tains to reveal the marriage ceremony mented with new methods of glass man-
below. Tiepolo's source for much of his ufacturing to produce a wide variety of
work was Cesare Ripa's Iconologia colors and texture, including "drapery
handbook of symbolic images
(1593), a glass," in which the hot glass was
(see EMBLEM book), and he used the pushed and twisted until it moved into

same description ("a beautiful naked The company he formed,

woman holds the sun aloft
BERNINI had 100 years
Time Revealing Truth (1647-52). Tiep-
olo was working in Spain when he died.
A Venetian nobleman wrote, "Letters
from Madrid apprise me of the sad
rippled folds.
. . .") as eventually named Tiffany Studios, took
earlier for his on widely varied decorative commis-
sions for homes, including the public
rooms of the White House in 1883.
However, Tiffany remains best known
loss for his stained-glass designs in win-

lof] famous Venetian painter, the

the dows, paneled screens, and lamp
most renowned well known in Eu-
. . . shades. Wisteria Table Lamp (c. 1900),
 TINTORETTO, JACOPO 675

in which the bronze lamp stand is to self-destruct, its life ended prema-
wrought to resemble a vine, and for the turely when firemen were called in to
shade, small glass segments resemble douse the demonstration. With klein,
dripping white wisteria blossoms and Tinguely was a member of a group
green leaves, is an example of Tiffany's called New Realists (Nouveau Real-
exquisite artistry. His devotion to color istes) founded in 1960. The "realism"
is expressed in the quotation above. of the title refers to using real materials

(the mechanical parts and junk, for ex-

Tinguely, Jean ample) rather than to any true-to-life
1925-1991 • Swiss • machine- philosophy. Tinguely and Saint Phalle
motion sculptor • New Realist collaborated on several works, among
them Hon [She, 1966), a temporary in-
Always leave a door open; something
Moderna Museet in
stallation at the
better may come up.
Stockholm. Hon was an 82-foot-long
Tinguely's comment quoted above, and woman lying on her back. Visitors en-
repeated by his former wife, saint- tered her body through the vagina and
PHALLE, aptly describes the contin- found themselves in a playground/
gency-based character of both the man amusement park/shelter with a milk bar
and his sculpture. "Jean was a man who installed in a breast.

loved contradictions," adds Pontus

Hulten, the sculptor's friend and cura- Tintoretto, Jacopo
tor of the Jean Tinguely Museum, 15 18-1594 • Italian • painter •
which opened in Basel in 1996. "There Mannerist
were lots of levels to him. He always
Given his way, he would have painted
kept two or three balls in the air at the
every wall in the town . . . he would
same time." Hulten was speaking liter-
roll paint on the ceiling above and
ally as well as figuratively, for motion
make pretty pictures below for people
was integral to Tinguely's mechanical
to walk on, his brush leaving nothing
sculpture. His most famous was
alone, not the palace fronts on the
Homage to New York (i960), a giant
Grand Canal, not the gondolas, not
motorized assembly of junk that in-
even (maybe) the gondoliers. (Jean-
cluded a weather balloon, 50 bicycle
Paul Sartre, 1964)
wheels, a piano, and chemicals that
caused nasty smells and smoke. Hom- Tintoretto's voracious ambition, al-
age was to be demonstrated in the luded to above, was matched, accord-
Sculpture Garden of the Museum of ing to anecdotes, by a competitiveness
Modern Art in New York City, but a so strong that it tainted his reputation.
mistake in connections caused a more One dubious but much repeated scan-
unpredictable situation than the artist dal recounts his trickery during the con-
intended — and a potentially dangerous test to paint a ceiling for the Scuola
one, as a loose carriage careened into Grande di San Rocco in Venice. The
the crowd while a Klaxon shrieked story is that competing artists with scale
and smoke and flames billowed models of their entries arrived at the
forth. Although Homage was meant Scuola building to discover that, during
676 TISSOT, JAMES

the night, Tintoretto had managed to with a flaming lamp that hangs from
oil

secretly install his own full-scale, fin- the ceiling and throws light onto va-
ished painting overhead. At the bottom porous, transparent angels that float in
of such tales is the artist's prodigious and out of obscurity. Tintoretto en-
speed of execution, explicit not only in gages his audience intellectually as well
his techniques but also in his style and as emotionally: Counting the apostles
in the energetic, agitated movement present at the table, we note that one is

that vibrates across his canvases. The missing, and realize that Judas has left

overall somber tone of his paintings was to act out his betrayal. Affirmation of
quickly achieved by priming the canvas the dogma of transubstantiation is also
with flat, dark colors, usually red or expressed by the presence of bread,
brown. He further increased his veloc- wine, and liturgical vessels,
ity by painting with a broad brush.
Often he created the impression of deep Tissot, James
space rising in the distance, as if to 1836-1902 • French/English •

make the figures in the foreground hur- painter • Academic realist

tie out of the canvas into the viewer's
. . . this year M. Tissot left the Middle
space Discovery of the Body of
(e.g..
Ages to enter our century. (Theophile
Saint Mark, 1562-66). The observer's
Gautier, 1864)
interaction with Tintoretto's tumul-
tuous paintings is inevitable; Crucifix- Gautier's barbed remark, quoted
ion (c. 1566-67), on one of the walls in above, alludes to the switch Tissot had
the Scuola Grande di San Rocco build- just made from history paintings in-

ing, is a 40-foot-long panorama with a spired by renaissance artists to pic-

vast, agitated crowd surrounding the tures of fashionable people in modern
high Cross. Christ's bent head is at was the occasion of the
life. It salon of
the top of the canvas, and the entire 1864, and one of the two Tissot paint-
composition seems squeezed by an op- ings in the exhibit was Portrait de Mile
pressive force. This sense of agitation L. L. (Young Woman in a Red Jacket;
and compression is consistent with the 1864), which may show some influence
mannerism of the period, though little of Tissot's friend Ingres. He was also a
else of Tintoretto's style is. In palla- friend of degas, who painted Tissot's
Dio's church of San Giorgio Maggiore portrait in 1867-68. Because of his in-
in Venice, Tintoretto's Last Supper volvement in the politics of the Revolu-
(1592-94), finished during the last year tionary Commune of 1871, Tissot
of his life, is at thesummit of his oeuvre. moved to London and lived there for
The table races obliquely away from the about a decade. As did dalou, Tissot
PICTURE PLANE, appearing to vanish had great success with commissions
into the dark background. Christ is a from the upper class. His flattery, high-

relatively distant figure, but is at the gloss finish, and tightly painted detail,
center of the canvas, and is singled out especially on their elegant clothing,
by a brilliantly radiant halo. Far more greatly pleased his clients. If Gautier
interested in light than in color. Tin- was sardonic, goncourt was down-
toretto illuminates the shadowy room right nasty writing about Tissot's stu-
 TITIAN 677

dio: "... with a waiting room where, at parmigianino, and bronzing (see
all times, there is iced champagne at the mannerism). Through wise invest-
disposal of visitors, and around the stu- ments Titian gained wealth enough to
dio, a garden where, all day long, one buy hisown palace, yet he also worked
can see a footman in silk stockings for royalty. He was court painter for the

brushing and shining the shrubbery emperor Charles V, who made him a
leaves." Tissot returned to Paris after count. Visiting the painter in his studio,
the death of his mistress and model, and the story goes, the emperor bent down
began illustrating first the life of Jesus, to pick up a brush that Titian had
then scenes from the Hebrew Bible. He dropped. Such a break with custom
made two trips to Palestine and the matches Titian's own constant disre-
Near East in an effort to achieve accu- gard for artistic convention. He defied
rate representations. Drawings from his the symmetry of Italian renaissance
trip were published with great success, organization by introducing off-center
The veracity of his paintings became a and diagonally constructed composi-
rich resource for 20th-century filmmak- tions. His Pope Paul III (1543) is more

ers, including D. W. Griffith and Steven extraordinary in its emotional drama

Spielberg. and psychological insight than in its ec-

centricity; the pope is presented as a

Titian shrewd, tense individual wearing a red
c. 1485/90-1576 • Italian • painter velvet cape that is highlighted with
• Late Renaissance gleaming passages of light. Titian's ex-

_, ,
They who are compelled
/III to paint by
perimentation with color went boldly
.
, ,

beyond that of Giorgione:

.„. ,,,.
He used
, .

vir-
force, without being in the necessary
tually all the pigments available, and he
mood, can produce only ungainly
used them in extravagant quantities and
works, because this profession requires
inventive combinations," writes Marcia
an unruffled temper.
Hall. Titian's color conveys meaning
According to someone who knew him, and creates mood and movement.
Titian arrived in Venice at the age of "Flashing" is a word frequently used to
eight and was soon employed by a mo- describe his brushwork as well as his
saicist (see mosaic). He went on to useof color. Titian's bacchanals vibrate
work for Gentile and later Giovanni with lustful energy and shimmering
BELLINI. Next he was with giorgione, The Rape ofEuropa (c. 1 560),
color. In

whose paintings he completed after the the buxom Europa is abducted by a

—
master's death some scholars insist great white bull, who is Jupiter in dis-
that Titian alone painted Fete Cham- guise. She is balanced precariously on
petre, usually assigned to Giorgione her back in a suggestive position, and
and dated c. 1 5 1 o. He survived Gior- even the sky is aflame with passion. Tit-
gione by 66 years and outlived not only ian worked in oil paint on canvas in a

RAPHAEL and MICHELANGELO, who PAINTERLY manner (though he did not

were born about the same time that invent that manner, as was previously
he was, but also the younger Man- thought): By leaving brushstrokes of
nerists pontormo, fiorentino, juxtaposed colors unblended, Titian an-
678 TOBEY, MARK

ticipates that the viewer's eye will in- China and Japan. His abstract ex-
stinctively blend them. His audience pressionism developed in a way that
thus becomes an unwitting accomplice reflected his religious concerns: He
of the artist, joining in the visual com- used some of the techniques of all-over
pletion of the painting and thereby con- painting, expressive brushstrokes and
tributing to the meaning of the work, poured paint in delicate threads —a re-

Titian's techniques of engagement were fined effect that came to be called his
new and powerfully effective. Where white writing — but where his methods
Giorgione's Sleeping Venus (c. 15 10) is may be similar to those that Jackson
wistfully sensual and dreamily nostalgic pollock used, a comparison of
with her eyes closed, Titian's Venus of Tobey's Universal Field (1949) with
Urbino (c. 1538) is wide awake — she one of Pollock's poured paintings is the
makes eye contact with the presump- difference between serenity (Tobey) and
tively male viewer and invites compile- turbulence (Pollock),
ity. What was subdued by Giorgione in
the guise of a goddess is made explicit tonal painting (tone)
by Titian in the portrayal of a nude. Tonal painting strives for overall har-
contemporary woman. During his ca- mony rather than the juxtaposition or
reer he painted religious and secular contrast of colors, as is in chromatic
subjects with equal verve, and in his last painting (where brilliance and distinct
years subjects of torment and suffering hues are stressed; see color). In tonal
dominated his repertoire. For his own painting, the outlines of forms soften,
tomb, Titian painted a Pieta (c. sometimes dissolving, and colors are
1573-76) that included a small, votive blended and fused for the sake of conti-
picture of his son and himself thanking nuity. Leonardo's invention of sfu-
them against
the Virgin for protecting mato established the concept of
the plague of 1561. They did escape tonality to a great degree,and tonal
death once, but before Titian finished painting became prominent in, and
the painting, both he and his son died, characteristic of, Venice during the
during another epidemic in 1576. 1 6th century. In the 17th century,was it

used effectively by Dutch landscape

Tobey, Mark painters (see van goyen). whistler, in
1 890-1976 • American • painter • the 19th century, worked with tonal re-

Abstract Expressionist lationships.

We have occupied ourselves too much

tondo
with the outer, the objective, at the
Italian for "round," refers to a disk-
expense of the inner world.
shaped RELIEF carving, as, for example,
Tobey's spiritual search led him to the Michelangelo's unfinished marble
Baha'i faith, which was founded on a Taddei Madonna (c. 1500-02), or a
19th-century movement to foster world round painting, Doni Madonna
like his

peace and harmony. Later he studied (c. 1503). The tondo shape was an in-

Chinese painting and Zen Buddhism in novation that became popular during
 TRAINI, FRANCESCO 679

the early 15th century and was quickly French singer as "the genius of defor-
taken up by both sculptors and mity," and from his vantage point he
painters. It was often associated with saw a sordid world and participated in
marriage during the Italian renais- it, destroying himself through dissipa-
sance: The Doni Madonna was painted tion.

to celebrate thewedding of Angelo

Doni and Maddalena Strozzi. Traini, Francesco
active c. 13 21-1363 • Italian •
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de painter • Late Medieval
1864-1901 • French •
. . . it seems clear that Vasari
painter/printmaker • Art Nouveau
considered Traini a very good
What a crush! . . . A hurly-burly of painter good enough to be claimed
. . .

gloved hands carrying pince-nez for Florence, and good enough to have
framed in tortoise-shell or gold. . . . surpassed his supposed master, Andrea
Here are some observations I made di done [Orcagna]. Now, whereas
among all those elbows. modern criticism disagrees with Vasari
by holding a relatively lower opinion
Toulouse-Lautrec's flattened, outlined
ofTraini's painting. None of these
figures in bold colors —especially those judgments of contemporary criticism
. . .

in posters for the Moulin Rouge and to

seems to me to be sound. (Millard
advertise the famous, provocative
Meiss, 1983)
dancer Jane Avril, his constant compan-
ion —are well known. So is the fact that It is the subject of a series of FRESCOes
he was a dwarf who passed his time attributed to Traini of Pisa more than
in Montmartre's seedy underworld the skill with which he painted them for
of prostitution and alcoholism. He which Traini's name is known. This se-
recorded the degradation of that culture ries, in Pisa's Campo Santo, includes
with sensitivity: Rue des Moulins large panoramic scenes, including the
(1894), with harsh brushstrokes in a ca- ghoulish Triumph of Death (c. 1340):
cophony of reds, browns, lavender, and piles of dead bodies and corpses in

greenish tones, is a vulgar scene of pros- coffins, ranging from bloated to skele-
titutes standing in line, holding up their tal, and covered by worms and snakes.
skirts as they await their medical exam- In the midst of this is a noble hunting
inations. Without being either lascivi- party and a group of elegantly dressed
ous or maudlin, the artist has painted youths apparently oblivious to the ap-
this odd scene so that the viewer is left proaching figure of the Grim Reaper. It

feeling sympathetic rather than of- has long been assumed this refers to the
fended. Toulouse-Lautrec mixed in the Black Death, or bubonic plague, and to
"crush" of the horse races, the theater, Boccaccio's Decameron, in which a
cabarets, and brothels, and was, be- group of nobles escapes to the country
cause of his size, in truth "among all to avoid the epidemic. The attribution
those elbows," as he says in the quota- of these frescoes to Traini is challenged
tion above. He was described by a (Buonamico Buffalmacco, who was ac-
68o TRANSCENDENTALISM

tive in the early 14th century, is named tism vanishes. I become a transparent
as an alternative), and, unfortunately, eyeball; I am nothing; I see all, the cur-
the paintings were severely damaged by rents of the Universal Being circulate
bombing during World War II. Discus- through me; I am part or parcel of
sion of Traini by the art historian Mil- God." This "transparent eyeball" saw
lard Meiss, whose words are quoted the smallest details, from the bark of a
above, reconstructs and reconsiders the tree to the striations of a rock, as evi-

artist's oeuvre, accepting some attribu- dence of God's handiwork. Organized

tions and dismissing others, but ends up religion was anathema to them —Amer-
with a wish to reveal "a painter with ican Transcendentalists believed that
considerably different and very much conventional society and religion were
greater gifts than have been recognized oppressive — nature was their church.
by other students." The influence of Transcendentalism
lasted until after the Civil War.
Transcendentalism
A philosophy influenced by kant, who transept
believed that knowledge is intuitive and The shorter, horizontal arms of a cruci-
that objective or rational thought is form plan church.
transcended by insight and revelation.
German transcendental mysticism and trecento
fantasy was expressed in literature, "Three hundred," from the Italian, ac-

philosophy, and the art of painters tually refers to the 1300s or, more com-
like FRiEDRiCH. The Transcendentalist monly in English, the 14th century.
movement began to grow in the United
States during the 1830s; the Transcen- triptych
dental Club was organized in Boston in A three-paneled painting or carving,
1836, with Ralph Waldo Emerson with the two outer panels, or wings,
(1803-1882) one of its charter mem- hinged so that they may cover the center
bers. Emersonian Transcendentalism one. A triptych is the standard format
was a stew that drew largely on Kant for an altarpiece. bosch's Garden of
for its flavor and on numerous other Delights (c. 1504) is a triptych.
philosophers for its seasonings, includ-
ing GOETHE and the mystic Sweden- trompe I'oeil
borg. Emerson preached a fusion of Translated from the French as "fool or
God and nature: "All the facts in nature trick the eye," this kind of painting pre-
are nouns of the intellect, and make the tends to be the objects it represents.
grammar of the eternal language," he Trompe I'oeil was familiar to the an-
wrote. Landscape art of the Hudson cient Greeks, according to accounts of
RIVER SCHOOL is especially associated the rivalry between parrhasius and
with his famous statement of 1836: ZEUXis to make easel paintings so be-
"Standing on the bare ground — my lievable that they are mistaken for the
head bathed by the blithe air, and up- real thing. Roman interest in deception
lifted into infinite space — all mean ego- extended to mosaics, like the descrip-
 TRUMBULL, JOHN 68l

tively titled Vnswept Floor (2nd cen- removing the divisions between paint-
tury ce), a floor that appears to be lit- ing, sculpture, and architecture."
tered with scraps of garbage and even a

mouse. The difference between trompe trope/tropology

I'oeil and still life is often one of in- A trope is a figure of speech. The "four
tention: The former aims to deceive, the master tropes" are irony, metaphor,
latter would rather impress, but some- metonymy, and synecdoche (see
times the two are combined. Techni- metonymy). Other tropes might in-
cally, it is characteristic of trompe I'oeil clude parody. Tropology can be a useful
paintings that the artist's "hand" is in- critical approach to the study of works
visible —there is no evidence of brush- of art, considering tropes as part of an
stroke or the human touch. To most artistic rather than a spoken language.
effectively fool an audience, these paint- As substitution, replacement, and anal-
ings are spatially shallow; that is, the ogy, tropes work by displacement, as
usually flat background presses the ob- when a crown stands in for the ruler.

jects close to the picture plane, and

sometimes, to enhance the illusion, an Trumbull, John
object, or part of it, is painted as if it 1756-1843 • American • painter •

projects out of that plane into the Federal/Romantic

viewer's space. The Americans har-
In May, ijjj, immediately after my
NETT and PETO are among the most ac-
resignation [from the Army], my
complished trompe I'oeil painters of
military accounts were audited and
still lifes. Considering their interest in
settled at Albany, by the proper
semblance, resemblance, and dissem-
accounting officer. . . . In London,
bling, trompe I'oeil paintings are like
1784, my acquaintance with this
dessert for recent theorists. Jacques
gentleman was renewed . . . where he
Lacan asks rhetorically, "What is it that
lived in great elegance, a member of
attracts and satisfies us in trompe
Parliament, &c. &c.; and although I
I'oeil?" When we realize what it is, he
was now but a poor student of
goes on, "The picture does not compete
painting, and he rich, honored, and
with appearance, it competes with what
associated with the great . . . [he]
Plato designates for us as being the Idea.
continued to treat me on a footing of
It is because the picture is the appear-
equality and I frequently dined at his
ance that says it is that which gives the
table with distinguished men.
appearance that Plato attacks painting,
as if it were an activity competing with Despite the above proclamation of hu-
his own." Jean Baudrillard, who has mility, Trumbull was born into a
written a great deal about that which is wealthy and politically prominent Con-
not what it seems to be (simulacrum), necticut family. He went to Harvard
discusses trompe I'oeil, saying, "Thus and served briefly as an aide-de-camp to
trompe I'oeil transcends painting. It is a General Washington, but resigned from
kind of game with reality which takes the Army, as noted in the quotation
on fantastic dimensions and ends up by because he was not promoted to gen-
682 TURNER, JOSEPH MALLARD WILLIAM

eral. He went to London to study with apocalyptic snowstorm in which sub-

WEST. Following the example of West's lime, all-powerful nature is seen in the
HISTORY PAINTINGS on Contemporary movement of wind and
furious circular
themes, Trumbull determined to create snow creating an awesome vortex that
a record of the key events of the Ameri- overwhelms human presence. Only
can Revolution. He worked on these barely and gradually is the scene on the
between 1786 and 1789. Death of Gen- ground understood: a drama of rape,
eral Montgomery in the Attack on Que- murder, and pillage, Hannibal on his
bec (1786) is reminiscent of West's elephant hardly in focus. As the histo-
Death of General Wolfe (1770). But it is rian Robert Rosenblum writes, "... we

smaller, only about 3 feet wide com- seem located in a molten caldron of the
pared to West's 7 feet. Trumbull hoped imagination." Turner here combined
to have his paintings engraved and to his own experience of being in a violent
sell them as prints in America, but the storm on his visit to the Alps with
project was not a success. His color is his reading about Hannibal's 218 bce
rich and his compositions dynamic. In excursion. He had also seen Jacques-
the 1 790s, Trumbull worked in New Louis David's extraordinary painting
York City as a portraitist, for he was Napoleon at Saint Bernard (1800; see
unable to acquire commissions for his equestrian), where the name of Han-
history paintings. However, he painted nibal is carved into a rock. It may be, as

portraits, like General George Wash- Rosenblum suggests, that Turner was
ington at the Battle of Trenton (1792), expressing a British fear of Napoleonic
with all the flourish and drama of the conquest. The affect of this snowstorm,
GRAND MANNER, though the battle he in which forms lose their contour and
would have liked to present in the fore- the world is transformed into veils and
ground is relegated to the background. movements of color and light, became
increasingly characteristic of Turner's
Turner, Joseph Mallard William painting. If he made an indirect ref-

1775-1851 • English • painter • erence to David in Hannibal, his paint-

Romantic ing Slavers Throwing Overboard the
Dead and Dying— Typhoon Coming
Innovations so daring and so various
On (1840; known as The Slave Ship)
could not be introduced without
brings to mind gericault's Raft of the
corresponding peril; the difficulties
Medusa, painted some 20 years earlier.
that lay in his way were more than any
As was Gericault's, Turner's picture
human intellect could altogether
was founded on a real, scandalous
surmount. (John Ruskin, 1873)
event. In 1783, the captain of a slave
A major characteristic of romanticism ship had thrown sick and dying slaves

was a rebellion against convention and overboard so that the owner could col-

the assertion of individualism, and one lect insurance on the claim that they
sees that in Turner's early painting were lost at sea. When Turner painted
Snowstorm: Hannibal and His Army The Slave Ship, the slave trade had long
Crossing the Alps ( r 8 1 2), a large work, been banned in England, but slavery it-
almost 8 feet long. Turner created an self had only recently been abolished in
 TYPOLOGY 683

the colonies, ruskin, whose comment pace the paintings show. I have my
about Turner is quoted above, was the pace and a way of living, and I'm not
artist's great supporter. looking for something. I'm not looking
for taking on something else.
Twachtman, John
1853-1902 • American • painter • Twombly made the comment quoted
Impressionist above in September 1994, on the eve of
the largest-ever retrospective of his
[Arques-la-Bataille] is a record of both
Museum of Mod-
paintings, held at the
sight and feeling, with a mood of calm
ern Art in New York City. He had been
melancholy familiar to this period, and
living in Italy since 1957, after studying
shows Twachtman at his best. (John
at BLACK mountain COLLEGE. The
Wilmerding, 1976)
main challenge of progressive art, he be-
Twachtman was a student of duve- lieves, "lies in the complete expression
NECK and studied with him both in of one's own personality through every
Cincinnati and in Munich, where the faculty available." As adaptations of
influence of velAzquez and hals was abstract expressionist painting that
strong, as were dark colors; broad, fluid are unique, many of Twombly's early
brushstrokes; and thick paint. These works are like anxiously scribbled
tendencies were moderated when he ideas, graffiti, on surfaces that are alter-

went on to the academie julian in nately pasty and thin. One, Untitled
Paris, and later softened in his dreamy (i960), for example, is oil, crayon, and
paintings such as Arques-la-Bataille pencil on canvas, and has very little

(1885), about which the historian color. It looks like meaningless jottings,
Wilmerding writes in the passage yet the eye cannot resist returning to
above. This river scene treats the land- each individual mark, indecipherable as
scape as a nearly abstract arrangement it is, in an effort to find a hint of mean-
of soft grays, greens, and blues. In the ing, a hidden symbol or resemblance
foreground, he has painted a clump of that will allow the mind to gain pur-
weeds that has the elegant simplicity of chase on the scheme of things.
a Japanese painting. Twachtman's Twombly's later paintings are more like

work became increasingly impressionis- scattered fireworks of bursting colors.

tic during the 1890s. He was a friend of They have a beauty that is mysteriously
weir, and a founding member of The internal.

Ten American Painters (see American

impressionism). typology
Of Greek origin (from typos, meaning
"impression"), typology refers to the
Twombly, Cy
Christian practice of looking to the
born 1929 • American • painter •
past, predominantly to the Hebrew
Abstract Expressionist
Scriptures, for types —prefigurations of
Why would I want more? Why would Christian people and events. Abraham's
I want an escalation or something? I willingness to sacrifice Isaac, for exam-
have kept my own pace. I think it's a ple, prefigured God's sacrifice of his
684 TYPOLOGY

son. The emergence of Jonah from the ogy differs from allegory in that histori-

sea monster, as portrayed in the cata- cal references are never forgotten and
COMBS of Rome, is seen as a parallel, or give to events a cosmic significance,"

type, of Christ's resurrection. "Typol- Marilyn Stokstad writes.

 u

Uccello, Paolo however, a real, historic war that he

c. 1397-1475 • Italian • painter • was commemorating, and, as one might
Renaissance imagine considering the Medici connec-
tion, the paintings celebrate a Floren-
0/ che dolce cosa e questa prospettiva!
tine victory over their Sienese rivals in
[Ah, what a lovely thing perspective is!]
1432.
In the early 1430s, Uccello moved to
Florence from Venice, where he was Uffizi (Galleria degli Uffizi)
working on mosaics, probably for the Commissioned by Cosimo I de' medici
Church of San Marco. He was trained in 1559 and designed by vasari, this

in the International Style (see Gothic), great Florentine building is four stories
and its fascination with decorative pat- high, borders a long, narrow piazza on
tern remained with him no matter how three sides, and is distinguished by the
far he progressed in other directions. regularity and repetition of its elements,
His devotion to the study of perspec- such as lines of uniform columns. It

tive is expressed in the quotation above has been altered over the years, how-
and illustrated by a story about how he ever, and restored bomb damage
after

sent his wife to bed alone, preferring to suffered during World War II, flood
stay up with his "sweet mistress per- damage in 1966, and terrorist bombing
spective." Reputedly a joker, that seems by the Mafia in 1993. The original pur-
to be borne out by his best-known work, pose of the Uffizi was to house the gov-
the Battle of San Romano (mid-i450s), ernment means "offices"); today
(uffizi

actually three brightly colored panels it holds the most important collection

commissioned for a room in the medici of paintings in Italy —

in 1743 it ^^^

palace. In these compositions his per- opened as a public art museum. The
spective mania seems to run riot, for he core of the collection is the legacy of
uses a network of lances, dead bodies, Medici family members, but it is also
and miscellaneous devices to con- strong in many other Italian and non-
struct — —
and deconstruct the idea of a Italian areas. A
good part of the Uffizi
vanishing point. He clutters the scenes sculpture collection went to the Bar-
with stylized horses and men in a mili- gello Museum during the 19th century,
tary engagement that looks more like a and during the 20th century numerous
confrontation of windup toys or chess paintings from Florentine churches
pieces than of warring troops. It is. were brought in.
686 UHDE, WILHELM

Uhde, Wilhelm American flotilla under the command

1 874-1947 • German • of Matthew Calbraith Perry and the
collector/dealer/writer opening of Japan to the West in 1853.
Japanese society was divided into four
fDelaunay] brought me to ... . ,

, , , ,
strata: military, farmers, artisans, and
[Rousseau's] house and there, on the
merchants. Whereas landscape painting
easel, I saw this marvelous picture.
was patronized and sometimes prac-
Uhde settled in Paris in 1904. He sup- ticed by the intelligentsia, Ukiyo-e was

ported the fauve painters and bought devoted to representing the tastes and
work by other avant-garde artists, espe- interests of the more plebeian popula-
cially PICASSO, delaunay introduced tion, especially the urban lower class.

Uhde to Henri rousseau, as described They enjoyed scenes of the theater, tea-
in the quotation above; the "marvelous and bathhouse, brothel and boudoir;
picture" Uhde saw was The Snake the term "Ukiyo-e" refers to images of
C/7<s'rmer (1907), based on a trip to the the "floating" or passing world.
Indies that Delaunay's mother had de- Women were most frequently repre-
scribed to Rousseau. It was she who sented. Scorned by the upper classes,
commissioned the painting from him. Ukiyo-e became not only a popular
(Uhde was briefly married to Sonia mode of expression but also a source of
Terk, who later married Delaunay.) historical documentation of changing
Uhde became an early devotee of among the
fashions bourgeoisie. Hishi-

Rousseau's work, and one of the first kawa Monronubu (c. 1625-1694) is

and very few to buy it during the artist's considered the founder of Ukiyo-e. Kit-
lifetime. He organized Rousseau's first igawa Utamaro (1753-1806) stands
exhibition in 1908, but failed to include out as one of its greatest practitioners;
on the invitation the address of the Saido Sharaku, also an 18th-century
gallery. In 191 1, Uhde published the Ukiyo-e practitioner, painted the Ka-
first book on Rousseau, and later orga- buki theater's star female imperson-
nized subsequent retrospectives of his ators and was himself an actor in the

work. Credited with discovering and more upscale No theater. Starting with

promoting interest in self-iaught or painting c. 1600, Ukiyo-e expanded

naive art, Uhde wrote a book, in Ger- into the medium of wood-block prints
man, entitled Five Primitive Masters: and then into four-color printing. It
Rousseau, Vivin, Bombois, Bauchant, became known in Europe and America
Seraphine (1947). He also wrote on van during the 19th century, especially after
GOGH and PICASSO, who painted his Perry's voyage and the flourishing of
portrait in 19 10. trade with Japan. Ukiyo-e had tremen-
dous influence on a wide range of
Ukiyo-e artists, from French impressionists to

Power in Japan had shifted from the American realists. Both Ukiyo-e tech-

emperor into the hands of shoguns (die- nique (flat, unmodulated paint surfaces,

250 years of
tators) during that nation's radical cropping, empty foregrounds,
isolation preceding the arrival of an and disregard for one-point perspec-
 UTRECHT SCHOOL 687

TIVe) and subject matter (the private press, almost as a code word, the idea of
pleasures of the demimonde) were also origin.

adapted in the West. (See also hi-

ROSHiGE and hokusai) ut pictura poesis
Latin, meaning "as is painting, so is po-
Unit One etry." The phrase, from the Roman
A short-lived group of British artists writer Horace's Ars Poetica (c. 10
and architects including hepworth BCE?), placed artist beside poet in the
and Henry moore. They held one exhi- category of liberal arts, rather than
bition in 1933 and published Unit One: alongside the craftsman. The phrase
The Modern Movement in English Ar- was connected to the idea of mimesis in
chitecture, Painting and Sculpture that, according to plato, both art and
(1934), edited by read, poetry are imitative of nature. It could
be interpreted to suggest a dependence
Ur of art on literary, or at least poetic
From 3000 until 500 bce (when
c. precedent. Yet it could also be used as
Greece became prominent), Egypt and an apologia for nonmimetic practices
Mesopotamia were the loci of civiliza- such as ornamentation with grotes-
tion, trading with and influencing one ques, those entirely fanciful decorative
another, although each remained cul- designs. In that case, as the historian
turally distinctive. Mesopotamia Keith Moxey writes, ut pictura poesis
started slightly earlier and, in contrast was taken as the justification for artistic
to a more unified Egypt, was character- license. As a case in point, according

ized by independent city-states. One of to MICHELANGELO: "Horace, the lyric

these was Ur, in the southern Mesopo- poet ... in no way blames painters but
tamian region called Sumer, on a site praises and favors them since he says
now in southeastern Iraq. In the He- that poets and painters have license to

brew Bible it was called Ur of the dare —that is, to dare do what they
Chaldees. The brick Ziggurat (c. 2100 choose."
bce), of which only the base remains,
was a temple to their gods; the so- Utrecht School
called Standard of Ur (c. 2700 bce) de- Refers to the work of a group of artists
picting soldiers and chariots on the from Utrecht who came under the influ-
shell-inlaid surface of a box, and the in- ence of caravaggio, primarily by
laid gold, lapis lazuli, and shell decora- studying his works in the private collec-
tion on a royal lyre (c. 2600 bce), tions of Rome or by association with
including humorous scenes of animals Italian caravaggisti (followers of the
bringing gifts to the gods, are some of master, such as Orazio gentileschi).
the treasures recovered from Ur. Be- terbrugghen, who arrived in Utrecht
cause it was the most outstanding cen- after spending 10 years in Italy, was the
ter of the first recorded civilization in first Dutch painter to work in a Car-
which a system of religion, government, avaggesque style; van honthorst was
and writing arose, Ur has come to ex- another.
688 UTRILLO, MAURICE

Utrillo, Maurice Spanish art critic, Miguel Utrillo, gave

1883-1955 • French painter • Maurice his surname in an effort to "le-

School of Paris gitimize" him and help him out. Best

known among Utrillo's works are his
My son has been inspired to make
paintings in and around Paris, espe-
masterpieces by looking at postcards;
cially the streets of Montmartre,
others who imagine they are making
sharply outlined and sophisticated in
masterpieces are really only producing
composition. He often used "high" or
postcards. (Suzanne Valadon)
bright, light colors, but somehow the

Born out of wedlock to valadon, emptiness of his streets, flanked by old

Utrillo became an alcoholic as a child one- or two-story buildings, seems un-
and was in a sanitarium for alcoholics friendly, like hopper's exposures of
by the age of 18. Like his mother, he alienation in the modern world. Street

was a self-taught artist. He praised her in Asineeres (i9i3-i5)isan example of

painting, "her magic colors, her natural a superficially agreeable but somehow
and honest tones," and, as expressed in unwelcoming vista.

the quotation above, she admired his. A

 V

Valadon, Suzanne Room (1923), Valadon sabotages the

1865/67-1938 • French painter nude ODALISQUE convention of Ingres
Post-Impressionist and MANET — she places a buxom
woman with a cigarette in her mouth on
/ paint people to learn to know them.
a bed, surrounded by patterned fabric,

The daughter of an unmarried domestic and dressed in what look like wide-
worker, Valadon was roaming the striped pajama bottoms and an under-
streets of Montmartre by the age of six shirt. The historian Patricia Mathews
and in her teens posed for puvis de thinks that Valadon was painting "the
CHAVANNES, TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, and new intellectual woman of the ilk of
RENOIR. She had no art lessons, but Gertrude Stein." Valadon also painted
taught herself to draw by watching the many portraits; her models were often
artists who painted her. Her talent was friends and family, including her son,
recognized and she enjoyed a certain UTRiLLO. Painting people "to learn
level of critical acclaim from 1921 until to known them," as in the quotation
her death. Like the men with whom she above, was a constant devotion of hers.
associated on both a professional and Valadon's figures are heavily outlined,
an informal basis, and unlike her female their faces generally unemotional.
contemporaries morisot and cassatt, There is little directly communicated
Valadon painted numerous female psychological intensity; complexity in
nudes. Breaking the rules of propriety Valadon's work depends on subtle ref-

and invading what was then considered erences to scene setting, patterns, color,
male terrain, she defied restrictions and circumstance.
women were usually made to feel and
observe. Shewas more in tune with an- Valois dynasty
other contemporary woman, moder- After the Capetian line of succession to
SOHN-BECKER: Her nude women are the French throne died out in 1328, it

not seductive, nor are her pictures erot- was replaced by the Valois royal house,
ically charged. In fact, the woman which ruled until 1589. Three of the
seated on the edge of her bed in Nude four sons of John II the Good (1319-
with Striped Coverlet (19x2) has her 1364; himself the son of the first Valois
eyes cast down to read a book, and is king, Philip VI) were important pa-
self-contained and demure. In The Blue trons and sponsors of artists and
690 VANDERLYN, JOHN

purveyors of the courtly International Vanderlyn, John

Style of GOTHIC art. Their banquets, 1 77 5-1 852 • American • painter •

pageants, and other entertainments Federal/Neoclassicist

were designed and choreographed by

The subject may not be chaste
artists and frequently recorded in illu-
enough .at least to be displayed
. .

minated MANUSCRIPTS. Charles V the

in the house of any private
Wise (1338-1380) inherited his father's
individual. But on that
. . .

throne in 1364. His biography was writ-

account it may attract a great
ten by Christine de Pisan, daughter of
crowd if exhibited publickly.
the court astrologer in Paris, bondol
was among the artists in Charles's court. Vanderlyn was briefly taught by stu-
John, Duke of Berry (i 340-1416), con- ART, then went in 1796 to Paris, where
centrated his efforts on building and he learned the academic foundations
refurbishing his many castles and resi- by painting from casts of ancient stat-

dences and on expanding his library (he ues. He was the first American painter
acquired pucelle's Belville Breviary to master the style of French neoclas-
and the Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux) and sicism. The Death of Jane McCrea
his collections of jewels and curiosities. (1804) is his dramatization of an Amer-
Numerous painters of miniatures were ican story told in an epic poem. The
among them de hes-
called into service, grisly scene shows a young woman, an

DiN and the limbourg brothers, whose early settler, about to be scalped and

Tres Riches Heures, du Due de Berry is murdered by two men of the British-
one of the most magnificent books in supported Mohawk tribe. It is painted
the world. Philip the Bold of Burgundy in the operatic grand manner. An un-

(134Z-1404), youngest of the brothers, dercurrent of eroticism in that picture

was the patron of sluter and commis- emerges blown in Ariadne Asleep
full

sioned the Chartreuse de Champmol, a on the Island of Naxos (1814), in which

monastery compound, which the histo- Vanderlyn uses the story from Greek
rian PANOFSKY calls "the Saint-Denis of —
mythology Theseus abandoned Ari-
the Burgundian Dynasty." The Burgun- adne while she slept —to paint a sensu-

dian court continued to sponsor art ous nude in a sylvan landscape. It was
and artists, notably during the reign of first shown in the Paris salon. Vander-
Philip the Good 1396-1467),
(lived lyn anticipated American reaction to
who patronized van eyck (see also this painting in the words above. He re-

hapsburg). John the Good's fourth turned to America in 181 5 and set his
son, Duke Louis of Anjou (1339- great panorama The Palace of Ver-

1384), was not as important a patron as sailles (1818-19) in a small rotunda

were his brothers, but he did commis- with Ariadne in the vestibule. Because
sion one of the most significant of the Americans found nudes objectionable,
era's works of art, for which he engaged the image was clothed in moralistic

Bondol and Charles's tapestry weaver, terms, but the painting's reception was
Nicolas Bataille: the spectacular Angers mixed — admired from an intellectual

Apocalypse Tapestries (c. 1375-79). point of view, but disdained by prudes.

