Nutrition & Dietetics 2014; 71: 158–171 DOI: 10.1111/1747-0080.

12096

REVIEW

Adolescent food literacy programmes: A review of

the literature
Natalie BROOKS and Andrea BEGLEY
Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

Abstract
Aim: The aim of this study was to explore what is known about food literacy programmes targeting adolescents,
including identification of the constituents of food literacy addressed, assessment of programme effectiveness, and
description of programme design or delivery specific to adolescents.
Methods: A review of the peer-reviewed literature surrounding adolescent food literacy was conducted using
scholarly electronic databases. Programme reports were identified in the grey literature using online searching and
cross-referencing to support the research aim. Programmes from 2000 to 2012 targeting adolescents aged 13–17
years were included.
Results: A total of 19 peer-reviewed papers and four grey literature programmes met the search criteria. Interven-
tions focused on practical cooking and/or food preparation skills and targeted younger adolescent age groups.
Programmes were most commonly held in schools and community settings. The majority of programmes (n = 16/23)
did not use a theoretical basis for their development. Programme evaluation encompassed the use of pre- and
post-intervention questionnaires and focus groups. Only nine studies included a dietary behaviour-based outcome
measure. Although 19 of the 23 studies reviewed reported positive changes related to the intervention, these did not
include significant changes in diet quality or cooking frequency at home.
Conclusions: Few existing adolescent food literacy programmes have demonstrated a positive impact on dietary
behaviours to date. Adolescent target groups present unique challenges in programme development and delivery.
However, the physical, social and emotional health needs of this age group and potential to influence lifelong
behaviours highlight the need to design effective and age-appropriate adolescent food literacy programmes.

Key words: adolescent, cooking programme, food literacy, teenager, youth.

Introduction A large proportion of adolescents (13–17 years) fail to

There is increasing recognition that addressing current diet-
related problems, such as the rising prevalence of obesity
and reducing chronic disease, requires a reconceptualising of
peoples’ practical skills to achieve dietary guidelines.1,2 These
skills are now commonly referred to as ‘food literacy’. Food
literacy may be defined as ‘the relative ability to basically
understand the nature of food and how it is important to
you, and how able you are to gain information about food,
process it, analyse it and act upon it’.3 Recent research has
documented the opinions of Australian food experts to dem-
onstrate that food literacy has several key constituents. These
include access, planning and management, food selection,
knowing where food comes from, and preparation including
cooking, eating, nutrition and language.3
N. Brooks, Grad Dip Diet APD, Research Assistant
A. Begley, DrPH APD, Lecturer Nutrition and Dietetics
Correspondence: N. Brooks, 35 Mettam Street, Trigg, WA 6029,
Australia. Email: natalie.brooks@curtin.edu.au
Accepted August 2013
meet national dietary recommendations for health, such as
the Dietary Guidelines for Children and Adolescents in Aus-
tralia.4,5 Increased energy and nutrient intake during adoles-
cence are vital to support rapid growth and development, a
healthy weight trajectory and to maintain physical health.6,7
Adolescence is also identified as a critical formative period in
which eating behaviours are established with the potential to
influence long-term health.8–10 Improving adolescent food
literacy is not only likely to empower this target group to
achieve physical health, but also have strong connections to
social and emotional health.11
Limited food literacy research indicates that activities such
as engaging in food preparation during adolescence are
associated with healthier dietary intake.12,13 In contrast, a
number of factors are suggested to be associated with the
decline and devaluing of food literacy components such as
cooking within the population, and as a consequence the
decrease in relevance of these skills to current generations
of adolescents.14–16 These suggested contributing factors
include changes in the food environment, such as increased
acceptance of fast foods and popularity of supermarket

