4 Flight instruments ‘Air data and gyroscopic instruments are referred to asthe primary fight instruments, They are arranged inthe instrument panel is ote of several conwentionsl ways — the hasic ‘flying tee’ or its derfeative, the “six pack’, The instruments can contain theiz awn sensors, ‘€.g in the case of an altimeter with internal capsule; alternatively, the sensor can be remote, €.g a cen- tnalized air-data computer. Older aircraft that were installed with clectromechanical instruments are often upgraded with modern electronic displays, featuring the same basic fonotns ene: mechanical instruments, but with additional features, Electronic flight hags, although not fight instruments, are included in this chapter under the subject of ‘electronic fight displays, INSTRUMENT PANEL LAYOUT “The majority of aircraft built since the bate 1940s and ‘early 1950s have four flight fnstruments located ie a ‘standard arrangement called the fyingT (or Tee) —see Figure 4,1 The artificial horizon/ attitude indicator is in the top/centre; the air-speed indicator (AST) to the left akimeter to the right and directional gyro under- neath, Developments in microprocessars and display technology Ive led to electronic versione of these instr uments often with additional features and bene- fits (these are described Later in this chapter), The turn-and-slip indicator (or alternatively a turn-coordinator) and vertical-speed indicator are tasually located under the AST and altimeter. The ‘magnetic compass (Figure 4.2) will be located above (mance BFS gy rerurent codgption 41 Flying T’ arrangement (bas + electrenic)42 Magnetic compess dispiay = (=) Basie 6 grouping Basic T grouping 43 “Sx poet’ awongement and flying tee FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 49 the instrument panel, normally on the windscreen ‘This instrument-panel arrangement was widely adopted tg single-engine trainers to four-engine heavy bombers, minimizing the type-conversion issues associated with ment, also known a8 ouybout the UK military, from light asx pack", was widely adopted by ccenmercil ayia tion, Inthe late 1940s, the arrangement was changed, lustrated in Figure 4.3, 44 Instrument pane: (a) GA geroplane tt) Transport aeroplane50 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS + Top row: airspeed, artificial horizon, altimeter + Bottom row: radio compass, direction indicator, vertical speed. For single-pilot aircraft, this instrument-panel arrangement would be directly in front of the pilot. ‘Small gencral-aviation aeroplanes are traditionally based on the pilot in command being in the left-hand seat — Figure 4.442), On larger transport aeroplanes, the instrutents are duplicated — see Figure 4.4(b). ‘The pilot in command of a rotorcraft will be in the right-hand seat due to the arrangement of Dying controls — Figure 4.5, Single-pilot aircraft have some of these primary instr uments repeated on the opposite panel depending on the operational role af the air- craft, e.g training aircraft will duplicate the primary feos Aiea that are ceried for hove ‘operations will duplicate the primary instruments on both panels In good weather conditions (called visual flight rules = VER) smaller GA aircraft can be operated ‘through all flight phases without the use of any of the subject instruments, Aircraft appraved to fly in instrument flight rules (IFR) do require these flight instruments, Larger two-crew aircraft are equipped ‘with a third attitude indicator for standby and com- parison purposes. The vertical-speed indicator is beneficial but not essential (COMPASS INSTRUMENTS Introduction The earth is surrounded by a weak magnetic field, which can be represented by a lar magnet through the ‘arth’s centre; the resulting magnetic field converges at the north and south magnetic poles, as seen in Figure 4.6, Although the earth's magnetic field can be used to detect aircraft heading, there are practical considerations that have to be addressed, both for the ‘earth's field itself and also the magnetic properties of the aireralt. As described in Chapter 5, true north and ‘magnetic north are in diflerent locations; the dilfer- ‘ence between true and magnetic north will vary at ‘most places on earth by some amount, referred to as ‘arlation. ‘An aircraft contains both soft and hard ferrous based material, giving rise to permanent and temporary magnetism, Permanent magnetic effects 45 Rotorcraft instrument panel can arise during the aircraft's manufacture, primatily the effect of the