 VASARI, GIORGIO 69I

He hoped to gain commissions for his- designs in that posture. . . . I marvel

TORY paintings Grand Manner,
in the that Michelangelo supported the
but Americans were still far more inter- discomfort.
ested in portraits, and Vanderlyn was
largely disappointed. Vasari was a successful painter with a
very largeworkshop that was able to
cover many walls in Florence and Rome
vanitas with FRESCOes. His most significant ar-
Describes art in terms of the phrase chitectural work was the uffizi in
from Ecclesiastes (Chapter i), "Vanity Florence. But neither his paintings nor
of vanities; all is vanity." Designed to his buildings earned him his reputation
encourage viewers to contemplate as the most influential artist in history,
death, vanitas painting became a popu- His masterpiece was, rather, his book
lar subset of Dutch still life paintings about art, Lives of the Most Excellent
during the 17th century. Their special Painters, Sculptors and Architects, first
message is, or at least appears to be, the published in 1550, then expanded and
rejection of the material world, which reissued in 1568. Few art historians
was exceedingly lavish, as Holland be- argue against the statement that it is the
came one of the richest countries in the most influential book about the history
world. To drive home the message of art ever written. On the face of it,

about the transience of life on earth, a Vasari's book fulfills the promise of its

skull was often included among a daz- title, providing brief biographies of
zling array of luxurious objects, from painters from cimabue to himself,
gleaming coins, to flowers, to highly along with some descriptions of their
polished brasses and porcelain. Ironi- works. The text, which is full of anec-
cally, while seeking to discredit the dotes like that about Michelangelo
beautiful extravagances of the world, quoted above, divides the Italian re-
the paintings, themselves expensive naissance into three periods: before
commodities, embody them. The para- 1400 (Proto-Renaissance, Cimabue to
dox of preaching against vanity while Lorenzo di Bicci), the 1 5th century (Re-
artistically celebrating it was not lost on naissance,jacopo della Quercia to pe-
the 17th-century Dutch. rugino), and the first half of the i6th
(Late Renaissance and mannerism,
LEONARDO to Michclangelo). His
Vasari, Giorgio
chronological and stylistic categories
1511-1574 • Italian •
were adopted over the succeeding cen-
writer/painter/architect • Mannerist
turies, and are still followed in art his-
The work [on the Sistine Chapel torical surveys. Yet his text was
ceiling] was executed in great controversial when it was published,
discomfort as Michelangelo had to and remains so to this day. Especially
stand with his head thrown back, and galling to opponents was the preferen-
so injured his eyesight that for several tial treatment given to Florentine art, in

months he could only read and look at which he saw a continuous, develop-
692. VAULT

mental progression, akin to that from phies (usually undocumented stories

infancy to full adulthood, starting in that tell the lives of saints) or to literary
Florence around 1300 and culminating fiction, an epic history of the Italian Re-
with Michelangelo. This he emphasized naissance in which some artists are he-

especially by stressing the Florentine roes (e.g., Michelangelo) and others are
skill in disegno (meaning "drawing" villains (e.g., andrea del Castagno).
but expanded to accommodate the idea Yet other historians challenge Vasari's
of form more generally) over color (see authorship of the entire work, suggest-
also LINE vs. color). Color was a great ing that the important prefaces to the
strength of Venetian artists. Contradic- three sections that establish the concept
tory texts appeared soon after Vasari's, of the Renaissance itself as "rebirth,"
beginning with Ludovico Dolce's andespecially the ideaof adevelopmen-
L'Arefmo (1557) on behalf of Venice, tal progression, were written by
Other partisan regionalist tracts later Vasari's more scholarly associates. And
weighed in, including some from north it is argued that, in fact, Vasari was
of the Alps. Vasari's Florentine partial- derelict in conducting the research he
ity has been studied, and some explana- should have done, that is, going to look
tions are offered: that his work was at some of the works of art that he
poorly received in Venice; that his spon- wrote about (like that by anguissola
sor, the first Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Veronese). Reevaluation of Va-
Cosimo de' medici, had every reason to sari's work, and all that has been based

support a pro-Florentine/Tuscan bias; on it, inevitably contributes to challeng-

not to mention that Vasari's own prac- ing the entire foundation of Western
ticewas primarily in Florence and art history, including the interpreta-
Rome. It was the 19th century before tion of Classical art, the study of which
researchers, exploring archival materi- was, after all, given its current direction
als, began to discover that Vasari was during the Renaissance,
often wrong on details like dates of
birth and death, and attribution, vault
chronology. (He himself corrected some A construction in which the top of the
early errors in the second edition of his arch becomes a ceiling rather than just a
book.) Twentieth-century scholarship passageway. (See arch)
questions the authority of Vasari's en-
tire oeuvre, which, the historian Carl XT J J T-1-1
^ , , .
r ,.
Vedder, Elihu
Goldstein proposes, follows a classi-
1 83 6-1923 • American • painter
cal rhetorical model, the intention of
Visionary
which is to persuade the audience to ac-
cept a point of view that the author be- / am not a mystic, or very learned in
lieves has a high ethical or moral value, occult matters. I have read much in a
Though usually founded on "fact," at desultory manner and have thought
least to some extent, such arguments much, and so it comes that I take short
willingly sacrifice truth to a higher goal, flights or wade out into the sea of

Vasari's Lives is likened to hagiogra- mystery which surrounds us, but soon
 VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO 693

getting beyond my depth, return, I Velazquez, Diego

must confess with a sense of relief, to 1 599-1 660 • Spanish • painter •
the solid ground of common sense; Baroque
and yet it delights me to tamper and
Like a bee, he carefully selected what
potter in the unknowable. . . . There is
suited his needs and would benefit
another thing— the ease with which I
posterity. (Antonio Palomino, 1724)
can conjure up visions.
While Spain was at the peak of its polit-

A native New Yorker, Vedder spent icaland economic power during the
most of his life abroad, especially in i6th century, artists from Italy and the
Italy, where he associated with the mac- Netherlands were brought to the Span-
CHiAiOLi, though he also studied in ish court. The great age of Spanish
Paris for eight months. He was greatly painting came in the next century, dur-
influenced by works of the Italian re- ing the reign of Philip IV (1621-65),
NAISSANCE on the one hand, and by ex- whose court painter was Velazquez. He
otic stories from the Orient on the worked mainly on portraits of the royal
other. The Questioner of the Sphinx family; included in this category is

(1863) is an image inspired by the myth Las Meninas {The Maids of Honor;
of the Great Sphinx of Giza: A propor- 1656), which another, contemporary
tionally small man crouches in front of painter,Giordano, called a "Theology
the enormous head of the Sphinx, his of Painting." The meaning of this
ear against its lips; a skull rests in the phrase is that every significant consider-
sand nearby. Vedder may have been in- ation in the discipline of painting is re-

spired by HEGEL, who wrote of the alized to perfection here: It combines

Sphinx as ". . . the symbol of the sym- portraiture; it is narrative; and it

bolic itself . . . recumbent animal bodies treats of tradition of painting, the

out of which the human body is strug- artist's role, concepts of vision and re-
gling. . . .The human spirit is trying to flection, illumination, perspective,
force its way forward out of the dumb and color, to mention only some of its
strength and power of the animal, with- concerns. Regarding technique, "it

out coming to a perfect portrayal of its seems as if the hand played no part in its

own freedom and animated shape." In execution, but that was painted by the
it

Greek mythology, Oedipus avoided will alone," wrote mengs 100 years
death and defeated the Sphinx by an- later. Very few drawings by Velazquez

swering the riddle it posed. This part of exist, and it is believed that he painted

the story was illustrated by Ingres in directly onto the canvas. His broad and

Oedipus Explains the Riddle of the fluid brushstroke was to have a pro-
Sphinx (1808). Vedder's visions, which found effect on succeeding artists, as
he wrote about in his autobiography, did the natural appearance he gave his
quoted from above {The Digressions of subjects, his equestrian portraits, and
V. Written for His Own Fun and That of the collection of unconventional
H/5 fn>«(is, 1 9 10), were also of strange people, especially dwarfs, who were
sea serpents and deranged wanderers. kept around for the amusement of the
694 VELLUM

court. The importance of Velazquez to form undulating in curves of excep-

the BAROQUE period can hardly be ex- tional beauty. When was inter-
she
aggerated. The Spanish painter and viewed by a newspaper some 40 years
writer on art Antonio Palomino later, the woman, who was called Mary

(1655-17x6), who is quoted above, the Slasher, said, "I didn't like the way
revered Velazquez above all other men visitors gaped at it all day long."
artists. Velazquez's profound insight
into human character is expressed in vellum
two portraits that are diametrically op- See PARCHMENT
posed in regard to their subjects. He
painted his employee, traveling com- Venice
panion, and fellow artist, Juan de Pareja According to legend, Venice was
(c. 1649-50), in Rome while awaiting, founded on the date of the Annuncia-
and limbering up for, his call to paint tion, March 25, in the year 421. This
Pope Innocent X (c. 1650-51). The linked the city with the Virgin. Its float-

first — dark-skinned, dark-eyed, and ing character — surrounded and pene-

dressed in brown and green with a trated by water — addition to the
in

wide, lacy white collar —expresses in similarity of names, also associated

the portrait a disarming and monumen- Venice with Venus, who was born in

tal combination of humility and nobil- the water. Located on 1 17 marshy islets

ity.The pope, in a shimmering red satin
hat and cape over a lacy white vest-
ment, is as hard-edged, tense, and pow-
erful as Pareja is gentle, relaxed, and
deferential. The range of Velazquez's
influence is similarly diverse: The
in the Lagoon of Venice, Venice was a
major sea power and, with Genoa, able
to dominate byzantine trade and to
control commerce between East and
West, especially luxury goods like
spices, gems, perfumes, and fine cloths.

American painter eakins did not under- Saint Mark's Cathedral (begun 1063) is

take painting portraits until after he an example of Byzantine influence on

studied Velazquez in Madrid; the the city's architecture. Venice became
British painter bacon was moved to an independent republic governed by a
paint Study after Velazquez's Pope In- constitution, and also the preeminent
nocent X (1953), which extenuates the colonial power, until Spain and Portu-
original image to a terrifying conclu- gal began their expansions. It was also
sion. There is a very different sense in the only Italian city ruled by a merchant
which the impact of Velazquez mani- aristocracy. The "Myth of Venice" — its

fested itself during the 20th century. In stability, its "perfect" constitution, and
1 9 14, to draw attention to the suffrag- its impartial justice —was celebrated by
ists who were incarcerated in Holloway PETRARCH in the 14th century and pro-
Prison for their activities in pursuit of moted in the mid- 15th century. Also by
the vote for women, Mary Richardson the middle of the 15th century, as seen
went to the National Gallery in London in a drawing by Jacopo bellini (Flagel-

and severely vandalized Velazquez's lation, c. 1450), artists in Venice were

Rokeby Venus (c. 1651), a naked, re- thinking about perspective —^Jacopo
clining woman seen from the back, her had been in Florence, where perspective
 VENTURI, ROBERT 695

Studies took root. The moist atmos- showplace for avant-garde art. Political

phere in Venice was not conducive to disputes preempted the 1974 event. The
FRESCO, and though earlier artists prob- 1997 Biennale was organized by Ger-
ably used tempera on linen, around mano Celant (see arte povera) and
1470 Venetian painters were using oil was named Future Present Past. Artists
PAINT on wood, which was soon re- from the 1960s through the 1990s were
placed by canvas. Oil paint enabled shown, but the event was plagued by
artists, including the bellinis, and in administrative problems and, according
the 1 6th century giorgione, titian, to the critic Roberta Smith, "weighed
TINTORETTO, and VERONESE, to express down by big-name, over-the-hill tal-

the subtle effects and softening of out- ents." Film, video, and "virtual reality"
lines resulting from the heavy, humid prevailed over painting.
Venetian atmosphere seen, for example,
Rape of Europa (1559).
in Titian's Venturi, Robert
The Myth of Venice is woven into born 1925 • American • architect •
Veronese's exultant Triumph of Venice Postmodern
(c. 1585), painted for the ceiling of the
Less is a bore.
Hall of the Great Council in the Doge's
Palace. Venice is portrayed as the dea Venturi known is as the founder of the
Roma, goddess ofRome, rising above postmodern in architecture. In his
palatial architecture and an animated book Complexity and Contradiction in

crowd in a swirl of clouds. By appropri- Architecture (1966), Venturi discussed

ating the personification of the ancient the fertility of early building styles in
empire, Venice promoted itself as the contrast to the sterility of then current
"New Rome." For a long time Venetian trends: To mies van der rohe's fa-

art took a backseat to that of Florence, mous saying "Less is more," Venturi re-

due largely to the influential writing of sponded, "Less is a bore," as quoted

VASARi, who gave Florence and its above. He promoted the idea that archi-
artists preferential treatment, but that is tects should look to popular culture for
no longer the case. inspiration
— "Is not Main Street almost
alright?" is his famous rhetorical ques-
Venice Biennale tion. Learning from Las Vegas, coau-
Started in 1895 ^s an international ex- thored with Denise Scott Brown (born
hibition held every two years, the 1930; his wife and architectural collab-
Venice Biennale is "juried"; that is, the orator), was published in 1972. In it he
selection of what will be shown is adju- writes, "I like elements which are hy-
dicated by a committee, and several re- brid rather than 'clear,' distorted rather
wards are distributed. At its premiere, than 'straightforward,' ambiguous
BURNE-jONES, MOREAU, and ISRAELS rather than 'articulated.' ... I am for
were among the 156 artists from 15 messy vitality over obvious unity. I in-

countries (excluding Italy, which itself elude the non sequitur and proclaim the
was represented by 129). It was inter- duality. I am for richness of meaning
rupted by World War II, but in 1948 the rather than clarity of meaning." Ven-
Biennale became the most important turi had worked with kahn and, like
696 VENUS DE MILO

him, admired the examples of roman artists added remarkable representa-

and RENAISSANCE architecture. He in- tions of character and emotion to their
corporates a mix of styles in his build- veristic reporting of physiognomy.
ings. One of his best known (in

collaboration with other architects) is Vermeer, Jan

Guild House (1962-66) in Philadel- 1 63 2-1 675 • Dutch • painter •
phia, a redbrick public housing project Baroque
for seniors on a busy thoroughfare. Its
All the figures seem to have been
main entry facade, in white brick, with
transplanted from ordinary existence
its name written in large letters above
and harmonious setting
into a clear
the door, calls to mind old movie
where ivords have no sound and
houses and, perhaps, fancy art deco
thoughts no form. Their actions are
apartment buildings, with their en-
steeped in mystery, as those of figures
trance canopies and evocative names.
we see in a dream. (J. Huizinga, 19 19)
The subtleties of this building, the vari-

ous window shapes, its movement back Muted tones, soft light, harmony, bal-
from the street, and other details reveal ance, and subtlety characterize Ver-
themselves, more slowly than the en- meer's paintings. They are usually small
trance does, as mixing vernacular and in size and intimate in subject. They are
historic references in the terms Venturi often of interior scenes, in his own
sets for himself. house, containing one, two, or three
people occupied with quotidian chores:
Venus de Milo reading a letter, pouring milk, playing a
See aphrodite of melos musical instrument —domestic subjects
that sanctify the everyday preoccupa-
verism tions they portray. Two outdoor scenes,
A variant of realism^ and natural- The Little Street (c. 1658-60) and View
ism, verism implies verisimilitude, the of Delft (c. 1 661), also express the qui-
accurate, factual representation of vi- etude of his interiors, although, as
sual details (distinctions among the Huizinga went on to say, following the
three are fluid and not agreed on among quotation above, "The word 'realism'
art historians). Verism is used especially seems completely out of place here."
to characterize ancient Roman portrai- The and bustle of ordinary life
hustle
ture, above all busts that served "for the cannot seem to penetrate the extraordi-
sake of memory and posterity," as Ci- nary stillness of Vermeer's interior and
cero put it. Such images were often exterior scenes. Vermeer spent his life in
death masks. Called imagines, these the old walled city of Delft, and while
busts were prominently displayed in there is official documentation of cer-
homes and at funerals. Roman por- tain facts (birth, marriage, death), little

traitists vacillated between more or less is known about his training. His associ-
verism, mediated by idealism and an ef- ation with other artists also is a mys-
fort to record the individual's character. tery, except that he registered as a
In the well-known busts Hadrian (c. master painter in the Saint Luke's Guild
120 ce) and Caracalla (c. 215 ce), the in 1653 and that he was twice head of
 VERONESE (PAOLO CALIARl) 697

theGUILD after that, (steen and de the painting the name by which it has
HOOCH were also painters active in long been known — G/>/ with a Pearl
Delft during the 1650s.) Before his —
Earring {\66 ^-66) may not be a pearl
marriage to Catharina Bolnes in 1653, at all. A fleck of paint had fallen onto
Vermeer converted to her religion, the earring to change its shape. Now
Catholicism. That seems to explain a cleaned, it looks more like a glass or sil-

few atypical works, like Saint Praxedis ver ball, on the surface of which light
(1655). His oeuvre seems to have been collects and bounces back at the viewer,
exceptionally small in number, based In other words, the earring itself acts
both on paintings that are known first- very much like a lens. Thus, the same
hand, about 36 all told, and on those technology that expanded the age of
that have been identified by records. It Vermeer is still able to lead us back to
seems certain that he did not make his understanding the artist's original in-

living from selling his art; it is likely, tention.

rather, that his income came from his
father's business, which combined Veronese (Paolo Caliari)
innkeeping and selling pictures. One 1528-1588 • Italian • painter •

story someone called at his house

is that Late Renaissance
to buy one of his works and he insisted ,^7
, J
, , 111-
that he had none to sell, despite a house-
1 We painters take the same liberties as

r poets and
,
madmen
, ,
take.
ml orr pamtmgs. TiTTi r
, •

When he died, he left 1 1 1 1 1

his large family deep in debt. Vermeer's same time as

Painting in Venice at the
interest in and painting of shadow are Tintoretto (though originally from
as remarkable as his representation of Verona), Veronese created work that
form, and both express his sensitivity to was as radiant and delightful as Tin-
the optical effects of light and color. Ex- toretto's was dark and troubling. Each
perimentation in optics, the science that painted the Last Supper, and these
both explores and expands what the eye works provide a striking comparison,
sees, flourished in 17th-century Delft. Tintoretto's, of 1592-94, is a tragic but
Vermeer is believed to have used a cam- transcendental moment; Veronese
ERA OBSCURA as an aid in composing painted a scene of such luxury and inci-
his scenes, and was equally fascinated dental (even humorous) detail that he
by the other scientific discoveries of was called before the Inquisition in
his time. He was a friend of a great 1573 on account of it. His comment,
maker and experimenter with lenses, quoted above, was part of his self-
Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632- defense for having set the scene as a
1723), known for his development of sumptuous banquet with "buffoons,
the microscope. Leeuwenhoek was the drunkards, dwarfs, Germans, and simi-
executor of Vermeer's estate. There lar vulgarities." The result was that he

would seem to be some poetic justice, made a few changes, including renam-
then, that when a museum conservator ing the picture Feast in the House of
was examining one of Vermeer's paint- Levi (1573). In general, Veronese's in-
ings with a microscope in 1995, he dis- tensely colorful compositions recorded
covered that the jewel that had given the wealth and pageantry of Venetian
 —

698 VERROCCHIO, ANDREA DEL

life. For the ceiling of the Hall of the has some of the intensity seen in
Great Council in the Doge's Palace he CASTAGNO. However, Verrocchio is best
painted Triumph of Venice (1579-82), known Where earlier
as a sculptor.
in which the Republic of Venice is per- NANNi di Banco and donatello had
sonified as a great queen on her throne begun to liberate their sculpted figures
being crowned by angels amid illusion- from the architectural niches in which
istic architecture that climbs into the they stood, Verrocchio went a step
sky, a bevy of spectators, allegorical fig- further in the life-size bronze work
ures, and prancing horses seen from be- Doubting Thomas (c. 1466-83) at Or-
hind. As were correggio's ceilings, sanmichele, Florence: Reaching to
this composition was studied avidly by touch Christ's wound as proof that he
Veronese's baroque successors. is, indeed, the Lord, Thomas is actually
standing on the ledge, outside the niche
Verrocchio, Andrea del that encloses the figure of Christ. Ver-

143 5-1488 • Italian • rocchio's specific references to Do-

sculptor/painter • Renaissance natello show just how differently each
sculptor used his craft to interpret his
/ am very glad [that Cosimo de'
subject. Verrocchio's 1475; David (c.
Medici wants a magnificent altarpiece]
about 40 years after Donatello's) is
and should be even more glad if I
clothed rather than nude; while also
might paint it myself . . And should
.

pensive he is tense, not relaxed, show-

this happen, I hope to God I should
produce something wonderful for you,
ing tendons and veins — a more specific

observation of the body. Verrocchio's

equal to good masters like Fra Filippo
figure is keener, aware of his victory,
[Lippi] and Fra Giovanni
and seems to have been caught in a mo-
[Angelico]. ... 7 beg you, so far as it is
mentary pause. These two qualities
possible for a servant to beg his lord,
physical expressiveness and stabilizing
that will please you to bestow favor
upon me.
it
a fleeting moment — signify the culmi-
nation of 15th-century ITALIAN RENAIS-
The letter quoted from above was to SANCE They are also apparent in
Style.

Piero, Cosimo de' medici's son, dated Verrocchio's equestrian statue Bar-
April I, 1438. Verrocchio lost the com- tolomeo Colleoni (c. 1479-92), though
mission for the ALTARPIECE of San the tension here is in the fierce expres-

Marco, which was awarded to Fra an- and the torsion in the
sion of the face
gelico. Verrocchio (a nickname mean- body of an armed general riding into
ing "true eye") was the master of a large battle.

and successful Florentine workshop in

which LEONARDO was a trainee. Ver- Versailles

rocchio's Baptism of Christ (c. 1475- In 1668 Louis XIV began to build Ver-
85) is usually called on to show sailles, then a relatively small com-
Leonardo's hand —he painted the head pound, into a great palatial complex
of at least one of the two angels at the that included not only a park but also a
left of the picture and possibly some of small city to accommodate, as he be-
the landscape. Verrocchio's own work lieved himself to be, the greatest mon-
 VIG^E-LEBRUN, MARIE-LOUISE-^LISABETH 699

arch of the century. Naming himself the INSTALLATIONS. Taking technology that
Sun King affiliated Louis with the was initially developed for a mass audi-
pagan god Apollo. In 1674, the French ence, artists have also exploited enter-
architect Andre Felibien wrote, "It must tainment/advertising forms, like MTV.
first be pointed out that, since the Sun is As intended, distinctions between
the emblem of the King and since the "high" and "low," mass and elitist art

poets confound the Sun and Apollo, are purposefully erased. (See also popu-
there is nothing in this superb residence lar culture)
that is not related to this divinity."
From the avenues that radiate from the Vienna Secession (Sezession)
palace like the sun's rays, to a sculpted See SECESSION
Apollo in his chariot pulled by four
bronze horses and rising from a pool of Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-
water, to small decorative, circular gold Elisabeth
interior ornaments, the light of the sun 1 75 5-1 842 • French • painter •

and the light of Louis's reign are repre- Rococo

sented as synonymous. The palace it-
Happy as I was at the idea of
self,more than a quarter of a mile in
becoming a mother, after nine months
length, was designed by Louis Le Vau
of pregnancy, I was not in the least
(161Z-1670) and HARDOUIN-MANSART,
prepared for the birth of my baby. The
and the result is an interpretation of
day my daughter was born, was still
I
CLASSICAL architecture on an unprece-
in the studio, trying to work on my
The park landscape,
dented, vast scale.
Venus Binding the Wings of Cupid in
designed by Andre Le Notre (1613-
the intervals between labor pains.
1700), is another of the world's great
works of art. The was incompa-
interior The cult of love and feminine beauty
rably lavish in all the decorative and were intimately bound to rococo aes-
FINE arts; the work was overseen by thetics. Vigee-Lebrun was unlucky in

the premier art director of the period, love (she married a man "whose over-
LE BRUN. whelming passion for extravagant
women, combined with a love of gam-
video bling, decimated both his fortune and
Developments in technology provide my own," as she wrote in her memoirs),
artists with new mediums to explore. As though amply favored in her looks. She
photography and film were appropri- painted self-portraits many times, as
ated by artists, so too have video and Her fa-
well as portraits of her children.
computers become appealing mediums. ther was her teacher, though he had
PAiK is one of the pioneers in video art. died by the time she was 13. Successful
Artists use video technology in every at portraiture especially, Vigee-Lebrun
conceivable way, from manipulating was appointed court artist to Queen
and restaging previously recorded im- Marie Antoinette and her services were
ages (e.g., the assassination of John F. enlisted in the effort to counteract the
Kennedy), to recording their own per- queen's scandalous reputation as a
formances (ANDERSON) or images for loose woman. In Portrait of Marie An-
700 VIGNOLA, GIACOMO (jACOPO) BAROZZI DA

toinette with Her Children (1787) the opening off the nave and finding vari-
monarch, with an infant on her lap and ous means to direct attention to the
two children at either side, carries allu- high altar. (The facade of II Gesia was
sions to paintings of the Madonna and designed by Giacomo della Porta, a fol-
Child. There is a Rococo "prettiness" in lower of Michelangelo, and the interior
her pictures, and a freshness that is very was redecorated in baroque style in
much her own. Vigee-Lebrun's income 1672-83.) Another major contribution
was substantial but squandered, first by of Vignola was the publication in 1562
her mother's second husband, then by of Regola delli cinque ordini d'architet-
herown husband, a dissolute art dealer tura, which Reed writes about in the
who charged high prices for his wife's quotation above. The book contained
pictures and pocketed most of her earn- 32 plates based on the five column or-
ings. To increase her income, he sug- ders he found in the remains of ancient
gested she take pupils, which she did, Rome. He took the Doric from the The-
although, as she wrote, it "took me ater of Marcellus and the Corinthian
away from my own work and irritated order from the porch of the pantheon.
me sharply." One student was Marie- He closes with an entablature — hori-
Guillemine benoist. Vigee-Lebrun left zontal members above the columns: ar-
Paris during the Revolution, as the chitrave, frieze, cornice — of his own
queen was taken from Versailles invention. Vastly influential, Vignola's
under armed guard. She returned to book had numerous Italian editions and
Paris in 1802, but continued to travel as was translated into several languages,
she had done earlier. including Russian.

Villa Boscoreale
Vignola, Giacomo (Jacopo)
Buried and preserved by the eruption of
Barozzi da
Mount Vesuvius in 79 ce, this villa at
1 507-1 573 • Italian • architect/
Boscoreale, a mile or so north of pom-
author • Late Renaissance/Mannerist
PEii, had walls exquisitely painted with
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola codified complex and elegant architectural
the rules of classical architecture for scenes, divided from one another by
the Italian Renaissance . . . (Henry slim columns, in what is called the Sec-
Hope Reed, 1977) ond Style of Roman wall painting (see

mural). One Boscoreale painting cre-

Vignola was the leading Roman archi- ated the illusion of a city street, each
Michelangelo's death. His
tect after building having its own vanishing
most important and influential building point, known as herringbone perspec-
is II Gesii, a church in Rome that was tive, rather than the one- point perspec-
begun 1568 (completed 1575). Niko-
in tive devised during the Italian
laus PEVSNER writes that "it has proba- renaissance. Architectural murals
bly had a wider influence than any may have imitated backcloths that were
church built in the last 400 years." Vig- used for theatrical stage sets. Some of
nola's innovations include replacing the the Boscoreale murals are at the Metro-
usual side aisles with a series of chapels politan Museum of Art in New York.
 VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGENE-EMMANUEL JOl

Villa of the Mysteries commentary on a variety of subjects,

This splendid country mansion, just from buildings — "I have been in many
outside POMPEII, was more than loo lands but nowhere have I seen a tower
years old when it was destroyed by the like that of Laon" —to lions
— "Here is a
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 ce. It lion seen from the front. Please remem-
was underneath nearly 25 feet of vol- ber that hewas drawn from life." Al-
canic debris when excavations began in though his drawing "from life" is
1909; poisonous gases interrupted the questionable (seeming more anthropo-
work, which was resumed in the 1920s. morphic than anatomically correct),
In 1930 an extraordinary mural was and he apparently depended on geomet-
uncovered, dated c. 50 bce, in the Sec- rical forms as much as natural shapes, it

ond Style (see mural). This painting is thought that his ideas have had great
gave the villa its name: In a room some influence in spreading French ideas
16 by 23 feet are illustrations of rites throughout Europe.
performed as part of a mystery cult,

most likely that of Dionysus/Bacchus

(Greek/Roman god of wine), who is Vingt, Les (Les XX)
painted on the most important but Made up of 20 young Belgian artists,

damaged wall, resting his head in the this was an avant-garde group formed
lap of his bride, Ariadne. Scenes, set in Brussels in 1884. Their purpose —to
against a deep red background, are promote new and original forms of
enigmatic and include a young woman, art —
was realized by inviting 20 guests,
a supposed initiate, about to be lashed usually foreign artists, to show their
by a winged woman brandishing a long works in yearly exhibitions, whistler,
whip; a naked woman twirls, perhaps in MONET, RENOIR, RODIN, REDON, SEU-
and another uncovers a
ecstatic frenzy, RAT, PISSARRO, MORISOT, and CEZANNE
basket containing a phallus; a young were among the guest artists. They pub-
boy reads from a papyrus; Silenus (fos- lished a journal, L'Art moderne. ensor
ter father of Bacchus), a satyr, and a was one of the founding members and
faun also populate the walls. The mean- exhibited with Les XX until the group
ing of the scenes is unresolved, but their dissolved in 1893.
dramatic impact and religious nature
are incontrovertible.
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene-Emmanuel
18 14-1879 • French • architectural
Villard de Honnecourt
theorist/restorer • Romantic
active early 13 th century • French •
master mason • Late Medieval/Gothic . . . among the medieval architects
the only scale admitted was man,
Villard de Honnecourt greets you and
every part of their structures
begs all who will use the devices found
being composed with reference
book to pray for
in this his soul and
to the height of the human figure,
remember him.
and hence, necessarily, the unity

Villard left behind a notebook, com- of the whole. With a point of

piled c. 1220-35, with drawings and comparison so familiar, the real
702 VITRUVIUS

dimensions of their edifices provide princely vestibules, lofty halls

became particularly appreciable. and very spacious peristyles,
plantations and broad avenues finished
Working for the French Inspector Gen- in a majestic manner.
eral of National Monuments and His-
torical Antiquities in
1834, Viollet- Vitruvius worked first for Julius Caesar
le-Duc acquired a thorough under- and later for Augustus, to whom he
standing of the construction principles dedicated his treatise De architectura
and techniques of gothic architecture. libri The Ten Books on Archi-
decern, or
He became an influential writer whose tecture (c. 17 BCE or later), the only
argument on behalf of Gothic design, as complete tract on architecture that sur-
in the passage quoted above, con- vives from the ancient world. As did
tributed to its 19th-century revival, not Augustus, Vitruvius greatly admired
only in architecture but in the decora- —
GREEK works he discussed the origins
tive ARTS and painting, too. Viollet- and character of column orders —
le-Duc appreciated the structural ratio- and was more conservative than were
nalism of support systems (e.g., the other ROMAN builders. Part of his inten-
stone rib vault and "flying buttress" of tion was to create an intellectual under-
the Gothic cathedral), not the building's pinning for architecture, and he
religious inspiration. In his books (e.g., promoted education in the liberal arts
Dictionnaire raisonne de V architecture and mathematics for members of the
frangaise du XI e au XVIe siecle, profession. But Vitruvius was less im-
1854-68, and Entretiens sur Varchitec- portant during his own time than he
ture, 1863 and 1872), Viollet-le-Duc would later become. Several manuscript
argued on behalf of using contempo- copies of his book were known during
rary structural materials, such as iron, the early medieval period, but the re-
for similar support systems. His own discovery of On Architecture (as the
designs were not exceptional, but Viol- treatise is commonly called) during the

let-le-Duc devoted himself to restora- 15th century catapulted Vitruvius to

tion work and achieved great results the forefront of influence during the
with such famous landmarks as Sainte- ITALIAN renaissance. The obscurity of
Chapelle and Notre-Dame in Paris. his writing style led to fanciful interpre-

VioUet-le-Duc's English counterpart tations; nevertheless, architects fol-

was PUGIN. lowed his text religiously: alberti was

the first to seriously study Vitruvius and
based his own De re aedificaturia
Vitruvius
(1452), the first architectural treatise of
active late ist century bce • Roman
the Renaissance, on Vitruvian ideas;
• architect/theorist • Ancient
RAPHAEL requested an Italian transla-
The houses of bankers and farmers of tion of On Architecture in 15 14 and
the revenue should be more spacious made scale drawings of Roman build-
and imposing [than those of common ings in order to analyze Vitruvius's con-
people] and safe from burglars. . . . cepts;and LEONARDO made the idea of
For persons of high rank we must
. . . Vitruvian Man famous the symbol of —
 VOLLARD, AMBROISE 7O3

ideal proportion expressed by the draw- studio for a time. Derain illustrated
ing of a man, arms and legs spread Vlaminck's novels. Both young painters
wide, standing inside a circle that is in- were fired with enthusiasm by a 1901
side a square. The first printed edition retrospective of van gogh's paintings,
of On Architecture was published in but Vlaminck also felt a great personal,

Rome between i486 and 1492. Vitru- temperamental affinity with van Gogh.
vius's own drawings were lost; the first He later described the effect of the van
illustrated edition by Fra Giocondo (a Gogh exhibit on him: "I heightened all
Dominican friar, c. 1433-15 15) was tones, I transposed into an orchestra-
published in 1 5 1 1 . palladio illustrated tion of pure colors all the feelings of
a 1556 publication of On Architecture; which I was conscious. I was a barbar-
his own Four Books of Architecture, ian, tender and full of violence. I trans-
published in Venice in 1570, was based lated by instinct, without any method,
on Vitruvius, but was very much Palla- not merely an artistic truth but above
dio's own work. Vitruvius's preemi- all a human one. I crushed and botched
nence was lost in the 17th century due the ultramarines and vermilions though
to the popularity of Palladio's book, but they were very expensive and I had to
was revived in the i8th with a new buy them on credit." Vlaminck, with
translation. Derain and others, exhibited in the
historic 1905 show at the salon
d'automne, where they were named
Vlaminck, Maurice de
FAUVEs. His paintings, as his comments
1 876-1 95 8 • French • painter/writer
suggest, were relatively instinctive, de-
• Fauve
pendent on what he called "candid ig-

I knew neither jealousy nor hate, but norance"; those of MATISSE and Derain
was possessed by a rage to re-create a were more carefully and intellectually

new world, the world which my eyes constructed. Henumerous

painted
perceived, a world all to myself. I was landscapes, and Landscape Near Cha-
poor, but I knew that life is beautiful. tou (1906), for one example, whips the
And I had no other ambition than to foreground landscape into something of
discover with the help of new means a frenzy with black dashes defining lines

those deep inner ties that linked me to of movement and thick white brush-
the very soil. strokes for clouds. Houses in the dis-
tances are small cubes with pitched red
Vlaminck had a short career as a pro- roofs.
fessional cyclist, then worked as a musi-
cian, first in a "gypsy" band and later in
Vollard, Ambroise
a theater orchestra, which allowed him
1865-1939 • French picture
to paint during the day. After three
dealer/writer
years of military service, he had strong
antimilitarist feelings, and, with Zola Listen, Monsieur Vollard, painting
and others, he rallied to the support of certainly means more to me than
Alfred Dreyfus (see dalou). Vlaminck anything else in the world. I think my
befriended derain and the two shared a mind becomes clearer when I am in
704 VORAGINE, JACOBUS DE

the presence of nature. Unfortunately, Voragine, Jacobus de

the realization of my sensations is c. 1230-1298 • Italian • monk/
always a very painful process author
with me. I can't seem to express ^, ^ . . , ,
j
The passion of eleven thousand vtrgms
the intensity
^ which beats upon f-
my^ ,,, ^; , • •
r
^^^ l^allQii;g(l ifi ffjis manner. In
senses. n -^ / r
•
1
Britain was a christian [sicj
..

king ... [whose] daughter shone full of

Vollard opened
^ his gallery in Pans in w ; . j j
r 1 J 1 r
marvellous honesty, wisdom, and
^-" some two years after the death or
189^, ,
andj,her tame andj renomee was
r
^ ,
beauty,
Theo van Gogh, of goupil s gallery, , ,, 1 .
, , , ^ ,
borne all about.
and championed some of the painters
van Gogh had supported. Soon Vol- A Dominican friar, born near Genoa,
lard's gallery became the important who became archbishop of Genoa, Ja-
avant-garde showplace: He gave cobus wrote the Golden Legend, one of
CEZANNE his first show 1895, and fea- the most popular religious works of the

tured PICASSO (1901) and matisse medieval period. The book is orga-

(1904). Vollard was gauguin's dealer, nized according to the Church calendar,
but their relationship was difficult, beginning with Advent, and tells the

When people inquired about it, Vollard stories of the saints, the Virgin, and
remained silent even though some ac- events related to the Church's feast
cused him of allowing the artist to days. It was the source for numerous
starve to death. He barely mentioned works of art throughout the Italian
Gauguin in his autobiography, Recol- renaissance — giotto's Meeting at the
lections of a Picture Dealer (1936); Golden Gate (after 1305); piero della
however, when their exchange of letters Francesca's cycle of decoration for the
and receipts was examined after Vol- choir at San Francesco in Arezzo, the
lard's death, it was found that the Tme Cross legend (c. 1452-57); as well
dealer had, in fact, both fulfilled his as Raphael's Marriage of the Virgin
obligations and kept the artist going. (1504) are examples, northern ren-
Still, his tardiness in payments some- aissance artists also worked with the

times made Gauguin's difficult situa- Golden Legend: bondol illustrated a

tion worse. As rewald writes, Gauguin copy of it, and van eyck very likely had
saw Vollard as "a swindler and a reference to it in painting the Ghent
thief — in short, as the devil himself." Altarpiece (1432). Translated into

Several artists painted VoUard's por- French during the 14th century, the
trait, including Cezanne, Picasso, GoWen Legend was first translated into

RENOIR, ROUAULT, and BONNARD. Vol- English by William Caxton, in 1483,

lard commissioned illustrations of from a French version. The passage
literary classics and, besides his autobi- quoted above is from the beginning of
ography, wrote on both Cezanne and the legend of "Saint Ursula and the Vir-
degas. The quotation above is from gins" in Caxton's translation. The sub-
VoUard's biographical memoir of ject was painted by carpaccio in the

Cezanne, published in 1914. 1490s.

 VRUBEL, MIKHAIL 705

Vorticism from his book Illustrious Men of France

From word "vortex," a movement
the During This Century. Vouet's eminence
in England just before World War I, led in French painting was briefly chal-
by Percy Wyndham lewis and his col- lenged during Poussin's return, but
leagues William Roberts (1895-1980), when Poussin left again, Vouet's leader-
Henri Gaudier-Brzeska (1891-1915), ship was reestablished, and his commis-
C. R. W. Nevinson (1889-1946) and sions were plentiful. Presentation in the
others.The photographer Alvin Lang- Temple, ordered by Richelieu in 1641,
don Coburn (1882-1966) produced ab- with the controlled fervor of its stat-

stract images through three mirrors uesque figures, is a good example of

clamped together to form a hollow tri- Vouet's approach. He did not really ini-

angle. These were called Vortographs tiate a new style with such paintings, or
by Lewis and the poet Ezra Pound. It with the important programs he carried
was Pound who gave the movement its out in wall and illusionistic ceiling dec-

name and, with Lewis, founded its peri- orations, but he trained many succeed-
odical, Blast. Vorticism ended with the ing artists, most notably le brun.
war.
Vrubel, Mikhail
Vouet, Simon 1 8 56-19 10 • Russian • painter •
1 590-1 649 • French • painter • Symbolist
Baroque
. . . henceforth the poison of insidious
. . . the restorer of painting. (Charles temptation will trouble no more the
Perrault, 1 696-1 700) minds of men. I want to make my
peace with Heaven, I want to love and
Among the drawn to Rome from
artists
to pray, I want to believe in good; with
all over Europe, Vouet arrived in Italy
tears of repentance I will efface the
in 1612 and remained until called home
marks of celestial fire from my
to France by King Louis XIII in 1627.
brow. . . . ('Mikhail Lermontov, 1841)
During his stay abroad he was elected
president of the Roman Academy of When he was a student helping to re-

Saint Luke. Vouet'swork showed the store the FRESCOes in a 12th-century

influence of caravaggio in deriving church, Vrubel became devoted to the
mood from light and shadow and the ethereal byzantine style. He was also
BAROQUE idea of emotional engage- influenced by the expressive subjectivity
ment, in religious pictures especially. of the French symbolists, and by
These tendencies were moderated on the contemporary exaggerations and
his return to Paris, where, in the vein of asymmetry of art nouveau. He was a
POUSSIN, he softened his style to a member of the first world of art ex-
tamer, more classical one and made hibition, and Diaghilev wanted him to
his colors lighter and livelier. Vouet execute the designs for his ballet Fire-
played an important role in cultural bird; however, Vrubel was either dying
restoration, as acknowledged by Per- or going mad at the time, according to
rault in the quotation above, excerpted memoirs of the ballet's composer, Igor
706 VUILLARD, EDOUARD

Lermon-
Stravinsky. After illustrating his brother-in-law (also a painter and
tov's poem The Demon, Vrubel became member of the nabis). The black and
obsessed with the devil. In this narrative yellow of his mother's dress, the tightly
poem, the demon is an angel who is ex- patterned wallpaper, large surfaces of
iled from heaven. He spreads evil on fabrics—dark and light blues, and
earth until he falls love with Tamara, to white — an orange cupboard with
whom the passage quoted from above is dashes of paint on top that may repre-

dedicated, but in the end he destroys sent a cat, all seem submerged in a sea

her. Tamara's Dance and The Demon of dots, dashes, and daubs. It is as if

Downcast (1902) are examples of Vuillard wished to paint the confine-

Vrubel's fascination with the beautiful, ment of their lives with these patterns.
androgynous, demon.
romanticized He is not an impressionist, but his
Byron was a powerful influence on Ler- short, quick brushstrokes are impres-
montov, and that influence extends to sionistic. It is composition and color
Vrubel. Vrubel did have a mental that sets the mood in his paintings. Even
breakdown; he also lost his sight and fi- in portraits, like one of the art critic

nally died in an asylum in 19 10. DURET (1912), a supporter of the Im-

pressionists, the interior setting, filled
Vuillard, Edouard with paintings and folios, swarms
1 868-1940 • French • painter • about the subject of the painting. The
Symbolist/Nabi background of Vuillard's painting in-
cludes a famous portrait of Duret as a
Then the room of the saints! Vuillard
dashing boulevardier painted by
who is triumphant there, expressing
WHISTLER 30 years before Vuillard's
the joy and tenderness of things! (Paul
portrait. Duret is not only a good deal
Signac, 1899)
older, but he is also seen by Vuillard
A contemporary, close friend, and stu- with deeper sympathy and sensitivity.
dio mate of bonnard, Vuillard was Surrounded by his books and papers,
similarly concerned with intimate, with a cat on his knee, he seems lonely
everyday scenes. But whereas there is a and vulnerable, yet self-contained and
relaxed, open sense to Bonnard, Vuil- pensive. It has been said that so great a
lard's pictures seem confusing and portrait of an old man had not been
tense. Interior decor—even the pattern painted since rembrandt lived some
of a dress, rug, or curtain — seems to ab- 300 years earlier. The painter signac,
sorb the human figures present. Such is whose description of the artist is quoted
the case with Vuillard's best-known above, was an ardent admirer of Vuil-
painting, Workroom (1893). In it are lard.

his mother, a dressmaker, his sister, and

 w
wall painting performing arts set a precedent for con-
See MURAL necting artists with impresarios (see
WORLD OF art). These artists rebelled
Walpole, Horace against the Imperial Academy of Arts,
1717-1797 • English • and with humanitarian ideals painted
writer/architect • Romantic/Neo- ordinary people or historic metaphors
Gothic to convey their political message. To
popularize and promote their work,
This world is a comedy to those that
they organized traveling exhibitions,
think, a tragedy to those that feel.
hence their name. The anti-czarist work
Walpole was a novelist and son of the of REPIN, who used scenes from history
British prime minister. The renovation as well as contemporary events to raise
of his "villa," Strawberry Hill (1749- social consciousness, is best known
77), near London, in the earliest stages among them.
of the Romantic period, exemplifies the
contemporary fascination with gothic war memorial
style. The roofline of Strawberry Hill Specifically a monument honoring sol-

was crenellated to resemble a medieval diers who died in action, the war
castle. Turrets, towers, and battlements memorial was a Prussian invention of
were added to the exterior, and the inte- 1793. Glorification of patriotism — in
rior was decorated with shields, lances, contrast to equestrian monuments,
and armorial bearings. In the library, for example, which extol the heroism of
the bookcases were copied from a tomb a particular person —was and remains
in Westminster Abbey. All these con- the purpose of the war memorial. At
ceits set the stage for chivalric fantasies one end of the spectrum is the Kreuz-
and the dark broodings that would be- berg Monument in Berlin (completed
come intrinsic to romanticism. i8zi). This is an iron tower designed by
the architect schinkel, with niches for
Wanderers (Peredvizhniki; also iron sculptures representing specific vic-
Peripatetics and Travelers) tories. At the other end is the Vietnam
A Russian Utopian colony of artists Memorial in Washington, D.C. (1981-
brought together in 1870 by a wealthy 83), a highly polished granite wall en-
connoisseur and social idealist, Savva graved with the names of the fallen, de-

Mamontov, whose patronage of the signed by LIN.

