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Examples and counterexamples in

mathematics/Real-valued functions of one real
variable
< Examples and counterexamples in mathematics

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Contents

 1Polynomials
o 1.1Polynomial with infinitely many roots
o 1.2Integer values versus integer coefficients
o 1.3Polynomial mimics cosine: interpolation
o 1.4Polynomial mimics cosine: roots
o 1.5Limit of derivatives versus derivative of limit
 2Monster functions
o 2.1Continuous monster

Polynomials[edit | edit source]
  Polynomial at Wikipedia.
Polynomial with infinitely many roots[edit | edit source]
The zero polynomial  every number is a root of P. This is the only polynomial with
infinitely many roots. A non-zero polynomial is of some degree n (n may be 0,1,2,...)
and cannot have more than n roots since, by a well-known theorem of algebra, if  (for
pairwise different ), then necessarily  for some non-zero polynomial Q of degree 
Integer values versus integer coefficients[edit | edit source]

  Integer-valued polynomial at Wikipedia.

Every polynomial P with integer coefficients is integer-valued, that is, its value P(k) is
an integer for every integer k; but the converse is true only for first degree
polynomials (linear functions). For example, the polynomial  takes on integer values
whenever x is an integer. That is because one of x and x-1 must be an even number.
The values  are the binomial coefficients.

  Binomial coefficient at Wikipedia.

More generally, for every n=0,1,2,3,... the polynomial  is integer-valued;  are the
binomial coefficients. In fact, every integer-valued polynomial is an integer linear
combination of these Pn.
Polynomial mimics cosine: interpolation[edit | edit source]

The cosine function,  satisfies      also  and  for all x, which gives infinitely

many x such that  is one of the numbers  that is, infinitely many points on the graph.
A polynomial cannot satisfy all these conditions, because  as  for every non-constant
polynomial P; can it satisfy a finite portion of them?
Let us try to find P that satisfies the five conditions      For convenience we
rescale x letting  and rewrite the five conditions in terms of Q:      In order to find
such Q we use Lagrange polynomials.

  Lagrange polynomial#Barycentric form at Wikipedia.

Using the polynomial  of degree 5 with roots at the given points 0, 2, 3, 4, 6 and
taking into account that  (check it by differentiating the product) we consider the so-
called Lagrange basis polynomial  of degree 4 with roots at 2, 3, 4, 6 (but not 0); the
division in the left-hand side is interpreted algebraically as division of polynomials
(that is, finding a polynomial whose product by the denominator is the numerator )
rather than division of functions, thus, the quotient is defined for all x, including 0. Its
value at 0 is 1. Think, why; see the picture; recall that .
Similarly, the second Lagrange basis polynomial  takes the values 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 (at 0,
2, 3, 4, 6 respectively). The third one  takes the values 0, 0, 1, 0, 0. And so on
(calculate the fourth and fifth). It remains to combine these five Lagrange basis
polynomials with the coefficients equal to the required values of Q:

Finally,  As we see on the picture, the two functions are

quite close for  in fact, the greatest  for these x is about
0.00029.
A better approximation can be obtained via derivative.
The derivative of  being  we have      The corresponding
derivatives  are close but different; for instance,
In order to fix the derivative without spoiling the
values we replace  with  where  is a polynomial of
degree 4 such that the derivative of  is equal
to  for  it means,  since  for these x; so,
 for 
We find such R as before:

and get a better approximation  in fact,  If you

still want a smaller error, try second
derivative and 
Polynomial mimics cosine:
roots[edit | edit source]
The cosine function,  satisfies  and has
infinitely many roots:  A polynomial cannot
satisfy all these conditions; can it satisfy a
finite portion of them?
It is easy to find a polynomial P such
that  and  namely  (check it). What
about  and 
The conditions being insensitive to the sign
of x, we seek a polynomial of  that
is,  where Q satisfies  and  It is easy to find
such Q, namely,  (check it), which leads to
 As we see on the picture, the two functions
are rather close for  in fact, the greatest  for
these x is about 0.028, while the
greatest  (for these x) is about 0.056.

The next step in this direction:   

And so on. For every  the polynomial
satisfies  and  which is easy to check. It is
harder (but possible) to prove
that  as  which represents the cosine as
an infinite product

  List of trigonometric
identities#Infinite product
formulae at Wikipedia.