158 © 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia

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home meal replacements.17,18 Changes in family demograph-
ics, such as dual income or single parent family living, are
also suggested to result in decreased opportunity for adoles-
cents to acquire cooking skills from parents and be exposed
to food preparation in the home environment.15,16,19 In addi-
tion, the changing nature and demise of practical cooking
and food preparation skills within the secondary school
curriculum from a focus on ‘hands on’ cooking skills to a
more theoretical approach decreases the likelihood of devel-
opment of food preparation skills through this avenue.15,16,20
This is paralleled by a surge in the popularity of reality
television cooking shows, which are deemed as a potential
medium for didactic learning,21 although the translation to
increased practical food skills in the youth is yet to be
explored.
These influences, in parallel with the increasing recogni-
tion of the need to develop food literacy skills among ado-
lescents because of their increasing independence from the
home food environment,18,19 highlight the necessity for pur-
posively designed interventions targeting this age group and
area of skill development. However, the development of food
literacy interventions that are successful in initiating and
supporting behaviour change in adolescents presents chal-
lenges in terms of increasing motivation among the target
group, addressing determinants of dietary behaviour and
decreasing barriers to eating a healthful diet.22,23 This high-
lights a potential discrepancy between a target group requir-
ing intervention, and the implementation of effective
adolescent food literacy programmes because of difficulty in
overcoming these challenges.
The aim of this literature review was to explore what is
known about the effectiveness of food literacy programmes
targeting adolescents to specifically inform future pro-
gramme development. The objectives were to identify the
constituents of food literacy most commonly addressed in
programmes; assess the effects of these programmes on out-
comes for participants (confidence, knowledge, dietary
intakes); and describe elements of effective programme
design or delivery considerations specific to the age group
such as settings, teaching/learning styles, programme dura-
tion, frequency and evaluation methods.
Methods
A review of the peer-reviewed and grey literature was under-
taken to identify published and other reports on food lit-
eracy programmes for adolescents described as 13–17 years
from 2000 to 2012.
A search was conducted to identify peer-reviewed papers
using electronic databases: PubMed, Science Direct, OvidSP
Medline, Proquest, Wiley Online Library, Google Scholar.
Databases were searched using these key terms for a first
wave search: (adolescent or teenager or youth) (food literacy or
food skills) (program or intervention). The majority of pro-
grammes identified were focused on the access and prepa-
ration aspects of food literacy and so a second search was
undertaken to cross-reference results from the original
search using (adolescent or teenager or youth) (cooking program
© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
or culinary or nutrition education or garden). A third strategy
used was to undertake a citation check.
Papers were included if they described the planning,
implementation, evaluation or outcomes of an intervention
aiming to address one or more components of food literacy
targeting or including adolescents, were published in a peer-
reviewed journal, and available in English. Papers were
excluded from this review if they focused on general nutri-
tion education for adolescents, such as mandated curriculum
delivery, or assessed disease-focused nutrition interventions
for adolescents, such as type 2 diabetes or obesity or for
pregnant adolescents.
Programmes from the grey literature were identified to
further expand the search results using the key terms listed
earlier. The Web was searched using the search engine
Google and cross-referenced from other literature. In addi-
tion to the inclusion and exclusion criteria used for peer-
reviewed literature, programmes identified in the grey
literature were only included if sufficient detail was provided
in the form of a report or on a reputable website for the
programme to be reviewed.
Following development of the list of peer-reviewed
papers and grey literature programmes to be reviewed, a
data matrix was developed with the following headings:
author title (peer-reviewed literature) or programme name
(grey literature), intervention type and strategies, target
group and sample size, duration, food literacy areas
addressed, theoretical model, evaluation methods, and out-
comes. From this analysis a summary table of recommen-
dations for future adolescent food literacy programme
development drawn from the programmes reviewed was
created.
Effectiveness of programmes was assessed by the achieve-
ment of the explicit goals and objectives stated and/or
changes in dietary intakes such as fruit and vegetable con-
sumption or overall diet quality. Innovative programmes
were identified as those including components not incorpo-
rated in other programmes, such as programme themes or
activities.
Results
Study selection: A total of 19 peer-reviewed papers and four
grey literature programmes met the search criteria to be
included in this review. Of the programmes reviewed, 17
were implemented in the USA, three in the UK, two in
Australia and one in Canada. Please refer to Table 1 for
details of the peer-reviewed literature programmes included,
and Table 2 for details of the grey literature programmes
reviewed.
Programme characteristics: The following section will
discuss the characteristics of the food literacy programmes.
Study design and sample size: The majority of programmes
were designed with a single intervention group and evalu-
ated using a pre- and post-questionnaire evaluation. Only
two programmes used a form of control group in their study
design. Evans et al.31 used other non-participating students
in the schools. O’Neil and Nicklas38 assigned high schools to
159
 Table 1 Summary of peer-reviewed literature programmes
160
Author(s), year and Intervention type and
country of origin strategies
24
Beets et al. 2007 ‘Culinary Camp’ Summer
(USA) Cooking Programme
Demonstration of cooking
techniques, preparation of
dishes in small groups
Each session based on a
theme for example Asian
cuisine or breakfast meals
Brown and Cooking classes focusing
Herrman 200525 on basic fruit and
(USA) vegetable preparation
skills, food safety practices
and nutrition.
Demonstration and
hands-on experience.
Chessen et al. Pink and Dude Chefs
200926 After school culinary
(USA) intervention addressing
knife skills, building
balanced meals,
understanding nutrition
information panels and
identifying portion sizes.
Lectures delivered
discussed basic nutrition.
Chessen et al. Practical cooking classes
200927 teaching basic cooking
(USA) skills
Thirty-minute nutrition
education component plus
90-minute cooking
practicum
Concannon, Healthy snack preparation
Rafferty and lessons, tasting and
Swanson- informal small group
Farmaco 201128 nutrition sessions
(USA)
© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia
Target group and Food literacy areas Theoretical model
sample size Duration addressed or basis Evaluation methods Outcomes
Young adolescents Camp duration Meal preparation, Experiential Survey at baseline and Significant changes in
n = 20 eight days, cooking self-efficacy for learning one-week post-cooking knowledge (P = 0.03) and
sessions four hours cooking, nutrition framework behaviours and perceived cooking ability
each day knowledge psychosocial constructs. (P = 0.04); reduction of
Qualitative feedback at negative attitudes towards
N. Brooks and A. Begley
post-test from cooking
participants and parents Not significant changes in
reported cooking frequency
during past seven days
(P = 0.34)
Youth n = 229 and Eight classes over a Cooking skills and Not stated Pre- and post-education Significant increases in fruit
adults n = 373 period of two nutrition questionnaire pilot tested (1.1–2.3) and vegetable
Average youth age = 12 months knowledge for reliability (1.4–2.4) servings consumed
per day
Improvement in safe food
handling behaviours.
69% of youth reported eating
a new fruit or vegetable; 67%
of youth reported preparing
fruits or vegetables in a new
way.
Middle school girls and 6 weeks Cooking skills and Social Pre- and post-programme Not stated
boys, aged 12–14 years Each lesson nutrition cognitive questionnaires
Reduced income involved a knowledge theory Observational evaluation