708 WARBURG, ABY

Warburg, Aby one hand, his bow and arrow in the

1866-1929 • German • art historian other, focused intently on his invisible

quarry. Small in size (i V3 feet high), the
A scholar such as Warburg would not
work is heroic in intent, and it was in
have founded his Library without a
tune with the contemporary search for
burning faith in the potentialities of
what was uniquely American. That was
Kulturwissenschaft [cultural
the same spirit expressed by Walt Whit-
scholarship]. The evolutionist
man and by paintings of artists of the
psychology that inspired his faith is no
HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL. One might say
longer ours, but the questions it
that the natural landscape in which this
prompted him to ask still proved
romanticized adventure would have
fruitful to cultural history. (E. H.
taken place is as implicit in the sculp-
Gombrich, 1967)
ture as is the unseen quarry.
Opposed to the aestheticism of the
late 19th century, Warburg was inter- Warhol, Andy
ested in the exploration of culture i925/30?-i987 • American •

through psychology. His vast range ex- painter/printmaker/filmmaker • Pop

tended from the Italian renaissance Art
to the art of Native Americans. He as-
7 think everybody should be a
sembled a formidable collection of
machine.
books on subjects including economics,
costume, and folklore as well as philos- Impresario of the underground culture
ophy, psychology, and art. His library of the 1960s that reveled in trans-
in Hamburg was moved to London dur- vestitism, drugs, sadomasochism,
ing the Nazi regime and in 1944 became pornography, and most other illicit in-

the nucleus of the library at the War- terests, Warhol is widely known for the
burg Institute of the University of Lon- comment "In the future, everyone will
don. GOMBRICH, whose words are be famous for fifteen minutes." Warhol
quoted above, wrote Aby Warburg: An himself is everlastingly famous for art
Intellectual Biography (1970). that defied all standard definitions of
"art." Mass production and repro-
Ward, John Quincy Adams duction were hallmarks of his work.
1830-1910 • American • sculptor • He called his studio The Factory and in-
Romantic naturalist sisted on the appropriateness of others
producing his work, for which he used
. . . an American sculptor will serve
mainly photographs, often news pho-
himself and his age best by working at
tographs, which he printed in multiples
home.
by the silk-screen process. 32 Camp-
The NATURALISM of Ward's work was bellsSoup Cans (1961-62) and White
considered appropriate to American Burning Car III (1963) show both his
subjects, especially that of his own most range of subject and his narrowness of
renowned bronze sculpture, Indian interest: a familiar, everyday commer-
Hunter (i860). A young American In- cial product and an extraordinary but
dian, tensely poised, holds his dog with spectacular burning automobile. Both
 WATTEAU, ANTOINE 7O9

areAPPROPRiATEd images, and both are (gouache) tends to be duller. A few

repeated numerous times; the fascina- northern renaissance artists (e.g.,
tion of repetition is its magnetism, per- durer and van dyck) used watercolor
haps created by our compulsion to find with spectacular effect, but for the most
an exception or rogue element. Repeti- part the medium was used for studies of
tion is also an insinuation of eternity, or outdoor scenes, not for studio-finished
infinity, and it has the ability to mes- work. During the 19th century, water-
merize. Warhol was relentlessly de- colors, as the paintings themselves also
tached, cool, and superficial: "If you are called, acquired more status, but the
want to know all about Andy Warhol technique was not taught in art schools.
just look at the surface of my paintings In England it came to be seen as the ac-
and films and me, and there I am. There complishment of cultivated individuals;
is nothing behind it," he said. But the for women it took the place of embroi-
surface he presented was a mirror with millet and
dery. Peasant subjects by
a disquieting reflection of contempo- small landscapes by corot became
rary life. Regarding his interest in fame, popular among
homer, la collectors,
as a child he kept scrapbooks of film farge, and sargent were among the
stars, and as an adult he produced im- skilled and successful watercolorists of
ages of Elvis Presley, Marilyn Monroe, the 19th century; o'keeffe was one of
and Elizabeth Taylor; and he started a the most innovative painters in the
magazine, Interview, to feature the rich medium of the zoth.
and famous.
Watteau, Antoine
wash 1684-17ZI • French • painter •
The term applies to brush drawings or Rococo
paintings made with highly diluted ink „ , r 1 r
.
,, trom the moment I received [a
or PIGMENT, especially watercolor. . . , t^ , , r # ,

,^ , , ,
pamtmg by Rubens I have not been
(See also acrylic, bistre, and sepia) .
, ,
able to rest quiet, and
,
my
do not eyes

, tire of returning, to the stand where I

watercolor
„. ,

rmely ground
,

pigment
111
bound by
,
have placed
, ,

It as upon an
;
altar.

water-soluble gum arabic or glue is Watteau, born in Flanders, went to

moistened with water before being Paris at the age of 18. His early work
used.Most watercolors are applied on a was in interior decorating, for which he
paper ground, although other sur- painted incidental scenes entwined with
faces, like gesso and ivory, have been garlands, vines, and monkeys (see sin-

used. Transparent (aquarelle) water- gerie). One of his patrons was a

color WASH, especially applied on white wealthy textile manufacturer, Jean de
paper, can be brilliant and subtly mod- Julienne, to whom the letter above was
ulated, as the color and texture of the written. In the letter Watteau expresses
paper contribute to the picture. Water- his admiration for rubens, whose work
color is difficult to use because errors greatly influenced him. Rubens's The
cannot be corrected and colors can- Garden of Love (163Z-34), in which
not be changed. Opaque watercolor the stages of amorous attraction are
yiO WEBER, MAX

represented, is a painting Watteau name of the shop, Au Grand Monar-

knew well, and it seems to have been a que. Watteau himself died of tuberculo-
source of inspiration. So was the com- sis months later. Watteau's friend
a few
media dell'arte, the name given to trav- de Julienne compiled engravings of
eling theater companies, of Italian, more than 500 paintings, drawings, and
mid-i6th-century origin, who played decorations in a tribute known as the
before both royalty and commoners Recueil Julienne (published 1735).
throughout Europe and became popu- (Also see boucher) was through this
It

lar in France. Watteau was also inter- collection that Watteau's work became
ested in fetes galantes, a rococo period known and internationally influential,
version of the fete champetre so ac-
claimed during the late renaissance. Weber, Max
These were excursions designed for love 1881-1961 • American • painter •

and gallantry in the privileged world of Modern

artifice

pamted. Best known

,
that
„
Watteau observed and
, ni •

is Ftlgrimage to
•
r^,

.,
,,„
tie ctrtcaUy tllumine a contours of
,
r

, ,. , .
, , .
,

, r 7 I /-^ f ,1 buildings, rising height upon height

two ver-
the Island of Lythera (there are 1 , r
... against the blackness of the sky
, , 1
now
,

sions, 1709 and 1717), m which a pa-

.
, ,

,.„ , . ,

diffused, now interknotted,

,
now
, ,
rade or elegantly costumed aristocrats
... Illbarge while
11
,
, , .

interpierced by occasional shafts of

, , ;;/-/-
make their way to a golden , ,,. , ., , , r
, ,
. ,
,
. colored light. Altogether— a web of
PUTTi cavort overhead (as they do in , ,
. ,

_
Rubens
^
, T , I

Gdiraew o/Loi/e). Cythera

/- X ^ 1
• colored geometric shapes,
s is a , , r , ^
Grand
1

^
Cjreek island and
,
.
,

the center or the

, ,

was
,
,
,
characteristic only of the
^
Ganyons of
r-Ki
Mew ^r
York at night.
1
•
i

,r A 1- T-i rr 1 1 •
1

cult or Aphrodite. Ihe shimmer or fab-

ric, feathery trees, and iridescent water Born in Eastern Europe, Weber was
are all dreamlike. Imaginary, too, is his brought to the United States when he
oth.Qr: va^LStex^'xQCQ, Gersaint's Shop-sign was 10 and grew up in Brooklyn; at
(1721), painted for the friend who sold Pratt Institute he studied painting with
paintings and actually, briefly, used this Arthur Wesley Dow (with whom
painting as a sign (it originally had an o'keeffe studied at Columbia). Dow's
arched top to fit an area above the emphasis on structure and design made
shop's front entrance). Gersaint's Shop- a lasting impression on Weber. In Paris,
s/gn now rivals Velazquez's Las Mewi- Weber studied with matisse and ab-
nas (1656), vermeer's Allegory of sorbed the ideas of all the French mod-
Painting (c. 1665), and van eyck's ernists. Back in New York, he became
Arnolfini Double Portrait (1434) as an a member of the stieglitz Circle for a
interpretative challenge. Watteau's pic- time. Somewhat intractable, when some
ture appears to be the inside of a shop of his pictures were rejected for the ar-
(though not Gersaint's), its walls cov- mory show, he withdrew them all.

ered with paintings. Among the inter- Weber experimented with cubism and
esting details is a shop hand packing a futurism trapping the energy of—
portrait of Louis XIV into a wooden movement and city life. This is exempli-
crate. This may be in reference to the fied in New
York at Night (19 15),
king's death, in 171 5, as well as to the which he speaks of in the quotation
 WEIR, JULIAN ALDEN 7II

above. In his maturity, beginning in the Wegman, William

1 9Z0S, Weber began to paint more per- born 1943 • American •
sonal and spiritual themes in a sensitive, photographer • Postmodern
representational mode. As the historian
^1x5^,
Cecil Roth wrote. "u-
--
His elegiac recon-
.
,

structions or a vanishing Jewish world,

.
T
1 •

•
1 ij especially
r
mi
Language burns out with
^ to dogs.
o
lies,

for instance, are humorous in spite of Wegman named his Weimaraner puppy
the anxiety and nostalgia they express, after the photographer man ray and
Weber's helpless and melancholy fe- began taking photographs of his pet.
male nudes, with their heavily Semitic His pictures were initially made with a
features, are no odalisques . . . like those Polaroid and then with a large-format
of Picasso or Pascin, but fugitives from camera. The dog was often costumed in

Lower East Side sweat-shops." tasselsand feathers as Polynesia, 198 1,

or posed in amusing circumstances that
Weems, Carrie Mae mimic, for example, the humans in a Pi-

born 1953 • American • Wegman's Blue casso painting (e.g.,

photographer • Modernist Period, 198 1). When Man Ray died in

-
Let me say
, .1982, Wegman worked with a dog
that my primary concern in „
,....,,
art, as in politics, is
named fay as his model, and then with
with the status and
,
.
,

,.
,

^^.
.

.
,

.
,

.
, ,
.
,

, , xi
, / A i- A her offspring. His book entitled Puppies
place of Afro-Americans in our i- i 1 ^11
•
1

was published in 1997. Ihe parody and

country. . ., . , , • , ,. •

irony or his photographs, in addition to

In her major suites of work, series of playing with words in the titles he gives
photographs dating from 1978, Weems them, adds a postmodern turn to
tells stories about the life of African- Wegman's work. He also has linked the
Americans, her driving interest, as she dogs' bodies to form words, but as for
says above. These are often highly per- using words of promise to make them
sonalized, and accompanied in exhibi- perform, he has stopped doing that, as
tion by audiotapes that recount the quotation above explains. Unfail-
engaging stories about her family's mi- ingly humorous and touching in his

gration from a Mississippi sharecrop- work, but not saccharine or cute, Weg-
per's plantation to Portland, Oregon, man raises questions more about
where she was born. Her word-image human than dog nature,
presentations are moving and sensu-
ously beautiful. For a series she did ,^, i- , .11
r
Weir, Julian Alden
rrom 1991 to 199Z, Sea Islands Series, „ ^

,
185Z-1919 • American • painter •
she focused on the Gullah people of the ,
„ c u r^ I-
Cieorgia-South Carolina sea islands.
-1^ Impressionist

Searching old folklore and customs, / went across the river the other day to
she creates an evocative historical seean exhibition of the work of a new
chronicle, illustrating it with images of school which call themselves
swampy palm tree groves, or perhaps a "Impressionists." I never in my life

front yard installed with hubcaps so sit- saw more horrible things. . . . They do
uated as to ward off evil spirits. not observe drawing nor form but give
712 WESSELMANN, TOM

you an impression of what they call images from art history or

nature. It was worse than the Chamber advertising— trade on each other. This
of Horrors. I was there about a kind of relationship helps establish a
quarter of an hour and left with a head momentum throughout the picture—
ache, but I told the man exactly what I all the elements are in some way very
thought. One franc entree. I was mad intense.

for two or three days, not only having

paid the money but for the Wesselmann first made collages of
demoralizing effect it must have on found materials, then added three-
many. dimensional objects to the flat surfaces,

e.g., a metal advertising sign attached

to his canvas. However, his signa-
ture paintings are a series called the
The man protesting excessively in a let- Great American Nude, of the 1960s.
ter home to his parents in New York, These paintings of women, as flat as if

quoted from above, became one of the they were collages and set against
firstand leading American impres- boldly colored and patterned but
sionists. His initial disdain might be also flat backgrounds, are anonymous
explained in part by the fact that he had and featureless —except for their lips,

studied at the conservative National nipples, and pubic hair. In effect

Academy of Design in New York and they erase the women's humanity by
then with gerome in Paris. The Red reducing them to a sexed commodity.
Bridge (1895) shows his switch to Im- Great American Nude, No. ^j (1964),
pressionism midway in his career: a against a leopard-skin pattern and
painted cast-iron bridge in lush green a brilliant blue wall, with jonquils
surroundings. This work demonstrates and oranges on a table, is yet another
the momentary sensations of light that variation on the theme of the reclining
preoccupied painters like monet. Dur- nude.
ing the 1 880s, Weir's farm in Connecti-
cut was a gathering place for artists
including ryder and fellow American
West, Benjamin
Impressionists hassam and twacht-
1 73 8-1 820 • American • painter •
MAN, who joined him in painting the
Neoclassicist/Grand Manner
surrounding scenery. Weir was one of
the founders of the Ten American The event to be commemorated took
Painters. place on the thirteenth of September
IJJ9, in a region of the world
unknown to the Greeks and Romans,
Wesselmann, Tom
and at a period of time when no such
born 193 1 • American • painter •
nations, nor heroes in their costumes,
Pop Art/New Realist
any longer existed. . . . The same truth

. . . lots of things— bright strong that guides the pen of the historian
colors, the qualities of materials. should be given the pencil of the artist.
 WESTON, EDWARD 713

West was born in Swathmore, Pennsyl- term terribilita: a kind of imagery of the
vania.He began painting portraits, sublime infused with mystical, vision-
and when he was about 20, he went ary zeal.
to Rome to study. After four years he
moved to England and became a mem- Weston, Edward
ber of the inner circle of the art es- 1886-1958 • American •

tablishment there. He received a photographer • Modern

commission from King George III that
Only with effort can the camera
led to a long-term friendship between
be forced to lie: basically it is an
them. West was cofounder, with
honest medium: so the photograp
REYNOLDS, of the Royal Academy of
her is much more likely to approach
Arts and succeeded Reynolds as its pres-
nature in a spirit of inquiry, of
ident. He was a magnet, too, for the
communion, instead of with the
American painters who flocked to Lon-
saucy swagger of self-dubbed "artists."
don, prominent among them the peales
And contemporary vision, the new
(Charles and Rembrandt), stuart,
life, is based on honest approach
EARL, TRUMBULL, ALLSTON, SULLY, and
to all problems, be they morals or
MORSE. Though he remained an expa-
art. False fronts to buildings, false
triate. West was probably the most in-
standards in morals, subterfuges and
fluential American artist, in Europe as
mummery of all kinds, must, will be
well as America, until the mid-20th cen-
scrapped.
tury. His great innovation and triumph
was to revolutionize history painting Fascinated by abstract forms and pat-
by presenting important recent events terns in nature, Weston photographed
in the grand manner style and cloth- landscapes in California, where he
ing their subjects in contemporary lived. His landscapes are, however, en-
rather than ancient Greek or Roman tirely unconventional; they concentrate
costume. The Death of General Wolfe so closely on detail —contrast of tex-
(1770) is a melodramatic portrayal of tures, and dark, patterns and
light

the heroic death of a British commander —

shapes that one can hardly tell that
defeated by the French in the Battle China Cove, Point Lobos (1940), for
of Quebec. There are allusions to pietAs example, is actually a place. One of We-
of the renaissance and baroque ston's best-known pictures is not a
composition. When Reynolds tried to place but a vegetable: Pepper No. ^o
convince him to dress his characters in (1930) is a tightly focused close-up of a
the usual classical costumes, West green pepper that looks like nothing
words quoted above. In
replied with the so much as a male torso flexing its

Death on a Pale Horse, or the Opening muscles — or a Weston landscape. De-

of the First Five Seals (1817), the sub- spite his frequent dismissal of the
ject is taken from the Book of Revela- artistry of photography, as expressed in

tions, and the scene explodes with the quotation above, "his demands on
apocalyptic fury. The powerful roman- photography still contained all the ro-
ticism of the picture is known by the mantic assumptions about the photog-
714 WEYDEN, ROGIER VAN DER

rapher," as the critic Susan Sontag for private devotion and, more specifi-

writes. cally, in the popular doctrine of the

compassion and joint suffering of Mary
Weyden, Rogier van der and her son. Van der Weyden settled in

c. 1399-1464 • Netherlandish • Brussels as the official city painter, and

painter • Northern Renaissance also received commissions from private
patrons, members both of the Burgun-
He improved our art of painting
new
dian court (see valois) and of the
greatly, through his works, by
merchant class. Thus, he straddled, and
depicting the inner desires and
sometimes shared, the clientele of van
emotions of his subjects whether
Eyck and Campin. For the same Nicolas
sorrow, anger, or gladness were
Rolin whom van Eyck portrayed in Vir-
exhibited. (Carel van Mander, c. 1604)
gin and Child with Nicolas Rolin (c.

The youngest of the Early Netherlan- 1435), van der Weyden painted a very
dish triad, van der Weyden studied large multipaneled altarpiece, meant to
with CAMPiN and paid homage to van rival van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece. The
EYCK. However, his Deposition (an al- central panel of the Beaune Last Judg-
TARPiECE also known as the Escorial ment (1443-51) is a wrenching parade

Deposition or Descent from the Cross; of sinners, tormented not by demons

c.143 5-42), one of the most renowned but —worse still — by their own guilty
15th-century paintings either north or angst. Van der Weyden also painted

south of the Alps, was unprecedented portraits of rare subtlety. His faces are

by his mentors or by any other artist. ethereal, dignified, contemplative.

The scene, with 10 near-life-size figures, Whereas van Eyck's faces are less at-

is set inside a gold box. It is painted tractive than seemingly truthful, van
with such and contrivance as to
skill der Weyden smoothed his subjects'

look as if the figures were actually blemishes ... or had better-looking

sculpted. As the gold paint background clients. An example is Portrait of
echoes the gothic style, so does the S- Francesco d'Este (c.whose sub-
1460),
shape of the figures of Christ and the ject is fashionable in dress and refined

—
Virgin however, van der Weyden's in feature, gesture, and his somewhat

"S" is horizontal —the body of Christ distant expression. Van der Weyden
shown as he is taken down from the visited Italy in 1450 and made connec-
Cross. Mary, fainting with grief, falls tions with the ESTE court in Ferrara and
parallel to Christ, the curves of her that of the medicis in Florence.
body mimicking his. There is this kind
of doubling throughout the picture: in
Whistler, James Abbott McNeill
Christ and Mary's hands, and in the
1834-1903 • American • painter •
postures of mourners. The emotional
Aestheticist
content of van der Weyden's paintings
is unprecedented, as is the sense of their Why should not I call my works
tangible presence. One explanation "symphonies," "arrangements,"
may be found in the contemporary taste "harmonies," and " nocturnes" f I
 WHITE, JOHN 715

know that many good people think my their corn. In the cornfields they set up
nomenclature funny and myself a little hut on a scaffold, where a
"eccentric." Yes, ''eccentric" is the watchman is stationed. He makes a
adjective they find for me. continual noise to keep off birds and
beasts. (Thomas Hariot, 1585)
Part of Whistler's aestheticism was
the conviction that "as music is the po- Like LE MOYNE DE MORGUES, whom he
etry of sound, so is painting the poetry knew, White went to the New World to
of sight." One of his works is named explore and record the sights. He was
Nocturne in Black and Gold: The one of the first artists to show the coast
Falling Rocket (c. 1874) and represents of North America: Chart of the East
a fireworks display in London over the Coast from Florida to Chesapeake Bay
River Thames. It is similar in approach (1585) pictures an expanse of water full

to turner's explorations of light, color, of huge, spouting whales and relatively

and air. ruskin, who was Turner's small ships, edged by an unprepossess-
champion, disparaged Whistler's effort, ing shoreline. White's pictures portray
saying he had "flung a pot of paint in the layout, the structures, and the life

the public's face." Whistler took of Native American villages (e.g., In-

Ruskin to court for libel and won dian Village of Secoton, 1585) or c.

the case. Regarding his most famous carefully describe a subject an ex- —
work, popularly known as "Whistler's ample is A Flamingo (1585). These il-

Mother" (1871), Whistler said, "Take lustrations were accompanied by the

the picture of my mother, exhibited as commentaries of Thomas Hariot, one
an Arrangement in Grey and Black. of which is quoted from above. White's
Now that is what it is. To me it is inter- first trip had been a colonizing expedi-
esting as a picture of my mother; but tion of about 100 men sent by Sir Wal-
what can or ought the public to care ter Raleigh in 1585 to Roanoke Island,
about the identity of the portrait?" off the coast of what is North Carolina
Whistler was increasingly interested in today. One watercolors is
of White's
arranging and combining tones of paint of a weed called uppowoc, which, as
in patterns on the canvas rather than in Hariot commented, "the Spanish call
creating resemblances to people or tobacco. Its leaves are dried, made into
places. Born in America, Whistler spent powder, and then smoked by being
his life abroad. In London he was a sucked through clay pipes. The . . .

friend of rossetti and the pre- fumes purge superfluous phlegm and
RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD. grosshumors from the body." In 1586
White went back to London aboard a
ship commanded by Sir Francis Drake,
White, John
but the following year he returned to
active 575-1 593 • English
1 •
govern Roanoke Colony. However, the
illustrator • Mannerist
colony was abandoned and whatever
They have groves of trees where they became of the "Lost Colony" is conjec-
hunt deer, and fields where they sow ture. (Some Indians of southeastern
7l6 WHITNEY, ANNE

North Carolina believe that the blood father argued about who would put the
of the colonists runs in their veins.) best clothes on me." One criticism of
the exhibit (and of contemporary art
Whitney, Anne generally) is that the works are made
See HOSMER for museum exhibition rather than pri-
vate pleasure.The critic Arthur Danto
Whitney Biennial answers that the same was true during
The Whitney Museum of American Art the renaissance, when works of art
in New York was founded by
City were commissioned by power brokers,
Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney in 1930 churchmen, and military leaders to
and opened in 193 1. In 1932, she held achieve their desired results, whether
the first invitational exhibition, and it spiritual, reverential, or deferential,

was an annual event until 1973, when it

became biennial. Because artists repre- Whittredge, Worthington
sented are there by invitation of the cu- 1820-1910 • American • painter •

rator(s), rather than selected by a jury, Romantic/Hudson River School

the Whitney has frequently been at-
Itwas impossible for me to shut out
tacked as narrowly reflecting a particu-
from my eyes the works of the great
lar individual's taste, or, the contrary,
landscape painters I had so recently
as having too mixed a menu with too
seen in Europe, while I knew well
little focus. Although there are many
enough that was to succeed I must
if I
artists whose work has been seen year
produce something new and which
after year (Paul Cadmus, born 1904,
might claim to be inspired by my home
was in 37 invitationals, the last in
surroundings. I was in despair . . .

1965), each biennial shows some of the

most avant-garde art. The 1997 Whit- A number of American artists met and
ney Biennial made clear that there worked together in Europe. Whit-
is wide diversity, an "everything-is- tredge, who enrolled in the Diisseldorf
possible" climate in contemporary art. Academy, met Eastman johnson.
Bubble Gum Station, by Charles Long bierstadt, and gifford in Germany,
and Stereolab, was a large mound of a Emphasis on detail was stressed as part
substance that looked like bubble gum. of dusseldorf training, but that was
Visitors were meant to create some- not necessarily new to American artists,

thing themselves with modeling tools as the historian Barbara Novack points
left for that purpose —and for the pur- out. Rather, was compatible with
it

pose of suggesting that art is what its American tradition. Whittredge went
audience makes of it, taking reception on to Rome before he came home to
THEORY to its logical conclusion. Nine- find himself facing the dilemma de-
teen ninety-seven was bourgeois's scribed in the passage quoted above. He
19th appearance in the Whitney show, went to the woods and immersed him-
and her installation was made up of self in the American landscape: "The

her clothes hung on a rack. In an inter- forest was a mass of decaying logs and
view Bourgeois explained, "The piece tangled brush wood, no peasants to
refers to a period when my mother and pick up every vestige of fallen sticks to
 .

WILKIE, SIR DAVID 717

burn in their miserable huts, no well- of his lectures were published posthu-
ordered forests, nothing but the primi- mously; the quotation above is ex-
tive woods with their solemn silence cerpted from Venetian Art from Bellini
reigning everywhere." That was the dif- to Titian (1974).
ference between America and Europe,
and acknowledging his debt to ou- Wiligelmo/Wiligelmus
RAND, whose landscapes he considered active early 1 2th century • Italian/

"truly American," that is what Whit- German? • sculptor • Romanesque

tridge painted. The Trout Pool (c. 1868)
Among Sculptors your work shines
is a thickly wooded scene with sunlight
forth, Wiligelmo.
filtering through dense, feathery foliage
onto a pool of water, serene both in its The inscription quoted above is from
spiritual transcendentalism and in the Cathedral of Moderna, in Italy,

its celebration of a peaceful moment in where Wiligelmo is believed to have

the American wilderness. worked during the first decade of the
1 2th century. He carved a stone frieze
Wilde, Johannes of scenes from Genesis in a style that is

1891-1970 • intense, compressed, and intricately

Hungarian/Austrian/British • art balanced. His model seems to have been

historian the sculpture of pagan and early Christ-
ian sarcophagi and perhaps ottonian
As in her politics, Venice on the whole
ivories. Some portions of the narrative
was cautiously progressive in her art.
have squarish, front-facing figures like
This does not apply to Giovanni
those on the Arch of Constantine (312-
Bellini. Indeed, his earliest works
315 ce), but others are more animated
known to us must have appeared to
and expressive.
his contemporaries as something
revolutionary. . .

Wilkie, Sir David

Born in Hungary, Wilde was a Commu- 1 78 5-1 84 1 • Scottish • painter •

nist in his youth. He moved to Austria Romantic

and became a citizen in 1928. Follow-
How useful, too, it would be [for
ing Austria's annexation by Germany in
French artists] to see Wilky's [sic]
1938, he moved to England, where he
touching expressions. In a little
was interned by the British government
picture, whose subject is of the
during World War II, but he became a
simplest, he knows how to turn them
citizen of that country in 1947. Later, at
to admirable advantage. (Theodore
the Courtauld Institute in London,
Gericault, 1821)
Wilde taught students the skills of inter-
preting works of art based on visual Wilkie impressed gericault while he
sources and on written documentation was in England exhibiting The Raft of
derived from all available sources. He the Medusa and Gericault
(1819),
pioneered in using x-ray technology in praised Wilkie in the letter home,
the study of art. Wilde was an influence quoted from above. Gericault found
on CLARK and blunt. Two collections paintings like Wilkie's Chelsea Pension-
7l8 WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM

ers Reading the Gazette of the Battle world inspired him to move to Rome
of Waterloo (i8i8-zz) strong enough and even to convert to CathoUcism.
to challenge "the silly pride" of self- Under the patronage of Cardinal al-
satisfied French painters who refused to bani, Winckelmann was appointed Su-
recognize quality outside their own perintendent of Antiquities in Rome
country. Chelsea Pensioners was com- during the 1760s, and he supervised ex-
missioned by the Duke of Wellington cavations then beginning in pompeii
himself, and what the picture shows is and herculaneum. He wrote The His-
great levity in the street as the account tory of Ancient Art, published 1764, the
of Wellington's victory at Waterloo is first authoritative two use of the
being read aloud from the newspaper, words — "history" and "art" — in com-

When the painting was shown at the bination. The quotation above is from
Royal Academy in 1822, it was so pop- the preface in which Winckelmann also
ular that a protective railing had to be dedicated the book to his friend mengs.
installed. And it was very different from Though he never went to Greece,
the heroic, studied idealism of French Winckelmann became passionately and
art. Wilkie's observation of ordinary spiritually devoted to ancient Greek art,

people reacting to important news was away from

effectively shifting the focus

rooted in 17th-century Dutch genre Rome though unaware that he was gen-
paintings, and in turn Wilkie's pictures erally roman copies of
looking at
worked their way (via prints) into Greek sculpture. He most admired the
American art of the 19th century, restrained High Classical period. He
MOUNT, for example, was called "the wrote, in what has left a famous phrase
American Wilkie." Besides its artistic to art history, "The most prominent
merits, Wilkie's Chelsea Pensioners also general characteristic of the Greek mas-
presents an example of how informa- terpieces is a noble simplicity and silent
tion regarding contemporary events grandeur in pose as well as in expres-

was disseminated, the importance of sion" [italics addedl. Yet Winckelmann

the newspaper, and the question of lit- was also effusive about the extremely
eracy among working classes. emotional Hellenistic sculpture called
LAOCOON, an apparent dichotomy he
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim resolved with these words: "As the
1717-1768 • German • art historian depth of the ocean remains quiet at all

times, even though the surface may rage

The history of ancient art which I have
as much as possible, thus the expression
undertaken to write is not a mere
of the figures of the Greeks shows a
chronology of epochs, and of the
great and composed soul despite all pas-
changes which occurred within them. I
sions. This soul describes itself in the
use the term history in the more
extended signification which has in
features of the Laocoon —and not only
, ^ , ,

the Creek language;

...
and It ts my
it
in his features
^^ „ ,„,.
.
—
despite the most violent
,. ir
, r
suftermg. Wmckelmann ,
himselr sur-
mtention to attempt a system. ^ .
, ,. , , . , 1 -n j r
fered and died by violence, killed tor

Winckelmann was born in Prussia. His some gold coins by a man he befriended
interestincREEK ART and the CLASSICAL in Trieste. His murderer, Francesco
 WITTKOWER, RUDOLF 719

Arcangeli, was sentenced to be "broken suit his interest, and sometimes entirely
alive on the wheel, from the head to the invented. But even when imaginary,
feet, until your soul depart from they are persuasive. For unknown rea-
your body." Winckelmann's impor- sons de Witte repeatedly included cer-
tance to art scholarship was formida- tain types of figures: a gravedigger, a
ble, prompting dissent (e.g., lessing) as nursing mother, a man in a cape with
well as launching, with Mengs, the neo- his back to the viewer. A mood and a
CLASSiciSM of the i8th-i9th century. feeling of space in his interiors are cre-
Equally significant, he prepared, for the ated by the interplay of shadow and
first time, an inclusive chronology of light on architectural forms; this also in-

ancient art, with stylistic analysis, em- dicates different times of day — unlike
bracing Egyptian and etruscan as well Saenredam's brightly lit churches, in
as Greek and Roman examples. which it always seems to be high noon.
De Witte's life was a tormented one. In
Winged Victory about 1660 he agreed to exchange
See NIKE OF samothrace everything he painted for room and
board and a small stipend, an arrange-
Witte, Emanuel de ment that ended up in court. He was al-
c. 1617-1691/92 • Dutch • painter ways in debt and is thought to have
• Baroque committed suicide.

. . . in the painting of churches, no one

Wittkower, Rudolf
was his equal with regard to orderly
1901-1971 •
architecture, innovative use of light,
German/British/American • art
and well formed figures. (Arnold
historian
Houbraken, c. 1718)
In all fairness, I feel the reader should
De Witte drew on the traditions estab-
be warned of what he will not find in
lished by SAENREDAM and others in
this book. Such a first sentence may be
painting church interiors, and was rec-
psychologically unwise, but it is
ognized, as in the comment above, as
morally sound.
one of the best painters of his day. After

he settled in Amsterdam, in about 1652, Thus begins Wittkower's foreword to

he developed his individual style and his survey Art and Architecture in Italy:

experimented with perspective in ren- 1600-iyso (1958). It is followed by a

dering architectural portraits. Looking list of the kinds of material omitted: for
for new means of representing space, de example, the struggles sparked by
Witte was responding to contemporary winckelmann between supporters of
developments in the science of optics greek and roman art, and the role of
and optical devices. Like Saenredam's, theater, garden, and town design. "My
the interiors de Witte painted, while aim is narrower, but perhaps even more
inspired by buildings in Amster- ambitious," writes Wittkower. "In-

dam, were usually not accurate repre- stead of saying little about many things,
sentations of them. Rather, his I attempted to say something about a
architectural interiors were adjusted to few." Those few are painting, sculp-
 .

720 WITZ, KONRAD

and architecture. Wittkower left

ture, ure whose eyes are bound but in this

Germany during the Nazi regime. He case are closed, and who holds tablets
went first to London (he became a with odd script meant to be Hebrew.
British citizen in 1934), then in
1956 to Paired with Synagogia is a panel with
New York, where he headed the De- "Ecclesia," symbol of the Church,
partment of Fine Arts and Archaeology whose eyes are shown open in the belief
at Columbia University. His books and that the truth is now unveiled. The inte-

articles were mainly about Italian art rior panels have a more complex pro-
and architecture in the period of the gram of TYPOLOGY, that is, characters
BAROQUE. from the Hebrew Scriptures seen as pre-
figuring those in the New Testament.
Witz, Konrad The Miraculous Draught of Fishes
c. 1400/10-1445/46 • German • (1444) is an unusual work in other
painter • Northern Renaissance ways than those described above. Here
Witz presents what is believed to be the
. Conrad Witz was the first to
. .

first topographical landscape in North-

observe the optical law according
. .

ern painting, as well as the astute obser-

to which objects immersed in water are
vation of refraction panofsky alludes
visible only as long as the angle of
to in the quotation above. But while the
incidence does not exceed the critical
original story unfolds at the Sea of
limit (ca. 45.^ degrees) beyond which
Galilee,Witz has painted an accurate
total reflection takes the placeof
and highly sophisticated setting of Lake
partial refraction. (Erwin Panofsky,
Geneva. Moreover, the cardinal who
1953)
commissioned the painting had a politi-
Witz moved to Basel, a center of reli- cal message to impart: Just as Peter (the

gious activity during the early 1430s, first pope), who floundering in the lake
and established a workshop that be- needs help from Christ, so would the
came well recognized in the city. Little pope, it is implied, do well to seek ad-

is known about him, and he died after vice from the College of Cardinals.
only about a dozen years in Basel. But
during that period he produced a body Wojnarowicz, David
of work that reveals a very original and 1954-1992 • American •

interesting style. His figures are short painter/graphic artist • Neo-

and stocky, more bourgeois than noble Expressionist
by far, and they are formed with strong
The person I was just one year ago no
contrasts of dark and light; their physi-
longer exists; drifts spinning slowly
cal presence supersedes decorative ele-
into the other somewhere way back
ments; the interiors are quite stark and
there. I'm a Xerox of my former self. I
have a forward-tilting, disorienting
can't abstract my own dying any
sense of space. This is evident in the
longer.
Heilspiegel Altarpiece (c. 1435-38). On
an outside panel of the altarpiece is Wojnarowicz died of aids at the age of
Synagogia, conventionally a female fig- 38. He had documented his brutal
 W6LFFLIN, HEINRICH yZI

childhood experiences as a prostitute in not only to show images during his lec-
New York City, beginning at age nine. tures but also to introduce the method-
The film from America
Postcards ology of comparisons in the study of
(1994) was drawn from his autobio- art, now standard technique. He wished
graphical writings, which include a to make the study of art's history a sci-
graphic novel that was illustrated by an- ence by discovering principles (rather
other artist, James Romberger. Woj- like theorems) that could be demon-
narowicz's art, as were his life and his strated and perhaps even proved. He
actions, was all angrily seditious. The believed that style in art follows an evo-
Death of American Spirituality (1987) lutionary path, as in the comment
is a 6-foot 8-inch by 3 -foot 8-inch can- quoted above. In Principles of Art His-
vas divided into four parts with thick tory: The Problem of the Development
black lines that may be construed as a of Style in Later Art (191 5 in German,
cross. In each panel is a different, 1932 in English), Wolfflin discloses five

grotesque scene in the colors of fire and oppositional principles through which
blood. A bull ridden by a cowboy is he distinguishes between art of the re-
made from newspaper, and out of a cir- naissance and that of the baroque.
cular black void a shark swims toward These are respectively: (i) linear vs.
the cowboy's genitals. A kachina doll, a PAINTERLY; (2) plane vs. recession (see

dark, skull-like face with a snake in its picture plane); (3) CLOSED FORM
teeth, and a head with no eyes but wear- (e.g., self-contained) vs. open form; (4)
ing a crown of thorns are among the multiplicity (e.g., several independent
other images in this horrific invention. figures in a composition) vs. unity; (5)
The historian Jonathan Fineberg, who absolute vs. relative clarity. His posi-
categorizes Wojnarowicz as an Ameri- tion is that the later period of Baroque
can Neo-Expressionist, writes that art, which he characterizes as "visual,"
"[he] developed a confrontational style was more advanced, reflecting a higher

of working that pushed his art out of level of achievement than that of the
the comfort zone. His work concerns "tactile" Renaissance. Wolfflin also be-

the real immediacy of bodily experience lieved that a Zeitgeist, or spirit of the
and identity filled with unacknowl- time, in combination with a nationalist
edged violence." That violence spins identity, served to determine the world-
away in the quotation above, written in view shared by individuals and groups
the year of his death. alike. In many ways he follows in the
line of HEGEL. His statement that "It is

Wolfflin, Heinrich true, we only see what we look for, but

18 64-1 94 5 • Swiss • art historian we only look for what we can see" is
provocative, especially in regard to his
Not everything is possible in every
own work. For while he clearly demon-
period.
strated stylistic differences between pe-

Wolfflin brought the "magic lantern," riods based on "what is possible," what
an early version of the slide projector, he did not look for were the historic or
into the classroom. This enabled him psychological reasons behind such dif-
722 WOOD, GRANT

ferences, or what may have precipitated Flemish paintings of figures with oval
the cychcal styles he described. heads, stern faces, and meticulous ren-
dering of detail.
Wood, Grant
1892-1942 • American • painter • woodblock/woodcut
Regionalist A method of printing in which an
image is carved on the surface of a block
Each section [of America] has a
of wood. The portion to be printed is
personality of its own, in
left in relief, that is, raised above the
physiography, industry, psychology.
background of wood that has been
Thinking painters and writers who
carved away. The raised surface is inked
have passed their formative years in
and impressed on the material to be
these regions will, by care-taking
printed, much as impressions are made
analysis, work out and interpret in
by rubber stamps. A woodcut is made
their productions these varying
by cutting the image with the grain run-
personalities.
ning parallel to the surface, employing
After studying at the Art Institute of tools that range from a knife blade to

Chicago and making several trips to Eu- special veiners and gouges. Originally
rope, Wood returned home to Iowa to used for patterning textiles, woodcut
paint in, and about the Midwest. There printing on paper was developed during

are undercurrents of humor in his signa- the first decades of the 15th century.
ture images of patchwork-quilt rolling Some of the first woodcut prints

hills and forward-facing, sturdy, grim, (also called woodcuts) were sold as sou-
salt-of-the-earth types. The couple in venirs along pilgrimage routes (see

American Gothic (1930), standing. CULT OF saints). Soon woodcuts were

Wood said, like "tintypes from my old being pasted into Bibles, and toward the
family album," are generally assumed end of the 15 th century they were used
to be husband and wife, but are really for pictorial instruction manuals, such

meant to represent father and daugh- as the Ars Moriendi (Art of Dying
ter —although the models were, in fact, Well), to help clergy comfort the mori-
Wood's sister and his dentist. The bund. In contrast to a woodcut, a wood
"Gothic" of the title refers to a pointed- engraving is made on a surface that is at

arch window in the house in the back- a right angle to the grain of the wood;
ground, a standard gothic detail, but that is, it is cut across the grain, using a
the house's vertical, "board-and- variety of gravers and burins. Prints

batten" siding technique is an entirely from wood engravings were rare in the

American development. Along with West until the i8th century. However,
BENTON and CURRY, Wood was a re- Japanese artists perfected the technique
gionalist whose Americanism was for full-color wood-block printing dur-
touted; yet it should also be acknowl- ing the 17th century. Their method was
edged that two of his important to use several blocks, one for each color

influences and sources were the Chi- that was needed. On a blue block, for

nese-inspired blue willow-ware dishes example, only those elements in the

of his childhood and 15th-century image that should be blue (or a color
 —

WORKSHOP 723

that uses some combination of blue) spectacular wall drawings more than
would be carved. The impressions made 30,000 years old, were the first artists'

by these blocks had to be aligned very workshops. As city-states developed in

carefully, a process called registration. Mesopotamia around 3000 bce,
Japanese wood-block prints became GUILDS with foremen were organized,
popular in Europe during the 19th cen- and workshops were part of tem-
their

tury (see ukiyo-e). ple compounds. The famous head of

the Egyptian queen nefertiti (c.