On the other hand, the well-known

power series  gives another sequence
of polynomials  converging to the
same cosine function. See the picture
for Q3; 

  Taylor series#Trigonometric
functions at Wikipedia.
Can we check the equality  by
opening the brackets? Let us try. The
constant coefficient: just 1=1. The
coefficient of x2:  that is,  really?
Yes,  the well-known series of
reciprocal squares is instrumental.
  Series of reciprocal squares at
Wikipedia.
Such non-rigorous opening of
brackets can be made rigorous as
follows. For every polynomial P, the
constant coefficient is the value
of P at zero, P(0); the coefficient
of x is the value at zero of the
derivative, P '(0); and the coefficient
of x2 is one half of the value at zero of
the second derivative, ½P''(0).
Clearly,   and  for all  (as before, ).
The calculation above shows
that  as n tends to infinity. What about
higher derivative,  does it converge
to ? It is tedious (if at all possible) to
generalize the above calculation
to k=4,6,...; fortunately, there is a
better approach. Namely,  for all
complex numbers z, and
moreover,  for every R>0. Using
Cauchy's differentiation formula one
concludes that  (as ) for each k, and in
particular, 

  Cauchy's differentiation
formula at Wikipedia.   See
also Derivative of Uniform Limit of
Analytic Functions at Proofwiki.
Limit of derivatives versus
derivative of limit[edit | edit
source]
For  we have  (think, why)
as  Nevertheless, the derivative at
zero does not converge to 0;
rather, it is equal to 1 (for all n)
since, denoting  we have  
Thus, the limit of the sequence of
functions  on the interval  is the
zero function, hence the derivative
of the limit is the zero function as
well. However, the limit of the
sequence of derivatives  fails to be
zero at least for  What happens
for ? Here the limit of derivatives is
zero, since  (check it; the
exponential decay of the second
factor outweighs the linear grows
of the first factor). Thus,
It is not always possible to
interchange derivative and
limit.
Note the two equivalent
definition of the function f; one
is piecewise (something for
some x, something else for
other x, ...), but the other is a
single expression  for all
these x.

  Piecewise at Wikipedia.
The function f is discontinuous
(at 0), and nevertheless it is
the limit of continuous
functions  This can happen for
pointwise convergence (that is,
convergence at every point of
the considered domain), since
the speed of convergence can
depend on the point.

  Pointwise
convergence at Wikipedia.
Otherwise (when the speed of
convergence does not depend
on the point) convergence is
called uniform; by the uniform
convergence theorem, the
uniform limit of continuous
functions is a continuous
function.

  Uniform
convergence#To
continuity at Wikipedia.
 It follows that convergence
of  (to f) is non-uniform, but
this is a proof by contradiction.

  Proof by
contradiction at Wikipedia.
A better understanding may be
gained from a direct proof. The
derivatives  fail to converge
uniformly, since  fails to be
small (when n is large) for
some x close to 0; for instance,
try 
for all  and  is not zero
(unless ).
In contrast,  uniformly
on  that is,  as  since the
maximum is reached
at  (check it by solving the
equation ) and  And still, it
appears to be impossible
to interchange derivative
and limit. Compare this
case with a well-known
theorem:
If  is a sequence of differentiable functions on  such
that  exists (and is finite) for some  and the
sequence  converges uniformly on ,
then  converges uniformly to a function  on ,
and  for .

  Uniform
convergence#To
differentiability at
Wikipedia.
Uniform convergence
of derivatives  is
required; uniform
convergence of
functions  is not
enough.
Complex numbers,
helpful in Sect.
"Polynomial mimics
cosine: roots", are
helpless here, since
for  we have  for all 
 Monster
functions[edit | edit
source]
Continuous
monster[edit | edit
source]
Everyone knows how to
visualize the behavior
of a continuous function
by a curve on the
coordinate plane. To
this end one samples
enough points  on the
graph of the function,
plots them on
the  plane and,
connecting these points
by a curve, sketches
the graph. However,
this seemingly
uncontroversial idea is
challenged by some
strange functions,
sometimes called
"continuous monsters".
Often they are sums of
so-called lacunary
trigonometric series
 (where the numbers  are far apart).

  Lacunary
function#Lacuna
ry trigonometric
series at
Wikipedia.   
(Also Lacunary
trigonometric
series at EoM.)
The most famous of
these is the
Weierstrass
function
 (for appropriate  such that ).