earth's field running through the airframe whilst on the production line and then (if applicable) whilst in storage. In addition, magnetism within the airframe can be induced through electrical power generation and avionics equipment, par- ticularly radar, In some cases the aircraft will be degaussed, although some residual magnetisas will remain, Throughout the life of the aircraft, there will he the need ta carry out caliheation of the on-board compass aystems to check acceptable readings and adjust if necessary; this process is called a compass swing KEY POINT ec ace cane nr s ee eee ees eee KEY POINT Magnetic interference caused by the aircraft ee eee tocar een tnFLIGHT INSTRUMENTS S17 ‘46 Forth’s magnetic field ‘Magnetic dip Referring to Figure 4.7, at the equator, lines of the earth's magnetic field are parallel to the earth's surface; a¢ they approach the magnetic poles they progressively align with the “bar and dip, downward, until at the poles they will be vertical with respect to the earth's surface. The effect an the bar magnet within a direct ‘magnetic compass is dip, making it unusable in higher latitudes. To com- ppensate for this, che pivot point of the bar magnet is ofc from the mage creo ‘gravity (CG, or C Direct-reading compasses A simple direct-reading magnetic compass is ‘mandatory item of equipment on all aireraft, from single-engine trainers though to large transport aircraft ~ see Figure 4.8. They are constructed with a thar magnet, and a display that has the points of the ‘compass marked on it (Figure 4.9). The bar display assembly is Freely suspended on a pivot and contained within a housing; The compass housing is le wih a for dan paps hs devrais ‘oscillations during turbulence, and decreases friction 28 the compass pivot point. The Haid typieally used & from the compass card pivot point to account for dipAnge ot dip (increasing from equator) ERA Actinic the centre of gravity of the magnet is behind the pivot point in the northern hemisphere and ahead of tin ‘the southern hemisphere Direct-reading magnetic compasses are subject ‘to errors arising when the aircraft is turning and from altcraft sccelerstion/decelerations. Turning verrors (Figure 4.10) are at 2 maximum when turning ‘onto north or south headings; errors are minimal on ceast of west headings. Flying on east/ west headings produces the Largest acceleration deceleration errors ‘(Figure 4,11) because the bar magnet is always aligned ‘with magnetic north/south; the moment arm between 4B Direct seading/stondby compass the pivot point and the CG is a its maximum.FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 53 aa aa \ ws aa Comper cot omm ‘49 Direct-reading/stondty Magnat (1 of 2) compass schematic er acy a “He 410 Turing erors ANT Acceleration/ deceleration54 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS Remote compass system As previously discussed, magnetic compasses are liable in the hort term, ive, during turning rectional gyrascopes are reliable for azirmith guidance in the short term, but drift over longer time periods, A combined magnetic compass stabilized by a directional gyroscope (referred to as a gyromagnetic compass} can overcome these defi- f 412 Diectione! gyro (a) Internal view (b) DG display Smaller GA aircraft normally have a single mag. netic compass above the instrument panel; this is used in conjunction with the directional gyro sce Figure 4.12. The pilot has to manitor plays, and then manually correct the DG after each In larger aircraft, the mag directional gyro functions are integrated such that the compass card is automatically driven (or ‘slaved! ) to the magneticreference. In this arrangement, a remote magnetic compass sensor i installed cithes in the wity tip or another part ofthe aircraft where it has minimal influence from sources of magnetic interference. The remote magnetic compass sensor is called a lux gate, flux valve oF magnetometer. Referring to the simplified block di Figure 4.13, the primary components 0 g¥Focompass system are based on the following requirements/ components: a remote 1, A magnetic reference; the sen: 2 Ag rroscopic reference; normally a directional 3, An amplifice that provides power to precess the {gyro whenever a monitoring sigral exists; thie is used to synchronize the gyroscopic and magnetic references, 4. A synchronizing indicator; there has to be a the ferences, using the di means of comparing roscopsic and magnetic them to % indicator provides an indication of the agreement between the