Woodville, Richard Caton 135 5-1 335 bce) was found on the floor
See MOUNT in the house of a sculptor who used it as

a studio model. Clearly, artists' work-

Works Progress shops predate the medieval period,
Administration/Federal Art when crafts guilds ran them (see mas-
Project terpiece). In Medieval workshops, 10-
In the midst of the Great Depression, year-old boys were apprenticed to a
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt master, and both worked and slept to-
authorized the Public Works of Art Pro- gether in the loft of the master's stu-
ject in1934, commissioning murals dio —one reason why females were not
such as those painted in Mexico by usually admitted to such organizations,
artists like rivera. The Works Progress widow could become a guild
although a
Administration (wpa) began the Federal member when she carried on her hus-
Art Project, under Holger Cahill, in band's workshop business. Artists in
1935, broadening the nature of artists' workshops made their own materials
projects beyond murals to easel paint- they belonged to the druggists' guild
ing and sculpture. Later, the Farm Secu- and they kept their formulas and
rity Administration joined in the methods secret, from the preparation of
support of artists by commissioning a wooden panel to be painted as an
photographers. The scope of these gov- ALTARPIECE to the fineness to which
ernment-sponsored projects was vast, pigment was ground. Decoratively pat-
and gave unemployed artists stipends as terned gilt HALOs in paintings were
well as an important sense of the rele- tooled with punches; these were made
vance of their work. About 6,000 artists for a workshop and became as distinc-
were employed. Most American artists tive of that workshop's identity as a

inwhat would later become the New signature. During and after the renais-
York school of abstract expression- sance (ITALIAN and northern), artists
ism worked in these programs. strove to distinguish themselves as intel-
lectuals rather than craftspeople, and
workshop luminaries like Raphael ran their own
The place where skilled artisans teach large workshops. The artist's workshop
apprentices, who, presumably, will (atelier in French, bottega in Italian)
eventually be competent to work on sometimes causes problems for the art
their own. We will probably never historian who tries to decide whether a
know whether the recently discovered work is by the "hand" of the master or
Chauvet caves in France, with their by an anonymous or less esteemed stu-
724 WORLD OF ART {mIR ISKUSSTVa)

dent (seeschool and master of .). . . of mansart and Louis Le Vau

Occasionally the work of a student (161Z-70). After the Great Fire of Lon-
whose fame ultimately surpasses that of don in 1666, the new skyline of the city
the teacher is detected, as was the case showed the influence of Wren, whose
when one of the two angels in verroc- majestically domed masterpiece is Saint
CHio's The Baptism of Christ (c. Paul's Cathedral (1675-1710), a blend

1475-85) was identified as the work of of classical (e.g., its dome and paired
a young Leonardo da Vinci. Corinthian columns) and baroque
style (e.g., the irregular, undulating
World of Art {Mir Iskusstva) form of the two towers). Besides re-

A group of Russian symbolists in Saint building Saint Paul's, which was in-

Petersburg, who gathered around the tended to rival Saint Peter's in Rome in

ballet impresario Serge Diaghilev both style and grandeur. Wren was re-

(1872-1929); the painter benois, who sponsible for 51 other churches in the
documented the movement in his city, where the roman architectural ele-

two-volume memoirs; and the designer ments found at Saint Paul's are replaced

bakst. Their first exhibition, organized by original solutions and interiors that

by Diaghilev, was in 1897, and the first are spacious, light, and unified. Wren
issue of their magazine, Mir Iskusstva, was also knighted, and was a member
came out in October 1898 (and contin- of Parliament. Before he died at 91, he
ued to be published through 1904). The wrote that he had "worn out (by God's
history and folklore of Russia were par- Mercy) a long life in the Royal Service
ticularly important to these artists and and having made some figure in the
they made an international reputation world." He was buried in Saint Paul's
as stage designers, especially for the Bal- where the inscription, quoted above,
lets Russes. serves as his epitaph.

Wren, Sir Christopher Wright, Frank Lloyd

1632-17Z3 • English • architect • 1 867-1959 • American architect
Baroque Modern

Si monumentum requiris, circumspice. The principles that build the tree will

[If you would see his monument, look build the man. That's why I think
around]. (Inscription in Saint Paul's Nature should be spelled with a capital
Cathedral) "N" not because Nature is God but
because all that we can learn of God
Wren was a brilliant young scientist and
we will learn from the body of God,
a professor of astronomy. Sir Isaac
which we call Nature.
Newton thought him one of the best
geometricians of the time. Wren even il- Wright grew up on a farm near Spring
lustrated a medical text on the brain Green, Wisconsin, where he eventually
with more elegance and accuracy than built his own home/studio/school. He
had ever been achieved before. In his never finished high school or the Uni-
30s he began to study architecture, versity of Wisconsin, but began his

mainly in Paris, where he saw the work professional training in the Madison,
 WRIGHT, PATIENCE LOVELL 725

Wisconsin, office of a professor of engi- the parapets had troughs for plants with
neering. In 1887, Wright went to trailing vines, bringing the natural
Chicago. In the aftermath of the great world into the office setting. In the
fire of 1 87 1 and the feverish rebuilding rolling hills of his family's farmland in

of the city, Chicago had become the ar- Wisconsin, Wright's design for his own
chitectural "capital" of the United home harmonized with the natural site.

States. Wright worked as a draftsman Taliesin I (1911) is constructed of na-

under SULLIVAN, the man who gave tive stone and wraps around the top of
form to MODERN architecture in Amer- a hill. Even the complex roofs seem an
ica. He left Sullivan's office in
1893 organic part of the landscape. In 1914,
over a disagreement, but the two were Taliesinwas destroyed by fire. Rebuilt,
reconciled 20 years later, and Wright II years later Taliesin I was again con-
remained Sullivan's disciple, referring sumed by fire, and again rebuilt. Wright
to him as "the Master." Sullivan cham- began to build a second Taliesin in

pioned Wright too: About Wright's de- 1938, this time near Phoenix, Arizona,
sign for the Imperial Hotel (1916-22) in which he called Taliesin West. As with
Tokyo, he wrote that it was a heroic act, his Wisconsin home, his desert Taliesin

"an utterance of man's free spirit, a per- integrates and interacts with its envi-
sonal message to every soul that falters, ronment. The importance of the land-
and to every heart that hopes." scape is expressed in Wright's comment
Wright's reputation grew more rapidly quoted above. In New York City,
in Europe, especially in Holland and Wright's controversial design for the
Germany, than in the United States dur- Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
ing the early years of the 20th century. (1943-59) spirals on upper Fifth Av-
He was embraced by the Dutch archi- enue like a geometric conch shell. In

tect BERLAGE, who particularly admired Bear Run, Pennsylvania, the Kaufmann
Wright's fluid treatment of interior house (Fallingwater, 1936-39) is dra-
space. The Robie House of 1907-09, in matically cantilevered over a waterfall.
the low-to-the-ground Prairie Style that The social and architectural critic Lewis
Wright invented, exemplifies his credo Mumford once wrote, "One could not
that it is space, not mass, that counts. be in the presence of Wright for even
Wright applied his spatial innovations half an hour without feeling the inner
to both private homes and public build- confidence bred by his genius."
ings, and to both large and small com-
missions. The 1904 Larkin Building in
Wright, Patience Lovell
Buffalo, New York, which presented a
American
1725-1786 • • sculptor •
severe, industrial facade to the outside
Colonial
world, was designed for the workers in-

side; the interior was restful and harmo- She untaught, made portraits in wax
nious, in Wright's words, with "clean, by a most extraordinary manner,
pure, properly tempered air for them holding the wax under her apron she
to breathe whatever the season or modeled it into the features of the

weather." Illumination from the sky- Person sitting before her! This account
light above the atrium was ample, and we had from Mr. West, with whom she
726 WRIGHT OF DERBY, JOSEPH

was very intimate. (Charles Willson ally implicit rather than explicit. For
Peak, 1 8th century) example, paintings that incorporated
new discoveries, like perspective in
The first American woman sculptor the 1 5th century, did not show the dis-
was a renegade who ran away from covery being demonstrated. Similarly,
home when was 20 years old. Her
she artists during the 17th century took ad-
father was a strict Quaker farmer who vantage of the CAMERA OBSCURA, but
made his eight daughters wear wooden did not paint the camera obscura itself.

shoes and white dresses, stockings, and During the Age of enlightenment,
hats as sign of their purity. To compen- however, Joseph Wright took an un-
sate for the lack of color in their cloth- usual step: He painted scientific experi-
ing, they loved to paint pictures in rich mentation as a dramatic subject in its

colors they made themselves from the own right. Wright painted the demon-
minerals in the earth. Patience devel- strators, lecturers, and popularizers of
oped another skill: She modeled por- exciting new knowledge in the heroic

traits in wax. When they were both vein of history painting. A Philoso-
widowed, she and one of her sisters pher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery (in

went to New York and developed a which a lamp is put in place of the sun)
waxworks show that they took on tour. (c. 1763-65) is an example. An or-
Patience later moved to London, and rery — named after Charles Boyle,
even gained entree into the royal house- fourth Earl of Orrery, for whom one
hold to make a portrait of the king. She was made — is a mechanical model of
was brash and outspoken about many the solar system. In Wright's picture,
things, especially the sins of royalty, the lamp standing in for the sun illumi-
and she became as notorious for her nates the people in the audience observ-
method of shaping the wax, which ing the model as mysteriously as if it

PEALE describes in the quotation above, were the holy light of God. The analogy
as for the resemblance of her portraits is not accidental in a period when
to their models. Visitors to her home human inventions and discoveries were
discovered that some of her other beginning to refashion the world from
guests, like the old clergyman reading a an agricultural- to an industrial-based
paper in the middle of a room, were economy and science seemed to dis-
made of wax. Unfortunately, few of her place religion. It was a time during
works survive. which, as the philosopher Richard
Rorty writes, "the idea that truth was
Wright of Derby, Joseph made rather than found began to take
1734-1797 • English • painter • hold of the imagination of Europe."
Romantic Josiah Wedgwood, whose company pi-

oneered in mass producing pottery,

'Tis the most wonderful sight in
and Sir Richard Arkwright, who revo-
Nature.
lutionized the textile industry, were pa-
The connection between science and art trons for works like those of Wright.
has taken many forms, but before There is an underlying emotional fervor
Joseph Wright of Derby they were usu- and a sense of the heroic in Wright's
 WYETH, ANDREW 727

him with the roman-

paintings that ally ranked illustrator who studied with
tic movement, and in general he is Howard Pyle (1853-19 11). Pyle is
known for images with extraordinary known as the father of American illus-
lighting effects: Besides the Lecture trationand was the founder of the
at the Orrery, he painted forges and Brandywine School of illustration in
smithies, fireworks, and (the ultimate rural Pennsylvania, same area
the
fireworks) the eruption of Mount Vesu- where Andrew Wyeth has lived and
vius, which he saw during a trip to Italy painted for most of his life. (During the
that lastedfrom 1773 to 1775. It was summer he lives and works in Maine.)
about that eruption that his comment, Wyeth's subjects are local people and
quoted above, was made. While pic- scenes, which he records with careful
tures like these are of great interest to us attention to detail. Egg tempera, a
today, he earned his livelihood by paint- difficult medium, is his paint of choice.

ing portraits. Wyeth's best-known painting is Chris-

tina's World (1948). The young woman
Wyeth, Andrew in the foreground of the picture, crip-
born 19 1 7 • American • painter • pled by polio, is dragging herself up the
Realist hill to the house on the horizon. With its

broad empty area of sere grass, meticu-

Art to me is seeing. I think you have
lous painting, unusual composition,
got to use your eyes as well as your
and uncertainty of meaning, this paint-
emotion, and one without the other
ing has kept its grip on the American
just doesn't work. That's my art.
consciousness for more than half a
Wyeth's father, N. C. Wyeth (Newell century.
Convers; 188Z-1945), was a top-
XP among them. That was the most famous
See CHI RHO painting of an artist who was renowned
for showing emotion. Zeuxis followed
X-radiography/X-ray on the heels of apollodoros and, as
This photographic method has been PLINY the Elder maintained, went one
used since the late 1920s to look be- whose
better than his predecessor, to
neath the surfaces of paintings. Materi- method of modeling he added the
als that absorb X-rays become visible, touch of highlighting, that is, of show-
including lead-based paint used for ing shaded areas with the impression of
"undermodeling," an early stage of reflected light. His drawing skills and
a picture. Among most renowned
the the subtlety of his lines brought ac-
X-radiography is that done on gior- claim; Pliny praised him, saying that he
gione's mysterious painting the Tem- could "reveal what was concealed."
pest (c. 1509?). First it revealed that a Commissioned to decorate the king's
female figure had been painted, then was paid royally,
palace at Pella, Zeuxis
covered over with the soldier standing elevating his profession above that of
at the left; later X-rays showed that her craftsman. Then he gave away his
legs were cut off at the knees, suggesting paintings, saying that they could not be
that the canvas of an abandoned project sold at a price that matched their value.

had been trimmed down. No Greek easel paintings and almost no

Greek wall paintings survive, yet liter-

Zeuxis ary references and colorful anecdotes,

c.450-390 BCE • Greek • painter • like accounts of the competition be-
High Classical tween Zeuxis and his rival parrhasius,
infuse their vanished works with life.
Criticism comes easier than
craftsmanship. (Pliny the Elder, ist
century, quoting Zeuxis) Zorach, Marguerite Thompson
1887-1968 • painter • American •
The paintings of Zeuxis are known only
Fauve
by his, and by their, reputation. It was
said that to choose a model for his When the artist meets the public, there
Helen of Troy, Zeuxis held a parade of are a few vitaland perennial
local girls stripped of their clothes. As questions— I will answer them before
no individual approached his ideal, he they are asked. How long have you
combined the best features of five been painting? Since the age of three
 6

ZORACH, WILLIAM 729

when I produced a goose that Zorach, William

everyone knew was a goose. 1887-1966 • American • sculptor
Abstract
Zorach had received the standard aca-
Art Is My Life
demic training at home in Fresno, Cal-

ifornia, before she went to Europe in Quoted above is the title of Zorach's
the fall of 1908. During her first day in autobiography, which was published
Paris she went to the salon d'automne after he died. It begins: "I remember the
and saw an exhibition of fauve art that little village of Euberick in Lithuania
had an immediate impact on her own where was born. I remember our
I

work. This is apparent in Man Among house, a low house with a slanting roof
the Redwoods (19 12), which she built into a bank in a river valley. It was

painted the year she returned home and made of logs and bricks and had a long
for which she used pure color with a dark hall where big black bears lay in
Fauvist freedom from the constraints of wait for a little boy." He immigrated to
reality. Zorach exhibited in the ar- the United States when he was four
MORY SHOW of 1913 and helped to in- years old, and the family settled near
troduce Fauvism to the United States. Cleveland, Ohio. After a time spent
She was the only woman whose work studying art in Paris, where he met his
was shown in the Forum Exhibition of future wife (see Marguerite above), they
Modern American Painters in 1916, relocated to the United States. The
and the only artist excluded from the couple spent the summer of 1916 at the
catalogue, which contained essays on experimental Provincetown (Massa-
and reproductions of the work of the 1 chusetts) Playhouse, contributing their
other artists in the show. Her husband, talents as both actors and artists. In

William (see below), was also in the ex- 1921 William Zorach drew a charcoal

hibition, and the historian Gail Levin portrait that, with the greatest economy
speculates, "More than likely [he] had of line and shading, captured the like-
insisted on the inclusion of his wife, for ness of another member of the
although they worked separately, they Provincetown troupe, the playwright
—
appear almost as one 'Wm. and Mar- Eugene O'Neill. In about 1922, Zorach
guerite Zorach' — the catalogue's
in list turned from painting to sculpture. He
of artists." Marguerite Zorach made carved directly in wood or stone, with-
the comment quoted above in 1962 as out working up a rough model or ma-
part of an "artist's statement" for an quette beforehand. His sculpture is

exhibit of her work. She also said, fluidly structural, not anatomical. A
"There have been periods when was I theme to which he frequently returned
discovered with much publicity and was that of mother and child; Dew?/o«
newspaper articles, and periods when I (1946) is a granite representation of a

have been forgotten. ... I am not inter- seated mother with a standing child in
ested in style, or a certain way of paint- her arms. The two bodies curve around
ing, or a certain range of color or form, and dissolve into one another, and their

I am interested in expression through expressions are of sublime content-

art." ment.
730 ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO DE

Zurbaran, Francisco de Seville; it hung in the sala de profundis,

1598-1664 • Spanish • painter • where bodies of dead monks were held
Baroque before burial. There are conflicting ac-
counts of his martyrdom, and in the one
Monks of Zurbaran, white-robed
Zurbaran illustrated Serapion was tied
Carthusians who, in the shadows, I
to a tree, tortured, and then decapi-
Pass silently over the stones of the
tated. He may still be alive, but barely,
dead, I Whispering Paters and Aves
as Zurbaran shows him, ropes around
without end, I What crime do you
his wrists, eyes closed, his head (still at-
expiate with such remorse? (Theophile
tached) fallen onto one shoulder. The
Gautier, 1844)
background is completely dark, in stark
Written when he was visiting Seville, contrast to the creamy white habit that
Gautier's verse describes the haunting fills fully three-quarters of the canvas.

images of Zurbaran's praying and suf- Its heavy, rough fabric drapes and falls

fering saints. Even his life-size Saint from arms and shoulders in deep,
his
Francis in Ecstasy (late 1630s) goes complexly shadowed folds, each one
against the artistic convention of magnificently described. The material
portraying Saint Francis in happy com- itself takes on the importance of doc-
munion with the birds: Zurbaran's trine. CARAVAGGio's influence is de-
kneeling Francis is an intense and tected in the dramatic contrast of light
wrenching figure. The fervor of the and shadow, but Zurbaran's concentra-
Counter-Reformation infuses the paint- tion is different, and the elimination of
ings of Zurbaran, a devout Catholic all background and extraneous objects
who worked for many monastic orders, sets him apart. His heightened material
including Dominicans, Franciscans, tactility is also outstanding in his still
Carthusians, Carmelites, and both Bare- LIFE paintings, in which objects are
foot and Shod Mercedarians. It is for lined up, also against dark back-
the last, the Shod Mercedarians, that he grounds, and flooded with raking
painted Saint Serapion in 1628. Be- light. Lemons, Oranges, Cup and Rose
lieved to be of Scottish origin, Serapion (1633) are independent, self-contained,
took part in the Third Crusade of 1 196, and ultimately untouchable objects that
and then, some z6 years later, joined stand for something well beyond every-
the Mercedarians. On a mission to res- thing that meets the eye. "Zurbaran's
cue Christians in Algiers, Serapion was whole point is the interpenetration of
killed for preaching the Gospel and con- what is ordinary and unassuming with
verting Moslems to Christianity. Zur- what is exalted and sacred so that . . .

baran's Saint Serapion is thought to the mundane and the supramundane

have been painted for a monastery in change places," bryson writes.
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Index

Page numbers in bold italic type refer to Acropolis, 5-6, 123, 141, 217, 257,481, 504,
dictionary entries. 512., 517
acrylic paint, 6, 246, 362, 394, 405, 606, 709
Action painting, 3, 6, 151, 181, 266, 367, 564,
Aalto, Alvar, 603 i, 626
Abakanowicz, Magdalena, 1-2 Adam, Robert, 6-y, 475
Abakans (Abakanowicz), z Adam (Diirer), 25
Abbey Church of Saint Michael (Bernward), Adam and Eve (Masaccio), 426
495 Adam and Eve (Masolino), 426
ABC, 2, 445 Adams Memorial, The (Saint-Gaudens), 606
Abraham Lincoln (Brady), 91 Adoration of the Magi (Bosch), 84
Abraham Lincoln (French), 248-49 Adoration of the Magi (Botticelli), 86, 433
Abstract art, 2, 3, 10, 90, 108-9, 12.7, 154, Adoration of the Magi, The (Gentile), 13-14,
156, 186, 220, 239, 302, 311, 365, 454, 262
466, 473, 476, 484, 494, 515, 516, 616, Adoration of the Magi (Ghirlandaio), 267
621, 658, 792 Adoration of the Magi, The (Giovanni), 273
Abstract Expressionism (AE), 2-3, 6, 39, 55, Adoration of the Magi (Leonardo), 389
104, 114, 143, 146, 151, 180-81, 187, Adoration of the Magi (Lochner), 401
228, 243, 246, 266, 284, 287, 294, 303, Adventure at Sea (Attie), 37
307, 308, 311, 324, 349, 360, 361, 367, Aegean art, 7

371, 394. 399, 405, 408, 42-6, 430, 446, Aeroplane over Train (Goncharova), 283
451, 457, 461, 472, 480, 480, 516, 521, Aertsen, Pieter, 7, 478, 507, 640, 651, 669
533, 537, 541, 551, 561, 564, 578, Aestheticism, Aesthetic movement, j-8, 104,
590-91, 637, 644, 650, 659, 662, 665, 140, no, 189, 294, 359, 372, 507, 521,
678, 683, 723 548, 651, 672,708, 714-15
Abstract fantasy, 3 64 aesthetics, S, 359
Abstraction, 180, 187, 191, 284, 315, 316, After the Hunt (Harnett), 310
419, 421, 422, 481, 564, 578, 662 Against the Enamel of a Background Rhythmic
Abstraction-Creation, 3, 127, 154, 186, 255, with Beats and Angles, Tones and Colors,
316, 481 Portrait of M. Felix Fenelon (Signac), 632
Abstraction on the Spectrum (Organization, j) Agathon to Erosanthe, A Love Wreath (La
(Macdonald-Wright), 409 Farge), 372
Academic art, 3, 13, 49, 57, 74, 80, 81, 88, Agbatana I (F. Stella), 647
107, 118, 130, 164-65, 202, 216, 233, Age of Bronze, The (Rodin), 582
2-65,277, 315, 361, 387, 408, 416, 417, Agesander, 8, 378
508, 547, 55c, 553, 568, 592, 607, 690, Agony in the Garden (Giovanni Bellini), 59
729 Agony in the Garden, The (Callot), 109
Academic Classicism, 164 AIDS, 9, 308, 419, 720
Academic ReaUsm, 568, 676 airbrush, 9, 145,414, 537
Academic Juhan, 3-4, 56, 89, 216, 422, 664, Ajax and Achilles Playing a Board Game
683 (Exekias), 227
Academy, 3, 4-^, 22, 61, 161, 162, 190, 265, Albani, Cardinal Alessandro, 9-10, 550, 718
291, 295, 322, 374, 397, 479, 547, Albers, Josef, 10, 54, 73, 151, 154,491
582 Alberti, Leon Battista, 4, lo-ii, 23, 86, 100,
Accession II (Hesse), 318 224, 284, 346, 375, 412, 447, 499, 513,
Acconci, Vito, 5, 1 54 702
Achaemenid Gold Vessel, 571 Albertian Perspective, 528
Achilles Painter, 534 Alexander, Jane, 472
738 INDEX

Alexandrian School, see Pergamene School Annunciation (Broederlam), 94

Algardi, Alessandro, 11, 61, 83, 205 Annunciation (O. Gentileschi), 263
Algarotti, Francesco, 11-12 Annunciation (Lotto), 405
aliaprima, 12, 306 Annunciation (Martini), 424
Allegory of Law and Grace (Cranach), 166 Annunciation with Saint Emidius, The
Allegory of Painting (Vermeer), 710 (Crivelli), 167
Allegory of Venus (Bronzino), 96 Anquetin, Louis, 66
Allston, Washington, 12-13, 19^-, 459) 7^'i Anshutz, Thomas, 20, 276, 315, 631, 636
Alma-Tadema, Sir Lawrence, i), 388 Antal, Frederick, 20, 76, 424
Alpers, Svetlana, 566, 646 Anthemius of Tralles, 20-21, 304, 344
Altar of Zeus and Athena, 5 1 z Anthropometries (Klein), 366
altarpiece, 13-14, 22, 50, 58, 66, 90, 94, iii, Antinous, 9, 21, 22, 196
167, 169, 178, 192, 197, 202, 250, 261, antique, antiquity, 3, 4, 6, 9, 13, 27-22, 61, 86,
262, 291, 296, 299, 302, 326, 354, 404, 74. 113) 12.1, 122, 165, 195, 196, 217,
411, 424, 429, 436, 485, 499, 535, 536, 221, 267, 268, 285, 291, 298, 345-46,
539, 543) 574) 595) 604, 612, 652, 680, 390, 396, 402, 418, 436, 467, 470, 475,
698, 714, 721, 723 500, 550, 594
Altarpiece of the Holy Kinship (Massys), 427 Antonello da Messina, 17, 21, 22-23, 59)
Altarpiece of the Lamb (Eyck), 229 302
Altarpiece of the Virgin (Duccio), 202 Apelles, 22, 23, 86
Altdorfer, Albrecht, 14-15, 175 Aphrodite Anadyomene (Apelles), 23
Altes Museum (Schinkel), 615-16 Aphrodite of Cnidos, 23-24, 545
Ambroise Vollard (Picasso), 52 Aphrodite of Melos, 24-25, 165, 420
America Today (Benton), 64 Apocalypse, Mystical Nativity (Botticelli), 86
American Gothic (Wood), 722 Apollinaire, Guillaume, 25, 129, 186, 188, 381,
American Impressionism, 3, 15, 56, 133, 312, 494) 519) 592., 647, 665
383,451, 655, 683,712 Apollo Attended by the Nymphs (Girardon),
American Landscape (Sheeler), 630 2-74
American Renaissance, 15, 334 Apollo Belvedere, 25, 274, 388, 579-80
American Scene, 15, 72, 330, 462, 618, 641 Apollo Sauroctonos (Praxiteles), 546
America's Most Wanted (Komar and Melamid), Apollodoros, 25-26, 728
369 apotropaic, apotropaia, 26, 114, 621, 668
amphora, 15, 226, 542 Apoxyomenos (Lysippos), 407
Analytic Cubism, 169, 520 Apparition, The (Dance of Salome) (Moreau),
anamorphosis, see perspective 455-56
Anastaise, 444 Appel, Karel, 147
Anatomy of a Kimono (Miriam Schapiro), appropriation, 26, 33, 475, 540, 606, 625,
614-15 709
Ancestor U: Nine Figures on a Hill aquarelle, see watercolor
(Hepworth), 316 aquatint, 26-27, 343) 3^8, 548
ancient, 15-16, 25, 147, 149, 154, 168, 205, Ara Pads Augustae, 583
208, 276, 444, 512, 534, 550-51, 702 arabesque, 27, 299, 343, 344
Ancient Days, The (Blake), 74 Arbus, Diane, 27
Anderson, Laurie, 16, 511, 699 Arcadia, Arcadian, 27-28, 46, 87, 381, 416,
Andokides Painter, 16, 226, 562 544, 586, 669
Andokides Potter, 16 Arcadian Shepherds, The (Poussin), 28
Andre, Carl, 16-17, 35, 444 arch, 2S-29, 140, 286, 357, 412, 499, 555,
Andrea del Castagno, ly, 195, 515, 692, 698 583, 584, 612, 692
Andrea del Sarto, 17-18, 51, 245, 536, 629 Arch of Constantine (Wiligelmo), 717
Andrea del Sarto (Browning), 18 Arch of Titus, 29, 151, 583, 668
Andrew Jackson (Powers), 544 Archaic, 29, 72, 123, 140, 141, 151, 153, 158,
Andy Warhol (Neel), 475 171, 173, 180, 211, 227, 246, 264, 294,
Angelico, Fra, 18-1^, 262, 401, 604, 698 338, 341, 369, 370, 534
Angers Apocalypse Tapestries (Bondol), 79, archaic smile, see kouros
665, 690 Archipenko, Alexander, 29-30, 169
Anguissola, Sofonisba, 19, 431, 452, 692 Arcimboldo, Giuseppe, 30, 151
Animal Locomotion (Muybridge), 467 Arensberg Circle, 30-31, 613, 614, 629, 642
Animal style, 19-20, 144, 319, 442, 655 Aretino, L' (Dolce), 692
Animals (Tamayo), 663 Ariadne Asleep on the Island ofNaxos
Anne Black Velvet (Bellows), 61
in (Vanderlyn), 690
Annunciation (Angelico), 18 Arianism, 31, 609
 INDEX 739

Contemplating the Bust of Homer

Aristotle
(Rembrandt), 209
Armory Show 9 1 3 ), 3 1-32., 164,1 79, 1 80,
( 1
2-0}, 349, 563, 608, 710, 729
Arneson, Robert, 32
Arnolfini Double Portrait (Eyck), 2.29,
Arp, Jean (Hans), 32-33, 71, 127, 302, 482,
658, 662
Arques-la-Bataille (Twachtman), 683
Arrangement in Grey and Black ("Whistler's
Mother") (Whistler), 715
^^,33> 34, 149
Art Brut, 33, 146, 202, 242
Art Deco, 33-34, 386, 417, 670, 674
art history, 8, 19, 21,34-35, loi, 102-3, 113,
142, 149, 237, 259, 321, 397, 424, 428,
437, 438, 452-, 453, 458, 461, 47i, 498,
500, 508, 513, 516, 562, 577, 653, 692
Art Informel, L', 3, 246, 662, 665
Art Nouveau, 33, 3s, 54, 56, 65, 80, 237, 258,
277, 321, 331, 358, 366, 367, 409, 410,
463, 679, 705
Art of This Century, 302, 659
Art Workers' Coahtion (AWC), 3s, 663
Arte Povera, 3S-36, 695
Artist and His Mother, The (Gorky), 285
Artist in His Museum, The (Peale), 467, 509
Artist in the Character of Design Listening to
the Inspiration of Poetry, The (Kauffman),
361
Artist with His Family, The (Teniers),
Artist's Sister with Candle, The (Menzel), 437
Arts and Crafts Movement, 36, 54, 182, 331,
automatism, automatic writing, 129, 285, 426,
446
autoradiography, 39
Autumn— On the Hudson River (Cropsey), 168
Autumn Rhythm: No. 30, 19^0 (J. Pollock),
710 533-34
Auxerre statuette, 173
Ave Caesar (Death of Caesar) (Gerome), 266
Avenue of Trees at Middelharnis, The
(Hobbema), 322-23
Avery, Milton, 39
Avignon, 39-40, 81, 286, 403,424, 631
Avignon Pieta (Charonton), 40, 131-32
Awakening Conscience (W. H. Hunt), 335
Aycock, Alice, 40
Bacchante and Infant Faun (MacMonnies), 410
Bacchus (Caravaggio), 116
Back Seat Dodge '38 (Kienholz), 363
Back View of Venus (Pascin), 506
Backs (Abakanowicz), 2
Bacon, Francis, 41, 249, 364, 694
Bad Boy (Fischl), 240
Bad Government (A. Lorenzetti), 404
Bad News (Gerard), 264
Baglione, Giovanni, 42, 61, 83, 116, 263
Bain, Le (Gleyre), 277
Baker House (Aalto), i
Bakst, Leon, 42, 63, 724
baldacchino, baldachin, 43, 45, 67, 152, 205
669 Baldessari, John, 43
Baldung Grien, Hans, 43-44
Balla, Giacomo, 44, 120, 253

409,459, 543, 603, 674 Ballets Russes, 42, 63, 283, 380, 381, 469, 724
Ashcan School, 20,36, 61, 180, 216, 276, 315, Balthus,
44-45
331, 382, 406, 421, 422, 546, 600, 631, Bamberg Rider, 221
636 Bamboccianti, 45, 291, 374, 414, 659
Aspects of Negro Life (Douglas), 199 Bandits' Roost, Mulberry Street, New York
assemblage, 33,36-37, i49, 160, 169, 192, (Riis), 575-76

252, 363, 414, 422, 453, 475, 478, 560, Bank of England (Soane), 641
609 Bank of Pennsylvania (Latrobe), 380
Assembling for a Demonstration (Rodchenko), Banks of the Marne in Winter, The (Pissarro),
581 530
Assumption of the Virgin (Correggio), 162 Banks of the Oise, The (Delaroche), 176
Assumption of the Virgin (Lanfranco), 377 Banquet of the Officers of the Haarlem Militia
Astarte Syriaca (Rossetti), 459 Company of Saint George (Hals), 306
AT&T Building (P. Johnson), 351 Banqueting House (Jones), 353
atelier, 37 Baptism of Christ, The (Verrocchio), 247, 698,
Athena Parthenos (Pheidias), 138, 517 72-4
Athenodoros, 8, 378 Baptism of Christ (Gerard David), 178
atlantid, 123 Baptism of Christ (Leyden), 393
Attie, Dotty, 37 Baptism of Christ (Masolino), 426
attribute, 37, 169, 305,
659 Baptism of Clovis, The (Master of Saint Giles),

Audubon, John James, 37-38 429

Augustus of Primaporta, 21-22 Barberini family, 11, 43, 45-46, 46, 67, 82, 83,
Aunt Bessie and Aunt Edith (Ringgold), 577 162, 544, 603
aureole, 38, 305, 415 Barberini Faun, 46, 46, 253, 275, 314, 314
Aurora (Guercino), 301 Barbizon, School of, 46-47, 53, 176, 270, 280,
Aurora (Reni), 301, 555, 567 335, 340, 342-, 376, 408, 443, 531, 592-,

autodestructive art, 39, 181 635

autograph work, 39 Barlach, Ernst, 47
 5

740 INDEX

Barnes, Albert C, 47-48, Z76-77, 647 Beata Beatrix (Rossetti), 588

Barocci, Federico, 48 Beaune Last Judgment (Weyden), 714
Baroque, 45, 48, 48-49, 60, 66, yz, 78, 82, Beaux, Cecilia, 3, 15, 56-57, 89
83-84, 96, 98, 115, 116, izo, 129, 145, Beaux- Arts style, 57, 119
161, 162, 165, 175, 195, 198, 200, 205, Beazley, Sir P., 57, 6$-66, loi, 226
John
210-11, 231, 232, 240, 247, 262, 263, Beckmann, Max, 57-58, 193, 480
270-71, 274, 290, 297, 301, 305-6, 308, Bed (Rauschenberg), 560
318, 322, 325, 329, 330, 334, 352, 353, Beef Ray onism, The (Larionov), 379
357, 373> 377, 380, 383, 395, 402, 417, Beginning of the World, The (Brancusi), 92
419, 420, 436, 450, 478, 495, 497, 498, Beginnings of a Complex, The (Aycock), 40
510, 512, 519, 521, 523, 545, 552, 553, Beheading of Saint John the Baptist
555, 565, 566, 567, 572, 575, 580, 594, (Caravaggio), 116
597, 600, 603, 604, 609, 624, 634, 640, Belated Kid, The (W. M. Hunt), 335
645, 659, 668, 669, 673-74, 693, 696, Bell, Clive, 104, 251, 392
698, 700, 705, 713, 719, 720, 721, 724, Bell Tower, Mills College (Morgan), 457
730 Bellini, Gentile, 5S, 59, 60, 119, 618, 659, 677
Baroque Classicism, 170, 543 Bellini, Giovanni, 23, 50, 58,59-60, 60, 271,
Baroque Romanticism, 297 401, 604, 618, 659, 677
Barr, Alfred Hamilton, 49, 322, 351 Bellini, Jacopo, 59, 60, 224, 262, 618, 659, 694
Barriere de Villette (Ledoux), 385-86 Bellori, Gian Pietro, 60-61, 121, 136, 195,
Barthes, Roland, 143, 244, 259, 452, 625, 633 377, 42.0, 603
Bartholdi, Frederic-Auguste, 49-^0, 372 Bellows, George Wesley, 61, 315, 406, 422,
Bartlett, Jennifer, jo, 480 462, 642
Bartolommeo, Fra, 18,50-51, 629 Belshazzar's Feast (Allston), 12-13
Bartolomeo Colleoni (Verrocchio), 221, 698 Belshazzar's Feast (Martin), 423
Barye, Antoine-Louis, ^i, 79, 581, 656, 673 690
Belville Breviary (Pucelle),
Baselitz, Georg, 51-52., 475 Ben Day (benday), 61, 394
Basic Suprematist Element (Malevich), 413 Benedictine order, 16, 61-62, 139, 146, 478,
basilica, 52, 62, 153, 214, 584 620, 656
Basket of Fruit (Caravaggio), 651 Benjamin, Asher, 62
Basquiat, Jean-Michel, 52, 475 Benjamin, Walter, 26, 62-63, 37°, 479, 549,
bas-relief, see relief 569
Bassano, Jacopo, 52.-53 Benjamin Disraeli (Millais), 443
Bather of Valpingon, The (Ingres), 414, 638 Benois, Alexandre, 42, 63, 724
Bathers (Renoir), 568 Benoist, Marie-Guillemine, 63-64, 700
Bathers with a Turtle (Matisse), 430 Benson, Frank, 1
Battery Shelled, A (P. W. Lewis), 392 Bentheim Castle (Ruisdael), 597
Battle Between Carnival and Lent (P. Bruegel), Benton, Thomas Hart, 64, 170, 564, 722
99 Berard, Christian, 477
Battle of Issus, 460 Berenson, Bernard, 34, 64-65, 155, 167, 181,
Battle of Issus (Altdorfer), 14 209, 243, 250, 404, 405, 456, 568, 612
Battle of Lights, Coney Island (J. Stella), 648 Berlage, H. P., 65, 650, 725
Battle of San Romano (Uccello), 432, 513, 685 Berlin Painter, 57,65-66
Battle of the Centaurs, The (Bocklin), 77 Berlin Radio Tower (Moholy-Nagy), 450
Battle of the Fishes (Masson), 426 Berlinghieri, Bonaventura, 66, 416
Battle of the Ten Nudes (PoUaiuolo), 532 Berman, Eugene, 477
Baudelaire, Charles, 8, 5}, 164, 185, 237, 274, Berman, Leonid, 477
295, 297, 298, 390, 416, 447, 464, 563, Bermuda Group, The (Dean George Berkeley
585, 589-90, 593 and His Family) (Smibert), 235, 609, 637
Baudrillard, Jean, 476, 633, 681 Bernard, Emile, 66-67, 12.8, 144, 259, 280,
Bauhaus, i, 53-54, 94, 156, 182, 235, 255,
10, 536, 618, 661
2-97, 344, 359, 3^5, 4°°, 4i3, 44i, 449, Bernardino Campi Painting Sofonisba
451,481, 597, 616, 658 Anguissola (Anguissola), 19
Bauhaus building (Gropius), 344 Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, 11, 21, 43, 45, 46, 48,
Bayeaux tapestry, 54, 584 61, 67-68, 91, 96, 144, 145, 162, 165,
Bazille, Frederic, 47, 54-55, 233, 277, 568, 635 175, 205, 218, 221, 268, 274, 544, 674
Baziotes, William, 55, 578 Bernward, Archbishop of Hildesheim, 68-69,
BCE, 55 154,495
Beach at Trouville, The (Boudin), 88 Berrettini, Pietro (Pietro da Cortona), 162
Bearden, Romare, 55-56, 310 bestiary, 69, 339
Beardsley, Aubrey, 35, 42, 56, 237, 464 Betrothal Still Life, The (Fantin-Latour), 233
 INDEX 741