  Weierstra
ss
 function at
Wikipedia.
According to
Jarnicki and
Pflug (Section
3.1), this is  (and
the similar
series of sine
functions is ).

 Marek
Jarnicki,
Peter
Pflug, Contin
uous
Nowhere
Differentiabl
e Functions:
The
Monsters of
Analysis,
Springer,
2015, 299
pages.

Weierstrass
function

This image
(reproduced her
e by Michael
McLaughlin with
reference to the
above-
mentioned
Wikipedia
article,
and here by Ric
hard
Lipton without
reference) is in
fact a graph of
the
approximation 
 to the
function 
 obtained by
connecting 
 sample points
(which can be
seen by
inspecting
the XML code in
the SVG file). It
looks like a
curve albeit
rather strange
one. The last
two summands
are distorted,
since the step
size  exceeds
the
period  of  and is
close to half the
period 
 of  However, all
terms
with  contribute
at most  that
is,  for all  this
difference is
barely visible
unless one
zooms the
image.
So far, so good.
But this monster
is not the worst.
In order to get a
more monstrous
lacunary
trigonometric
series one may
try
frequencies 
 increasing
faster than  or
coefficients
decreasing
slower than  or
both.
Let us try the
series
these
coefficients 
 are
convenient,
since their
sum is (finite
and)
evident: 
 
Accordingly, 
 (since ),
and  for
all  (since ).
Partial
sums

Similarly, 
 
and 
 Accordingly,
partial
sums  and
tails 
 
satisfy 
  and   for all 
Due to
evident
symmetries
(see the
graphs
of  on the
period ) it is
enough to
plot this
function on 

Partial
sum  zoom 4

Looking
closely at
the graph
of  we come
to some
doubt. At
first glance,
it is drawn
with a
thicker pen.
But no;
some
(almost?)
vertical lines
are thin. So,
what do we
see here, a
curve, or
rather, the
area
between two
"parallel"
curves?
  and  zoom
40

 and  zoom
400

The graph
of  becomes
clearly
visible after
a zoom, but
the doubt
returns,
hardened,
with  One
more zoom
only
worsens. We
realize that
the graph
of  on  looks
too nice. In
particular, it
appears that
the graph
of  crosses
the upper
side of the
red box. So,
how to get
closer to the
graph of 
Fortunately,
for some
special
values
of  the exact
value of  is
evident.
First,  (see
above),
whence  for
all
integers  due
to
periodicity: 
 for
all 
 
Similarly, 
 since  for all
odd
integers  (in
particular, ).
And on the
other
hand,  for all 
Without the
first
summand
we have the
first tail  with
the
period 
 
Accordingly, 
 and  for all
integers 
 And on the
other
hand,  for
all  Thus,
Special
values and
bounds of 
 via 

via 

  for all integers 

 for all 
Simil
arly,
for
all 
  for all integers 
 for all 

Vi
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b
a
s
e
3
)
di
gi
ts
in
o
r
d
e
r
t
o
c
o
m
p
u
t
e 

A
s
b
e
f
o
r
e
,
t
h
e
r
e
d
li
n
e
a
n
d
t
h
e
bl
u
e
li
n
e
a
r
e
b
o
u
n
d
s
o
f
t
h
e
gi
v
e
n
f
u
n
ct
io
n 
 
(
vi
a 
),
a
n
d
t
h
e
p
oi
n
ts
o
n
t
h
e
s
e
c
u
r
v
e
s
a
r
e
s
p
e
ci
al
v
al
u
e
s.
A
w
o
n
d
e
r:
al
l
t
h
e 
 
r
a
n
d
o
m

p
oi
n
ts
a
r
e
f
a
r
fr
o
m

t
h
e
s
e
b
o
u
n
d
s!
U
s
u
al
ly 
 
p
oi
n
ts
is
e
n
o
u
g
h
t
o
g
e
t
a
s
a
ti
sf
a
ct
o
r
y
pi
ct
u
r
e
o
f
t
h
e
m
a
xi
m
u
m

v
al
u
e
o
f
t
h
e
f
u
n
ct
io
n
.
B
u
t
f
o
r
t
hi
s
m
o
n
st
e
r, 
 
p
oi
n
ts
a
r
e
f
e
w
.
G
e
n
e
r
al
ly
,
f
o
r
t
h
e
s
u
m

o
f
a
la
c
u
n
a
r
y
tr
ig
o
n
o
m
e
tr
ic
s
e
ri
e
s,
it
is
q
ui
t
e
a
c
h
al
le
n
g
e
,
t
o
fi
n
d
it
s
m
a
xi
m
u
m
a
n
d
m
in
i
m
u
m