Hispanic/Latino 30-minute lecture of recipes.
communities and 90-minute Focus groups investigated
cooking practicum impact of programme on
knowledge, efficacy
expectations and eating
behaviours
Girls aged 12–14 years Six-week term of Cooking skills and Social Surveys to measure Significant: increase in
from reduced-income two-hour classes, nutrition cognitive self-efficacy, knowledge, self-efficacy for cooking
communities in twice weekly knowledge theory barriers and diet quality (P = 0.005)
California pre- and No significant increases in
n = 22 post-intervention knowledge of healthful dietary
practices, barriers or diet
quality.
Teen participants of a Ongoing sessions Cooking skills and Not stated Informal feedback from Participants reported making
popular weekly once per week for nutrition participants recipes introduced in the
electronic gaming two hours knowledge programme at home.
programme at Qualitative reports of decrease
Baltimore County in ‘junk’ food consumption
public library; and increase in healthy food
participation varied consumption.
from 10 to 30 teens
per session
 Condrasky et al. Culinary Nutrition Camp
201029 Cook Like a Chef
(USA)
Condrasky, Quinn Summer Cooking Camp
and Cason 200730 Concept of a ‘road
(USA) trip’—moving through
regions of the USA with a
distinctive culinary style
and heritage.
Campers prepared and
tasted recipes
© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia
Evans et al. Sprouting Healthy Kids
201231 intervention School garden
(USA) programme
Nutrition education
session, taste testing,
farmers visits, after school
activities, farm field trips
Fisher, Nicholas Inspire!
and Marshall Competition—rewarding
201032 best practice in
(UK) classroom-based practical
food work
Lesson plans submitted
Required to link with the
curriculum
Gatenby, Donnelly After-school cooking clubs
and Connell Each session concentrated
201119 on a recipe linked to a
(UK) different cultural event
Jamieson and Healthy cooking class for
Heron 200933 Indigenous youth
(Australia)
161
Adolescents One week Cooking skills and Not stated Statistical analysis of pre- Increased knowledge,
nutrition and post-questionnaires confidence and motivation in
knowledge to evaluated changes in healthy food choices and
knowledge, confidence preparation skills
and motivation in healthy
food choices and
preparation
Adolescents aged Five full-day Menu planning, Social Survey at baseline and Increase in frequency of
11–14 years sessions over a food safety, cognitive end of fourth day of vegetable consumption (63%
n = 24 one-week period nutrition, food theory camp assessing eating vegetables almost every
preparation knowledge and day pretest compared with
behaviour change. 83% post-test), increase in
Validated evaluation tool food preparation skills and
Eating Right is Fun: Food ability to perform cooking
and Me used. techniques (e.g. using sharp
knives, measuring cups,
spoons, baking, stewing,
sautéing, mise en place);
significance not stated
Low-income Intervention Accessing and Social Pre- and Students who were exposed to
adolescents aged 12–14 carried out over 10 growing and food, cognitive post–non-equivalent two or more intervention
years weeks food preferences, theory group design using components significantly
n = 246 Three one-hour nutrition validated psychosocial scored higher on self-efficacy,
nutrition education knowledge questionnaire, knowledge, preferences for
sessions in regular behavioural questions unhealthy foods and increased
class time Control group intake of fruits and vegetables
Forty-five minutes (P < 0.05)
four times per
week in school
garden
Children aged 11–14 Lesson plans Cooking skills, Not stated Student feedback Not stated
years including nutrition
PowerPoint knowledge,
presentations, understand origin
paper-based of food, recipe
activities, posters, development and
podcasts and visit modification
reports
Adolescents aged Ten 1.5-hour Cooking skills Not stated Questionnaires pre- and Significant improvement in
12–13 years cooking clubs over post-cooking clubs perceived meal preparation
n = 55 (from a total of a 10-week period Self-assessment of skills and ability to cook
four secondary cooking skills and a meal or healthy food
schools) frequency of cooking (P < 0.05), increased cultural
at home awareness
Qualitative responses
about favourite part of
the sessions
Six men aged 17–20 Single session Cooking skills and Not stated Qualitative evaluation Improvements in knowledge
years healthy food questionnaire completed and confidence gained in
selection after the session cooking healthier meals and
understanding of healthier
cooking methods.
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
 Table 1 Continued
162
Author(s), year and Intervention type and
country of origin strategies
Lautenschlager and Youth farm and market
Smith 2007;34 project
Beckman 200835 Gardening, cooking and
(USA) nutrition lessons held in
the community
McAleese and Garden-based nutrition
Rankin 200736 education, including
(USA) garden maintenance,
cooking sessions, making
a cookbook, adding
vegetables to school
lunches and other food
experiences
Meehan, Yeh, Spark Community summer camp
200837
(USA)
O’Neil and Nicklas Gimme 5 is a
200238 multi-component
(USA) programme including the
following: School Media
Marketing Campaign,
Workshops, Fresh Choices,
Parental Involvement
Microwave Magic
Workshop included using
microwave cooking
techniques to prepare
healthful vegetable recipes
© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia
Target group and Food literacy areas Theoretical model
sample size Duration addressed or basis Evaluation methods Outcomes
Low-income youth in Three days per Cooking skills, Theory of Pretest/post-test 24 hour Boys’ fruit (from 2.01 to 3.05
Minneapolis 8–15 week for 10 weeks food selection, planned recall and survey servings per day; P = 0.030)
years nutrition behaviour Focus groups and vegetable (from 2.05 to
n = 66 knowledge 3.43 servings per day;
P = 0.007) intake significantly
N. Brooks and A. Begley
increased from baseline to
follow up, but girls’ did not
change (P > 0.05).
Garden-group participants
were more willing to eat
nutritious food, try unfamiliar
foods and more likely to cook
and garden on their own
compared with non–garden-
group participants.
Sixth-grade students Twelve-week period Cooking skills, Not stated Non-equivalent control Greater increase in fruit and
n = 99 food selection group design vegetable servings in
Age range 10–13 years Pre- and adolescents in the
(mean age 11.11 years) post-intervention garden-based nutrition group
24-hour recall food (0.8 ± 0.8 to 1.9 ± 1.4;
workbooks used P < 0.001 for fruit; 1.2 ± 0.6
to 2.6 ± 1.7; P < 0.001 for
vegetables) compared with
controls. Also significant
increases in vitamin A (P =
0.004), vitamin C (P = 0.016)
and fibre (P = 0.001) intake.
At-risk youth 8–15 Two days of food Food selection Not stated Questionnaire pre- and Statistically significant change
years literacy activities gardening post-intervention to in nutrition knowledge and
n = 15 over 7 weeks Farmers assess change in local food sources knowledge
market, cooking attitudes, behaviour, food (P = 0.003), change in
skills preparation and attitudes or behaviour not
knowledge statistically significant.
Twelve high schools Four years Practical PRECEDE Process evaluation of Knowledge scores of
(six matched pairs of Workshops ran for cooking skills, model, awareness of school food intervention cohort
intervention and 55 minutes selecting addressing marketing campaign by significantly higher than
control schools) healthful meals awareness surveying students controls at baseline and follow
Students aged 14–15 from fast food development, up (P < 0.0001)
years at beginning of menus, reading interest Self-efficacy increased in both
programme nutrition labels stimulation groups.
n = 2213 and choosing and skills Reported daily servings of fruit
healthful snacks training and vegetables increased by
14% (+0.35 servings) from
1994 to 1996 in the
intervention group, compared
with controls (P < 0.001).
 Stanek Krogstrand Peer-leaders used as
et al. 200839 advocates for healthy
(USA) eating—taught to prepare
simple snacks
Struempler and Cooperative Extension
Cobrin 200240 System Nutrition
(USA) Education Programme
Middle-school students Not stated Food Not stated Not stated Significant (P < 0.05) increase
n = 77 preparation in self-efficacy for choosing
skills fruit and vegetables as snacks,
increase in consumption of
fruit, vegetables and low-fat
dairy foods although not to
adequate amounts
Limited-resource Six weeks Food selection Not stated Pre- and post-nutrition Significant increase
teenagers Nutrition knowledge, label reading (P < 0.001) in nutrition
Ages not included knowledge skills assessed using Feed knowledge- and

© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia

n = 468 Your Mind game style behaviour-related questions
evaluation tool.
Thomas and Irwin Cook It Up! At-risk youth, mean Eighteen months Cooking skills Not stated Pre-/post-cooking skills Not stated
201141 Community-based cooking age = 14.6 Two-hour cooking and food assessment
(Canada) programme n=8 sessions twice education Qualitative interviews
Seasonal and local monthly (awareness of Photovoice
ingredients used, facilitated Agriculture field agriculture, methodology—barriers
by local chefs; historical trips once monthly healthy eating and facilitators of
context of ingredients and accessing cooking skills
explained food purchasing development
Previous skills included in and preparation Formative evaluation
each week’s recipe to build skills)
upon cooking proficiency
Agriculture field trips
Thonney and Cooking Up Fun! Youth aged 9–15 years Flexible Independent Not stated Assessments completed at Successful in achieving gains
Bisogni 200642 Cooking programme n = 128 (in 18 small programme food skills, beginning, during and at in selected skills, knowledge
(USA) introduced to informal group cooking clubs in delivery, but making the end of the four to and behaviours related to
after school settings New York) optimum suggested healthful food six-session programme food preparation (data
Two adults work with to be a series of six choices, reading unpublished)
small groups of six to eight 90-minute sessions recipes and
youth food labels,
Youth engaged in process kitchen and
of planning cooking food safety and
sessions ‘ingredient
science’

163
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
 164
Table 2 Summary of grey literature programmes
Programme name and/or
supporting organisation Intervention type and Target group and Food literacy areas Theoretical model
and country of origin strategies sample size Duration addressed or basis Evaluation methods Outcomes
Can Cook, CIC. Cooking classes run on Secondary school Can Cook Studio half Cooking and food Not stated Process evaluation—how Increase in confidence in
Centre for Food evenings and weekends students or full day courses preparation skills programmes delivered. cooking and specific food
Policy, City University incorporating an element Competition involved Can Cook cookery Pre- and preparation skills;
N. Brooks and A. Begley