Beuys, Joseph, 69-70, 143, 362 Bonnat, Leon, 80-81, 89, 212
Bewitched Groom, The (Baldung Grien), 44 Book of Hours, 81, 87-88, 245, 339, 396, 551
Bibliotheque Nationale (Labrouste), 374 Book of Kells, 20, 81-82, 134, 319
Biedermeier, jo-yi Borch, Gerard ter, 82
Bierstadt, Albert, yi, 209, 566, 716 Borghese family, 82-83, 3-^9
Bigger Splash, A (Hockney), 323 Borgianni, Orazio, 83
Biglen Brothers Turning at the Stake, The Borgo San Sepolcro altarpiece (Sassetta), 612
(Eakins), 108 Borgoricco, Italy, Town Hall, (Rossi), 589
Biltmore (R. M. Hunt), 334 Borofsky, Jonathan, 83, 480
Bingham, George Caleb, 71-72, 209 Borromini, Francesco, 46, 61, 83-84, 194,
biomorphic, ji, 399, 650 626
Biomorphism, 55, 446, 663 Bosch, Hieronymus, 84-85, 99, 109, 224, 399,
Bird in Space (Brancusi), 92 485, 617, 659, 680
Birth of the Virgin (P. Lorenzetti), 403-4 Bossche, Agnes van den, 85
Birth of Venus, The (Cabanel), 107 Boston Harbor (Lane), 377
Birth of Venus (Botticelli), 23, 24, 86, 238, Boston Public Library (McKim, Mead and
397,433.476,487 White), 431-32, 553
Birthday (Chagall), 129 Botero, Fernando, 85
Bischoff, Elmer, 191 bottega, see workshop
Bishop, Isabel, 15, 72 Sandro, 23, 24, 8s-8y, 238, 281,
Botticelli,
bistre, 72, 709 346, 397, 398, 399, 433, 476, 487, 514,
bitumen, 72 613
Black Form on Gray Square (Tapies), 666 Boucher, Francois, 8y, 131, 245, 550, 710
Black Mountain College, 10, J3, 108, 253, Boucicaut Master, 8y-88, 515
307, 560, 683 Boudin, Eugene, 88, 353
Black Painting No. ^4 (Reinhardt), 564 Bouguereau, William-Adolphe, 88-89, 5 5°
"Black Paintings" (Goya), 289-90, 563 Boulevard des Capucines, Paris (Monet), 437
Blackburn, Joseph, j), 158, 570 Bouilee, Etienne-Louis, 89-90, 351, 385, 589,
black-figure technique, 16, 29, yz-j), 227, 656
M6, 54^ 562-63 Bourgeois, Louise, 90, 716
Blake, William, y3-y4, 143, 253, 495, 656 Bouts, Dire, 90, 178, 429
Blakelock, Ralph, y4, 179, 601 Boy and Dog in a Johnnypump (Basquiat), 52
Blaue Reiter, Der, 74-75, 186, 228, 255, 358, Boy with a Clubfoot (Ribera), 572
420,464,478,655 Boy with a Squirrel (Copley), 159, 570
Bles, Herri met de, y^ bozzetto, 90-91
Blessed Agostino Novello and Four of His Bra for Livmg Sculpture (Paik and Moorman),
Miracles (Martini), 424 498
Bleyl, Fritz, 98 Brady, Mathew B., 91
Bloomsbury Group, 251 Bragaglia, Antonio Giulio, 467
Blot, Eugene, 143 Bramante, Donate, 91-92, 223, 440, 453, 499,
Blue, Red, Green (E. Kelly), 361 560, 629
Blue Boy (Gainsborough), 257 Brancusi, Constantin, 92, 96, 482
Blue Hole, Little Miami River (Duncanson), Braque, Georges, 2, 36, 42, 92-93, 149,
205 168-69, 188, 234, 519-20, 592, 655
Blue Horses (Marc), 421 Bravo, A Girl, and an Old Woman, A
Blue Period (Wegman), 711 (Piazzetta),
519
Blue Room, The (Valadon), 689 Breaking of the Vessels (Kiefer), 362
Blue II (MircS), 446 Breton, Andre, 174, 229, 302, 426, 446, 491,
Blunt, Anthony, y^-y6, 109-10, 130, 165, 274, 658-59, 663
288, 385, 525, 717 Breton, Jules, 93
Bocca Baciata (Rossetti), 588 Breton Women in the Fields (Bernard), 66
Boccaccio, Giovanni, y6, 333, 515, 588, 679 Breuer, Marcel, 94, 344, 477
Boccioni, Umberto, y6, 120, 253 Bride of the World, The (Kokoschka), 367-68
Bochner, Mel, yy Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even,
Bocklin, Arnold, yy, 103, 238 The (The Large Glass) (Duchamp), 203
body art, 5, y8, 236, 436, 487 Brilliant, Richard, ix, 117, 154, 471, 539-40,
Bol, Ferdinand, y8, 242 583
Bondol, Jean, yS-y^, 665, 690, 704 Broadway Boogie-Woogie (Mondrian), 451,
Bonheur, Rosa, y^-So 661
Bonnard, Pierre, 80, 219, 469, 607, 608, 704, Broederlam, Melchior, 94-95
706 Broken Column, The (Kahlo), 3s6-^y
742. INDEX
bronze, 68, 95-96, 156, 267, 454, 468, 515,
528, 531, 557, 671, 672
Bronzino, Agnolo, 96, 224, 416, 677
Broude, Norma, 237
Brouwer, Adriaen, 96-97, 306, 495, 668
Brown, Ford Madox, 97-98, 459, 547, 562
Brown, Joan, 252-53
Briicke, Die, 98, 228, 363, 483, 655
Bruegel, Jan, the Elder, 97, 98-99, 99, 450,
478, 594, 669
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, 98, 99-100, 109,
261, 308,478,485
Brunelleschi, Filippo, lo-ii, 100, 167, 346,
432,441, 513, 610
Brygos Painter, loi, 562
Bryson, Norman, loi, 282, 444, 479, 630, 730
Bubble Gum Station (Long and Stereolab), 716
Bubbles (Millais), 443
Buckingham Palace (Nash), 471
Buffalmacco, Buonamico, 679-80
Bulfinch, Charles, 7, 62, 101-2, 380, 381
Burchfield, Charles, 102, 661
Burckhardt, Jacob, 48, 102-3, •^69,
Burden, Chris, 78, 103
Burghers of Calais, The (Rodin), 143, 582
Burgundy, see Valois dynasty
Burial and Reception into Heaven of Saint
Petronilla (Guercino), 301
Burial at Ornans (Courbet), 163
Burial of Atala, The (Girodet), 275
Burial of Count Orgaz, The (El Greco), 293
Burke, Edmund, 521, 656
Burne-Jones, Sir Edward Coley, 56, 103-4,
i37, 459, 553, 588, 695
Burning of the Bones of Saint John the Baptist
(Geertgen), 261
burnish, X04
Bush, Jack Hamilton, 104-5, 54^
Butcher's Shop (Carracci), 121
Butcher's Shop (Teniers), 669
Byzantine, ioj-6, 117, 126, 152, 160, 195,
251, 293, 337, 338, 401, 410, 416, 434,
460, 495, 513, 609, 694, 705
Cabanel, Alexandre, 107 3,
Cactus Man (Gonzalez), 284
Cadmus, Paul, 716
Cage, John, 73, 107-8, 242, 295, 307, 349,
360,473, 498, 560
Caillebotte, Gustave, 108
Calder, Alexander, 108-9, 30z, 363, 447
Calf-Bearer, The, 214
Call of Death (KoUwitz), 368
Callicrates, 6, 338, 504
Calling of Saint Matthew, The (Terbrugghen),
670
Calling of the Gleaners, The (Millet),
Callot, Jacques, 109-10
Calumny of Apelles (Botticelli), 23, 86
Camera degli Sposi (Mantegna), 161, 418, 513,
545, 555
camera obscura, no, 112, 318, 330, 697, 726
Cameron, Julia Margaret, no
Campin, Robert, iio-ii, 197, 427, 428, 485,
714
Canaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canal), 12, no,
111-12, 142, 291, 301, 318, 403, 501,
672
Candy Store (Estes), 224-25
Cano, Alonso, 112
canon, 113, 117, 215, 281, 320, 407, 479, 513,
535,538
Canova, Antonio, 113, 475, 673
Canterbury Psalter (Eadwine), 212, 584
Cantoria (Donatello), 579
Cantoria (Robbia), 579
canvas, 85, 113-14, 122, 299, 499, 636, 658,
695
"Capitoline" Wolf, 5, 26, 114-1^, 135, 225
Caprice in Purple and Gold: The Golden Screen
(Whistler), 347
Caprichos (Goya), 289
Caracalla, 584, 696
314, 346 Caracciolo, Giovanni Battista, 115
Caravaggio, 12, 19, 42, 46, 48, 61, 67, 82, 83,
115-16, 116, 134, 179, 217, 263, 301,
305, 329, 373, 377, 380, 397, 420, 518,
567, 572, 594, 651, 668, 670, 687, 705,
730
Caravaggisti, 42, 83, 115, 116, 263, 383, 373,
567,687
Card Players (Cezanne), 194
Card Players (Doesburg), 194
Cardsharps, The (Caravaggio), 373
caricature, 32, 71, 116-17, 122, 176, 193, 297,
298,485
Carolingian art, 96, 117-18, 149, 319, 429,
434,488, 495, 656
Carolus-Duran, Ji8
Carpaccio, Vittore, 118-19, 704
Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste, 57, 119
Carr, Emily, 119-20
Carra, Carlo, 120, 135, 253
Carracci, Agostino, 430
Carracci, Annibale, 116, 120-21, 122
Carracci family, 121, 121-22, 195, 377, 555,
567, 669
Carriera, Rosalba, 122
cartoon, 79, 87, 96, 117, 122-23, 176-77, 439,
502, 634, 659, 665
caryatid, 6, 123, 152, 217, 288, 292
Caryatids (Goujon), 288
Casa Grande (Morgan), 457
Casa Mila (Gaudi), 258
Cassatt, Mary, 5, 15, 19, 123-24, 189, 689
Castiglione, Baldassare, 124, 453, 559
Castiglione (Raphael), 124
93 catacombs, 124, 194-95, 214, 491, 683
catalogue, catalog, 52, 170, 228, 482, 576
—
catalogue, catalog collection, 124
—
catalogue, catalog exhibition, 124
catalogue, catalog — raisonne, 12^, 570
 INDEX 743

Catch as Catch Can (Picabia), 519 Chill October (Millais), 443

cathedral, iz^, 413 chimera, 134-3^
Cathedral of Erotic Misery (Schwitters), Chimera, 26, 1 14-15, 225
618-19 China Cove, Point Lobos (Weston), 713
Cathedral of the Future (Feininger), 235 chinoiserie, 13s, 348, 471, 492
Cathedrals of Art (Srettheimer), 648 Chirico, Giorgio de, 42, 77, 120, 129, 13^,
Cathedrals of Broadway (Stettheimcr), 648 174, 222, 298, 605, 616, 658-59, 663
Cathedrals of Fifth Avenue (Stertheimer), 648 Chosen One (Hodler), 324
Cathedrals of Wall Street (Stettheimer), 648 Christ and Buddha (Ranson), 469
Catlin, George, 125, 566 Christ and Saint Joseph in the Carpenter's Shop
Cavallini, Pietro, IZ5-2.6, 249 (La Tour), 373
CE, iz6 Christ as Man of Sorrows (Francke), 428
Celant, Germano, 35, 695 Christ Delivering the Keys of the Kingdom to
Cellini, Benvenuto, 126, 243, 245, 390, 416, Saint Peter (Perugino), 514, 559
440 Christ Enthroned in Majesty, 214
Celtic cross, 126-27 Christ in the Carpenter's Shop (Millais),
Cemetery of San Cataldo (Rossi), 588 442-43
Cennini, Cennino, izj, 256, 267, 447 Christ in the Tomb (Dead Christ) (Holbein),
Central Park (Olmsted and Vaux), 490 3^6
ceramics, see pottery Christian art, see Early Christian art
Cercle et Carre (Circle and Square), 127 Christina, Queen of Sweden, 30, 61, 135-36
Cerquozzi, Michelangelo, 45 Christina's World (Wyeth), 727
Cezanne, Paul, 13, 67, J27-29, 131, 168, 169, Christ Pantocrater, 106
188, 194, 199, 227-28, 251, 365, 522, Christo, 1 36-3 J, 626
534, 538, 540, 570, 608, 701, 704
52.9, Christ's Entry into Brussels in 1889 (Ensor),
Chadwick, Whitney, 240, 320 219
Chagall, Marc, 129, 168, 184, 381, 400, 618, Christus, Petrus, 137-38
645,658 chryselephantine, 138, 505, 517
Chahut, he (Seurat), 627 Chrysler Building (Van Alen), 33
Chaim Soutine (Modigliani), 449 Church, Frederic Edwin, 71, 138-39, 345, 492
Champaigne, Philippe de, 129-^0, 227 Church, Rancho de Taos, New Mexico
Chapel of Saint Ivo (Borromini), 83-84 (Strand), 652
Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon, i)o-)i, 245, Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane
641, 651 (Borromini), 626
Charles I, King of England, Hunting (Dyck), Church of Santa Maria delle Carceri (G.
210 Sangallo), 610
Charles I Dismounted (Dyck), 221 Church of the Holy Cross (Neumann), 478
Charles the First (Basquiat), 52 Cimabue (Cenni di Pepi), 139, 272, 416, 691
Charles V Triumphing over Fury (Leoni), 390 cinquecento, 139
Charonton, Enguerrand, 40, 131-32 Circle, 139
Chart of the East Coast from Florida to Circle and Square, see Cercle et Carre
Chesapeake Bay (White), 715 cire perdue (lost wax process), 95
Chartres Cathedral, 132, 287, 413, 630, 645 Cistercian, 139-40, 146, 657
Chase, William Merritt, 1 5, 132-33, 306, 3 1 5, City, The (Leger), 386

464, 613, 629, 655
Chateau de Maisons (Mansart), 417
Chaucer (Brown), 97, 547
Cheat with the Ace of Diamonds, The (La
Tour), 373
Chelsea Pensioners Reading the Gazette of the
Battle of Waterloo (Wilkie), 717-18
Chestnut Trees at La Celle-Saint-Cloud (Sisley),
635
Chevreul, Michel Eugene, 133, 186
Chez Mouquin (Glackens), 276
Chi Rho (XP), 82, 134, 214
chiaroscuro, 115, 134, 276, 329, 389, 518,
572, 668, 670
Chicago, Judy, 134, 236, 361, 614
Chicago (Grooms), 297
Chigi Vase, 73
Clark, Lord Kenneth, 140, 196, 405, 487,
717
Classical, 4, 9, 15, 22, 29, 30, 40, 61, 88, 95,
100, 104, 109, 113, 122, 123, 126, 128,
140-42, 142, 149, 158, 165, 178, 185,
190, 192, 200, 205, 216, 217, 224, 231,
232, 238, 241, 250, 274, 277, 279, 285,
292, 294, 301, 313, 314, 320, 322, 338,
339, 341, 352-, 375, 385, 39°, 396, 397,
412, 415, 416, 420, 430, 433, 461, 466,
471, 475, 484, 486, 495, 504, 515, 525,
529, 535, 540, 543-44, 546, 559, 568,
571, 583, 596, 597, 599, 615, 617, 619,
620, 640, 647, 656, 657, 673, 692, 699,
705, 713,718, 724
Classical Baroque, 420
Classical revival, lo-ii
744 INDEX

classicism, 4, 22, 73, 142, 383, 386, 417, 419, computer graphics, see printing
475,544. 553, 579 Conceptual art, 5, 17, 35, 37, 43, 77, 78, 108,
classicist, 142 154, 203, 215, 304, 328, 360, 361, 369,
classicizing, 142, 195 393, 445, 473, 475, 532-, 569, 639
Claude glass, 112, 142, 143 Concert in the Tuileries Gardens (Manet),
Claude Lorrain (Claude Gellee), 46, 142, 437
142-43, 2.17, 342-, 5oi> 52-1, 569 Concierge, The (Rosso), 590
Claudel, Camille, 143 Concrete Art, 10, 32, 154
Clemente, Francesco, 14^, 475, 541 Condivi, Ascanio, 155, 440
Cleopatra Testing Poison on Condemned Connecticut State House (Bulfinch), 102
Prisoners (Cabanel), 107 Conner, Bruce, 252
Client, The (Degas), 452 connoisseurship, 34, 64, 155, 181, 243, 250,
Cliff Dwellers (Bellows), 61 437,456, 500,655
Clodion, 144, 232, 523, 670 Constable, John, 142, 155-56, 161, 165, 270,
cloisonne, 19, 66, 144, 144 531
Cloisonnism, 66, 144, 259, 280 Constantine, 584
Cloister Graveyard in the Snow (Friedrich), Constantine (Bernini), 68, 221
250 constructions, 149
Close, Chuck, 144-4^, 518, 540, 562 Constructivism, 128, 139, 146, 156-57, 241,
closed form, 14^, 284, 721 2-53, 2.55, 342., 344, 400, 413, 424, 449,
Clothespin (Dali), 490 481, 515, 537, 538, 561, 581, 593, 618,
Clouet, Francois, 145-46, 384 658,666, 667
Clouet, Jean, 145-46, 246, 384 Conte, Jacques, 157
Cluny, 139, 146, 275 Conte crayon, 157
Cobra (CoBrA), 146-47 Contemporary art, 16, 516
codex, codici, 147, 215, 339, 502, 503, 620 context, contextualization, 157, 170, 244, 424,
Codex Artaud (Spero), 644 452, 570
Codex Sinaiticus, 147 continuous narrative, 157-58, 424, 425
Coene, Jacques, 87-88 continuous representation, 157-58
Coeur, Jacques, House of, 147-48 contrapposto, loi, 141, 158, 191, 472, 562,
Cole, Thomas, 71, 138, 142, 148-49, 167, 600
206-7, 270, 332-, 467, 656 conversation piece, 73, 158
collage, 25, 26, 32, 36, 55, 93, 149, 180, 186, Copley, John Singleton, 73, 158-60, 235, 438,
222, 251, 252, 307, 311, 323, 414, 509, 549, 570, 637, 651
452--53> 475, 502., 520, 614, 618, 644, Coptic art, 126, 160
666, 712 Cornell, Joseph, 37, 160, 602
collecting, 34, 39, 149-50, 181, 467 Corner of Kitwancool Village (Carr), 120
Colonial Style, 150, 158, 213, 235, 345, 352, Cornish Art Colony, 160
726 Coronation Gospels, 495
color, 2, 26, 30, 142, 150-51, 186, 239, 340, Coronation of the Virgin (Charonton), 40,
343, 389, 447, 498, 52.4, 627, 678, 693 131-32
Color Field painting, 3, 151, 299, 308, 446, Coronation of the Virgin (Lorenzo Monaco),
541 404
Color Theory (Turner), 279 Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille, 46, 142, 160-61,
Colosseum, 13, 29, 45, 100, 151-52, 313, 500, 2-89, 335,709
583, 611 corps exquis, 229
Colossus of Rhodes (Chares of Lindos), 627 Correggio, 136, 161-62, 162, 195, 224, 346,
column, 28, 43, 68, 91, 102, 123, 146, 152-5^, 377, 500, 503, 594, 629, 698
153, 338, 353, 381, 386, 431, 457,
2.92., Cortona, Pietro da, 46, 61, 162, 271, 377, 420,
459, 468, 471, 499, 502., 516, 555, 668, 603-4
685,724 Cotan, Juan Sanchez, 162-63, 651
Column of Trajan, 54, 69, 152, 153-54, 47 1, Cotman, John Sell, 163, 486

583,653 Cotopaxi (Church), 138

column orders, 6, 151, 15}, 504, 529, 615, Cotton Mather (Pelham), 438
668, 700, 702 counterproof, see offset
Comanni, Gregorio, 30 Country Election, The (Bingham), 72
Combine paintings, 560 Courbet, Gustave, 44, 53, 163-64, 175, 387,
Composition 1953 (Kline), 367 443, 464, 469, 538, 561-62, 585, 606,
Composition of Circles and Semicircles 641, 655, 672
(Taeuber-Arp), 662 Course of Empire, The (Cole), 148
 INDEX 745

Couture, Thomas, 164, 189, 2.38, 277, 335, Danto, Arthur, 182, 203, 243, 446, 447, 627,
350072- 716
Cox, Kenyon, 32., 160, 164-65, 2.10, 605, 606 Danube Landscape (Altdorfer), 175
Coyote (Beuys), 70 Danube School, 175-76
Coysevox, Antoine, 165 Dash for the Timber, A (Remington), 566
Cozens, Alexander, 16^ Daubigny, Charles-Francois, 176, 289, 335
Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, 165-66, 175-76, Daughter ofjephthah, The (Degas), 655
485 Daughters of Edward Darley Boit, The
Crawford, Thomas, 166-67, 577 (Sargent), 347
"Credo, The" (Lawson), 383 Daumier, Honore, 117, 176-77, 298, 469
Crivelli, Carlo, 119, i6y David, Gerard, 177-78
Crome, John, 486 David, Jacques-Louis, 38, 63, 142, 176, 177,
Cropsey, Jasper Francis, 167-68 178-79, 182, 219, 222, 264-65, 274, 289,
Cross in the Mountains, The (Friedrich), 250 2-97-98, 34i> 475. 495, 538, 539, 55°'
Crucifixion, 168, 175, 265, 299 585, 682
Crucifixion, The (Bonnat), 81 David (Andrea), 17
Crucifixion (Cimabue), 139 Dat'/t/ (Bernini), 82-83
Crucifixion (Cranach), 165 David (Donatello), 96, 145, 196-97, 487
Crucifixion, The (Dalf), 174-75 David (Michelangelo), 420, 439
Crucifixion (Heemskerck), 313 David (Verrocchio), 698
Crucifixion (Tintoretto), 676 David and Goliath (Borgianni), 83
Cruickshank, George, 117 David d' Angers, Pierre-Jean, 177
Cubi series (D. Smith), 638 Davies, Arthur B., 31, 179-80, 216
Cubism, 2, 25, 29-30, 55, 64, 92-93, 98, 128, Davis, Alexander Jackson, 180, 294
129, 168-69, 180, 186, 187, 188, 203, Davis, Stuart, 180, 315
235, 239, 241, 253, 277, 281, 283, 296, Day Without Art, 9
302, 324, 357, 364, 379, 381, 386, 397, de Kooning, Willem, 3, 73, 151, 180-81, 237,
400, 413, 445, 484, 513, 519-2-0, 534, 367,405, 534, 541, 560, 578
537-38, 553, 560, 614, 627, 628, 651, Dead Christ, The (Carracci), 121
710 Dead Christ (Correggio), 161
Cubist Realism, 546 Dead Christ, The (Mantegna), 326, 418, 513
169-yo, 428, 565, 584, 722
cult of saints, dealer, 181
Cup We All Race 4, The (Peto), 515 Death and Fire (Klee), 365
Cupbearer, The, 571 Death of American Spirituality, The
curator, 124, ijo, 228, 304, 579 (Wojnarowicz), 721
Curry, John Steuart, lyo, 564, 722 Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on
Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife Through the Quebec (Trumbull), 682
Last Era of the Weimar Beer Belly Culture Death of General Wolfe, The (West), 682, 713
(Hoch), 323 Death of Jane McCrea, The (Vanderlyn), 690
Cuyp, Aelbert, 170-ji, 570 Death of Marat, The (J.-L. David), 179, 289
Cuypers, Eduard, 65 Death of Socrates (J.-L. David), 179
Cycladic art, 7, 92, 171, 293 Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio), 116, 305
Cyclops (Baziotes), 55 Death of the Virgin (Stoss), 652
Death on a Pale Horse, or the Opening of the
Dada, 31, 32, 107, 172, 203, 222, 298, 323, First Five Seals (West), 713

355, 381, 414, 486, 518, 519, 569, 613, decalcomania, see Ernst, Max
618, 649, 662 Deconstruction, 34, 156-57, 182-83, 236, 398,
Dadd, Richard, ijz-j^ 541,625,653
Daedalic, 17^, 493 Decorative art, 182
Daedalus, 95, 99, 103, ij^ decorative arts, 34, 35, 56, 70, 135, 181, i8z,
Daedalus and Icarus (Canova), 113 203, 251, 292, 321, 344, 409, 445, 459,
Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mande, 173-74, 192-, 511, 581, 614, 623, 699, 702
460 Deepwater (Pfaff), 516
Dali, Salvador, 174-75, 411, 430, 490, 659 Degas, Edgar, 53, 96, 123, 128, 183-84, 452,
Dalou, Jules, 175, 676, 703 457, 467, 507, 529, 631, 655, 676, 704
Dame Mary Gilmore (Dobell), 194 Degenerate Art, 58, 184, 359, 365, 368, 465,
Damned Consigned to Hell (Signorelli), 632 483, 608, 616
Danae (Gossaert), 285 Dejeuner en fourrure (Oppenheim), 491
Dance, The (Garnier), 119 Dejeuner sur I'herbe, Le (Manet), 272, 237-38,
Dancing on the Barn Floor (Mount), 462 415-16, 607
746 INDEX
Delacroix, Eugene, 12, 49-50, 53, 79, 184-85,
298, 341-42., 345, 488, 492, 552., 593,
596
Delaroche, Hippolyte-Paul, 3, 176, 185-86,
z66, 277, 443
Delaunay, Robert, 75, 133, 186, 186, 203, 421,
484, 494, 519, 628, 655, 660, 686
Delaunay-Terk, Sonia, 133, i86-8y, 686
Delaware Water Gap (Inness), 342
Democracy Freeing Herself (Siqueiros), 634
Demoiselles d' Avignon, Les (Picasso), 49, 93,
2-37,439, 448, 519-2.0
Demon Downcast, The 706
(Vrubel),
Demuth, Charles, 31, 133, i8y,
546
dendrochronology, in, 187, 557
Denis, Maurice, 80, i8y-88, 430, 469, 554,
660
Denis Diderot (Fragonard), 245
Denver Public Library (Graves), 292
Departure (Beckmann), 58
Departure of King Wilhelm I for the Army on
July }i, 18 JO (Menzel), 437
Departure of the Volunteers, The (Rude), 596
Deposition (Rosso), 589
Deposition (Weyden), 224, 714
Derain, Andre, 188, 234, 429, 592, 608, 655,
703
Derrida, Jacques, 182, 479, 541, 625
Dervini Krater, 188-89, 569
Descartes, Rene, 49, 544, 608
Descent from the Cross (P. Lorenzetti), 403
Descent from the Cross (Pontormo), 503, 536,
589
Descent from the Cross (Rosso), 589
Descent from the Cross (Rubens), 595
Descent from the Cross (Weyden), 714
Deschamps, Eustache, 81
Desiderio da Settignano, 189, 439, 587
Design for a Monument to Commemorate a
Victory over the Rebellious Peasants
(Durer), 479
Destitute Family (Bouguereau), 89
Destruction of the Father, The (Bourgeois),
90
Devotion (W. Zorach), 729
Dewing, Maria Oakey, 160, 189, 190
Dewing, Thomas Wilmer, 13, 160, 189-90,
189, 248
di sotto in su, 513
Diachronic analysis, 103, 660
Diadoumenos (Polykleitos), 535
Diaghilev, Serge, 42, 63, 186, 283, 380, 705,
72.4
Diane of Poitiers at Her Bath (F.
145-46
Diderot, Denis, 87, 131, 190-91, 219, 232,
2.95-96, 579, 607
Diderot (Houdon), 332
Die (T. Smith), 639
Diebenkorn, Richard, 191
Dignity and Impudence (Landseer), 376
Dine, Jim, 191-92, 537
Dining Room on the Garden (Bonnard), 80
Dinner Party, The (Chicago), 134
Dionysius in a Sailboat (Exekias), 227, 371
diorama, 173, 192.
diptych, 192, 244, 535
Dirty Snow (Mitchell), 446
Disasters of Mysticism (Matta), 430
Disasters of War series (Goya), 289
Discobolos (Myron), 141, 192-9^, 468, 535
Discovery of the Body of Saint Mark
(Tintoretto), 676
Disputa (Raphael), 389, 559
Divine Wisdom (Sacchi), 603-4
divisionism, 193, 532, 626, 628; see also
pointillism
Dix, Otto, 19^, 368, 480
Do Women have to be naked to get into the
Met. Museum? (Guerrilla Girls), 301-2
Dobell, Sir William, 193-94
Doctor and Doll (Rockwell), 580
Documentary, 575
Documentation IV (M. Kelly), 362
Dodo and Her Brother (Kirchner), 364
Doesburg, Theo van, 32, 154, 172, 194, 302,
451, 645, 649-50
Dog (Giacometti), 267
Dog, A (Goya), 290
dome, 84, 91, 100, 102, 117, 194-95, 304,
412, 440, 471, 477, 499, 609, 724
Domenichino, 61, 195, 543
Domenico Veneziano, 17, 195-96, 522
Domus Aurea of Nero, 281
Donatello, 21, 96, 100, 145, 189, 196-97, 220,
221, 239, 266, 267, 346, 347, 425, 432,
439, 441, 470, 471, 487, 564, 569, 579,
582, 606, 698
Doni Madonna (Michelangelo), 678-79
donor, in, 131, 197, 485, 508, 539
Dore, Gustave, 197-98
Doryphoros (Polykleitos), 249, 390, 468,
535
Dossi, Dosso, 198
Dou, Gerrit, 198-99
Double Isometric Self-Portrait (Dine), 192
Double Negative (Heizer), 215
Doubting Thomas (Verrocchio), 698
Douglas, Aaron, 47, 199, 3 10
Dove, Arthur, 31, 102, 199, 484, 649, 660-61
Dow, Arthur Wesley, 488, 710
Downing, Andrew Jackson, 199-200, 490, 522
Dr. Mayer-Hermann (Dix), 193
Clouet), draftsmanship, 200
drapery, 94, 131, 141, 200, 205, 206, 286,
472, 481, 484, 528, 544, 574, 595, 637,
652
draughtsmanship, 200
drawing, 200, 200, 306, 511, 575
Dream, The (Beckmann), 58
 1
Dream, The (Davies), 179
Dreamer, The (Beaux), 57
Dream of Ossian (Ingres), 495
Drost, Willem, 200-201, 565
drypoint, see intaglio
Drysdale, Sir George Russell, 201
Dubuffet, Jean, 33, 146, 202
Duccio di Buoninsegna, 40, 151, 197, 202-3,
403, 411,416,424, 552, 631
Duchamp, Marcel, 26, 31, 32, 36, 41, 107,
109, 169, 203-4, ^39. 30^^ 390. 414. 444.
447, 467, 519, 569, 641, 642, 649, 659
Duchess of Devonshire (portrait of, by
Gainsborough), 257
duecento, 204
Dufy, Raoul, 203, 234, 592, 608
dugento, 204
Duncanson, Robert S., 204-5
Duquesnoy, Frangois, 20J
Dura-Europos, 205-6, 215, 349
Durand, Asher B., 206-7, 7i7
Durand-Ruel, Paul, 181, 207, 288
Diirer, Albrecht, 25, 43, 60, 99, 207-9,
252, 259, 260, 308, 327, 343, 375, 401,
405, 419, 479, 485, 507, 530, 549, 558,
617, 619, 633,709
Duret, Theodore, 209, 706
Diisseldorf School, 71, 209, 335, 350, 391, 716
Duveen, Baron Joseph, 64, 155, 181,209
Duveneck, Frank, 210, 464, 683
Dyck, Sir Anthony van, 19, 210-11, 221, 257,
2-84. 32-5> 354, 397, 594, 709
Dying Centaur (Rimmer), 577
Dying Gaul {Dying Gladiator), 211, 314, 500
Dying Slave (Michelangelo), 158, 379, 600
Dymaxion Car (Fuller), 252
Dymaxion House (Fuller), 252
Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash (Leash in
Motion) (Balla), 44
Eadwine, the Scribe, 200, 212, 584
Eagleton, Terry, 562
Eakins, Thomas, 28, 55, 61, 81, 108, 212-13,
266, 315, 406, 467, 562, 598-99, 664,
694
Earl, Ralph, 213, 713
Early Christian art, 105, 124, 206, 491, 529
Early Classical, 140-41, 468, 534
Early Gothic, 286
Early Italian Renaissance, 273
Early Medieval, 147, 2x5
Early Morning Paris (Shinn), 63
Early Netherlandish period, 484-85
Early Northern Renaissance, 244, 401, 428,
497
Early Renaissance, 272, 347, 370, 470, 612
Earth and Site art, 78, 136, 215, 327, 532, 621,
639
Earth Forge 2 (Lipton), 399
Eclectic, 164, 199, 410, 456
INDEX 747
Eclipsed Time (Lin), 396
Eclogue, An (Cox), 165
Eclogues 165
(Virgil),
ficole desBeaux-Arts, 3-4, 57, 81, 89, 107,
108, 118, 143, 163, 215-16, 266, 334,
374, 417, 42.2-, 456, 457, 55°, 573, 5^1,
605, 657
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, The (Bernini), 67-68,
145, 162
Edmonds, Francis William, 463
Effervesence (Hofmann), 324
egg tempera, 667, 727
Egouttoir (Bottle Rack) (Duchamp), 203
Eiffel Tower (Delaunay), 186
Eight, The, 36, 179,216, 276, 315, 383,406,
546, 631, 636
18 Happenings in 6 Parts (Kaprovt^), 307
Eisenstein, Sergei M., 453, 581
ekphrasis, 216, 333, 437, 517
El Khasne, (Church), 139
Elegies to the Spanish Republic series
(Motherwell), 462
2.21, Elementarism, 194
Elephant Celebes, The (Ernst), 222
Eleven a.m. (Hopper), 331
Elgin Marbles, 113, 2iy, 388, 505
Elijah in the Desert (Allston), 12
Elizabeth Freake and Baby Mary, 247
Elsheimer, Adam, 171, 217-18, 380, 597
emblem book, 218, 354, 645, 659, 674
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 249, 377, 423, 680
Emperor Charles V (Titian), 221, 308
encaustic, 218, 231, 349-50, 524
Encounter (Bishop), 72
End of the War, The: Starting Home (Pippin),
526
Engelbrechtsz, Cornelis, 393
Englandfahrer Altarpiece (Francke), 428
engraving, 20, 38, 61, 87, 109, 121, 125, 158,
208, 213, 217, 218, 221, 288, 306, 325,
343, 385, 386, 393, 400, 428, 437, 489,
494, 532, 548, 549, 617, 682, 710
Enlightenment, 87, 89, 191, 219, 279, 289,
359, 385, 475, 544, 585, 656, 72.6
Ensor, James, 219, 366, 655, 701
Enthroned Christ with Madonna and Saints
(Orcagna), 492
Entombment (Pontormo), 536, 589
Entombment (Raphael), 503
Entry of Christ into Jerusalem (Scorel), 619
Environment (Kaprow), 360
environments, 192
Epic of American Civilization, The (Orozco),
494
Epstein, Sir Jacob, 220, 402
equestrian, 91, 113, 197, 210, 220-22, 232,
274, 308, 390, 422, 565, 583, 606, 622,
628, 682, 693, 698, 707
Erased de Kooning Drawing (Rauschenberg),
560
748 INDEX

Erechtheion, 5-6 Fall of Babylon (Martin), 423

Ergotimos, see ¥ranqois Vase Fall of Icarus (P. Bruegel), 99
Ernst, Max, 222-23, 2-5i» 3°-, 411, 453, 491, Fallingwater (Wright), 725
518, 658-59, 664 Family of Charles IV (Goya), 289
Escher, Maurits Cornelius, 223 Famous Views of Edo, The (Hiroshige), 321
Escorial, 223-24 Fanciful Inventions of Prisons (Piranesi), 527
Escorial Deposition (Weyden), 224, 714 fancy picture, 233
Este family, 198, 224, 284, 714 Fantasy art, 319
Estes, Richard, 6, 224-25, 518, 562 Fantin-Latour, Henri, 233
Et in Arcadia Ego (Guercino), 28 Farnese Bull, 234
Et in Arcadia Ego (Poussin), 544 Farnese Hercules (Glycon), 233-34, 4°?
Etant Donnes: i. la chute d'eau, z. le gaz Farnese Palace (A. Sangallo), 610
d'eclairage (Duchamp), 203 Fauve, Fauvism, 80, 128, 129, 150-51, 168,
etching, 27, 72, 74, 109, iii, 225, 289, 306, 186, 188, 203, 234, 324, 357, 364, 421,
353> 368, 421, 486, 527, 549, 566, 624 42.9, 445. 51^. 592., 608, 646, 686, 703,
Etruscan art, 26, 98, 114-15, 149, 153, 218, 728-29
225-26,246,527,582,719 Feast in the House of Levi (Veronese), 697
Etude for Pianoforte (Paik), 242, 498 Feast of the Rose Garlands (Diirer), 252
Euphronios, 226, 226 February (Limbourg), 396
Europe After the Rain (Ernst), 223 Federal Art Project, 474, 723
Euthymides, 226 Federal Style, 62, loi, 234, 348, 380, 459,
Evans, Walker, 226-2J 474, 657, 681, 690
Evening School, The (Dou), 198-99 Feininger, Lyonel, 54, 23^
Evening Star III (O'Keeffe), 488 Feke, Robert, 73, 158, 235, 637
ex voto, 227, 356 Felibien,Andre, 145, 274, 699
Execution of Lady Jane Grey, The (Delaroche), Feminist art, 37, 13 4. ^35-36, 240, 3 5 6, 357,
185-86 361-62, 436, 577, 602, 606, 614, 638,
Exekias, 22y 644
exhibit, exhibition, 124, 227-2S, 257, 608 Feminist art history and criticism, 34, loi, 113,
Exhibition of Forty Paintings (Courbet), 164 236, 236-37, 244, 261, 262-63, 398, 4M,
Exhumation of the Mastodon, The (Peale), 509 437, 449, 452, 479, 49i, 533, 55i
Existentialism, 3, 181, 22S, 267, 537, 653 Feminist body art, 78
Expressionism, 41, 47, 54, 75, 98, 102, 119, femme fatale, 56, 181, 237, 259, 366, 386,
128, 129, 186, 193, 203, 219, 22S, 235, 388, 455,464, 520
253, 267, 293, 351, 358, 363, 364, 367, fete champetre, 237-38, 710
368, 381, 387, 412, 420, 421, 448, 464, Fete Champetre (Pastoral Symphony)
483, 486, 493, 581-82, 615, 618, 642, (Giorgione), 28, 237, 271, 272, 416, 677
655 Feuerbach, Anselm, 238
Expressionist Figuration, 419 Ficino, Marsilio, 4, 238, 432,476
Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, The Field, Erastus Salisbury,242
(Jacopo), 347 Fifty-three Stations ofTokaido, The
Expulsion of Heliodorus (Raphael), 558 (Hiroshige), 321
Exquisite Corpse, 229 Fighting Card Players (Brouwer), 97
Eyck, Jan van, 22, 59, 90, no, 137, 170, Fighting Forms (Marc), 421
229-30, 278, 286, 296, 305, 318, 327, Figurative abstraction, 454
334. 415, 42-7, 42^8, 477, 484, 485, 489, figure, figurative, 90, 93, 128, 165, 189, 191,
499, 635, 690, 704, 710, 714 193, 2.14, 239, 303, 323, 364, 365, 539,
578, 644, 650
F-iii (Rosenquist), 586-87 Figure (Lipchitz), 397
Fabritius, Carel, 231 Figures Resting in Space (Room of Rest)
Fagus factory (Gropius), 297 (Schlemmer), 616
Fairy Feller's Master Stroke, The (Dadd), 239, 628
Filarete,
172-73 Film (Sherman), 630
Stills
Fairy Painter, 172 Finding of the Baby Moses, 206
Fairy Tale, The (Chase), 133 Finding of the Saviour in the Temple, The (W.
Faiyum portraits, 215, 218, 231-32, 337, 656 H.Hunt), 335
fakes, 232 fine art, 33, 182,
239, 320, 391, 445, 485, 549,
Falcon Avenue, Seaside Walk, Dwight Street, 569, 699
Jarvis Street, Greene Street (Bartlett), 50 Fineberg, Jonathan, 215, 308, 445, 466, 721
Falconet, Etienne-Maurice, 84, 232-33, 581 Finley, Karen, 487
 5

INDEX 749

Fire at S. Marcuola, The (Guardi), 300 Fourth (Intricate) Style, see mural
Fire Painting (Klein), 365 Fragonard, Jean Honore, 131, 144, 245, 264,
First Hepaticas, The (Burchfield), loz 550, 579, 581
First Outing of the Emperor and Empress after Francesco Clemente Pinxit (Clemente), 143
the Emperor's Serious Illness, <)th April Francis, Sam, 246
182b (Krafft), 70-71 Francis I, 18, 96, 126, 145, 242, 245-46, 390,
First Style, see mural 589
Fischl, Eric, 239-40, 475, 541 Francis I (portrait of, by Jean Clouet), 145
Fish, Janet, 240, 518, 562 Francis Bacon (Freud), 249
Fisherman's Last Supper— Nova Scotia Francke, Master, 427-48
(Hartley), 311 Frangois Vase, 73, 222, 225, 246
Fit for Active Service (Grosz), 298 Frankenthaler, Helen, 3, 6, 114, 151, 246-47,
Five Feet of Colorful Tools (Dine), 192 324,405,483, 541
Flack, Audrey, 6, 240, 518, 562 Freake, Elizabeth Clarke and John,
247
Flagellation (J. Bellini), 60, 694 Freedberg, Sydney 247-48
J.,
Flagellation (Piero della Francesca), 453, 522 Freer, Charles Lang, 248, 347
Flagellation of Christ (Sebastiano), 622 French, Daniel Chester, 248-49
Flagg, Ernest, 1 French Ambassadors, The (Holbein), 327, 337,
Flamboyant style, 286 338, 514
Flaming June (Leighton), 388 fresco, 9, 17, 18, 79, 121, 122, 126, 139, 161,
Flamingo, A (White), 715 162, 169, 195, 196, 249, 256, 267, 272,
Flavin, Dan, 241, 445 276, 281, 284, 298, 299, 301, 377, 389,
Flaxman, John, 241, 259, 397, 553, 654 401, 404, 418, 425, 432, 439-40, 447,
Fleeting Breath (J. Macdonald), 408 465, 473, 502-, 514, 5^5, 535, 53^, 543,
Flemish art,
477, 575 547, 555, 559, 567, 603, 632, 633, 634,
Flight and Pursuit (Rimmer), 577 671, 674, 679, 691, 695, 705
Flight into Egypt (Broederlam), 94 Freud, Lucian, 249, 364, 562
Flight into Egypt, The (Elsheimer), 217 Freud, Sigmund, 174, 203, 219, 237, 249, 259,
Flinck, Govaert, 78, 241-42 390,456, 551, 582, 588
Floor Cake (Giant Piece of Cake) (Oldenburg), Friedlander,Max J., 34, 82, 249-50, 285, 286,
490 290, 322, 323, 597
Floorscrapers, The (Caillebotte), 108 Friedrich, Caspar David, 250, 585, 598, 680
Florence Baptistery, 267, 539, 582 frontal, frontality, 29, 66, 126, 158, 160, 173,
Florence Cathedral (Brunelleschi), 100 206, 215, 247, 250-51, 253, 356, 570,
Fluxus, 108, 242, 308, 511 449, 454, 473, 534, 584, 609
Fog (Dove), 661 frottage, 222-23, 2.51, 6 ^S
Folk art,33, 47, 113, 201, 242, 251, 311, 319, Fruit Dish and Glass (Braque), 93

356, 380, 400, 461, 464, 470, 496, 526, Fry, Roger, 75, 251, 359, 392, 402, 540, 611