(
o
n
a
gi
v
e
n
in
t
e
r
v
al
)
e
v
e
n
a
p
p
r
o
xi
m
a
t
el
y,
s
a
y,
w
it
h
r
el
a
ti
v
e
e
rr
o
r
le
s
s
t
h
a
n
1
0
%
.
O
u
r
c
h
oi
c
e
o
f
fr
e
q
u
e
n
ci
e
s 
 
in
c
o
n
c
e
rt
w
it
h
o
u
r
u
s
e
o
f
c
o
si
n
e
r
a
t
h
e
r
t
h
a
n
si
n
e
,
al
lo
w
u
s
t
o
fi
n
d
u
n
u
s
u
al
ly
hi
g
h
v
al
u
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
s
u
m
.
I
n
o
r
d
e
r
t
o
f
ul
ly
a
p
p
r
e
ci
a
t
e
t
hi
s
g
o
o
d
lu
c
k,
tr
y
t
o
m
a
xi
m
iz
e
s
u
c
h
f
u
n
ct
io
n
a
s 
 
o
r
t
o
m
in
i
m
iz
e 
 
a
n
d
y
o
u
w
ill
r
e
al
iz
e
,
w
h
y
W
ei
e
r
st
r
a
s
s
p
r
e
f
e
rr
e
d
c
o
si
n
e
f
u
n
ct
io
n
s
a
n
d
fr
e
q
u
e
n
ci
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
f
o
r
m
 
 
w
h
e
r
e 
 
is
a
p
o
si
ti
v
e
o
d
d
in
t
e
g
e
r.
U
s
u
al
n
u
m
e
ri
c
al
o
p
ti
m
iz
a
ti
o
n
m
e
t
h
o
d
s
f
ai
l
b
e
c
a
u
s
e
lo
c
al
e
xt
r
e
m
a
a
r
e
n
u
m
e
r
o
u
s
a
n
d
v
e
r
y
s
h
a
r
p
.
B
y
c
o
n
ti
n
ui
ty
,
a
m
o
n
st
e
r
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
cl
o
s
e
t
o
it
s
m
a
xi
m
u
m

in
s
o
m
e
n
ei
g
h
b
o
r
h
o
o
d
o
f
it
s
m
a
xi
m
iz
e
r,
b
u
t
t
hi
s
n
ei
g
h
b
o
r
h
o
o
d
is
v
e
r
y
s
m
al
l;
a
r
a
n
d
o
m

p
oi
n
t
h
a
s
v
e
r
y
lit
tl
e
c
h
a
n
c
e
o
f
g
e
tti
n
g
in
t
o
s
u
c
h
n
ei
g
h
b
o
r
h
o
o
d
.
T
h
e
v
a
st
m
aj
o
ri
ty
o
f
v
al
u
e
s
a
r
e
f
a
r
fr
o
m

e
xt
r
e
m
e
.

Incre
asing
rearra
ngem
ent of
sampl
e
points
on
the
graph
of 

I
n
o
r
d
e
r
t
o
in
v
e
st
ig
a
t
e
t
h
e
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
o
f
v
al
u
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
t
ai
l 
 
o
n
it
s
p
e
ri
o
d
,
o
n
e
m
a
y
t
o
o
k
t
h
e 
 
v
al
u
e
s 
 
in
t
h
e
fi
r
st
q
u
a
rt
e
r
o
f
t
h
e
p
e
ri
o
d
(
u
s
e
d
a
b
o
v
e
),
t
o
g
e
t
h
e
r
w
it
h
t
h
e 
 
o
p
p
o
si
t
e
n
u
m
b
e
r
s 
 
(t
h
e
s
e
a
r
e
v
al
u
e
s
in
t
h
e
s
e
c
o
n
d
q
u
a
rt
e
r)
,
s
o
rt
t
h
e
li
st
o
f
al
l
t
h
e
s
e 
 