London43 of healthy eating for 8–10–year olds; 10 courses run in post-intervention significance not stated.
(UK) example cooking pupils from 16 local inflatable questionnaires- 86% of participants
techniques or recipe schools domes—half-hour confidence in cooking reported using cooking
substitution. Total number of courses skills, intended use, any skills learned in the
Also run secondary secondary school Can Cook secondary impact on healthy eating competition at home;
school programmes and pupils attending Can school cooking Impact measures 91.5% had prepared a
secondary school cooking Cook sessions = 641 competition ran from gathered immediately or meal at home since the
competition. October 2010 to May two weeks after the competition
2011 intervention 22.9% increase in
Chef’s observation sheets percentage of pupils
used to collect immediate eating vegetables and
impact on ability to 13.9% increase of eating
prepare healthy dishes fruit at two weeks
24-hour recalls to assess post-intervention
impact on eating habits 58.5% of participants
responded that they had
learnt something about
healthy eating during the
session
Culinary Education Professional training in Adolescents aged Nine months Food preparation Not stated Evaluation component 70% retention rate of
and Training food service, primarily 16–18 years with at skills recently implemented youth in programme
Programme for At-Risk food preparation least a ninth-grade (not described)
Youth Courses undertaken capability
US Department of include cooking Those who have
Justice44 fundamentals, continental committed a
(USA) cuisine, introduction to non-violent crime
baking and principles of and have dropped
dining room services out of high school or
are at high risk of
dropping out.
It’s Your Move! Market Fresh Programme Adolescents attending - Ability to recognize Analysis Grid for See Implementation Not stated
World Health Included instructional five secondary and use fruit and Environments Report 5
Organization videos and pamphlets schools as part of the vegetables in Linked to Obesity
Collaborating Centre about fruit and East cooking Framework
for Obesity vegetables followed by Geelong/Bellarine Cooking skills
Prevention and tasting of seasonal Youth Project
Related Research and produce
Training45 Establishment of a
(Australia) vegetable garden with
produce used in Home
Economics classes

© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia

 Media Smart Youth: Media awareness 11–13-year olds Ten lessons Awareness of how Not stated Qualitative and Groups exposed to Media
Eat, Think and Be Nutrition—healthy snack n = 105 treatment 90 minutes plus 20 the media world quantitative evaluation Smart Youth curriculum
Active! choices (fruits and youth and 86 minutes for can affect nutrition Pairs of schools matched had positive score gains
Eunice Kennedy vegetables, wholegrains controls evaluation activities and food choices according to from pretest to post-test
Shriver National calcium-rich foods, Implemented in an Critical and creative socioeconomic status on overall knowledge
Institute of Child reduce fat and added after school thinking to make and randomized to whereas control groups

© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia

Health and Human sugar) environment informed choices experimental or control showed only small,
Development46 Snack Break included in about nutrition group random differences
(USA) each lesson—students Pre- and post-tests Missing data on post-test
prepare a snack and administered to assess may have contributed to
receive a recipe handout knowledge, skills and overestimation of
Physical activity Action behaviour of participants statistical significance
Break Overall outcome variable Two pairs of original 10
Media production—a was knowledge scores removed from evaluation
Mini-Production is created calculated from pre- and when treatment site
by students at the end of post-test surveys could not maintain
each lesson to express Interviews with attendance throughout
what they have learnt. programme facilitators curriculum
The programme’s final Analysis of facilitator logs
project is a Big Production and observer notes
(e.g. public service
announcement, poster,
webpage) to promote
healthy eating and
physical activity to their
peers.