538,548 "Frying Pan," 670

Following Piece (Acconci), 5 Fugger, 251-52
Fontainebleau, 126, 145, 242-43, 245, 334, Fuller, R.Buckminster, 253
384, 390, 548 Funeral of the Martyrs of the Berlin Revolution
Fontana, Lavinia, 243 (Menzel), 437
Forever Free (E. Lewis), 392 Funk art, 252-53
forgeries, 232 Fuseli,Henry, 74, 253, 275, 360, 361, 503,
formal, formalism, formalist, 34, 75, 157, 225, 656
M3-44^ 2-5 1» 2.94, 359. 42-3» 437, 479, Futurism, 25, 32, 44, 76, 98, 120, 169, 172,
520, 540, 570, 590 187, 203, 253-54, 283, 302, 379, 392,
Fortune (Rosa), 586 400, 413, 448, 467, 537-38, 560, 590,
Foucault, Michel, 244, 314, 362, 452, 479 627, 628, 648, 655, 710
Found art, 355, 363
Foundry Vase, 95 Gabo, Naum, 3, 139, 156, 255, 316, 481,
Fountain (Duchamp), 32, 203, 642 515
Fouquet, Jean, 244-45 Gaddi, Agnolo, 1 27, 255-56
Four Continents, The (Garnier), 119 Gaddi, Taddeo, 127, 256, 256
Four Elements (Calder), 109 Gainsborough, Thomas, 158, 233, 256-57,
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Diirer), 208 438, 570, 585, 654
Four Times of Day, The (Runge), 598 Galatea (Raphael), 162
Fourth of July in Center Square, Philadelphia Galerie des Glaces (Hardouin-Mansart),
(Krimmel), 598-99 309
750 INDEX
gallery, ZSJSS
Gallery of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm
(Teniers), 149
Gallery of the Louvre (Morse), 460
Gallic Chieftain Killing His Wife and Himself,
2,11
Gamin (Savage), 613
Ganymede (Correggio), 500
Garcia Lorca, Federico, 174
Garden in May (M. O. Dewing), 189
Garden in Sochi (Gorky), Z85
Garden of Earthly Delights (Bosch), 84, 99,
659, 680
Garden of Love, The (Rubens), 709-10
Gardner, Elizabeth Jane, 89
Garnier, Charles, 119
Garrard, Mary, 237, 263
Gates of Hell, The (Rodin), 143, 582
Gates of Paradise (Ghiberti), 267, 582
Gattamelata (Donatello), 197, 220, 606
Gaudi, Antonio, 174, 25S, 603, 6i6
Gauguin, Paul, 13, 66-67, 12.8, 144, 188, 228,
2S8-59, 2.80,
305, 429, 464, 469, 529,
536, 540, 553, 554, 608, 618, 660, 661,
704
Gautier, Theophile, 176, 266, 676, 730
gaze, 237, 2S9-60, 388, 416, 487, 479, 551
Geertgen tot Sint Jans, 260-61, 620
Gender studies, loi, 237, 261
General George Washington at the Battle of
Trenton (Trumbull), 682
General George Washington Before Princeton
(Peale), 509
General Plywood (Marisol), 422
genre, 4, 45, 53, 71, 82, 97, 121, 137, 183,
198, 261-62, 264, 295, 322, 325, 329,
330, 350, 351, 374, 394, 402, 427, 435,
437, 443, 462-63, 478, 485, 495, 519,
643, 645, 668,718
Gentile da Fabriano, 13-14, 60, 262, 273, 291,
527
Gentileschi, Artemisia, 262-63
Gentileschi, Orazio, 263, 263, 687
Geodesic Dome (Fuller), 252
George Washington (Greenough), 295
George Washington (Houdon), 332
George Washington (Stuart), 653-54
Geography Lesson (Schnabel), 617
Geometric period, 171, 246, 26^-64, 294, 468,
486, 542
Gerard, Marguerite, 264
Gericault, Theodore, 177, 184, 185, 264-6^,
297, 298, 585, 606, 682, 717
Gero Crucifix, 168, 265
Gerome, Jean-Leon, 3, 81, 107, 186, 212,
26J-66, 288, 492, 712
Gersaint's Shop-sign (Watteau), 710
Gertrude Stein (Picasso), 448
gesso, 114, 127, 266, 299, 499, 658, 709
Gestural painting, 181, 266, 541
Ghent Altarpiece (Eyck), 229, 296, 305, 704,
714
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 96, 100, 196, 239, 256,
266-67, 272, 346, 347, 403, 404, 432-,
441,470,492, 528, 539, 582
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 26j-6^, 299, 439,
514, 52-3
Giacometti, Alberto, 96, 26%
Giambologna, 268-69, 4^6
Giedion, Siegfried, i, 269-yo, 373, 374
Gifford, Sanford Robinson, 2jo, 406, 716
Gilbert, Cass, 15
Gilbert and George, 511-12
Gillray, James, 117
gilt, 2yo
Giordano, Luca, 270-71, 693
Giorgione, 28, 64, 237, 271-72, 375, 416, 677,
678, 695
Giotto di Bondone, 20, 76, 103, 120, 126, 127,
139, 202, 249, 256, 272-73, 403, 424,
447, 492., 502, 515, 528, 616, 631,
704
Giovanna Tornabuoni (Ghirlandaio), 268
Giovanni di Paolo, 273-74
Girardon, Francois, 165, 274
Girl Before a Mirror (Picasso), 520
Girl with a Flute (circle of Vermeer), 187
Girl with a Pearl Earring (Vermeer), 697
Girodet-Trioson, Anne-Louis, 274-75, 495
Gislebertus, 132, 146, 275, 584, 617, 632
Giulio Romano, 134, 275-76, 284, 313, 346,
548, 549, 558
Glackens, William, 47, 216, 276-77, 315, 406,
642
Glasgow School, 277, 409-10
Glass House (Johnson), 344, 351
glaze, 135, 164, 229, 277, 335, 389, 489, 499,
542, 562, 666, 667
Gleizes, Albert, 169, 277
Gleyre, Charles (Marc-Charles-Gabriel), 3, 54,
266, 277-7S, 568, 635
Glorification of Saint Ignatius (Pozzo), 513,
545
Glorification of the Reign of Urban VIII
(Cortona), 162
Glycon, 233, 407
God (Schamberg), 613-14
Goes, Hugo van der, 260, 278, 296, 429, 485,
514,650
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 25, 82, 191,
237, 253, 278-79, 358, 494, 585, 588,
598, 680
Gogh, Theo van, 197, 207, 280, 288, 704
Gogh, Vincent van, 12, 144, 185, 188, 197-98,
207, 219, 228, 259, 266, 279-81, 283,
288, 303, 340, 345, 429, 452, 464, 538,
540, 553, 607, 642, 686, 703
Going to Church W. Johnson), 351
(
Going Market (Gainsborough), 233
to
Golden, Nan, 9
 j

INDEX 751

Golden Days, The (Les Beaux Jours) (Balthus),
44-45
Golden House of Nero (Domus Aurea), 281,
i98, 399, 52.6
Golden Legend (Voragine), 704
Golden Section (Golden Mean), 281, 339
Golden Stairs, The (Burne-Jones), 104
Goldfinch (Fabritius), 231
Goldoni, Carlo, 402
Golub, Leon, 281-82, 644
Great Parade, The (Leger), 387
Great Wave, The (Hokusai), 326
Greco, El, 224, 293, 379, 416-17
Greek art, 15, 21-22, 28, 29, 34, 37, 95, 72,
140-42, 152, 158, 171,293-94,372,416,
442, 493, 527, 534, 702, 718, 719
Greek Revival, 180, 294
Greek Slave, The (Powers), 24, 545
Greenaway, Kate, 294
Greenberg, Clement, 104-5, 2-43, ^94-95 408,
>

Gombrich, Ernst, 250, 282, 339, 444, 500, 537,539, 541,665

599, 708 Greenblatt, Stephen, 479
Goncharova, Natalia, 282-83, 379-8o, 560 Greenough, Horatio, 295
Goncourt, Edmond Huot de and Jules de, 46, Grenouillere, La (Monet), 341
280,2*3, 553, 676-77 Grenouillere, La (Renoir), 341, 568
Gonzaga family, 10, 161, 224, 276, 283-84, Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, 295-96
418-19, 594 Grinning Spider, The (Redon), 563
Gonzalez, Julio, 284, 638 Gris, Juan, 149, 169,296, 357
Good Government in the City (A. Lorenzetti), 296, 499, 551
grisaille,

404, 631 Grooms, Red, 296-97, 308, 324

Gorky, Arshile, 71, 181, 284-8 Gropius, Walter, 53, 94, 297, 344, 368, 441,
Gospel Books of Otto III, 495 597
Gossaert, Jan (Mabuse), 285-86, 416, 485 Gros, Antoine-Jean, Baron, 297-9S
Gothic, 14, 29, 65, 86, 140, 166, 196, 200, Gross Clinic, The (Eakins), 213, 315
202, 210, 258, 262, 267, 273, 285, Grosz, George, 172, 193, 298, 368, 480, 618
286-87, 413, 4^6, 427, 434, 471,
42-4, grotesque (grotteschi), 7, 281, 298-99, 399,
484, 485, 497, 503, 512, 529, 547, 551, 402, 526, 527, 634,687
552, 560, 574, 599, 603, 617, 631, 645, ground, 98, 114, 287, 299, 636, 658, 709
657, 665, 685, 690, 701, 702, 704 Group of Four Trees (Dubuffet), 202
Gothic revival, 180, 279, 552, 615, 623, 674, Group of Seven, 120, 299, 408
702, 707 Growing Old (Israels), 345
Gottlieb, Adolph, 39, 2S7, 308, 426, 521 Griinewald, Matthias, 157, 168, 228, 299-300,
gouache, 186, 287, 384, 524, 709 405, 609, 610
Goujon, Jean, 287-88 Guardi, Francesco, 291, 300-301
Goupil's Gallery, 181, 207, 257, 280, 288-89, Guercino, II, 28, 301, 572
704 Guernica (Picasso), 285, 520
Goya, Francisco de, 27, 109, 219, 265, Guerrilla Girls, 301-2
289-90,315,424, 563 Guggenheim, Peggy, 302, 659
Goyen, Jan van, 290, 375, 678 guild, 45, 78, 98, 99, 181, 210, 239, 290,
Gozzoli, Benozzo, 267, 290-91, 432 302-3,406,429,459,470,473, 511, 594,
graffiti, 52, 308 697, 72.3
Grafton Galleries, 251 Guild House (Venturi et al.), 696
Grand Canyon Looking North, Arizona, Guillebon, Jeanne Claude de, 136-37
September 1982 (Hockney), 323-24 Guitar (Picasso), 666
Grand Manner, 12, 234, 256, 291, 308, 369, Guston, Philip, 303, 311, 480
382, 459, 474, 547, 570, 571, 585, 658, Guys, Constantin, 53
682, 691,712,713
Grand Tour, 6, 12, 102, iii, 148, 167,291, Haacke, Hans, 304
317 Hadleigh Castle (Constable), 156
Grande Conde (David d'Angers), 177 Hadrian, 696
Grandes Miseres de la Guerre (Callot), 109-10 Hagia Sophia, 21, 105, 195, 304-s, 344, 476,
Granite Bowl in the Lustgarten, Berlin, The 477
(Hummel), 616 Hairdresser's Window (Sloan), 636
Grant, Duncan, 251 Hall, Marcia, 96, 118, 119, 151, 195, 196,
graphic art, 200, 292, 485, 538 389, 440, 514, 536, 677
Grave Stele of Hegeso, 141, 647 halo, 38, III, 202, 214, 270,305, 415, 481,
Graves, Michael, 26, 292, 541 492-, 72.3
Graves, Nancy, 292-93 Hals, Frans, 12, 61, 97,305-6, 3^5, 394, 4o6,
Great American Nude, No. 57 (Wesselmann), 464, 495, 604, 620, 645, 683
712. Hambeltonian, Rubbing Down (Stubbs), 654
752. INDEX

Hamilton, Richard, 306-7, 537 Herculaneum, 7, 126, 317, 436, 475, 535, 584,
Hampton, James, 37, 496 650, 718
Hand with Reflecting Globe (Escher), 223 Hercules and Telephos (Scopas), 619
Hanging Construction (Rodchenko), 581 Hercules Strangling Antaeus (Euphronios), 226
Hangman's Tree (Callot), 109 Here Everything Is Still Floating (Ernst), 222
Hanson, Duane, )0j, 562 Hermes and Dionysius (Praxiteles), 545
happenings, 39, 108, 192, 242, 294, 297, Heron, Le (Renoir), 55
307-8, 359-60, 511, 537 Hesdin, Jacquemart de, 317
Hapsburg, 30, 251, 308, 690 Hesse, Eva, 317-18, 342, 458, 625, 642
Harbison, Craig, ix, no, iii, 177, 230, 394 Hester Street (Luks), 406
Harbor at Deauville, The (Dufy), 203 Het Pelsken (Rubens), 595
Hard Edge painting, 6, 151, 308, 361, 483, 541 Heyden, Jan van der, 318, 570
Hardouin-Mansart, Jules, 3 0S-9, 524, 699 Hiberno Saxon, 82, 118, 318-19, 343, 409,
Haring, Keith, 9, 309, 465 434, 620, 647
Harlem Renaissance, 47, 199, 309-10, 381 Hicks, Edward, 242, 312, 319, 526
Harlot's Progress, A (Hogarth), 325 high art, 81, 123, 242, 295, 320, 355, 445, 538
Harnett, William Michael, 310-11, 4,64,, 515, High Classical, 141, 516, 535, 728
681 High Gothic, 286, 551
Hartigan, Grace, 311 Hildegard of Bingen, 319-20
Hartley, Marsden, 311, 649 Hilliard, Nicholas, 320-21, 667
Harvard Graduate Center (Gropius and TAC), Hine, Lewis, 576, 652
297 Hiroshige, Ando, 321, 347, 652
Hassam, Childe, 15, 248, 311-12, 712 historicism, 34, 244, 321, 431
Hay cutting (Goncharova), 283 historiography, 321
Haymarket Theater (Nash), 471-72 history painting, 3, 4, 12, 80, 159, 161, 163,
Haywain, The (Constable), 156 178, 185, 266, 277, 291, 295,322, 354,
Head (Lipchitz), 397 361, 375, 382, 391, 395, 437, 462, 474,
Head of a Woman (Lombardo), 402 509, 550, 561, 569, 585, 595, 608, 676,
Head of a Woman (Miro), 446 682, 691, 713, 726
Head: Study after Velazquez's Pope Innocent X Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, 65, 322, 343, 351
(Bacon), 41, 694 Hobbema, Meyndert, 322-23, 375
Heade, Martin Johnson, 312-13, 406 Hoch, Hannah, 323, 518
Heckel, Erich, 98 Hockney, David, 323-24, 364, 501, 518, 537
Heel (Baldessari), 43 Hodler, Ferdinand, 324, 608
Heemskerck, Maerten van, 313 Hofmann, Hans, 294, 311,324-25, 360, 371,
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 34, 313-14, 408,422, 541, 578
321, 516, 573, 693, 721 Hogarth, William, 20, 117, 295, 298, 325, 424,
Hegeso Grave 141, 647
Stele, 555
Heilspiegel Altarpiece (Witz), 720 Hokusai, Katsushika, 321, 325-26, 348, 687
Heizer, Michael, 215, 327 Holbein, Hans, the Younger, 97, 146, 326-27,
Helen of Troy (Zeuxis), 728 337,338,485, 514, 539,667
Hellenistic art, 8, 24, 140, 184-85, 188, 211, Holocaust (Segal), 623-24
294, 314, 378, 402, 406-7, 416, 481, 512, Holt, Nancy, 327-2S
539, 552., 596, 619,673,718 Holy Blood Altarpiece (Riemenschneider), 574
Helms, Jesse, 472 Holy Sacrament Altarpiece (Bouts), 90
Helsinki railway station (Eliel Saarinen), 603 Holzer, Jenny, 328
Hemessen, Caterina van, 314-15, 431, 667 Homage to Cezanne (Denis), 188
Henri, Robert, 3, 20, 61, 89, 179-80, 216, Homage to New
York (Tinguely), 39, 363, 675
^76, 3 JJ. 33 1> 406, 422, 575, 600, 631, Homage Square (Albers), 10
to the
636 Home at Montclair (Inness), 342
Henry VIII (Holbein), 145, 539 Home Scene (Eakins), 212
Henry Babson Residence (Sullivan), 670 Homer, Winslow, 253, 326, 328-29, 372
Henry Delamater Residence (Davis), 180 Hon (She) (Saint Phalle and Tinguely), 606,
Henry Geldzahler and Christopher Scott 675
(Hockney), 537 Honesty (M. and F. Macdonald), 409
Hepworth, Dame Barbara, 71, 139,315-16, Honthorst, Gerrit van, 329-30, 687
454-55. 481, 687 Hooch, Pieter de, 330, 478, 697
Her Story (Murray), 466 Hoogstraten, Samuel van, no, 330, 330, 510,
Herakles Epitrapezios (Lysippos), 407 624
herbal, 316-17, 339 Hoosick Falls in Winter (Moses), 461

Hopper, Edward, 15. 3 1 5. 330-3 J. 360, 539,
688
horror vacui, 58, 331, 442
Horse and Rider (Marini), 422
Horse Fair (Bonheur), 79
Horse Motion, The (Muybridge), 467
in
Horta, Victor, 35, 331, 645
Hosmer, Harriet, 291, }}i-32, 392
Hotel Tassel (Horta), 331
Houdon, Jean-Antoine, 219, 232, 295, 332,
550
Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux, 690
House Concert, The (Longhi), 402
Houses of Parliament (Pugin and Barry), 547
How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare
(Beuys), 70
Hubbard, Elbert, 36
Hudson River School, 138, 148, 167, 176, 204,
206, 270, 312,332-33, 342, 362, 376,
406, 618, 680, 708, 716
Huge Wall Symbolizing the Fate's
Inaccessibility (Schnabel),
Hughes, Robert, 166, 167, 280, 282, 311-12,
333, 364, 373> 507, 587
Huizinga, Johan, 245, 435, 636, 637, 696
Humanism, Humanist, 10, 40, 76, 141, 189,
234, 244, 271-72, 326, 333-34, 346, 418,
461, 485-86, 512, 513, 515, 587, 653
Hundred Guilder Print (Rembrandt), 566
Hungry' Lion, The (H. Rousseau), 234, 592
Hunt, Richard Morris, 334, }}6, 4^1, 490
Hunt, William Holman, 334-3S, 44^., 547, 588
Hunt, William Morris, 189, 334, 33S-36, 372
Huxtable, Ada Louise, 94
Hyperrealism, 336, 561, 562
/ Saw the Figure 5 in Gold (Demuth), 187
Icarus (Burden), 103
Icebergs (Church), 138
Ici, c'est Stieglitz (Picabia), 519
icon, 7, 105, 208, 261, 283, 337, 338, 401,
405,410,434,485, 671
iconoclasm, 337, 434, 485
iconography, 34, 49, 68, 218, 243, 327, 337,
338, 500-501, 651, 667
iconology, 34, 337, 337-3^, 501
iconostasis, 338, 595
Ictinos (Ictinus; Iktinos), 6, 153, 338,
ideal, 3, 61, 115, 281, 314, 338-39, 370, 407,
444, 473, 530, 535, 554, 561, 627
Idyll of the Deep South, An (Douglas), 199
If Not, Not 364
(Kitaj),
U Gesu (Vignola), 700
illuminated manuscript, 69, 74, 81, 87, 118,
134, 143, 169, 214-15, 270, 296, 316,
319, 331, 339, 344, 396, 409, 428, 463,
485, 499, 548, 584, 620, 690
illusion, illusionistic, see mimesis
Imaginary View of the Grand Galerie
(Robert), 579
INDEX 753
Imhotep, 339-40
Immaculate Conception (Cano), 112
impasto, 74, 340, 368, 483, 489, 597, 601
Imperial Hotel (Wright), 348, 725
implorant, L' (Claudel), 143
Impressionism, Impressionist, 12, 15, 47, 53,
54, 66, 88, 108, 123, 128, 132-33, 144,
150, 183, 190, 203, 207, 209, 228, 258,
266, 276, 277, 280, 288-89, 311-12., 315,
326, 329, 340-41, 348, 353, 366, 382,
386, 402, 406, 408, 415, 436-37, 448,
451, 457, 469, 492., 512, 519, 529, 530,
531, 540, 562., 568, 570, 581-82, 589-90,
623, 626, 635, 651, 659, 660, 683, 686,
706, 711-12
Impressionist and Synthetist Group, 67
Impressionist Circle, 233
Impressionist Painters, The (Duret), 209
Impression— Sunrise (Monet), 341, 451
In the Third Sleep (Sage), 605
Independent, 474
617 Indian Hunter (Ward), 708
Indian Village of Secoton (White), 715
Indiana, Robert, 341, 537
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, 185, 241,
302, 341-42, 397, 414, 469, 488, 492,
495, 593, 595-96, 638, 676, 689, 693
Inkhuk (Institute of Artistic Culture), 342
Inness, George, 179, 190, 342
296-97,
installation, 77, 83, 134, 203, 241,
342-43, 473, 516, 532, 619, 623, 699,
716
Installation (Borofsky), 83
intaglio, 218, 225, 343, 438, 506, 549, 564
intensity, 150, 343
Interieur (Degas), 183-84
Interior (D. Smith), 638
Interior-Exterior Reclining Figure (Moore), 455
Interior of the Pantheon (Panini), 500
interlace, 20, 42, 126, 319, 343, 409, 647
International Style (Gothic painting, sculpture),
40, 78, 86, 87-88, 94, 196, 202, 210, 262,
267, 286, 317, 395, 403, 404, 423, 424,
426, 427, 485, 503, 631, 636, 685, 690
International Style (modern architecture), 54,
94, 297, 322,343-44, 351, 383,441,451,
602, 650
504 Intricate (Fourth Style), see mural
Iphigenia (Feuerbach), 238
Isaac Bell House (McKim, Mead and White),
431
Isaac Royall and His Family (Feke), 23 5
Isaac Winslow and His Family (Blackburn), 73
Isabella and the Pot of Basil (W. H. Hunt), 335
Isenheim Altarpiece {GTunew3i\d), 157, 168,
228, 300, 610
Isidorus of Miletus, 21, 304, 344
Islamic art, 27, 29, 140, 182, 223, 251, 343,
in Ruins 344-45, 430, 459, 460, 463, 543
Island of theDead (Bocklin), 77
 1

754 INDEX

Israels, Jozef, 345, 695 Jugendstil, see Art Nouveau

Italian Renaissance, 4, lo-ii, 21, 22, 23, 24,
28, 40, 52, 60, 64, 76, 96, 100, 102-3,
114, 120, 121, 127, 134, 145, 150, 151,
158, 196, 200, 238, 247, 249, 266, 270,
273, 276, 281, 286, 296, 299, 306, 313,
Junk art,
355
Jupiter and Ganymede (Mengs), 436
Jupiter and lo (Correggio), 161-62
Just what is it that makes today's home so
different, so appealing? (Hamilton),

314. 333, 339, 345, 345-46. 347, 378, 307

381, 390, 415, 416, 432, 433, 439, 448, Justice (Giotto), 20
460, 476, 484, 487, 497, 508, 513, 515, Justice of Emperor Otto II (Bouts), 90
531, 534, 536, 539, 555, 559,
52-1, 52-5,
610, 612, 619, 628, 631, 655, 665, 677, Kahlo, Frida, 227, 356-57, 452, 578, 658
679, 692, 693, 698, 700, 702, 704, 708, Kahn, Louis I., 357, 597, 620, 695-96
72.3 Kahnweiler, Daniel Henry, 357, 519, 520
Irten,Johannes, 10, 54 WiUem, 357-58
Kalf,
Ivan the Terrible Kills His Son (Repin), 568-69 Kamares ware, 542
Kandinsky, Wassily, 2, 32, 54, 74-75, 102,
Jack of Diamonds, 379 127, 184, 255, 311,358-59, 365, 408,
Jacob's Dream (Bol), 78 420, 464-65, 469, 478, 484, 641, 661
Jacopo delia Quercia, 266, 347, 470, 692 Kant, Immanuel, 7, 359, 680
Jaguar Devouring a Hare (Barye), 5 Kaprow, Allan, 307-8, 359-60
James, Henry, 210, 291, 336, 372, 392, 611 Katz, Alex, 360
James, William, 336, 372 Kauffman, Angelica, 4, 360-61, 495
Janson, Horst W., 379, 398, 510, 511 Kauffman house (Fallingwater) (Wright), 725
Japonism, 34y-48 Kelly, Ellsworth, 3, 6, 151, 308,361, 541
Jason with the Golden Fleece (Thorvaldsen), Kelly, Mary, 236, 36J-62
673 Kelmscott Press, 459
Javacheff, Christo, see Christo Kensett, John Frederick, 362, 406
Jazz Modern (moderne), see Art Deco Kenwood House (Adam), 6-7
Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard, see Le Corbusier Keokuk (The Watchful Fox), Chief of the Tribe
Jefferson, Thomas, 219, 268, 294, 332, ^48, 125
(Catlin),
380-81, 494, 499, 640-41 Kiefer, Anselm, 362-63, 475
Jesus Mocked by Soldiers (Manet), 416 Kienholz, Edward, 363
Jewish art, 206, 215, 344, 348-49 Kimmelman, Michael, 41, 135, 137, 303, 590,
Jewish Bride (Rembrandt), 364 626
Jewish Cemetery (Ruisdael), 597 Kindred Spirits (Durand), 206-7
Jewish Wedding in Morocco (Delacroix), 185 Kinetic art, 255, 363, 449, 662
Job (Bonnat), 81 Kinetic Construction (Gabo), 255
Jockey, The (Degas), 467 King and Queen (Moore), 455
John, Gwen, 349 Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, 98, 363-64
John with Art (Arneson), 32 Kiss, The (Brancusi), 92
Johns, Jasper, 203, 218, 349-5°. 537, 606, 607 Kiss, The (Klimt), 366
Johnson, Eastman, 209, 350-51, 716 Kiss, The (Rodin), 92
Johnson, Geraldine, 197 Kitaj, R. B., 324,364
Johnson, Philip, 322, 343, 344, 351, 541 Klee, Paul, 54, 184, 287, 308, 359, 364-65,
Johnson, William, 351 521, 642, 655, 659
Johnston, Henrietta, 351, 507 Klein, Yves,365-66, 675
Johnston, Joshua, 352 Kleitias, 246,366
Jolly Companions, The (Leyster), 394 Klimt, Gustav, 237, 366-67, 615, 623, 660
Jones, Inigo, 352.-53, 499 Kline, Franz, 6, 114, 311, 349,367, 405, 461,
Jongkind, Johan Barthold, 353 54^
Jordaens, Jacob, 353-54, 478, 594 Klosterneuburg Altarpiece (Nicholas of
Joy of Life (Lipchitz), 387, 397 Verdun), 461
Joy of Life (Matisse), 387, 430 Knight, Death, and Devil (Diirer), 208, 221
Juan de Pareja (Velazquez), 694 Kokoschka, Oskar, 367-68
Judaica, 354 Kollwitz, Kathe Schmidt, 368, 641
Judd, Donald, 354-55, 444 Komar, Vitaly, 369
Judgment of Paris (Cranach), 166 Komar and Melamid, 369
Judith and Maidservant with the Head of Koons, Jeff, 476
Holofernes (A. Gentileschi), 263 kore, korai, 29, 152, 153, 264,369, 370
Juel, Jens, 250, 598 Korn, Hans Georg, 51

Kossoff, Leon, 364
Kosuth, Joseph, 154,369-70, 445
kouros, kouroi, 2, 2.9, 145, 158, 264, 369, ijo,
486
Krafft,Johann Peter, 70-71
Kraft, Adam, )jo-ji
Krasncr, Lee, 324, 3JI, 534
krater, 226, 246, ^71, 542
Kreuzberg Monument (Schinkel), 615, 707
Krimmel, John Lewis, 474, 598-99
Kritios Boy, 158
Kruger, Barbara, 236
Kupka, Frantisek, 186, 484
kylix, loi, 227, ^ji, 562
La Farge, John, 189, 259, 336, 347, 372-73>
573, 645, 709
La Tour, Georges de, ^y^, 659, 670
Labrouste, Henri, 57, 373-74
Lacan, Jacques, 259, 487, 681
Lachaise, Gaston, 374
Lackawanna Valley, The (Inness), 342
Lady Professor of Bologna, A (Giorgione), 64
Laer, Pieter van, 45, 374-75, 610
Lake George (Kensett), 362
Lamentation (Pontormo), 536, 589
landscape, 4, 46, 261, 322, 375-76, 478, 485,
486,489, 507, 530, 678
Landscape (Bazille), 55
Landscape Near Chatou (Vlaminck), 703
Landscape: Noon (Constable), 156
Landscape with Charon's Boat (Patinir), 507
Landscape with Saint Jerome Removing the
Thorn from the Lion's Paw (Patinir), 507
Landseer, Sir Edwin, 376
Lane, Fitz Hugh, 171, 376-77, 406
Lanfranco, Giovanni, 195, 377
Lange, Dorothea, 227, 377-78
Laocoon (Agesander, Polydoros, and
Athenodoros of Rhodes), 8, 25, 268, 314,
378-79, 391, 417, 500, 552-, 619, 718
Laocoon (El Greco), 379, 416-17
Large Reclining Nude (Gauguin), 429
Larionov, Mikhail, 283, 379-80, 484, 560
Larkin Building (Wright), 725
Last Judgment (CavaWini), 126
Last Judgment {Giotto), 126
Last Judgment (Gislebertus), 275
Last Judgment, The (Michelangelo), 440, 632
Last of England, The (Brown), 97
Last Supper (Andrez), 17
Last Supper, The (Diirer), 208-9
Last Supper (Leonardo), 249, 267, 389, 629
Last Supper, The (Nolde), 483
Last Supper (Tintoretto), 389, 676, 697
Last Supper (Veronese), 697
Eastman, 380, 395
Pieter,
Late Antique, 215, 584
Late Archaic, loi, 226
Late Byzantine, 595, 670
INDEX 755
Late Classical, 23, 24, 25, 141-42, 406-7, 503,
545,619
Late Dinner in Dresden (Baselitz), 51
Late Gothic, 78, 87-88, 94, 125, 131, 139,
202, 255, 272, 286, 370, 395, 401, 403,
404, 423, 427, 491, 528, 636, 651
Late Medieval, 428, 612, 679, 701
Late Renaissance, 161, 320, 388, 499, 677,
697, 700
Latrobe, Benjamin Henry, 102, 348,380-81,
459, 598,640
Laurencin, Marie, 169, 381, 647
Laurentian Library (Michelangelo), 440
Lawrence, Jacob, 351, 381-8Z, 612
Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 376, 382, 585, 611,
658
Lawson, Ernest, 216, 382-83
Le Brun, Charles, 165, 179, 274, 383, 397,
550, 699, 705
Le Corbusier, 127, 281, 344, 383-84, 430, 553
Le Moyne de Morgues, Jacques, 384-85, 715
Le Nain family, 385, 659
Le Vau, Louis, 309, 699, 724
Leap into the Void, near Paris, October 23,
i960 (Klein), 366
Ledoux, Claude-Nicolas, 89, 292, 294,
385-86, 589
Legend of the True Cross (A. Gaddi), 256
Legend of the True Cross (Piero della
Francesca), 522
Leger, Fernand, 127, 386-87, 553, 616
Lehmbruck, Wilhelm, 387
Leibl, Wilhelm, 387, 464
Leighton, Frederic, 13,387-88
Lemons, Oranges, Cup and Rose (Zurbaran),
730
Leochares, 25, 388, 431
Leonardo da Vinci, 18, 26, 51, 88, 91, 165,
221, 245, 247, 249, 267, 271, 272, 281,
346, 388-90, 398, 427, 440, 447, 507,
514, 536, 551, 559, 622, 628-29, 633,
678, 692, 698, 702, 724
Leoni, Leone, 390
Lessing, Gotthold, 379, 391, 719
Leutze, Emanuel, 209, 391-92
Lewis, Edmonia, 291, 332, 392
Lewis, Percy Wyndham, 392, 402, 484, 705
LeWitt, Sol, 17, 43, 1 54, 393, 5^9
Leyden, Lucas van, 7, 393-94, 485, 507
Leyster, Judith, 306, 394
L.H.O.O.Q. (Duchamp), 26
Liberation of Aunt Jemima, The (Saar), 602
Liberty Inviting Artists to Take Part in the
Twenty-second Exhibition of the Societe
des Artistes Independants (H. Rousseau),
592, 607
Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix), 49-50,
184-85, 596
Library of Sainte-Genevieve (Labrouste), 374
Lichtenstein, Roy, 61, 123, 394-95, 537
756 INDEX

Lieferinxe, Josse, 428 Loves of the Classical Gods (Carracci), 121

Lievens, Jan, 78, 242., 395 Lovesick Girl, The (Steen), 264, 646
Life Line, The (Homer), 253, 326, 329 low art, 320
Life of Saint Benedict (Reni), ^6-/-68 Lucca Madonna (Eyck), 229
Life of Saint Catherine (Giovanni), 273-74 Ludovico Gonzaga, His Family and Court
Life of Saint Cecilia (Domenichino), 195 (Mantegna), 284
Life of Saint Francis (Ghirlandaio), 267 Luke, Saint, 302-3, 313, 337, 405-6, 473, 673
Life of the Virgin (Cano), 112 Luks, George, 216, 315, 351, 406, 422, 462,
Life of the Virgin (Diirer), 558 575
Lightning Field (De Maria), 215 Luminism, 270, 312, 333, 362, 376-77,406
Limbourg brothers, 81, 286, 317,395-96,485 Luther, Martin, 165-66, 208, 300, 308, 327,
limner, 247, 352, 396, 508 405,479
Lin, Maya Ying, 396, 707 Lynch, David, 630
Lindau Gospels, 118 Lyndhurst (Davis), 180
Lindisfarne Gospels, The, 20, 82, 319, 343 Lysippos, 233, 406-7, 627
line vs. color, 3, 4, 48, 150, 200, 341, 39J,

402, 524, 544, 575, 692 Maas at Dordrecht, The (Cuyp), 171
linear, 27, 74, 86, 341, 397, 398, 399, 498, Macchiaioli, 53, 408, 693
536,721 Macdonald, Frances, 277, 409
Linked Ring, see Secession Macdonald, Jock, 104,408
Lion Crushing a Serpent (Barye), 51 Macdonald, Margaret, 277, 409, 410
Lion Devouring a Horse (Stubbs), 654 Macdonald-Wright, Stanton, 133, 315, 409,
Lion Gate, 468, 668 484, 494, 600, 660
Lion Mauling a Nubian, 138 Machine Portraits (Picabia), 519
Lion of Belfort, The (Bartholdi), 49 Maciunasz, George, 242
Lion of Lucerne (Thorvaldsen), 49, 673 Mackintosh, Charles Rennie, 35, 277, 366,
Lions and the Prophet Jeremiah, 584 409, 409-10
Lipchitz, Jacques, 281, 387, 397-98 MacMonnies, Frederick William, 410
Lippard, Lucy, 134, 236, 237, 398 Madame de Pompadour as the Venus of the
Lippi, Filippino, 281, 298-99, 398-99 Doves (Falconet), 232
Lippi, Fra Filippo, 86, 398, 399 Madame X (Sargent), 611-12
Lipton, Seymour, 399 Madonna (Munch), 464
Lissitzky, El, 33, 172, 400 Madonna and Child (Desiderio), 189
lithograph, lithography, 43, 176, 198, 223, Madonna and Child (Gossaert), 286
368, 400-401, 434, 548, 549, 563 Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints
Little Fourteen-year-old Dancer (Degas), 184 (Angelico), 604
Little Street,The (Vermeer), 696 Madonna and Child with Donor (J. Bellini), 60
Liver Is the Cock's Comb, The (Gorky), 285 Madonna and Child with Saints (Domenico),
Lobster, The (Dove), 199 196
Lochner, Stefan, 401 Madonna del Baldacchino (Raphael), 43
Lomazzo, Giovanni Paolo, 401-2 Madonna della Misericordia (Piero della
Lombardo family, 402 Francesca), 522
London Bridge (Detain), 188 Madonna Enthroned (Cimabue), 139
London Group, 402 Madonna Enthroned (Massys), 427
Long, Charles, 716 Madonna of the Harpies (Vasari), 18
Longhi, Pietro, 402-3 Madonna with Canon George van der Paele
Longo, Robert, 475 (Eyck), 229
Loos, Adolf, 403 Madonna with the Long Neck (Parmigianino),
Lord Jeffrey Amherst (marble of, by 503
Blackburn), 73, 571 McKim, Charles Follen, 15, 431
Lord Jeffrey Amherst (portrait of, by McKim, Mead and White, 15, 410, 431-42,
Reynolds), 73, 571 553, 573
Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 403-4, 631 maesta, 203, 410-11
Lorenzetti, Pietro, 403-4 Maesta (Duccio), 151, 197, 202-3, 4^1
Lorenzo Monaco, 404 Magic Realism, 411, 411, 561
lost wax process, 95 Magnetic Ballets (Takis), 663
Lotto, Lorenzo, 404-5 Magritte, Rene, 411, 659
Louis, Morris, 3, 151, 247, 405, 483, 541 mahlstick, 315,430-31
Louis XIV (Bernini), 68 Maillol, Aristide, 387, 411-12, 469
Louis XIV (Rigaud), 575 Malatesta family, 412
LOVE (Indiana), 341 Malatesta Temple (Alberti), 412

Male, fimile, 34, 412-1^
Malediction (Hamilton), 343
Malevich, Kasimir, 2., 129, 2.55, 379, 400, 413,
564, 64Z, 658
Mallarme, Stephane, 104, 457, 464, 563,
659-60
Malle Babbe (Hals), 306
Malvasia, Count Carlo Cesare, 301, 413-14,
567,635
Man Against the Wall (Tamayo), 663
Man Among the Redwoods (M. T. Zorach),
Man in the Open Air (Nadelman), 470
Man Offering a Woman Money (Leyster), 394
Man Proposes, God Disposes (Landseer), 376
Man Ray, 9, 414, 449, 491, 519, 638, 641,
642, 658-59, 711
Man with Dyed Mustachios (Luks), 406
Man with the Broken Nose, The (Rodin),
581
Man with the Glove (Titian), 118
Mander, Card van, 7, 34, 90, 260, 261, 313,
322, 380, 393, 414-IS, 610, 619, 714
mandorla, 305, 398, 415
Manet, Edouard, 12, 53, 55, 107, 164, 183,
209, 233, 237-38, 259, 272, 276, 347-48,
41S-16, 437, 457, 469, 488, 607, 631,
689
maniera greca, 66, 139, 202, 272, 416, 424
Mannerism, 19, 30, 48, 51, 96, 109, 115, 121,
122, 126, 194, 243, 268, 275, 286, 287,
2-93> 313, 346, 379, 390, 401, 404,
416-17, 420, 433, 440, 503, 525, 536,
548, 589, 675, 676, 677, 691, 700, 715
Man's Best Friend (Fish), 240
Mansart, Francois, 274, 308, 417, 724
Manship, Paul H., 41J-18
Mantegna, Andrea, 59, 60, 121, 161, 224, 284,
326, 346, 418-19, 497, 513, 545, 555,
594
Manzii, Giacomo, 419
Mapplethorpe, Robert, 9, 419-20, 472
maquette, 177, 420, 729
Maratta, Carlo, 420
marble, 23, 24, 171, 420, 434, 531
Marble Faun (Polykleitos), 546
Marble House (R. M. Hunt), 334
Marc, Franz, 75, 235, 311, 358, 420-21
March Heath (Kiefer), 362
Marchesa Elena Grimaldi (Dyck), 210
Marcus Aurelius, 197, 220
Marcus Aurelius (Leoni), 390
Marilyn (Vanitas) (Flack), 240
Marin, John, 199, 421, 649
Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 253-54
Marini, Marino, 222, 421-22
Marisol (Marisol Escobar), 324, 422
Marriage a la mode (Hogarth), 325
Marriage at Cana (Veronese), 53
Marriage of Frederick Barbarossa and Beatrice
of Burgundy, The (Tiepolo), 674
INDEX 757
Marriage of Reason and Squalor II, The (F.
Stella), 647
Marriage of the Virgin (Raphael), 91, 559, 704
Marsh, Reginald, 15, 422
Marshall Field Warehouse (Richardson), 573
Martin, Agnes, 422-23
Martin, John, 423
Martini, Simone, 40, 203, 403, 423-24, 515,
631
Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew, The
(Guercino), 301
Martyrdom of Saint John the Evangelist
(Filippino Lippi), 281
Martyrdom of Saint Philip (Ribera), 572
Marxism, 20, 34, 157, 244, 314, 398, 424,
437,479, 577,653
Mary Magdalen (Scorel), 619
Mary Magdalene (Donatello), 197
Masaccio (Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Mone),
17, 18, 86, 100, 122, 158, 195, 346, 399,
424-25,425-26, 502
Masolino da Panicale, 425-26
Mass of Saint Giles (Master of Saint Giles), 429
Massachusetts State House (Bulfinch), 102
Massacre at Chios (Delacroix), 585
Masson, Andre, 411, 426, 659
Massys, Quinten, 261, 285, 306, 426-27, 508
Master (of .), 232, 428, 429, 450, 724
. .
Master of Saint Giles, 42S-29
masterpiece, 302, 428, 429, 654, 723
Matisse, Henri, 32, 39, 80, 128, 169, 182, 184,
188, 199, 234, 345, 387, 429-30, 448,
453, 456, 492, 592, 607, 608, 632, 645,
646, 663, 665, 703, 704, 710
Matta, 430, 659
maulstick, 315, 430-31
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, 388, 431, 439,
619, 627
Max Schmitt in a Single Scull IThe Champion
Single Sculls (Eakins), 212
Maze (Aycock), 40
Meat Still Life (Aertsen), 651
Meat Still Life (Patinir), 7
Medici, 4, 40, 85, 86, 96, 109, 124, 126, 238,
2.39, 2.51, 268, 278, 291, 333, 346, 399,
43^-33' 439, 44°, 53^, 610, 613, 622-23,
685, 692, 698, 714
Medici-Riccardi Palace (Michelozzo), 441
Medieval art, 66, 69, 81, 94, 116, 132, 150,
151, 170, 181, 197, 200, 247, 251, 270,
281, 286, 302, 305, 317, 319, 339, 344,
364, 375, 396, 401, 409, 413, 429,
433-34, 444, 473, 487, 508, 512, 521,
534, 547, 551, 573, 5^5, 603, 617, 622,
631, 632, 634, 650, 665, 671, 674, 702,
704, 7^3
Medieval art, influence of, 47, 58, 74, 98, 180,
334, 707; see also Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood
Meditation on the Passion (Carpaccio), 119
Meditationes (Baumgarten), 8
 5 S
758 INDEX
Mediterranean, The (Maillol), 41Z
medium, 6, 98, 2.03, 2.32., 434, 517, 524
Medusa, z6
Meeting at the Golden Gate (Giotto), 704
Meeting of Joachim and Anna, The (T. Gaddi),
Meissonier, Ernest, 83, 84, 434-35, 437
Melamid, Alexander, 369
Melancholy and Mystery of a Street (de
Chirico), 135
Melencolia I (Diirer), zo8, 261
Melissa (Dossi), 198
Melpomene, the Muse of Tragedy (Sirani), 635
Melun Diptych (Fouquet), 244-45
memento mori, 435, 669
Memling, Hans, 178, 278, 435-36
Memory of Civil War (Meissonier), 435
Men at the Crossroads Looking with Hope and
High Vision to the Choosing of a
Better Future (Rivera), 578
Menaced Assassin, The (Magritte), 411
Mendieta, Ana, 236, 436
Mengs, Anton Raphael, 9, 436, 475, 693,
718-19
Meninas, Las (Velazquez), 244, 289, 627, 693,
710
Menzel, Adolph, 436-37
Mercenaries series (Golub), 282
Merode Triptych (Campin), iii, 197, 485
Merovingian art, 437, 442
Merry Company, The (Honthorst), 329
Merz, Mario, 36, 618-19
Merz group, 618-19
Merz 19 (Schwitters), 618
metalpoint, 437, 633
Metaphysical School, 120, 129, 135
Metcalf, Willard, 1
method, methodology, loi, 398, 437, 479
metonymy, 43J-38, 681
Metzinger, Jean, 169, 277, 438
mezzotint, 158, 343, 43
Michael Jackson and Bubbles (Koons), 476
Michelangelo Buonarroti, 18, 19, 51, 74, 92,
96, 121, 126, 151, 155, 158, 161, 195,
234, 238, 267, 268, 285, 313, 346, 347,
378, 379, 416, 417, 420, 432, 433,
438-41, 454, 456, 503, 52-3, 536, 555,
559, 574, 582-, 587, 600, 610, 613, 619,
622, 623, 632, 637, 677, 678-79, 687,
691-92, 700
Michelozzo di Bartolommeo, 267, 291, 432,
441
Middle Ages, see Medieval art
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 54, 344, 351,
441-42, 639, 695
Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California (Lange),
378
Migration (J. Lawrence), 381
Migration period, 105, 319, 313,434,442
Milkmaid of Bordeaux, The (Goya), 290
Millais,John Everett, 98, 442-43, 547-48,
588,599
Millet, Jean-Frangois, 46, 93, 177, 186, 270,
280, 335, 443, 529, 593, 664, 672, 709
Milo of Croton Attacked by a Lion (Puget), 552
mimesis, 339, 444, 687
miniature, 78, 81, 122, 143, 320, 339, 345,
395,444,667
Minimal art, Minimalism, 2, 16, 43, 77, 154,
187, 215, 317-18, 342, 354, 396, 423,
444-45, 448, 451, 458, 475, 548, 550,
564, 625, 627, 638, 639
Minoan art, 7, 95, 138, 152, 293, 375, 445,
468, 542, 571, 671
minor arts, 445, 458
Minute Man, The (French), 248-49
Mir Iskusstva, see World of Art
Miracle of the Irascible Son (Donatello), 564
New and Miraculous Draught of Fishes, The (Witz), 720
Miro, Joan, 71, 174, 287, 445-46, 482, 642,
659
Mirrored Room (Samaras), 609
Miss Eleanor Urquhart (Raeburn), 558
Mitchell, Joan, 446-47
mobile, 109, 363,447
Mobile (Calder), 109
Model Seated on Rocking Rattan Lounge
(Pearlstein), 510
modelbook, 178,447
modeling, 18, 25, 86, 94, 126, 128, 168, 184,
200, 259, 267, 348, 356, 425, 438, 447,
472., 551, 564, 574, 581, 612, 728
modello, modelli, 447
Modern, Modernism, modernity, 1-2, 26, 27,
32, 39, 44, 47, 49, 65, 69, 160, 157, 187,
366,447-48, 512, 607
Modern Classicism, 411-12, 419
Modern Woman (Cassatt), 124
moderne, see Art Deco
Modernism, 31, 32, 43, 53, 55, 80, 94, 102,
107, 135, 143, 144, 168, 180, 193, 194,
199, 2.20, 243, 252, 253, 267, 270, 280,
297, 311, 315, 323, 349, 351, 357, 364,
365, 374, 381, 383, 391, 396, 403, 409,
421, 422, 441, 448, 454, 467, 470, 477,
478, 479, 482., 488, 498, 513, 516, 538,
540, 546, 554, 560, 574, 575, 589, 597,
599, 601, 602, 603, 609, 618, 620, 624,
629, 639, 641, 643, 649, 657, 710, 711,
724-25
Modersohn-Becker, Paula, 448-49, 689
Modigliani, Amedeo, 129, 449, 618, 642
Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo, 10, 449-50
Momper, Joos de, the Younger, 99, 450
Mona Lisa (Leonardo), 26, 389, 390, 507, 514,
629
Mondrian, Piet, 2, 127, 139, 172, 194, 239,
287, 302, 308, 395, 450-51, 469, 476,
481, 575, 649, 661, 662
Monet, Claude, 15, 47, 54, 55, 88, 123, 207,
 1