n
u
m
b
e
r
s
in
a
s
c
e
n
di
n
g
o
r
d
e
r,
a
n
d
tr
e
a
t
t
h
e
r
e
s
ul
t
a
s
v
al
u
e
s
o
f
a
n
e
w
f
u
n
ct
io
n
a
t
e
q
u
al
ly
s
p
a
c
e
d
p
oi
n
ts
.
H
e
r
e
is
t
h
e
r
e
s
ul
t
pl
o
tt
e
d
,
s
e
e
t
h
e
r
e
d
c
u
r
v
e
.
T
hi
s
is
a
n
u
m
e
ri
c
a
p
p
r
o
xi
m
a
ti
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
s
o
-
c
al
le
d
m
o
n
o
t
o
n
e
(i
n
c
r
e
a
si
n
g
)
r
e
a
rr
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
t
h
e
gi
v
e
n
f
u
n
ct
io
n
.
S
ig
ni
fi
c
a
n
tl
y,
t
h
e
r
e
s
ul
t
is
q
ui
t
e
cl
o
s
e
t
o
t
h
e
f
a
m
o
u
s
n
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n 
,
a
n
d
t
h
e
r
e
d
c
u
r
v
e
is
q
ui
t
e
cl
o
s
e
t
o
t
h
e
c
o
rr
 e
s
p
o
n
di
n
g
q
u
a
n
til
e
f
u
n
ct
io
n 
 
in
di
c
a
t
e
d
b
y
t
h
e
bl
a
c
k
p
oi
n
ts
.


 N
o
r
m
al
di
 st
ri
b
ut
io
n 
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.


 N
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
#
Q
u
a
nt
il
e
fu
n
ct
io
n 
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
(
H
e
r
e 
)
A
w
o
n
d
e
r:
t
h
e
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
m
o
n
st
r
o
u
s,
b
u
t
it
s
m
o
n
o
t
o
n
e
r
e
a
rr
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
is
ni
c
e
.
W
h
y
s
o
?
T
h
e
gi
v
e
n
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
t
h
e
s
u
m

o
f
m
a
n
y
s
u
m
m
a
n
d
s
(
o
f
t
h
e
f
o
r
m
 
);
a
n
d 
"
T
h
e
c
e
n
tr
a
l
li
m
it
t
h
e
o
r
e
m

s
t
a
t
e
s
t
h
a
t
u
n
d
e
r
c
e
rt
a
i
n
(f
a
ir
l
y
c
o
m
m
o
n
)
c
o
n
d
it
i
o
n
s
,
t
h
e
s
u
m

o
f
m
a
n
y
r
a
n
d
o
m

v
a
 ri
a
b
l
e
s
w
ill
h
a
v
e
a
n
a
p
p
r
o
x
i
m
a
t
e
l
y
n
o
r
m
a
l
d
i
s
tr
i
b
u
ti
o
n
."


 N
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
ut
io
n
#
C
e
nt
r
al
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m 
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
C
h
o
o
si
n
g
a
p
oi
n
t 
 
a
t
r
a
n
d
o
m

a
c
c
o
r
di
n
g
t
o
t
h
e
u
ni
f
o
r
m

di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
w
e
m
a
y
tr
e
a
t
t
h
e
s
u
m
m
a
n
d
s
a
s
r
a
n
d
o
m

v
a
ri
a
bl
e
s.
H
o
w
e
v
e
r,
o
n
e
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
di
ti
o
n
s
is
in
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
e
;
a
n
d
o
u
r
s
u
m
m
a
n
d
s
a
r
e
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t,
m
o
r
e
o
v
e
r,
f
u
n
ct
io
n
al
ly
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t,
si
n
c
e 
 
(
M
o
r
e
g
e
n
e
r
al
ly
, 
 
 
b
ei
n
g
t
h
e 
C
h
e
b
y
s
h
e
v
p
ol
y
n
o
m
ia
l.
)
N
e
v
e
rt
h
el
e
s
s,
p
r
o
b
a
bi
li
st
ic
a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
t
o
la
c
u
n
a
r
y
tr
ig
o
n
o
m
e
tr
ic
s
e
ri
e
s
e
xi
st
s
a
n
d
b
e
a
r
s
fr
ui
t;
in
p
a
rt
ic
ul
a
r,
a
p
p
e
a
r
a
n
c
e
o
f
n
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
in
t
hi
s
 c
o
n
t
e
xt
is
a
w
el
l-
k
n
o
w
p
h
e
n
o
m
e
n
o
n
.