165
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
N. Brooks and A. Begley
matched pairs, with one school from each pair randomly
selected to receive the Gimme 5 intervention and measure-
ments and the control school receiving measurements only.
Sample sizes ranged from eight to 2213 adolescents with
limited use of sample size calculations.
Intervention type and strategies: Practical and basic cooking
and/or food preparation skills were the primary focus of
most programmes, with 91% of programmes incorporating
practical cooking-related skills. There was a focus on school-
associated programmes such as after school food and
cooking clubs,19,26,42 cooking programmes in conjunction
with a garden programme31,34–36 and interventions incorpo-
rated into the school curriculum.32,38 Other intervention
types included a series of community-based cooking
classes25,27,28,33,41 and culinary camps.24,29,30,37 The camps and
clubs reviewed included cooking themes drawn from
various cuisines or cultural events to heighten participant
interest.
Target group: Sixty per cent of programmes targeted adoles-
cents in the age range of 11–15 years,19,24–27,31,32,34–36,38,39,42,43
17% targeted adolescents older than 15 years,33,37,41,44 with the
remaining 23% of programmes not stating a specific adoles-
cent target group. Three programmes targeted at-risk youth
including those from culturally diverse or disadvantaged
backgrounds, high school dropouts or petty crime.37,41,44
The majority of programmes (n = 22/23) included mixed-
gender adolescent target groups, with one programme target-
ing adolescent girls only.27 Only one study assessed the
difference in programme outcomes between male and female
participants.34,35
Programme settings and duration: Forty per cent of pro-
grammes were held in community settings,24,25,28,33,40,41,43,44,46
such as libraries and universities, 35% at schools and the
remaining 25% of settings not stated. Duration of the pro-
grammes varied depending on the intervention type. School
garden and after-school cooking clubs consisted of 1.5–2.0-
hour weekly sessions over a 10–20-week period generally
aligned with school terms/semester.19,26,31,37 Community-
based classes primarily consisted of 1.5–2.0-hour weekly
sessions over a 4–10-week period.25,27,28,33,41 Culinary camps
lasted for seven to eight days.24,29,30
Theoretical basis for programme development: Only a few
programmes explicitly described theory application in their
design. The most popular application was the social cogni-
tive theory (SCT) in four programmes,26,27,30,31 then one pro-
gramme each for the theory of planned behaviour,34,35
constructs from the PRECEDE–PROCEED model,38 experi-
ential learning framework and the Analysis Grid for Envi-
ronments Linked to Obesity (ANGELO) planning model.45
Teaching and learning styles: Programmes incorporated
both didactic and experiential learning styles. Didactic learn-
ing involved structured cooking sessions led by an experi-
enced adult facilitator, such as teachers,32 guest chefs41
and trained programme educators.25 Experiential learning
encompassed a range of activities, such as allowing partici-
pants to select their own multicultural recipe to prepare and
teach to their partner,19 engaging youth in planning cooking
sessions,37,42 providing core recipes with limited specificity in
166
ingredients to allow choice,42 or ‘hands-on’ activities such as
reading menus and food labels.38 One programme used peer
leaders to teach class members to prepare simple and healthy
snacks.39
Innovative programme components: Two programmes incor-
porated an innovative or unique strategy to engage their
adolescent target group, including focusing on the connec-
tion between media and health,43and using cooking com-
petitions as a setting for an adolescent food literacy
intervention.46
Evaluation measures and study outcomes: The majority (n =
14/23) of programmes were evaluated by conducting a pre-
and post-intervention questionnaire to assess primary
objectives,19,24–27,30,31,36,37,40–43,46 such as change in attitudes to
cooking or an increase in use of cooking skills, self-efficacy
or nutrition knowledge. Details of questionnaire design were
not provided in all papers. The pre- versus post-education
questionnaire used by Brown and Hermann25 was pilot
tested for reliability. A validated assessment or evaluation
tool was used to evaluate four programmes, including a
questionnaire for cooking skills programmes developed by
the Food Standards Agency UK26 and Eating Right is Fun:
Food and Me, developed by the Michigan State University
Extension.30
Food literacy behaviour change was assessed in 48% of
the studies reviewed, including five studies that measured
dietary changes. Measurement of behaviour change involved
methods such as cooking behaviours assessed by a baseline
and one-week post-intervention questionnaire asking par-
ticipants to report the number of times they prepared meals
at home during the past seven days,24 fruit and vegetable
consumption assessed using consecutive 24-hour recalls
pre- and post-intervention,36,37 a survey measuring diet
quality,30 assessment of food preparation skills and the ability
to perform cooking techniques through use of behavioural-
based questions on a Likert-type scale,30 and the use of focus
groups to assess dietary changes in general. The programmes
reviewed provided insufficient evidence to assess the corre-
lation between programme duration and effectiveness.
Qualitative evaluation methods were also used in a
number of programmes by conducting interviews or focus
groups with participants, parents and programme facilita-
tors.19,26,41 One programme used photovoice evaluation
methodology41 with another using a specifically designed
game evaluation Feed Your Mind.40
Programme effectiveness: There was difficulty in judging
and comparing the overall effectiveness of the programmes
because of the variability in the design and food literacy-
related goal and objectives. The impact of the intervention
on dietary behaviour change was investigated as an indica-
tion of programme effectiveness. Dietary behaviour change
was not an explicit goal or objective in the majority
of programmes (n = 15/23). The objectives of eight of
the studies reviewed related to dietary behaviour
change,25,27,29,31,36,38,39 with four studies aiming to support the
development of cooking skills.24,30,41,42. Nine studies
included a behavioural outcome measure, such as cooking
frequency, fruit and vegetable intake, or the ability to
© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia
 Review of adolescent food literacy programmes

Table 3 Recommendations for adolescent food literacy programmes drawn from effective interventions
Programme
characteristic Recommendation
Setting • School or school holiday-based programmes for school-aged adolescents
• Community Centres22 for example Youth Services Community Centres in partnership with local
governments, Police Citizen Youth Clubs, sporting clubs and pre-existing youth groups for example
electronic gaming groups28
Duration and • Weekly active engagement25,27,28,33,41
frequency • Longer programme duration associated with greater programme effectiveness22 with a minimum of
four sessions required
Activities and • Include opportunities for experiential24 or ‘hands-on’ learning in a range of practical food-related
themes settings, such as gardens,34–36 to develop self-efficacy for food preparation skills
• Recipe or cooking competitions,43 music events etc. to raise the profile of healthy eating to the
target group
• Different weekly themes for example multicultural cuisines19,24,26
• Consider partial delivery of the intervention online or other forms of electronic media47
Target group • Formative research required to tailor the intervention to the specific adolescent target group,22
including the development of a programme name and identifier
• Assess the literacy levels of adolescents in relation to printed materials being at appropriate reading
levels and formatively evaluated for readability and comprehensibility
• Programme based on a suitable theoretical framework22
• Specific to early versus late adolescence for example possibility for parent involvement in
programme implementation in early adolescent target groups to extend intervention to encompass
the family,22 programmes for older adolescents emphasizing critical thinking skills that is impact of
dietary intake on health22
• Consider adaptation for gender specific programmes,48 Aboriginal Torres Strait Islander33 and CALD
communities
Programme • Include peer-modelling opportunities to develop social support39,46 and use regular positive
implementation reinforcement
• Provide recognition of success in completing the programme for example certificate of completion
or graduation ceremony41
• Develop agency and self-efficacy of adolescents to contribute to cooking and food preparation
within the home environment49
• Require similar level of supervision to children’s programmes, need to consider ratio of participants
to facilitators42
Evaluation • Consider process and impact evaluation based on measurable, specific goals set by adolescents22
• Measure dietary behaviour change22
• Innovative evaluation methods for example photovoice,41 website blogs and computer-based
programmes50 required for impact evaluation