INDEX 759

233, 277, 279, 341, 353, 415, 437, whole adjacent and surrounding country
451-52,457, 531, 568, 635, 701,712 (Barker), 501
Money-Changer and His Wife (Massys), 261, Mrs. George Hill (Raeburn), 558
42-7 Mrs. Siddons (Gainsborough), 257
Money Diggers, The (Quidor), 555-56 Mucha, Alfonse, 463
Monk by the Sea, The (Friedrich), 250 Multiplication of the Arcs (Tanguy), 664
monograph, 452 Mulvey, Laura, 237, 259
monotype, 183,452, 549 Munch, Edvard, 41, 102, 237, 366, 463-64,
montage, 36, 222, 4S2-S3 661
Montefeltro, Federigo II da, 4^3, 522 Munich School, 61, 133, 210, 387, 464, 683
Monticello (Jefferson), 348, 499 Miinter, Gabriele, 75, 358, 420, 464-65
Montserrat (Gonzalez), 284 mural, 165,465,479,494, 553, 577, 584, 631,
monument, 4S3y 627 634, 641, 700, 701, 723
Monument to Balzac (Rodin), 582 Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, 465-66
Monument to the Third International (Tatlin), Murray, Elizabeth, 466
666-67 Muse and Maiden (Achilles Painter), 534
"Monument to Workers" (Dalou), 175 museum, 124, 149, 170, 227, 228, 466-67,
Moonlight, Indian Encampment (Blakelock), 654
74 Muybridge, Eadweard, 203, 363, 467-68, 566
Moonlight Marine (Ryder), 601 My Egypt (Demuth), 187
Moore, Charles W., 454 Mycenaean art, 5, 7, 194, 194, 293, 445, 468,
Moore, Henry, 72, 96, 316, 454-55' 687 66S
Moorman, Charlotte, 498 Myron, 192, 468, 546, 535
Moreau, Gustave, 56, 237, 366, 430, 455-56, Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine of Siena
563, 591, 608, 660, 695 (Bartolommeo), 50
Morelli, Giovanni, 34, 57, 64, 155, 456
Morgan, Julia, 456-57 Nabis, 80, 187, 412, 469, 660, 706
Morisot, Berthe, 457-58, 507, 689, 701 Nadar, 176-77,469
Morning (Range), 598 Nadar Elevating Photography to the Height of
Morning Toilette (Chardin), 130 Art (Daumier), 176-77
Morris, Robert, 35, 342, 386, 445, 458, 550, Nadelman, Elie, 470
625, 642 naive art, 37, 470, 496, 592, 686
Morris, William, 27, 36, 103, 251, 345, Names Project AIDS Memorial Quilt, 9

458-59, 5^9, 547, 588, 599, 645 Nana series (Saint Phalle), 606
Morse, Samuel F. B., 5, 91, 459-60, 713 Nanni di Banco, 196, 266, 347, 470-71, 698
mosaic, 105, 125, 199, 223, 317, 457, 460, Napoleon at Jaffa (Gros), 298
476, 535, 546, 609, 677, 680, 685 Napoleon at Saint Bernard (David), 222, 539,
Mosan, 460-61 682
Moser, Mary, 4, 360 Napoleon Awakening to Immortality (Rude),
Moses, Anna Mary Robertson (Grandma 596
Moses), 242, 461, 470, 526, 548 narrative, narratology, 7, 54, 94, 119, 152,
Moses (Michelangelo), 440, 456 153, 158, 214, 256, 436, 471, 480, 588,
Moses Defending the Daughters ofjethro 630, 653, 671, 693
(Rosso), 589 Nash, John, 471-72
Mother and Child (Avery), 39 National Academy of Design, 5, 56, 166, 216,
Mother and Child Lying Nude (Modersohn- 310-11, 315, 351, 406, 410, 460, 462,
Becker), 448 712
Mother and Sister of the Artist (Morisot), National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), 333,
458 419,472, 508
Mother and Son (Carra), 120 NationalMuseum of Women in the Arts

Motherwell, Robert, 73, 324, 461-62, 480, (NMWA), 472, 5 10- 1

591, 638, 665 native art, arts, 472

Motley, Archibald, Jr., 462 Nativity, The (Gentile), 14

Mount, William Sidney, 462-63, 718
Mountain Landscape (Segers), 624
Mountain Landscape with Travelers (Momper),
450
Mozarabic, 434, 463
Mr. Barker's Interesting and Novel View of the
City and Castle of Edinburgh, and the
Nativity Altarpiece of Pieter Bladelin (Weyden),
485
naturalism, naturalistic, 76, 88, 115, 121, 158,
160, 189, 231, 272, 339, 353,472-73,
476, 529, 530, 561, 696, 708
Nauman, Bruce, 473, 590
Nausicaa and Odysseus (Eastman), 380
760 INDEX

Nazarenes, 97, 241, ^73-7A> 547 Nightmare, The (Fuseli), 253

Neagle, John, ^7^ Nike of Samothrace, 76, 145, 181, 481
Neel, Alice, 236, 474-75, 540, 562 Nike Tying (or Fastening) Her Sandal, 6, 141,
Nefertiti (Tuhthmose), 475 200, 481
Negro Life at the South (Old Kentucky Home) nimbus, 481
Johnson), 350
(E. 1946-H (Indian Red and Black) (Still), 650
Nelson's Column, 376 Niobid Painter, 534
Neo-Baroque, 175, 410 Nochlin, Linda, 236-37, 283, 561, 649
Neoclassical, Neoclassicism, 6-7, 22, 34, 74, Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling
89, loi, 113, 142, 164, 177, 178-79, 185, Rocket {Whistler), 8, 715
238, 241, 274, 277, 295, 298, 321, 331, Noguchi, Isamu, 482
332, 348, 380, 385, 392, 436, 47S, 5i3> Nolan, Sir Sidney, 482
5ZI, 527, 544, 550, 552, 577, 581, 585, Noland, Kenneth, 3, 6, 105, 247, 308, 483,
596, 598, 599, 690, 615, 634, 71Z, 719 541
Neo-Conceptualism, 541 Nolde, Emil, 98, 235, 483-84
Neo-Expressionism, New Expressionism, 40, Nominalism, 40, 229, 286, 334, 429, 484
51, 143, 281, 362-63, 47S-76, 480, 54i< nonobjective art, 2, 90, I46, 154, 186, 199,
606, 616, 720-21 246, 358, 413, 476, 484, 628, 662
Neo-Geo, 476 Northern Renaissance, 7, 14, 18-19, 24, 40,
Neo-Impressionism, 150, 193, 251, 529, 626, 43, 75, 84, 85, 90, 95, 99, no, 131, i37,
631-32 145, 165, 175, 177, 197, 200, 207, 229,
Neo-Plasticism, 308, 450, 476 238, 250, 259, 278, 285, 299, 306, 313,
Neoplatonism, Neoplatonic philosophy, 86, 314, 345, 384, 393, 405, 414-15, 41^,
2-38, 333. 339, 444, 47^, 5-^3, 660 426, 429, 435, 477, 484, 484-86, 500,
Neorationalism, 589 507, 508, 534, 539, 574, 617, 619, 650,
Neo-Realism, see realism 665, 667, 704, 709, 714, 721, 723
Neo-Romanticism, 477 Norwich School, 376, 486, 531
Neon Templates of the Left Half of My Body, N6tre-Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp (Le
Taken at Ten Inch Intervals (Nauman), Corbusier), 384
473 Novak, Barbara, 377, 406, 611, 716
Nervi, Pier Luigi, 477 Novembergruppe, 486
Netherlandish art, 22, 85,
90, 137, 224, 325, nude, nudity, 22, 24, 85, 165, 192, 196, 370,
374, 477-7S, 489, 570, 617, 651, 659, 390, 416, 448, 484, 486-87, 689
714 Nude Descending a Staircase (Duchamp), 31,
Neue Kiinstler Vereinigung (NKV), 358, 32, 203,467
478 Nude with Striped Coverlet (Valadon), 689
Neue Sachlichkeit, see New Objectivity Nursery Decoration (Miro), 446
Neumann, Balthasar, 478, 581 Nymph and Hind (Laurencin), 381
neutron autoradiography, 39 Nymph of Fontainebleau (Cellini), 126
Nevelson, Louise, 37, 478-79 Nymphs and Satyr (Bouguereau), 89
New Abstraction, 466
New Art History, 34, 244, 282, 479, 479 Oak Trees in the Gorge of Apremont (T.
New Artists Association, 358, 478 Rousseau), 593
New Brutalism, 384 Oath of the Horatii, The (J.-L. David), 178
New Historicism, 34, 321, 452, 479 Oath of the Tennis Court (J.-L. David), 179
New Image, 50, 83, 303, 475, 479-80, 532, Object (Oppenheim), 491
590 Ocean Park N. 107 (Diebenkorn), 191
New Objectivity, 57, 193, 228, 298, 478, 480, October (Limbourg), 396
486, 618 Octopus Jar, The (Phaistos), 542
New Realism, 85, 191, 225, 239, 249, 307, odalisque, 302, 488, 689
360, 365, 510, 518, 562, 623, 672, 675, Odalisque (Ingres), 341
712 Odo of Metz, 488
New York at Night (Weber), 710 Oedipus Explains the Riddle of the Sphinx
New York School, 2, 461, 480, 723 (Ingres), 693
Newman, Barnett, 3, 39, 151, 480-81, 593 Office Girls (Bishop), 72
Niagara (Church), 138 offset, 489, 549
Nicholson, Ben, 139, 316,481 oil painting, 6, 17, 59, 114, 167, 196, 229,
Night Nativity (Geertgen), 260-61 266, 271, 277, 299, 346, 389, 394, 422,
Night of the Rich (Rivera), 578 434, 456, 483, 484, 489, 499, 506, 514,
Nighthawks (Hopper), 331 524, 530, 622, 667, 695
 INDEX 761

O'Keeffe, Georgia, 133, 134, 199, 472, 488, paleography, 498

546, 649, 651, 652, 709, 710 palette, 18, 80, 150, 185, 196, 210, 340, 383,
Old House of Representatives, The (Morse), 424, 427, 482, 498, 534, 670, 674
459 Palette ofNarmer, 486
Old King, The (Rouault), 591 Palladian, 471, 498-99, 499
Old Kingdom (3rd Dynasty), 339 Palladio, Andrea, 11, 12, 224, 352, 498-99,
Old MiitJ and His Grandson (Ghirlandaio), 267 499. 703
Old Testament Trinity (Rublev), 595 panel, 13, 85, 90, 114, 122, 139, 187, 192,
Oldenburg, Claes, 308, 489-90, 537, 642 202, 267, 299, 489, 499, 523, 612, 636,
Oliver Ellsworth and Abigail Wolcott Ellsworth 658, 667, 680, 685, 723
(Earl), 213 Panini, Giovanni Paolo, 291, 500, 502, 579
Olmsted, Frederick Law, 490 Panofsky, Erwin, 28, 34, 79, 94, 137, 229,
Olympia (Manet), 107, 259, 416 314. 337-38, 401, 415. 42-7,500-501,
Omega Workshops, 251 544, 567, 690, 720
On the Antietam Battlefield (Brady), 91 panorama, 192, 501, 690
One and Three Chairs (Kosuth), 369-70 Pantheon, 43, 100, 194, 386, 418, 500,501-2,
Onement I (Newman), 480 583,700
Op Art, 10, 363, 451, 490-91, ^j6 paper, 81, 122, 147, 218, 339, 447, 452, 502,
open form, 145, 284 527, 549, 636, 658
Open Window (Matisse), 430 papier colle, 502
Opera Sextronique (Paik and Moorman), 498 parchment, 62, 81, 147, 339, 384, 447, 502,
Oppenheim, Merer, 318, 491 502-3, 557, 620
Optical illusion, 223 Parental Admonition, The (Borch), 82
Orana Maria, La (Ave Maria) (Gauguin), 259 Paris Street: Rainy Weather (Caillebotte),
Orange and Tan (Rothko), 591 108
orans, 491 Park, David, 191
Orcagna (Andrea di Clone), 491-92 Park Near Lu(cerne) (Klee), 365
Orientalism, 34, 345, 488, 492-93 Parmigianino, 416, 503, 677
Orientalizing period, 246, 492, 493, 542, 548 Parnassus with Apollo and the Muses (Mengs),
Ornate (Third) Style, see mural 9
Orozco, Jose Clemente, 493-94, 578, 634 Parrhasius, 503-4, 650, 680, 728
Orphism, 186, 494, 519, 628, 660 Parthenon (Ictinos), 6, 141, Z17, 220, 338,
Ossian, 494-95 388, 420, 500,504-5, 517, 554, 668
Ossian Receiving the Generals of the Republic Pascin, Jules, 129, 343, 506, 618
(Girodettrioson), 495 Pasmore, George, 511-12
Ostade, Adriaen van, 97, 306, 495 Passion, 203, 26^,506, 523
Ottonian art, 69, 265, 434, 495-96, 717 Passion ofSacco and Vanzetti, The (Shahn), 629
Outbreak, The (Kollwitz), 368 pastels, 122, 183, 352,506-7
Outsiderart, 113, 239, 242,496, 538 Pastoral Landscape (Bassano), 53
Outwater, Albert van, 90, 415 Pat Lyon at the Forge (Neagle), 474
Overcome Party Dictatorship Now (Beuys), Pater, Walter, 8, 140, 507
69-70 Patient and the Doctors, The (Schnabel), 616
Overlay (Lippard), 398 Patinir, Joachim, 7, 75, 375, 478, 507-8
patron, patronage, 14, 124, 149, 157, 181,
Pacheo, Francisco, 293, 465, 497 197, 265, 284, 291, 300, 301, 329, 332,
Pacher, Michael, 49J-98 333, 335, 354, 3^1, 370, 374, 3^5, 39o,
Package on a Wheelbarrow (Christo), 136 395, 417, 424, 425, 432, 478, 485, 508,
Paik, Nam June, 242, 498 522, 526, 543, 559,622,673
painterly, 210, 498, 621, 677, 721 Patroon Painters, 508
Painters Eleven, 104 Paul Revere (Copley), 159
Painter's Studio, The (Courbet), 53 Pausanias, 34, 138,431,508-9, 534
Painting (Miro), 446 Pazzi Chapel (Brunelleschi), 100
Painting With Red (Bush), 104 Peaceable Kingdom (Hicks), 319, 526
Palace of Versailles, The (Vanderlyn), 501, Peaches, 317
690 Peale, Charles Willson, 466-67, 474, 509, 598,
Palastra (Tanning), 664-65 653, 713, 72.6, 727
Palau Giiell (Gaudi), 258 Peale, Rembrandt, 509, 653, 713
Palazzetto dello Sport (Nervi), 477 The (Peale), 509
Peale Family,
Palazzo del Te (Giulio), 276, 284 Pearblossom Hwy., ii-i8th April, 1982, #2
Palazzo Medici-Riccardi (Michelozzo), 432 (Hockney), 518
762 INDEX

Pearlstein, Philip, 510 Picasso, Pablo, 2, 25, 36, 39, 41, 49, 52,
Peasants at Supper (Le Nain), 385 92-93, 127, 149, 156, 168-69, 174, 184,
Peasants' War, The (Kollwitz), 368 188, 237, 239, 284, 285, 287, 293, 296,
peepshow box, 231, 330, 510 357, 395, 430, 445, 446, 448, 472., 491,
Peeters, Clara, 47Z, 510-11 519-20, 534, 553, 638, 646-47, 659, 663,
Peirce, Charles Sanders, 6x4 665, 666, 686, 704, 711
Peladan, Josephan (Sar), 553, 608 Piccolomini Family Library, 525-26
Pelvis with Moon (O'Keeffe), 488 pictograph, 287, 308, 365,521
pentimento, pentimenti, 511, 563 Pictograph No. 4 (Gottlieb), 287
Peonies Blown in the Wind (La Farge), 372-73 Pictorialism, 110,521, 646, 649, 652
Pepper No. }o (Weston), 713 picture plane, 80, 183, 196, 257, 272, 274,
Peredvizhniki, joj 307, 32-4, 340, 389, 352., 42.5, 5^J. 562,
performance, 434, 487, 498, 577 588, 644, 676, 681, 721
Performance art, 5, 16, 39, 69, 103, 181, 308, Picturesque, 143, 180, 471, 490, 521-22, 6$6
343,511-12, 532, 6z6 Pie Counter (Thiebaud), 672
Pergamene School, 28, 512, 596 Piero della Francesca, 128, 195, 224, 281, 346,
Pericles, 6, 141, 504,512, 517 453,522, 523, 651, 704
periodicity, periodization, 48, 434, 512-13 Piero di Cosimo, 18, 522-23, 536
Peripatetics and Travelers, joj Pieta, 96, 131, 179,523,713
Perry, LillaCabot, 15, 451 Pieta (Bronzino), 96
Persephone (Benton), 64 Pieta (Crivelli), 167
Perseus (Cellini), 126 Pieta (Michelangelo), 439, 503, 523
Persistence of Memory, The (Dali), 174, 490 Pieta (Titian), 678
Personal fantasy, 592 Pigalle, Jean-Baptiste, 232, 523-24
perspective, 10, 17, 18, 22, 60, 86, 88, 90, 99, pigment, 72, 86, 150, 218, 249, 287, 343,
6,
100, 135, 142, 175, 188, 189, 196, 197, 365, 389, 434, 444, 483, 489, 506, 524,
213, 229, 231, 239, 256, 259, 262, 266, 622, 667, 709, 723
285, 296, 301, 327, 329, 330, 340, 345, Piles,Roger de, 308, 397, 524-25
346, 348, 361, 389, 418, 425, 429, 448, Pilgrimage to the Island of Cythera (Watteau),
472, 484, 497, 510, S13-14, 5i4> 52.1, 710
522, 526, 534, 545, 546, 555, 564, 604, Pilon,Germain, 525
612, 616, 627, 629, 685, 686-87, 693, Pinney, Eunice Griswold, 242
694, 700, 719, 726 Pinturicchio, 525-26
Perugino, Pietro, 224,514, 526, 559, 692 Pippin, Horace, 47, 242, 351,452,526, 548
Peto, John Frederick, 514-15, 681 Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, 6, 291, 526-27,
Petrarch, 40, 76, 333, 423, 424, siS' ^94 550, 579
Pevsner, Antoine, 255, 515 Pisanello, Antonio, 60, 224, 262, 527-28
Pevsner, Naum Neemia, see Gabo, Naum Pisano, Andrea, 266, 528
Pevsner, Sir Nikolaus, 403, 410, 516, 641, 700 Pisano, Giovanni, 272, 528-29, 529, 552
Pfaff,Judy, 5j6 Pisano, Nicola, 272, 528, 529
Pheidias, 138, 141, 249, 295, 444, 504, Piss Christ (Serrano), 472
S 16-17, 53 5> 627 Pissarro, Camille, 108, 128, 133, 258,529-30,
Philadelphia Savings Fund Society Building 701
(Howe and Lescaze), 344 Pissarro, Lucien, 529
Philip the Arab, 584 Pitcher (Phaistos), 542
Phillips, Ammi, 242 Place de la Concorde, Winter (Seurat), 157
Philosopher Giving a Lecture at the Orrery, A Place Ravignan, Still Life in Front of an Open

(Wright of Derby), 726 Window, La (Gris), 296

Philostratus, 216, 517 plane, planar, 530
photography, 62, 434, 532, 558; s^e cj/so plastic, plasticity, 530
printing; reproduction Plato, 4, 173, 238, 339, 432, 444, 476, 530,
photomontage, 149, 323, 449, 453, 501, 559, 561, 633, 650, 671, 681, 687
517-1S, 569 Platonic Academy, 4
Photorealism, 6, 9, 144, 224-25, 240, 336, plein air, 47, 133, 160, 277, 340, 376,530-31
510,51s, 532, 561, 562 Pliny the Elder, 8, 23, 24, 25, 26, 34, 211, 216,
Photo-Secession, 646, 649 267, 316, 375, 378, 388, 406-7, 431, 460,
Photo-Transformation (Samaras), 609 468, 502, 503, 504,531, 535, 539, 545,
Piazza d'ltalia (Moore), 454 599, 619, 627, 650, 655,728
Piazzetta, Giovanni Battista, 51S-19 Plowing in the Nivernais (Bonheur), 79
Picabia, Francis, 31, 519, 642, 658-59 Pluralism, 103,531-32, 541, 602
 INDEX 763

pointillism, 193, 394, 476, 529, 532, 62.6, Portrait of a Young Married Couple (Jordaens),
628 354
pointing, 95^ 53^ Portrait of a Young Woman (Pollaiuolo), 533
Polish Rider (Rembrandt), 201, 565 Portrait of Carolus-Duran (Sargent), 118
political art, 281, 304 Portrait of Doctor Gachet (Gogh), 283
Pollaiuolo, Antonio del, 346, 433, 523, S3^~33 Portrait of Francesco d'Este (Weyden), 714
141, 227, 314, 407, 505, 517, 530
Pollitt, J.J., Portrait of Jean Cocteau (Lipchitz), 397
Pollock, Griselda, 237, 361, 452,533, 551, 588 Portrait of Madame Matisse (Matisse), 429
Pollock, Jackson, 2, 3, 6, 114, 151, 181, 294, Portrait of Marie Antoinette with Her Children
302, 324, 359,367, 371,458,533-34. (Vigee-Lebrun), 699-700
541, 560, 578, 634, 647, 665, 678 Posada, Jose Guadalupe, 493, 494
polychrome, $^^4 Postcard no. 4 (Klee), 365
Polychrome Divers, The (Leger), 387 Postcards from America (film), 721
Polydoros, 8, 378 Post-Colonialism, 1 01, 493; see also
Polygnotos, S34' 54^, 619 Orientalism
Polykleitos, 113, 141, 243, 249, 281, 390, 407, Post-Fauve, 429
468, 504,535, 546, 554 Post-Impressionism, Post-Impressionist, 47,
Polynesia (Wegman), 711 127, 144, 251, 259, 279, 341, 366, 402,
polypt>'ch, 273, S35 415, 448,540, 689
Pompeii, 317, 436, 460, 475, 531,
7, 13, Postmodern, Postmodernism, 22, 26, 37, 43,
535-36, 584, 650, 700, 701, 718 62, 135, 203, 219, 240, 244, 292, 296,
Pond, Moonrise, The (Steichen), 646 328, 351, 386, 448, 454, 480, 493, 513,
Pont-Aven, School of, 258, ^36, 618 530, 532, 538,540-41, 569, 630, 639,
Pont de Garde (Robert), 579 665, 695, 711
Pont-Neuf, Paris, The (Christo and Jeanne Post-Painterly Abstraction, 3, 246, 405, 483,
Claude), 136 541, 647
Pontormo, Jacopo da, 18, 96, 416, 503, Post-Partum Document (M. Kelly), 361-62
536-37, 589, 677 Poststructurahsm, loi, 182-83, 244,541, 625,
Pop An, 3, 9, 180, 191, 225, 295, 306-7, 349, 633, 653, 665
350, 360, 369, 394, 444, 489, S37, 538, Potato-Eaters, The (Gogh), 280
586, 672, 708, 712 pottery, 15, 16, 32, 57, 66, 72, 116, 135, 149,
Pope, John Russell, 15, 431 182, 203, 226, 232, 264, 277, 341, 344,
Pope-Hennessey, John, 273-74, 470 371, 397, 445, 460, 482, 493, 520,
Pope Innocent X (Velazquez), 41, 694 541-43, 562, 571, 621, 672, 726
Pope Leo XII Visiting Thorvaldsen s Studio on pounce, 122, 54)
Saint Luke's Day (Martens), 673 Pound, Ezra, 705
Pope Paul III (Titian), 677 Poussin, Nicolas, 4, 28, 45, 48, 61, 75-76, 115,
Popova, Liubov, 156,537-38 128, 142, 150, 205, 397,543-44, 544,
popular art, 445 575, 579, 586,705
popular culture, 33, 81, 113, 123, 320, 394, Poussinistes vs. Rubenistes, 544
485, 502,538,699 Poverty Gap: An English Coal-Heaver's Home
Pordenone, 456 (Riis), 575
Porta, Giacomo 700
della, Power of Music, The (Sidney), 462
Porta, Guglielmo della, 234 Powers, Hiram, 24, 544-45, 'ill
Porter, Fairfield, 538-^9 Pozzo, Andrea, 513, 545
Portinari Altarpiece, The (Goes), 278, 296, 514, Pozzo, Cassiano dal, 543-44
650 Prairie Style, 725
portrait, portraiture, 4, 189, 330, 485, 539-40 Praxiteles, 23-24, 25, 28,545-56, 568
Portrait de Mile L. L. (Young Woman in a Red Preaching of the Antichrist (Signorelli), 632
jacket) (Tissot), 676 Precisionism, 169, 187, 308, 488,546, 613,
Portrait of a Cleric (J. Johnston), 352 627, 629-30, 652
Portrait of a "Degenerate Artist" (Kokoschka), predella, see altarpiece
368 Prendergast, Maurice, 216,546-47
Portrait of a Family (Botero), 85 Preparation of the Bride, The (Courbet), 655
Portrait of a German Officer (Hartley), 311 Preparation of the Dead Girl, The (Courbet),
Portrait of a Lady (Christus), 138 655
Portrait of a Man in a Red Cap (Antonello), 22 Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 56, 97-98, 103-4,
Portrait of a Man with Glasses (Massys), 427 2-37, 334, 388, 442, 443, 455, 458-59,
Portrait of a Merchant (Gossaert), 286 462,474, 520, 531,547-48, 553, 587-88,
Portrait of a Negress (Benoist), 63 599,715
764 INDEX

Presentation (Broederlam), 94 Pucelle, Jean, 78, 203, 296, 317, 551-52, 690
Presentation in the Temple (Vouet), 705 Puget, Pierre, 552
Prevalence of Ritual, The: Baptism (Bearden), Pugin, Augustus Welby Northmore, 36, 317,
56
Price, Uvedale, 521 Purism, 55^
Primary Structures, 548 putto, putti, 189, 205, 402, 418, 553, 587,
Primaticcio, Francesco, 243, 245, 390, 525, 674, 710
548, 589 Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 164, 179, 553-54,
Primavera (Botticelli), 86, 433 607, 660, 689
primitive, primitivism, 470, 496, ^48 Pyle, Howard, 727
Princess of the Land of Porcelain, The Pyre (Element Series) (Andre), 17
(Whistler), 248 Pythagoras, 30,554
print, 16, 44, 74, 116, 170, 218, 235, 289, Pythis, 431
361, 419, 423, 452, 474, 506, 508,
548-49, 549, 569, 594, 665, 669, 682, quadratura, 301,555
718 quadro riportato, 555, 567
printing, 16, 218, 393, 400, 438, 485, 489, Quatremere de Quincy, Antoine, 24
502, 548,549-50, 558, 594, 632-33, 686, Quattro Santi Coronati (Nanni), 196, 470
722 quattrocento, 555, 651
Prisoners from the Front (Homer), 328 Queer Theory, 261
Prix deRome, 4, 89, 107, 178, 216, 245, 341, Questioner of the Sphinx, The (Vedder), 693
417, 530.550 Quidor, John, 555-56
Problem We All Live With, The (Rockwell), Quinn, John, 591
580
Process art, 77, 136, 317-18, 445, 458, 532, Race, The (Picasso), 520
550, 625-26 radio carbon dating, 187, 543, 55J
Procession of the Magi (Gozzoli), 291, 432-33 Raeburn, Henry, 382, 585, 557-58
Sir

Procession of the Relic of the True Cross Raft of the Medusa, The (Gericault), 184, 265,
(Gentile Bellini), 58 585, 682, 717
Procopius, 304 Raimondi, Marcantonio, 416, 549, 558
Prodigal Son (Rembrandt), 566 Rain Shower on Ohashi Bridge (Hiroshige),
Productivism, 156 321
Proesch, Gilbert, 511-12 Rainmaker, The (Drysdale), 201
Progress of Civilization, The (Crawford), Rainy Day in Boston (Hassam), 312
166-67 Raising of Lazaraus, The (Sebastiano), 622
Project for a Memorial to Isaac Newton Raising of the Cross (Rubens), 595
(BouUee), 89 Rake's Progress, A (Hogarth), 325
Project for the Disposition of the Grand Rambosson, Ivanhoe, 608
Galerie (Robert), 579 Rand, John, 489
Projection into Space (A. Pevsner), 515 Ranson, Paul, 469
Promenade at Nantasket (Prendergast), 546-47 Rape of Europa, The (Titian), 64, 677, 695
Prometheus (Manship), 417-18 Rape of the Sabine Women (Giambologna),
Prometheus Bound (Rubens with Snyders), 640 269
Prometheus Strangling the Vulture (Lipchitz), Raphael, 18, 43, 51, 60, 61, 91, 113, 122, 124,
397-98 134, 136, 162, 179, 195, 275-76, 299,
Proposal: Poll of MOMA Visitors (Haacke), 341, 346, 389, 390, 416, 420, 433, 440,
304 503, 514, 525, 547, 549, 558,558-60,
proto-Baroque, 161 610, 622, 665, 677, 702, 704, 723
proto-Hellenistic, 619 Rauschenberg, Robert, 73, 108, 349, 350, 355,
proto-Minimalism, 564 537,560
proto-Renaissance, 127, 425 Rayogram, 414
"protractor" series (F. Stella), 647 Rayonism, 282, 379-80,560
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 163 Rayonnant style, 286, 560
Proun, 400 Read, Sir Herbert, 302, 560-61, 687
Proun Composition (Lissitzky), 400 ready-mades, 36, 203, 239, 642
provenance, 125, 138,550-51 realism, 173, 201, 209, 228, 336, 346, 395,
psalter, 339,551 415, 472,561, 580, 641, 646, 696
psychoanalysis, 34, loi, 129, 237, 244, 259, Realism, American, 20, 36, 61, 91, 210, 326,
479,551 328, 330, 335, 406, 422, 605, 630, 636,
Psychopathia Sexualis (Krafft-Ebing), 56 664, 686, 727
 INDEX 765

Realism (movement), 3, 36, 88, 93, 97, 108, Repin, 568-69, 707
Ilya,

163, 176, 197-98, 277, 280, 283, 340, repousse, 188,569

345, 387, 424, 434, 436, 447-48, 464, repoussoir, 142,569
469, 480, 513, 529, 561-6Z, 582, 585, Representational, 474
623,659 reproduction, 62, 548, 569, 594, 708
Rebellious Slave (Michelangelo), 623 Repton, Humphrey, 522
Recall of the Gleaners (Breton), 93 Republican Automatons (Grosz), 298
reception theory, 437, 562, 716 reredos, 569-70
recession, see picture plane response theory, 562
Reciprico Amore (Carracci), 430 Rest on the Flight into Egypt (Cranach),
Reclining Figure (Moore), 454 175-76
Recueil Julienne, 710 Resurrection of the Dead (Signorelli), 632
Red Bridge, The (Weir), 712 retable, see reredos
Red Cross Train (Severini), 628 Return of the Prodigal Son, The (Rembrandt),
Red Room (Harmony in Red) (Bonnard), 80 498
Red-Blue Chair (Mondrian), 575 Revelers (Brygos Painter), 562
red-figure technique, 29, 16, 65, 95, loi, 226, Revelers (Euthymides), 226
542, 562-63 Revisionist art history, 452
Redon, Odilon, 67, 188, 219, 271, 272, ^6^, Revival, 199
608, 660, 701 Rewald, John, 207, 288, 419, 570, 704
Reed, Henry Hope, 700 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 73, 74, 159, 170-71,
reflectography, 389, 511,563 253, 257, 291, 318, 360, 376, 382, 438,
Regentesses of the Old Men's Home (Hals), 489, 557,570-71, 585-86, 645, 654, 713
306 Rhapsody (Bartlett), 50
Regent's Park (Nash), 472 Rhinoceros, The (Longhi), 403
Regent's Street (Nash), 472 rhyton, 571
Regionalism, 15, 64, 170, 287,563-64, 618, Riace bronzes, 96, 141, 571-72
722 Ribera, Jusepe de, 212, 224, 271, 301, 572,
Reinhardt, Ad, 3, 444, 564 668
relief, 29, 32, 69, 126, 153, 189, 197, 214, Ricci, Sebastiano, 572-7^
220, 266, 267, 281, 287, 347, 461, 470, Richardson, Edgar P., 20
481, 525, 526, 528, 549,564-65, 569, Richardson, Henry Hobson, 372, 573
584, 596, 605, 606, 647, 666, 66H, 678, Richardson, Mary, 694
72.2. Richardsonian Romanesque, 573
reliquary, 169-70, 436, ^6^ Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo, 157
Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn, 39, 48, 72, Riefenstahl, Leni, 192-93
78, 97, 124, 155, 198, 200-201, 209, 231, Riegl, Alois, 228, 314, st^6, 573-74
241-42, 259, 306, 330, 340, 345, 364, Riemenschneider, Tilman, 574, 652
380, 395, 397, 498, 549, 565-66, 610, Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, 574—75
617, 620, 624, 635, 642, 643, 669, 706 Rigaud, Hyacinthe, 122,575
Rembrandt Research Project (RRP), 201, 565 Right and Left (Homer), 329
Remington, Frederic, 566 Riis, Jacob, 36, 575-7^, 652
Reminiscences (Bonheur), 79 Riley, Bridget, 363, 491, 576
Renaissance, 10, 17, 18, 22, 34, 50, 58, 59, 60, Rimmer, William, 576-77
72, 89, 91, 100, 118, 142, 145, 155, 156, Ringgold, Faith, 577, 642
158, 170, 181, 182, 189, 196, 198, 200, Ripa, Cesare, 218, 659, 674
209, 216, 239, 266, 267, 271, 290, Z91, Rising of the Sun, The (Boucher), 87
305, 306, 314, 334, 375, 398, 399, 402, River, The (Maillol), 412

404, 418, 424, 438, 441, 466, 479, 492, River Bathers (Hartigan), 311
512, 514, 522, 525, 527, 532, 540, 547, Rivera, Diego, 356-57, 465, 479, 493-94,
553» 558, 579, 622, 632, 676, 685, 696, 577-7S, 634, 641, 663,723
698, 710, 713, 716, 721; see also Italian Rivers, Larry, 324, 578
Renaissance; Northern Renaissance Road to Calvary (met de Bles), 75
Rene Laudonniere and the Indian Chief Athore Robbia, Luca della, 432, 579, 670
Visit Ribaut's Column (Le Moyne), 384 Robert, Hubert, 579-80
Reni, Guido, 45, 263, 301, 420, 555, 567-68, Robert Gould Shaw Memorial (Saint-Gaudens),
635 564-65, 605-6
Renoir, Pierre-Auguste, 47, 54, 55, 123, 128, Roberts, William, 705
185, 207, 2.33, 276, 277, 341, 452, 457, Robie House (Wright), 725
529,56s, 608, 635, 701, 704 Robins, Corrine, 43
766 INDEX

Robinson, Theodore, 15 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 97, 103, 237, 442,

^80
rocaille, 580, 459, 547,SS7-88,7T-5
Rock Drill, The (Epstein), 220 Rossi, Aldo, S88-89
Rockwell, Norman, ^80 Rosso, Medardo, 18, 53, 548,589-90
Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak (Bierstadt), 71 Rosso Fiorentino, 243, 245, 416, $89, 677
Rococo, 6, 35, 48, 73, 111-12, 122, 130, 135, Rothenberg, Susan, 480, J90
165, 232, 245, 264, 271, 283, 299, 325, Rothko, Mark, 3, 39, 151, 483,590-91
475,478, 500, 518, 523-24, 526, 550, rotolus, 591, 620
553> 572-, 573, 579, 5^o,S8o-8i, 634, Rouault, Georges, 456, 591-92, 592, 608, 704
673-74, 699-700, 709 Rouen Cathedral (Monet), 452
Rococo satire, 325 Rousseau, Henri, 25, 75, 200, 234, 456, 470,
Rococo Subversive, 648-49 548, 592, 607, 608, 655, 686
Rodchenko, Alexander, 156, 342, 450, 5S1 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 47, 161, 191, 219,
Rodin, Auguste, 92, 96, 143, 349, 411-12, 386
448, 454, S81-82, 589-90, 701 Rousseau, Theodore, 46, 160, 289, 443, 575,
Roerich, Nicholas, 469 S92--93
Roettgen Pieta, 523 Rowlandson, Thomas, 117
Roger of Helmarshausen, 671 Royal Academy of Arts, see Academy
Rokeby Venus (Velazquez), 694 Royal Pavilion, Brighton (Nash), 471
roll, 620 Rozanova, Olga, 593-94
Rolling Power (Sheeler), 630 Rubenistes, see line vs. color
Roman art, 8, 15, 21-22, 28-29, 52-, 95-96, Rubens, Peter Paul, 4, 48, 82, 97, 98, 116, 122,
105, 126, 142, 152, 164, 165, 177, 206, 136, 150, 185, 210, 211, 217, 221, 266,
220, 319, 442, 487, 501, 508, 527, 532, 353-54, 397, 433, 52-4-2-5, 544,
2-84, 32-5,