 C
e
nt
r
al
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m
#
L
a
c
u
n
a
ry
 tri
g
o
n
o
m
et
ri
c
s
e
ri
e
s 
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
 F
r
e
d
d
y
D
el
b
a
e
n
a
n
d
E
m
m
a
H
o
v
h
a
n
ni
s
y
a
n, 
P
r
e
ci
s
e
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m
s
fo
r
la
c
u
n
a
ry
s
e
ri
e
s,
e
-
p
ri
nt
,
2
0
1
8.
B
u
t
cl
e
a
rl
y,
t
h
e
n
o
r
m
al
a
p
p
r
o
xi
m
a
ti
o
n
m
u
st
f
ai
l
s
o
m
e
w
h
e
r
e
,
si
n
c
e
o
u
r
f
u
n
ct
io
n
is
b
o
u
n
d
e
d
(
b
y 
),
w
hi
le
a
n
o
r
m
al
r
a
n
d
o
m

v
a
ri
a
bl
e
is
n
o
t.
T
h
e
w
o
r
d
"
c
e
n
tr
al
"
in
t
h
e
n
a
m
e
o
f
t
h
e
c
e
n
tr
al
li
m
it
t
h
e
o
r
e
m

is
in
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
e
d
in
t
w
o
w
a
y
s:
(
1
)
o
f
c
e
n
tr
al
i
m
p
o
rt
a
n
c
e
in
p
r
o
b
a
bi
lit
y
t
h
e
o
r
y;
(
2
)
d
e
s
c
ri
b
e
s
t
h
e
c
e
n
t
e
r
o
f
t
h
e
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
a
s
o
p
p
o
s
e
d
t
o
it
s
t
ai
ls
,
t
h
a
t
is
,
la
r
g
e
d
e
vi
a
ti
o
n
s.
 Incre
asing
rearra
ngem
ent
of 
 zoom
40.


 C
e
nt
r
al
li
m
it
th
e
o
r
e
m
#
H
is
to
ry 
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.


 L
a
r
g
e
d
e
vi
at
io
n
s
th
e
o
ry 
at
W
ik
ip
e
di
a.
I
n
t
h
e
n
o
r
m
al
di
st
ri
b
u
ti
o
n
,
d
e
vi
a
ti
o
n
s
a
b
o
v
e 
 
a
p
p
e
a
r
w
it
h
t
h
e
p
r
o
b
a
bi
lit
y 
 
a
c
c
o
r
di
n
gl
y,
f
o
r 
 
t
h
e
in
e
q
u
al
it
y 
 
h
ol
d
s
o
n
in
t
e
r
v
al
s
o
f
t
o
t
al
le
n
g
t
h 
 
a
n
d
a
r
a
n
d
o
m

s
a
m
pl
e
o
f
si
z
e 
 
s
h
o
ul
d
c
o
n
t
ai
n
a
b
o
u
t 
 
s
u
c
h
v
al
u
e
s.
T
hi
s
is
in
di
s
c
e
r
ni
bl
e
o
n
t
h
e
p
r
e
vi
o
u
s
pi
ct
u
r
e
,
b
u
t
cl
e
a
rl
y
vi
si
bl
e
o
n
t
h
e
z
o
o
m
e
d
pi
ct
u
r
e
.

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of 
 
lo
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t
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a
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in
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b
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in
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o
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f
o
r 
 
in
R
e
m
a
r
k
2
.
3
;
n
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s
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"
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2
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1
6
f
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)
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 ul
a
t
e
d
b
y 
D
e
B
r
ui
jn 
a
s
f
ol
lo
w
s:
It often happens that we want to evaluate a certain
number [...] so that the direct method is almost
prohibitive [...] we should be very happy to have an
entirely different method [...] giving at least some
useful information to it. And usually this new method
gives (as remarked by Laplace) the better results in
proportion to its being more necessary [...]

 N
.
G
.
D
e
B
ru
ij
n, 
A
s
y
m
pt
ot
ic
m
et
h
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s
in
a
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y
si
s,
N
or
th
-
H
ol
la
n
d,
1
9
5
8.
S
e
e
S
e
ct
.
1.
1
"
W
h
at
is
a
s
y
m
pt
ot
ic
s
?"
(p
a
g
e
1)
.
 Cate
gory: 
 B
o
o
k:
E
x
a
m
pl
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s
a
n
d
c
o
u
nt
e
r
e
x
a
m
pl
e
s
in
m
at
h
e
m
at
ic
s
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