perform specific food preparation skills.24,25,28,30,31,36,38,42,43
The correlation between behaviour change and diet quality
was not measured.
Despite limited focus on dietary behaviour change, 19 of
the 23 programmes reviewed reported positive outcomes
related to their specific objectives as a result of the inter-
vention. Significant positive changes were reported in the
areas of food- and nutrition-related knowledge,33,37,38,41 self-
efficacy for cooking,26,38,39 or perceived cooking ability,19,24
preparing foods in a new way,25 making recipes introduced
in the intervention at home,25,28,34–36,38 and an increase in fruit
and vegetable servings per day31,32,34,36 or frequency of fruit
and vegetable consumption.30 Condrasky et al.30 reported an
increase in the participants’ ability to perform cooking tech-
niques and preparation skills. There were no significant
increases in diet quality27 or cooking frequency24 reported by
the studies reviewed, with one study reporting no changes in
attitudes or behaviour.37
The results of the food literacy programmes reviewed
indicate that when programmes have appropriate study
design, sufficient sample size for statistical power, are of
duration of several hours per week for a minimum of four
weeks and have validated and reliable evaluation measure
they are more likely to result in changes to psychological
constructs such as self-efficacy and knowledge; however,
dietary behaviour change is limited. Table 3 comprises a
summary of effective programme components described in
the programmes reviewed which can be used as recommen-
dations for future programme development.
The majority (n = 5/7) of theoretically based programmes
resulted in positive dietary behaviour change;30,38 however,
other characteristics as described in Table 3, such as dura-

© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia 167

N. Brooks and A. Begley
tion of the programme and need to have behavioural objec-
tives, need to be considered. There is potential to broaden
the components of food literacy-based programmes, to con-
sider innovative strategies for delivery and evaluation, and to
explore age- and gender-specific programmes.
Discussion
The findings of this review suggest that there have been few
specifically designed effective and innovative food literacy
programmes for this target group. To date, adolescent food
literacy programmes have shown a tendency to target early
adolescence and focused on improving practical cooking
skills as a component of food literacy, to then also frame
other components such as selection and nutrition knowl-
edge. There was limited innovation and most used a didactic
teaching method generally associated with a school setting.
There appears to be a lack of programmes targeting older
adolescent age groups, culturally and linguistically diverse
groups, and gender-specific interventions. In addition, the
majority of adolescent food literacy programmes to date have
been implemented in the USA (n = 17/23), highlighting a
lack of Australian data.
One of the potential reasons for the lack of programmes is
that adolescent food literacy programmes present a set of
challenges unique to the target group. Engaging and moti-
vating adolescent participants, as well as addressing deter-
minants of eating behaviours, are recognised as key
difficulties.22,23 Research suggests there are specific adoles-
cent determinants of poor dietary intakes and body image
issues.51 Food literacy programmes must therefore be
designed to address determinants of adolescent food choices.
Using the SCT constructs to examine the personal factors
and environmental factors, it appears that there are concerns
about personal factors such as declining nutrition knowl-
edge and associated skills such as cooking as a result of
changing school curriculum offerings and skills in the
home,52 increasing independence in food choices,53 and
impact of physical growth spurts. Key environmental factors
to consider are the availability of unhealthy options in both
school and community, the perception that healthy food is
expensive,54 and the impact of the home food environment,
including family food insecurity issues and peer influence,
both positive and negative (social support).13,55
Despite these challenges, adolescents represent a crucial
target group in which to improve food literacy because of
the potential to influence family, peers, and short- and long-
term health. While adolescence is acknowledged as a time
of independence, this age group does place value on family
and household meals as having both social and emotional
significance.49 There is also recognition of the role adoles-
cents may play in influencing, purchasing and preparing
meals in households.49 This highlights the potential for
food-literate adolescents to act as agents of change in
households, and introduce new types of foods and food-
preparation practices. The influence of peer food choices on
adolescent food choice presents another avenue in which
positively influencing adolescent food literacy has the
168
potential to have wide-reaching effects.56 In addition to the
influence of adolescent dietary behaviours on peer and
family food habits, improving food literacy in this target
group is suggested to support the establishment of healthy
eating behaviours, although not well studied to date.
Dietary intake in childhood and adolescence has been
shown to impact long-term health, particularly in relation
to the prevalence of obesity and therefore risk of cardiovas-
cular disease and diabetes.57,58
The effectiveness of the majority of studies examined in
this review was evaluated by positive changes in psychoso-
cial constructs theoretically related to preparing food, such
as self-efficacy and food-related knowledge. The impact of
adolescent food literacy programmes on dietary behaviour
change needs further investigation. Interventions that have a
behavioural focus tend to be more effective in producing
dietary behaviour change in comparison with knowledge-
based programmes.59,60 The development of age-appropriate
evaluation tools to assess dietary behaviour change will be
important in future research in this area. In addition, only a
small number of interventions were based on theoretical
models. However, the majority of these theory-based inter-
ventions reviewed resulted in positive dietary behaviour
change. Theory-driven interventions emphasise specific,
desired behaviours and provide a conceptual grounding for
designing strong, practical programmes with increased effec-
tiveness in supporting behaviour change.22,61 Hoelscher
et al.22 reported that all adolescent nutrition interventions
reviewed that were theory based resulted in significant
behaviour changes. The SCT is the most commonly used
theoretical model in designing programmes for adoles-
cents.22 It is deemed suitable for this age group because of
the acknowledgement of the impact of individual behaviours
and the environment on behaviour.22,62
Because of the limited literature surrounding adolescent
food literacy interventions and little research on food literacy
practices, attitudes and beliefs in this target group,63 recom-
mendations for future adolescent-specific programmes must
be drawn from the findings of previous interventions, as well
as the wider food literacy research available targeting adults
and children. Table 3 outlines recommendations for effective
adolescent food literacy programmes drawn from the pro-
grammes reviewed. Evaluation of a primary school cooking
intervention provided several recommendations for future
interventions, including linking culinary and food safety
messages with nutrition messages, linking chefs, home
economists and dietitians in programme development and
implementation, including handling and tasting of foods as
well as take-home samples, and integrating school-based
interventions into the curriculum and school catering.64
School-based kitchen garden programmes targeting children
have been demonstrated to be effective in increasing chil-
dren’s willingness to try new foods, although the link
between this finding and increased fruit and vegetable intake
is inconclusive.62 The effectiveness of garden-based pro-
grammes in the current review suggests this setting may also
be viable for adolescent target groups. Adult food literacy
interventions have focused on introducing participants to
© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia

practical cooking skills, with an emphasis on topics such as
food safety and hygiene, or shopping on a budget.65 The
social aspect of cooking classes has been identified as an
important contributor to participant enjoyment in adults,
as well as peer-based learning, which is an important
consideration for adolescents.65 Many of these recommenda-
tions are applicable to adolescent target groups, provided
that they are adapted to be relevant to adolescent settings
and the specific determinants of eating behaviour described
earlier.
There are also considerations in tailoring food literacy
interventions to an adolescent target group in general, as
well as specific adolescent subgroups. The use of technol-
ogy and media to engage adolescents was identified as an
effective strategy in one of the programmes.46 Technology is
identified as a key cultural influence in shaping adolescent
experiences, with the current generation of youth sug-
gested to be responsive to the use of technology in educa-
tion.47,66 It is recommended that nutrition interventions
targeting adolescents take advantage of emerging technol-
ogy, such as Internet-based applications, computer pro-
grams,22 and social media for teaching and learning.66
Adolescent food literacy interventions may also need to be
tailored according to the gender, age and cultural back-
ground of the target group. Multiple studies report gender
differences in self-efficacy and food choice among
adolescents,67–69 which is suggested to warrant further
research in to gender-specific nutrition interventions in this
age group.48,69 Variations in physical and cognitive devel-
opment among adolescents according to age leads to a
requirement to employ developmentally appropriate strat-
egies among different adolescent age groups.22 Nutrition
interventions targeting older adolescents may include
higher-order concepts, such as the relationship between
dietary intake and chronic disease, whereas programmes
for younger adolescents may include self-assessment, mod-
elling, and basic discussions about media and social influ-
ences.22 Although the majority of programmes focused on
early adolescence, there is a need for interventions that
target older adolescents to address the known decline in
adolescent diet quality with age.9,70,71 Further research is
required to determine ethnic differences in adolescents in
determinants for eating behaviours.22
Several limitations of this review must be recognised in
the interpretation of the findings. Firstly, the review only
examined programmes reported in the peer-reviewed and
grey literature. Secondly, because of limited programme data
being published, strict exclusion criteria targeting study
design and sample size were not able to be used. Lastly, as
food literacy is an emerging term with ongoing research into
its components and their influence on food choice, it was
difficult to determine concrete boundaries and search terms
for this review. These limitations may have impacted both
the extensiveness and specificity of the review; however, it is
acknowledged that the recommendations and conclusions
made are based upon the best available current data and
intended as a platform for the development of future ado-
lescent food literacy programmes.
© 2013 Dietitians Association of Australia
Review of adolescent food literacy programmes
Conclusion: There are few adolescent food literacy pro-
grammes providing evidence of their effectiveness in sup-
porting dietary behaviour change that incorporate a number
of recognised components of food literacy. Adolescence is
often considered a difficult stage for programme delivery and
not always targeted in food and nutrition policy. Given the
dietary requirements and potential to influence life skills for
healthy eating during this stage, it is a missed opportunity to
not design effective and appropriate food literacy pro-
grammes for this age group.
Funding source
This research was funded by a Faculty of Health Sciences
2012 Student Vacation Research Scholarship and by the
School of Public Health, Curtin University.
Authorship
Literature searching, analysis and summarising, and paper
introduction, methods, results and discussion completed by
Natalie Brooks. Andrea Begley contributed to paper intro-
duction, discussion and conclusion, and edited and pro-
vided feedback in writing the paper.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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