550, 555, S82-84, 696, 702, 718, 719, 566, 594-95> 640, 669, 709-10
724 Rubin, William, 519-20
Romanesque, 54, 132, 146, 152, 212, 275, Rublev, Andrei, 595
434, 461, 495, 573, 5^4' 657, 671, 7i7 Rude, Francois, 585, 595-96
Romans of the Decadence (Couture), 164 Rudolph, Paul, 596-97
Romantic Baroque, 184, 342 Rue des Moulins (Toulouse-Lautrec), 679
Romantic Classicism, 274, 341-42, 505, 615, Rue Transnonain, April 15, 1834 (Daumier),
672 176
Romantic eclectic, 180 Ruisdael, Jacob van, 322, 375, 478, 597, 624
Romantic naturalism, 708 Runciman, Alexander, 495
Romantic Neoclassicism, 526 Runge, Philipp Otto, 250, 495, 597-9^
Romantic Rationalism, 373 Running Fence, Sonoma and Marin Counties,
Romanticism, 3, 8, 12, 51, 71, 73, 74, 79, 90, California (Christo and Jeanne Claude),
125, 140, 148, 155, 164, 165, 167, 175, 136
177, 184, 197-98, 204, 206, 207, 228, Rural Realism, 443
250, 264-65, 274-75, 277, 279, 289, 295, Rush, William, 598-99
2-97,314, 340, 341, 362, 376, 391, 415, Ruskin, John, 8, 36, 98, 103-4, 251, 294, 335,
423, 462, 471, 473, 474, 475, 495, 513, 376, 386, 443, 547, 599< 682, 683, 715
521, 527, 552, 555, 557, 561, 566, 570, Russell, John, 93, 129
572, 576, 577, 579,584-85, 586, 595, Russell,Morgan, 133, 409, 484, 494, 599-600,
597, 599, 603, 615, 643-44, 654, 656, 660
659, 673, 681, 682, 701, 707, 713, 716, Russolo, Luigi, 120
717,72.5 Ruysch, Rachel, 478, 600, 651
Romberger, James, 721 Ryder, Albert Pinkham, 72, 74, 179, 190, 237,
Romney, George, 382, ^8^-86, 654 601, 660, 712
Room o'f the Giants (Giulio), 276, 284
Rope Dancer Accompanies Herself with Her Saar, Betye, 6oz
Shadows, The (Ray), 414 Saarinen, Aline, 49, 591-92
Rosa, Salvator, 45, 586 Saarinen, Eero, 602-3, 603
Rosenblum, Robert, 93, 104, 446, 682 Saarinen, Eliel, i, 602, 60)
Rosenquist, James, 537,586-87 Sacchetti, Marcello, 162
Roses, Convolvulus, Poppies and Other Flowers Sacchi, Andrea, 45, 46, 162, 414, 420, 603-4
an Urn on a Stone Ledge (Ruysch), 600
in sacra conversazione, 158, 196, 604
Roskill, Mark, ix, 76, 259, 365, 425-26 Sacrificeof Isaac, The (Ghiberti), 267
Rossellino, Antonio, 189,587 Saenredam, Pieter Jansz., 604-5, 7^9
Rossellino, Bernardo, 189,587 Sage, Kay, 605, 663
 INDEX 767

Said, Edward, 492.-93 Salon des Independants, 169, 456, 607, 608,
Saint Eloy in His Studio (Christus), 137 631, 642
Saint Francis (Bcrlingliieri), 66 Salon des Refuses, 451, 607
Saint Francis in Ecstasy (Giovanni Bellini), Samaras, Lucas, 609
59-60 Sammachini, Orazio, 243
Saint Francis in Ecstasy (Zurbaran), 730 Samuel Adams (Copley), 159
Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, 160, 410, 564-65, Samuel F. B. Morse (Brady), 91
60^-6 San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (Borromini),
Saint George (Donatello), 196 194
Saint George and the Princess (Pisanello), 5Z7 San Francesco (Alberti), 10
Saint George Slaying the Dragon (Altdorfer), San Giobbe Altarpiece (Bellini), 604
14 San Giorgio Maggiore (Palladio), 499
Saint James Led to Execution (Mantegna), 418 San Simeon (Morgan), 457
Saint Jerome (La Tour), 373 San Vitale, 105, 476, 609
Saint Jerome and the Angels of Judgment Sanctuary (Lipton), 399
(Ribera), 57Z Sandrart, Joachim von, 198, 299, 609-10
Saint Jerome in His Study (Antonello), 2Z Sangallo, Antonio da, the Younger, 91-92,
Saint Jerome in the Desert (Lotto), 405 234, 440, 610
Saint John the Baptist (Ghiberti), 267 Sangallo, Giuliano da, 346, 432, 610
Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness Sansovino, Andrea, 611
(Geertgen), z6i Sansovino, Jacopo, 610-11
Saint Lucille Baptized by Saint Valentine Santa Maria degli Angeli (Brunelleschi), 100
(Bassano), 53 Sant' Andrea (Alberti), 10
Saint Lucy Altarpiece (Domenico), 196 Sant' Andrea al Quirinale (Bernini), 68
Saint Luke Painting the Virgin (Heemskerck), Sant' Ivo della Sapienza (Borromini), 194
313 Santo Spirito (Brunelleschi), 100
Saint Luke Portraying the Virgin (Weyden), 90, Santorini, 6ji-j2.
405 Sargent, John Singer, 118, 248, 347, 382,
Saint Mary Altarpiece (Stoss), 652 6ii-iz, 709
Saint Mary Magdalene Anointing Christ's Feet Sartre, Jean Paul, 228, 268, 675
(Ricci), 573 Sash on Red Ground (Bush), 105
Saint Paul's Cathedral (Wren), 724 Sassetta, 64, 612
Saint Paul's, Lower Manhattan (Marin), 421 saturation, 1 50, 343
Saint Peter (La Tour), 373 Saturn Devouring His Children (Goya), 563
Saint Peter's, Rome, 43, 45, 67, 68, 91-92, Saturn Devouring His Son (Goya), 290
152, 205, 239, 419, 440, 500, 610 Satyr and Bacchante (Clodion), 144
Saint Phalle, Niki de, 606, 675 Satyros, 431
Saint Philip Exorcising a Demon in the Temple Saussure, Ferdinande de, 624-25
of Mars (Filippino Lippi), 398 Savage, Augusta, 310, 381, 612-13
Saint Praxedis (Vermeer), 697 Savonarola, Girolamo, 50, 86, 432, 440, 613
Saint Sebastian (Antonello), 22-23 Saynatsalo, Finland, Town Hall complex
Saint Sebastian (Pollaiuolo), 532 (Aalto), I

Saint Serapion (Zurbaran), 730 Scapegoat, The (W. H. Hunt), 335

Saint Susanna (Duquesnoy), 205 Scenes from the Life of the Virgin and Christ
Saint Wolfgang Altarpiece (Pacher), 498 (Memling), 435-36
David, 240, 475, 541, 606-j
Salle, Schamberg, Morton, 31, 613-14
Salmon, Andre, 506, 519 Schapiro, Meyer, 128, 157, 462, 614, 6^ ^-$6
Salome with the Head of John the Baptist Schapiro, Miriam, 182, 236, 614-15
(Beardsley), 56 Scheherazade (Bakst), 42
Salon, 4, 51, 53, 63, 89, 93, 107, 131, 164, Scheits, Matthias, 305
176, 179, 186, 190, 228, 257, 264, 275, Schiele, Egon, 615
295, 298, 416, 443, 451, 456, 530, 568, Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 279, 294, 615-16,
579, 581-82, 592, 593, 607-8, 664, 672, 707
676, 690 Schlemmer, Oskar, 616
Salon d'Automne, 169, 188, 234, 429, 592, Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl, 98
607, 608, 703, 729 Schnabel, Julian, 240, 475, 540, 616-17
Salon de la Princesse, Hotel de Soubise Scholasticism, 484, 486, 6iy
(Boffrand), 580 Schonberg, Arnold, 107
Salon de la Rose + Croix, 324, 365, 608, Schone Maria (Altdorfer), 14
660 Schongauer, Martin, 208, 485, 549, 617
768 INDEX

school, 115, 563, 604, 6iy-i8, 724 semiotics, semiosis, 34, loi, 143, 244, 328,
School of Athens (Raphael), 559 370, 438, 452, 479, 541, 551, 624-25,
School of Fontainebleau, 589 630, 633, 653, 660
School of London, 364 Sentences on Conceptual Art (LeWitt), 43,
School of Paris, 129, 381, 449, 506, 618, 642., 392
662, 688 sepia, 625, 665, 709
Schroder house (Rietveld), 574-75 Septimus Severus, Julia Domna, and Their
Schwartz, Gary, 200, 565 Children, Caracalla and Geta, 231
Schwitters, Kurt, 127, 160, 172, 355, 618-19, Septimus Severus Reproaching Caracalla
641 (Greuze), 296
Scioppius, Gaspard, 594 serigraphy, 632-33
Scopas, 431, 530, 619 Serliana, Serlian motif, 499
Scorel, Jan van, 313, 619-20 Serlio, Sebastiano, 499
316-17
Scott, Kathleen, Serra, Richard, 550, 62^-26
ScottBrown, Denise, 695 Serrano, Andres, 472
Scream, The (Munch), 41, 463, 464 Serusir, Paul, 469
scriptorium, 20, 62, 81, 147, 319, 339, 620 Setting of the Sun,The (Boucher), 87
scroll, 147, 215, 275, 339, 620 Seuphor, Michel, 127
Scully, Vincent, 152, 338, 584, 620-21 Seurat, Georges, 133, 157, 251, 281, 476, 529,
sculpture, 621 540, 607, 626-27, 628, 631, 701
Sculpture for the Blind (Brancusi), 92 Seven Acts of Mercy (Sweerts), 659
scumbling, 489, 621 Seven Deadly Sins, The (Dix), 193
Scuola Metafisica, 120, 129, 135 Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, 138,
Seagram Building (Johnson and Mies van der 431, 517,627
Rohe), 344, 351,441 Severe style, 141, 468

Sea Islands Series (Weems), 711 Severini, Gino, 120, 253, 627-28
Sea Picture with Black (Frankenthaler), 247 Sforza family, 91, 221, 239, 453, 628-29
Sea Ranch (Moore), 454 sfumato, 134, 389, 398, 629, 678
seal, 220, 320, 621-22 Shahn, Ben, 629
Searing, Helen, ix, 292, 322, 541 Sharaku, Saido, 686
Seated Girl Holding a Book (John), 349 Shearman, John, 268, 604
Sebastian (Antonello), 302 She-Ba (Bearden), 55
Sebastiano del Piombo, 134, 249, 433, 622-23 Sheeler, Charles, 31, 133, 308, 546, 613,
Secession, 358, 366, 478, 623 629-30, 652
Second Empire, 53, 119, 276, 340, 417, 437, Sherman, Cindy, 541, 569, 630
529, 561, 568,623 Shinn, Everett, 216, 315, 406, 630-31
Second Style, see mural Shoot (Burden), 103
Second Temple, 29 Shoot-out (Grooms), 297
Section D'Or, 30 Shrine of Saint Ursula (Memling), 436
Segal, George, 623-24 Sickert, Walter Richard, 402
Segers, Hercules, 375, 624 Side of Beef (Soutine), 643
Self-Portrait (Allston), 12 Siege of Paris, The (Meissonier), 437
Self-Portrait (Carriera), 122 Siena, 40, 202, 273, 403, 424, 612, 631
Self-Portrait (Close), 145 Signac, Paul, 186, 251, 476, 529, 607, 631-32,
Self-Portrait (de Chirico), 135 706
Self-Portrait (Gauguin), 305 Signorelli, Luca, 514, 632
Self-Portrait (Leyster), 394 Sigiienza, Fray Jose de, 84
Self-Portrait (Ray), 414 silk-screen, 549, 632-33, 708
Self-Portrait (Rembrandt), 39 silverpoint, 633
Self-Portrait before the Colosseum Simonetta Vespucci (Piero di Cosimo), 523
(Heemskerck), 313 simulacrum, simulacra, 62, 476, 479, 530, 633,
Self-Portrait Playing the Lute (Steen), 646 681
Self-Portrait with Amber Necklace Simultaneous Contrasts: Sun and Moon
(Modersohn-Becker), 448 (Delaunay), 186
Self-Portrait with Doll (Kokoschka), 368 singerie, 633-34, 669, 709
Self-Portrait with Fish (J. Brown), 253 Singing Sculpture, The ("Underneath the
Self-Portrait with Patricia Preece (S. Spencer), Arches") (Gilbert and George), 511-12
644 sinopia, 249, 634
Self Seer II, The: Death and the Man (Schiele), Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 493-94, 578, 634, 663
615 Sirani, £lisabetta, 243, 634-35
 INDEX 769

Sisley, Alfred, 47, 277, 568, 635 Spencer, Lilly Martin, 643
Sistine Chapel paintings (Michelangelo), 151, Spencer, Sir Stanley, 643-44
161,439-40, 536, 550, 555 Spero, Nancy, 37, 281, 644
Sistine Madonna (Raphael), 559 Spherical Expansion of Light (Centrifugal)
Sitter, The 487
(Finley), (Severini), 628
Sitter, The (K. Smith),
638 Spiegelman, Art, 123
Six Views of Holland (Jongkind), 353 Spiral Jetty (Smithson), 215, 639
size, 6^6 Spirit of the Dead Watching (Gauguin), 259
Sketch I for Composition VII (Kandinsky), Spirit of the Ghetto, The (Epstein), 220

359 Splashing (Serra), 626

Sky Cathedral (Nevelson), 479 Sprinkle, Annie, 78, 236
Slaughtered Ox (Rembrandt), 643 Square Arranged According to the Laws of
Slave Market, The (Gerome), z66 Chance (Arp), 32
Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Staffelsee in Autumn (Miinter), 465
Dying— Typhoon Coming On (The Slave Stag Hunt, The (Gnosis), 460
Ship) (Turner), 682-83 "stain" paintings, 6
Slaves (Michelangelo), 440 »
stained glass, 10, 58, 103, 122, 129, 132, 180,
Sleep (Brancusi), 92 296, 372, 409, 413, 421, 429, 457, 459,
Sleep of Endymion, The 274-75
(Girodet), 460, 591, 644-45, 657, 671, 674
Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, The Staiti, Paul, 73
(Goya), 27, 289 Stalin and the Muses (Komar and Melamid),
Sleeping Gypsy, The (H. Rousseau), 200, 592 369
Sleeping Muse (Brancusi), 92 Standing Woman (Lachaise), 374
Sleeping Venus (Giorgione), 271, 272, 678 Standing Woman (Lehmbruck), 387
Sloan, John, 20, 36, 47, 216, 315, 331, 406, Stankiewicz, Richard, 355
462, 538, 575, 614, 636 State Library, Venice (Sansovino), 611
Sluter, Glaus, 94, 440, 485, 528, 636-37, 690 Statue of Liberty (Bartholdi), 49-50
Smibert, John, 73, 158, 235, 509, 637 —
Steelworkers Noontime (Anshutz), 20
Smith, David, 294, 637-38 Steen, Jan, 264, 290, 478, 570, 645-46, 697
Smith, Kiki, 638-39, 639 Steerage, The (Stieglitz), 649
Smith, Tony, 639, 639 Steichen, Edward, 421, 521, 646, 649
Smithson, Robert, 215, 327, 639-40 Stein, Gertrude, 31, 646-47, 649
Snake Charmer, The (H. Rousseau), 686 Steiner House (Loos), 403
Snap the Whip (Homer), 328 stele, stela, 647
Snowstorm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing Stella, Frank, 3, 27, 308, 444, 466, 541,
the Alps 'Turner), 682 647-4*
Snowstorm: Steamboat Off a Harbor's Mouth Stella, Joseph, 31, 127, 648
(Turner), 585 stencil, see printing
Snyder, James, 75, 427-28, 429, 652 Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle), 382, 607,
Snyders, Frans, 478, 594, 640 672-73
Soane, John, 294, 640-41, 6^6
Sir Stepped Pyramid of King Zoser (Imhotep), 339
Social Documentary, 226, 652 Stereolab, 716
Social Realism, 287, 298, 368, 369, 424, 493, Sterling, Charles, 131
577, 629, 634, 641, 641, 667 Stettheimer, Florine, 381, 647, 648-49
Socialist Realism, 641, 641 Stickley, Gustav, 36
Societe Anonyme Inc., 414, 451, 641-42, 642, Stieglitz, Alfred, 31, 187, 199, 311, 421, 488,
648 519, 521, 623, 646, 649, 649
Society of Independent Artists, 276, 642 Stieglitz Circle, 31, 64, 421, 470, 488, 649,
soft ground etching, see etching 652, 710
soft sculpture,490, 577, 642 Stijl, De (The Style), i, 32, 146, 194, 344, 400,
soir qui tombe, Le (Magritte), 411 450,451,476, 574,649-50
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (Wright), Still, Clyfford E., 2, 650
72.5 still life, 128, 130, 162-63,
4, 7, 30, 55, 98,
Son of the Ancient Race, The (Israels), 345 174, 189, 199, 240, 261, 278, 310, 317,
Song of the Towers (Douglas), 199 322, 340, 358, 372, 385, 435, 478, 485,
Soutine, Chaim, 129, 193, 449, 618, 642-43 511, 515, 568, 600, 640, 650-51, 681,
Souvenir of Mortefontaine (Corot), 161 691, 730
Sower, The (Gogh), 280 Still Life in Studio (Daguerre), 174
Sower, The (Millet), 443 Still Life with Chair-Caning (Picasso), 520
Space, Time, and Architecture (Giedion), 269 Still Life with Peaches, 650
 j

770 INDEX

Still Life with Quince, Cabbage, Melon, and 229, 251, 267, 284, 285, 292, 298, 302,
Cucumber (Cotan), 163 356, 411, 426, 430, 445-46, 477, 482,
Still Life with Tart (Peeters), 511 491, 513, 518, 519, 551, 561, 605, 627,
Stoicism, j'^-ji) 638, 644, 649, 6s8-s9, 663, 664
Stokes, Adrian, 651 Surrealists, 2-3, 25, 44
Stokstad, Marilyn, ix, 68, 286, 511, 684 Surrender at Breda (Velazquez), 665
Stone Breakers, The (Courbet), 163, 561 Surrounded Islands, Biscayne Bay, Greater
Stone Field Sculpture (Andre), 17 Miami, Florida (Christo and Jeanne
Stoning of Saint Stephen, The (Fontana), 243 Claude), 136
Stoss, Viet, zoo, 651-52 Susannah and the Elders (Benton), 64
Strand, Paul, 652 Susannah and the Elders (A. Gentileschi), 263
Strawberry Hill, 180, 707 Sutton, Peter C, 330, 353
Street in Asineeres (Utrillo), 688 Sutton Hoo Ship Burial, 19
Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn Swearing of the Oath of Ratification of the
(Hogarth), 20 Treaty of Miinster (Borch), 82
Strong, Eugenie, 21 Sweerts, Michael, 659
Strozzi Altarpiece, The (Gentile), 60, 262 Swimming (Eakins), 55
structuralism, 3, 34, 43, 244, 479, 541, 625, Swing, The (Fragonard), 245
653 symbol, symbolic, 659
Stuart, Gilbert, 25, 474, 6^3-^4, 658, 690, 713 Symbolism, 8, 25, 42, 53, 56, 63, 66, 73, 77,
Stubbs, George, 6^4 103-4, 179, 187, 2.19, 228, 237, 259, 324,
Studio, The (Rivers), 578 388, 455, 463, 464, 469, 553, 561, 563,
Studio (Atelier) pictures (Braque), 93 608, 659-60, 705, 706, 724
Studio in the Batignolles (Fantin-Latour), 233 Symphony in White No. II: The Little White
Studio in the rue la Condamine, The (Bazille), Girl (Whistler), 660
55 Synchromism, 64, 186, 409, 494, 599-600,
Studio of a Fainter (Courbet), 164 660
Study after Velazquez 's Fope Innocent X Synchromy in Orange: To Form (Russell), 600
(Bacon), 694 Synchronic analysis, 103, 660
study collection, 6^4-^ Syndics of the Clothmakers' Guild
Study for Portugal (Delaunay-Terk), 186 (Rembrandt), 259, 306, 566
Sturm, Der, 6j^ synesthesia, 660-61
style, 48, 187, 200, 512, 584, 641, 6^^-j6 Synthetic Cubism, 169, 520, 666
sub- Antique, 160, 215, 231, 6s6 Synthetism, 66, 187, 259, 554, 660, 661
Sublime, 12, 138, 376, 423, 505, 521, 585,
586, 597, 656,682,713 Tableau II (Mondrian), 451
Subway (Segal), 623 Tacca, Pietro, 221
Suger, abbot of Saint-Denis, 132, 287, 429, Tachisme, 3, 246, 661
461, 645, 6s6-S7 Taddei Madonna (Michelangelo), 678
Sullivan, Louis, 334, 431, 552, 573, 645, 6s7, Taeuber-Arp, Sophie, 127, 662
670, 725 Takis, 35, 662-6)
Sully, Thomas, 474, 65J-58, 713 Talbot, William Henry Fox, 174
Sultan Mohammed II (Gentile Bellini), 58 Taliesin I (Wright), 725
Summer (T. W. Dewing), 190 Taliesin West (Wright), 725
Summer (Puvis de Chavannes), 553 Tamara's Dance (Vrubel), 706
Summer Scene, Bathers (Bazille), 55 Tamayo, Rufino, 634, 663
Sun Tunnels (Holt), 327 Tanguy, Yves, 71, 302, 605, 659, 663-64
Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Tanner, Henry Ossawa, 5, 462, 664
Jatte (Seurat), 627 Tanning, Dorothea, 664-65
Sunset on the Hudson (Gifford), 270 Tansey, Mark, 541, 665
Supermarket Shopper (Hanson), 307 tapestry, 54, 79, 103, 122, 203, 412, 457, 471,
Superrealism, 336, 518, 561, 562 499, 665
Supper (Katz), 360 Tapie, Michel, 662 3,
Supper at Erasmus (Caravaggio), 115 Tapies, Antoni,665-66
support, 114, 299, 6^8 Tarbell, Edmund, 15
Suprematism, 128, 156, 380, 400, 413, 6^8 Tarot Garden (Saint Phalle), 606
Suprematist Composition: White on White Tassi, Agostino, 142, 263
(Malevich), 413 Tatlin, Vladimir, 156, 241, 255, 342, 384, 593,
Surrealism, 3, 30, 32, 55, 77, 107, 120, 127, 666-67
129, 143, 160, 172, 174-75, 219, 222-23, Tattoo and Haircut (Marsh), 422
 INDEX 771

Tavern Scene (Brouwer), 97 Three Women (Leger), 386

Taylor, Francis Henry, 157 Three Women Bathers (Matisse), 128
T.B. Harlem (Neel), 474-75 Three Womenin Church (Leibl), 387
Tchelitchew, Pavel, 477 Throne of the Third Heaven of the Nations'
Team Disney Building (Graves), 292. Millennium General Assembly (Hampton),
Teerlinc, Levina, 66j 496
telamon, 123 Thunderstorm, Narragansett Bay (Heade),
Telling Secrets (Acconci), 5 312
tempera, 86, 196, 266, 346, 389, 422,
2,18, Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, 12, 52, 53, 518,
489, 499, 506, 524, 667, 695, 727 581, 673-74
Tempest, The (Giorgione), 271, 272, 374 Tiffany, Louis Comfort, 372, 645, 674-75
Tempietto (Little Temple) (Bramante), 91 Tiger Devouring a Gavial (Barye), 51
temple, 91, 152, 153, 264, 292, 304, 338, 499, TiltedArc (Serra), 626
504, 505, 540, 552, 583, 621, 667-68, Time Revealing Truth (Bernini), 218, 674
687 Tinguely, Jean, 39, 363, 562, 606, 621, 675
Temple of Apollo at Bassae (Ictinos), 338 Tinterow, Gary, 593
Temptation of Saint Anthony (Patinir), 508 Tintoretto, Jacopo, 48, 103, 114, 263, 266,
Temptation of Saint Anthony, The 2-71, 340, 389, 675-76, 695, 697
(Schongauer), 617 Tissot, James, 676-77
Ten American Painters (The Ten), 15, 683, 712 Titian, 64, 103, 118, 136, 210, 221, 246, 271,
tenebrism, 134, 668 308, 375, 379, 382, 397, 404, 416, 456,
Teniers, David, the Younger, 97, 149, 643, 524-25, 543, 621, 677-78, 695
668-69 Titus, 151, 152
Tenniel, Sir John, 117, 427, 669 Titus at His Desk (Rembrandt), 566
Tennyson (Salle), 606-7 To Max Ernst (Tanning), 664
Terbrugghen, Hendrick, 669-70, 687 Tobey, Mark, 678
terra-cotta, 32, 144, 165, 175, 436, 670 Toilers of the Sea (Ryder), 601
Terre, La (Zola), 280 Tokugawa period, 321, 325
Tetrarchs, 215, 584 Tomb of Leo XI (Algardi), 11
Teutsche Academie (German Academy) Tomb of Oscar Wilde (Epstein), 220
(Sandrart), 609 Tomb of Pope Sixtus IV (Pollaiuolo), 533
Thankful Poor, The (Tanner), 664 Tomb of the Marechal de Saxe (Pigalle), 524
Theater at Epidauros, 584 Tomb of Urban VIII (Bernini), 11
Theodore Gericattlt (David d'Angers), 177 Tomb of Valentine Balbiani (Pilon), 525
Theophanes the Greek, 595, 670-71 tonal painting, 27, 142, 179, 597, 678
Theophilus, 104, 243, 645, 671 tondo, 97, 196, 678-79
Thera, 375, 445, 633, 671-72 Toorop, Jan, 608
Therese Raquin (Zola), 183 Toreador Fresco, 445
thermoluminescence dating, 543, 557, 672 Tornado Over Kansas (Curry), 170
They Did Not Expect Him (Repin), 568 Torqued Ellipses (Serra), 626
Thiebaud, Wayne, 672 Torres-Garcia, Joaquin, 127, 287
Thinker, The (Rodin), 582 Touchet, Marie, 146
Third-Class Carriage, The (Daumier), 177 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 13, 66, 456, 464,
Third of May 1808, The (Goya), 289 540, 591, 679, 689
Third (Ornate) Style, see mural Tractored Out, Childress County, Texas
Thirt}'-six Views of Mount Fuji (Hokusai), 326 (Lange), 378
32 Campbell's Soup Cans (Warhol), 708 Trademarks (Acconci), 5
This Is Tomorrow (Hamilton etc.), 307 Traini, Francesco, 679-80
Thomas Carlyle (Cameron), no Trajan, 153-54
Thomas Carlyle (Millais), 443 transcendental, 377
Thore, Theophile, 593, 672 Transcendentalism, 138, 406, 423, 680, 717
Thorvaldsen, Bertel, 49, 166, 475, 672-73 transept, 146, 680
Three Fates {Three Goddesses), 141, 200, 388 Transfiguration (Raphael), 622
Three Flags (Rauschenberg), 350 Transfiguration (Sebastiano), 622-23
Three Graces, The (Pilon), 525 Transfiguration of Christ (Raphael), 560
Three Ideas and Seven Procedures . . . Transparencies (Picabia), 519
(Bochlin), 77 Trans World Airlines (TWA) Terminal,
Three Musicians (Picasso), 239 Kennedy Airport (Eero Saarinen), 602-3
Three Pairs of Shoes (Gogh), 303 Traveler, The (Popova), 537
Three Pickle Jars (Fish), 240 Travis, David, 518
77^ INDEX

Treachery (or Perfidy) of Images, The Universal Field (Tobey), 678

(Magritte), 411 University of Virginia (Jefferson), 348
trecento, 680 Unswept Floor, The, 460, 681
Tree of Life Fantasy (Aycock), 40 Untitled (Clemente), 143
Tree of Life Series (Mendieta), 436 Untitled (R. Morris), 458
Tres Riches Heures, Les (Limbourg), 81, Untitled (K. Smith), 6^8
395-96 Untitled (Twombly), 683
Tribute Money, The (Masaccio), 158, 425 Untitled Film Still 3 (Sherman), 630
Trinity Church, Boston (Richardson), 372., 573 Untitled (Green Stripe) (Rozanova), 593
triptych, 58,in, 278, 535, 680 Untitled, No. 11 (Francis), 246
Triptych with the Nativity (Gerard David), 178 Untitled No. 9 (A. Martin), 423
Triumph of Columbia (Barge of State, The) Untitled (Rope Piece) (Hesse), 317
(MacMonnies), 410 Untitled (The Hotel Eden) (Cornell), 160
Triumph of Death (Traini), 679 Untitled (Upside-Down Horse Legs)
Triumph of Prince Frederick Henry, The (Rothenberg), 590
(Jordaens), 354 Ur, 687
Triumph of the New York School (Tansey), 665 ut pictura poesis, 162, 391, 603, 687
Triumph of the Republic, The (Dalou), 175 Utamaro, Kitigawa, 686
Triumph of Venice (Veronese), 695, 697 Utrecht Psalter, 118, 147
tronipe I'oeil, 2x5, 310, 330, 453, 460, Utrecht School, 687
514-15, 555, 650, 6«o-8i Utrillo, Maurice, 618, 688, 689
trope, tropology, 438, 681
Trout Pool, The (Whittredge), 717 Valadon, Suzanne, 448, 488, 688, 689
True Cross legend (Piero della Francesca), 704 Valois dynasty, 94, in, 285, 308, 395, 415,
Trumbull, John, 234, 459, 467, 495, 681-82, 636, 689-90, 714
713 Van Alen, William, 33
Truth Denied (Dalou), 175 Vanderlyn, John, 234, 391,459, 501, 690-91
Tuckerman, Henry T., 350-51 vanitas, 98, 240, 435, 600, 669, 691
Tudor-Hart, Ernest Percyval, 409, 660 Vasarely, Victor, 491
Turkish Boy (Gentile Bellini), 58 Vasari, Giorgio, 4, 17, 18, 34, 58, 59, 60, 61,
Turkish Page, The (Duveneck), 210 85-86, 102, 150, 151, 155, 161, 189, 196,
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 567 243, 256, 271, 276, 346, 347, 390, 398,
Turner, Joseph Mallard William, 270, 279, 402, 415, 418, 425, 433, 440, 441, 503,
376, 585, 599, 656, 682-83, 715 522, 523, 525, 526, 532, 536, 548, 559,
Twachtman, John, 15, 210, 383, 683, 712 579> 587, 589, 599, 610, 617, 632, 655,
Twittering Machine (Klee), 365 679, 685, 691-92, 695
Two Children Are Threatened by a Nightingale Vase with Flowers (J. Bruegel), 98
(Ernst), 222, 453 vauk, 692
Two Dogs on a Deserted Street (Bonnard), 80 Vauxcelles, Louis, 169, 234, 592, 646
Two Fridas, The (Kahlo), 356 Vedder, Elihu, 692-93
Two Nuns of Port Royal (Champaigne), 130 Veduta di Roma (Piranesi), 527
Twombly, Cy, 143, 683 Veils (Louis), 405
typology, 69, 215, 461, 595, 683-84, 721 Velazquez, Diego, 12, 41, 80, 118, 183, 212,
221, 224, 244, 289, 315, 382, 464, 497,
Uccello, Paolo, 195, 267, 432, 513, 627, 68s 572, 612, 627, 665, 683, 693-94, 710
Uffizi, 68s, 691 vellum, 503
Ugly Old Woman, The (Massys), 427, 508 Venetian Art from Bellini to Titian (Wilde), 717
Uhde, Wilhelm, 686 Venice, 12, 17, 22, 50, 53, 58, 59, 60, 103-4,
Ukiyo-e, 108, 123, 183, 259, 283, 321, 340, 105, 113-14, 150, 167, 170, 196, 293,
348, 492, 631, 655, 686-87, 72-3 300-301, 402, 427, 460, 518, 572, 611,
Under the Roof of Blue Ionian Weather (Alma- 618, 622, 674, 675, 677, 678, 685, 692,
Tadema), 13 694-9S, 697
UNESCO Headquarters (Breuer and Nervi), Venice Biennale, 345, 69s
477 Venturi, Robert, 541, 69S-96
Unicorns (Davies), 179 Venus de Milo, see Aphrodite of Melos
Unique Forms of Continuity in Space Venus ofUrbino (Titian), 416, 678
(Boccioni), 76 verism, 561, 696
Unit One, 316, 561, 68y Vermeer, Jan, 48, no, 187, 200, 228, 231,
United States (Anderson), 16 232, 330, 645, 672, 696-97, 710
United States Capitol (Jefferson), 348 Vernet, Claude-Joseph, 489
United States Customs House (Davis), 180 Veronese, 53, 136, 271, 692, 695, 697-98
 INDEX 773

Verrocchio, Andrea del, zii, 2.47, 390, 433, Voulkos, Peter, 32

439, 698, 724 Voyage of Life, The (Cole), 148-49
Versailles, 165, Z74, 383, 607, 698-99, 700 Vrubel, Mikhail, 283, 705-6
Vertumnus (Arcimboldo), 30 Vuillard, Edouard, 80, 209, 219, 366, 469,
Victor Hugo (David d'Angers), 177 608, 706
Victorian satire, 669
video, 242., 498, 53Z, 699 Wainright Building (Sullivan), 657
Vienna Genesis, 157-58, 215 Walden, Herwarth, 655
Vienna Secession (Sezession), see Secession Walking Woman (Archipenko), 29-30
Vietnam Veterans Memorial (Lin), 396, 707 Wall/Floor Piece 4 (LeWitt), 392
View of Delft (Vermeer), 696 wall painting, see mural
View of Dordrecht (Goyen), 290 Walpole, Horace, in, 117, 180, 279, 552, 707
View of Haarlem (Ruisdael), 597 Wanderers, 568, 707
View of Paris: The Life of Pleasure (Dubuffet), War Games (Abakanowicz), 2
zoz war memorial, 47, 707
Views Through a Sand Dune (Holt), 327 war memorial (Schinkel), 279
Vigee-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Elisabeth, 63, War Monument (Barlach), 47
699-yoo Warburg, Aby, 34, 708
Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da, ZZ4, joo Ward, John Quincy Adams, 708
Viipuri Library (Aalto), i Warhol, Andy, 422, 473, 475, 537, 569, 633,
Villa Boscoreale, 465, joo 708-9
Village Bride, The (Greuze), 29 5 wash, 26, 301, 573, 625, 709, 709
Villa Medici at Poggio a Caiano (G. Sangallo), Washington Crossing the Delaware (Leutze),
43Z, 610 391-92
Villa of the Mysteries, 465, joi Washroom and Dining Area of Floyd
Villa Rotunda (Palladio), 499 Burroughs' Home, Hale County, Alabama
Villa Savoye (Le Corbusier), 384 (Evans), 227
Villard de Honnecourt, joi Water Lilies (Monet), 452
Vingt, Les, Z19, 608, 701 Water Nymph and Bittern (Rush), 598-99
Violin and Palette (Braque), 93 watercolor, 27, 102, 167, 185, 187, 208,
Violin d'Ingres, Le (Ray), 414, 638 246-47, 287, 299, 372, 421, 434, 483,
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene-Emmanuel, 413, yoi-z 486, 524, 530, 612, 646, 709, 709, 715
Vir Heroicus Sublimis (Newman), 480 Watson and the Shark (Copley), 159-60
Virgin and Child before a Firescreen (Campin), Watteau, Antoine, 87, 122, 581, 709-10
III Wave (Hepworth), 316
Virgin and Child in a Rose Arbor (Lochner), We Won't Play Nature to Your Culture
401 (Kruger), 236
Virgin and Child with a Bowl of Porridge (G. Weber, Max, 253, 591, 649, 710-11
David), 178 Weddmg, The (Kitaj), 364
Virgin and Child with Nicolas Rolin (Eyck), 90, Weems, Carrie Mae, 711
714 Wegman, William, 711
Virgin in a Church (Eyck), 170 Weir, Julian Alden, 15, 81, 383, 683, 7x1-12
Viscount Lepic and His Daughters (Degas), 183 Well of Moses (Sluter), 637
Vision After the Sermon, The (Jacob Wrestling Wesselmann, Tom, 510, 537, 71Z
with the Angel) (Gauguin), 66, 259 West, Benjamin, 4, 12, 25, 159, 213, 257, 322,
Vision of Saint Eustace (Pisanello), 5Z7-Z8 360, 436, 509, 654, 658, 682, 712.-13
Visionary art, 74, 179, 496, 601, 692 Western-Romantic, 566
Visitation, The (Barocci), 48 Weston, Edward, 26, 713-14
Visitation (Broederlam), 94 Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way
Visitation, The (Coene), 88 (Leutze), 392
Visitation (Pontormo), 536 Westwood Children, The (J. Johnston), 352
Visiting the Sick (Sweerts), 659 Wethey, Harold, 112
Vitruvius, IZ3, 153, 267, 288, 504, 535, 702-3 Weyden, Rogier van der, 18, 90, 178, 224,
Vladimir Madonna, The, 337 262, 405, 427, 435, 485, 714
Vlaminck, Maurice de, 188, 234, 429, 592, Wfc;>/(Noland), 483
608, 655, 703 Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, 8, 190, 209,
Vollard, Ambroise, iz8, 181, 703-4 233, 247, 277, 347, 349, 599, 660, 678,
Voragine, Jacobus de, 1 19, 704 701, 706, 714-IS
Vorticism, 220, 392, 70J White, Clarence, 649
Vostell, Wolf, 242 White, John, 715-16
Vouet, Simon, 70J White, Stanford, 431
774 INDEX

White Car Burning III (Warhol), 708 Wood, Grant, 170, 526, 564, 722
White Crucifixion (Chagall), 129 Wood, M. L., 510-11
White Paintings (Rauschenberg), 560 woodblock, woodcut, 44, 98, 166, 183, 208,
White Reliefs (Nicholson), 481 218, 321, 326, 364, 549, 72.2-Z3
Whitney, Anne, 332, Woodville, Richard Caton, 209, 463
Whitney, Geoffrey, 218 Words (Kaprow), 360
Whitney Biennial, 716 Work (Brown), 562
Whitney Museum of American Art (Breuer), 94 Workroom (Vuillard), 706
Whittredge, Worthington, 71, 209, 391-92, Works Progress Administration (WPA), 310,
406, J16-17 578, 641, 7Z3
Wightwick, George, 640 workshop, 14, 36, 43, 94, 95, 166, 181, 196,
Wilde, Johannes, jij 232, 267, 302, 339, 370, 402, 429, 453,
Wiligelmo, jij 492, 511, 522, 529, 571, 594, 617, 619,
Wilkie, Sir David, 71J-18 622, 645, 691, 698, 721, 72.3-24
William Gladstone (Millais), 443 World of Art, 42, 63, 283, 705, 707, 724
William of Ockham, 484 Wrapped Reichstag (Christo and Jeanne
William Rush Carving His Allegorical Figure of Claude), 137
the Schuylkill River (Eakins), 598-99 Wren, Sir Christopher, 348, 724
Wilmerding, John, 15, 189-90, 683 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 302, 322, 348, 384, 454,
Wilson, Alexander, 38 603, 620, 645, 650, 657, 724-25
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 8, 9, 22, 25, Wright, Patience Lovell, 726-27
34, 317, 379, 391, 436, 475, 52-7, 55°, Wright of Derby, Joseph, 219, 654, 725-26
718-19, 719 Wuerpel, Edmund, 88, 89
Windsor Castle in Modern Times (Portrait of Wyeth, Andrew, 524, 667, 727
Albert, Victoria and the Princess) Wyeth, N. C, 727
(Landseer), 376 Wyndham Sisters, The (Sargent), 611
Winged Victory, see Nike ofSamothrace
Winter Landscape: Washington Bridge X Portfolio (Mapplethorpe), 419
(Lawson), 383 Xenokrates of Sikyon, 34
Winter Palace (Riley), 576 XP, see Chi Rho
Wisteria Table Lamp (Tiffany), 674-75 X-radiography, X-ray, 271, 511, 655, 717, 728
Witches' Sabbath (Baldung Grien), 44 XX, Les, 219, 608, 701
Witkin, Joel-Peter, 630
Witte, Emanuel de, 719 Yellow Christ (Gauguin), 259, 469
Wittkower, Rudolf, 11, 162, 195, 205, 550, Yglesias, Helen,
72
719-ZO Young Acrobat and Child (Picasso), 520
Witz, Konrad, 720 Young Husband, The: First Marketing (L. M.
Wojnarowicz, David, 9, 720-71 Spencer), 643
Wolfflin, Heinrich, 34, 48, 145, 243, 255, 269, Young Man Amid Roses (Milliard), 320-21
306, 397, 444, 498, 521, 541, 721-22 Young Man with a Medal (Botticelli), 433
Wolfthal, Diane, 85
Woman in Black at the Opera (Cassatt), 123 Zeus at Olympia (Pheidias), 138, 249, 295,
Woman in Red 642-43
(Soutine), 444, 627
Woman Ironing (Picasso), 520 Zeuxis, 26, 208, 361, 504, 650, 680, 728
Woman series (de Kooning), 237 Zeuxis Selecting Models for His Picture of
Woman with a Glove, The (Carolus-Duran), Helen of Troy (Kauffman), 361
118 Zoffany, Johan, 360
Woman with a Hat (Matisse), 646 Zola, Emile, 128, 183, 233, 280, 283, 348,
Woman with Her Throat Cut (Giacometti), 267 530, 562, 703
Womanhouse (Chicago and Schapiro), 236 Zorach, Marguerite Thompson, 728—29, 729
Women and Dog (Marisol), 422 Zorach, William, 729, 729
Women in the Garden (Monet), 531 Zuccone (Donatello), 196
Women of Algiers (Delacroix), 185 Zurbaran, Francisco de, 465, 730