gyrascopie and magnetic references 5. A.synchronizing control knob; this provides a means of manual synchronizing the and magnetic references provide a monitoring signal, This synchronizi Wher the both in agre roscopic and magnetic references are mnent, th 1 will be no exror signal from the amplifier. No monitoring signal is transmitted from the amplifier to precess the gyro unit; the syn ag indicator shows an agreement betw gyroscopic and magnetic references, When the diree- tional gyro wanders, there is a difference compared to the magnet ec {s produced. The monitoring signal is amplif npass reference andi an error signal Jand used to precess the gyro back to: the magnetic reference signal. The gyro is now slowly corrected via precession; during this time, the magnitude of errorAN3 Remote indiccting compass ~ atch tectute sigeal bs indicated vis the synchronizing indicator When the gyroscopic and references are bboth back in agreement, there will be no error signal fram the ampliier and precession will cease, Pais This can take some time (typically two to three degrees per minute) and se for convenience, pension mide for manual synchronization using the synchro. kenoh: This the gyro ata faster rate and chapter, The magnetic reference sensor of detector unit is hased on a mag- netometer. Magnetometer/flux valve “The term ‘magnetometer’ has widespread meanings; in general iti a measuring instrament ased to detect the strength and direction of magnetic fields. The principles of magnetometers are used in geophysical FILUIGHT INSTRUMENTS 55 surveys, by the military to detcet submarines, in mctal detectors and in consumer devices such as mobile phones. The trsditional aircraft electromechancal fis valve (or gate) is shown in Figure 4,14, ‘The tlux valve (or fhax gate) consists of two main components: the magnetic sensor and the compen. sating device. The sensor is a pendulous device, free ‘to move in response to pitch and roll, but fixed in yaw, ‘The bon is partially filed with light oil to dampen ‘oscillations during flight. The compensating device Anca sa tp thn ea cons of wa oom of. coils, The coils are supplied with a Sock bontenyer annette; ae u ‘used to compensate the aircraft's magnetic fields, ‘The flux valve's sensing element is in the form of a three-spoke wheel (Figure 4.15), split through the im ac illustrated to ‘horns, The whee! is made from a high-permeability metal, giving a low reluc- tance path for the earth's flux, The horns concentrate the earth's magnetic thax, A coils woursd AN Bectremechan col fac gate56 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS Secondary Laminated Pick-off cols collector horns, 415 Alurgate sensing elements ANG Exctation ‘ord detection 235 V 400 Kz 417 Furdetecicr ‘crcult anongement on each spoke; these ‘pick-off coils’ are connected together in. star configuration, as shown in Figure 4.16, A separate “exciter’ coil is wound on the centre of the wheel's hubs this ts supplied with an AC supply, ormally 26 VAC, as in Figure 4.17. This supply will cause an alternating voltage to be produced in each of the pick-off colls. The concentration of the carth's magnetic field is shown fying North and East in Figure 4.18, The earth's magnetic Hux will either assist or the effects of the exciter coll; the output of the pick-off coils is directly tional to the orienta- tion of the spokes/harns with respect to the direction of the earth's magnetic flax. The signal produced by cach of the pick-olf eolls i fed into the gyromagnetic compass system as the magnetic reference. The physical location of a fhux valve (or fax gate) hhas to he carefully selected; typical locations includeFLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 57 418 Fuxgote ond the earth's magnetic fect (c) Flying nerth (t) Flying east58 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS the wing tip(s) on aeroplanes and in the boom of a rotorcraft. Further considerations are given im the next section of this chapter. TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.1 Why's the magnetic sensor formed from three spokes/horns. and nat two? Solid:state magnetometers ‘The solid-state magnetometer is an essential part of integrated electronic systems tised in AHIRS and PFD, i Acceptable location The Garmin GMU 44 is an extremely sensitive three-axis magnetic sensor. It is more sensitive to reearby magnetic disturbances than a traditianal Hux. gate device, Large electrical loads that are close to the magnetometer can generate significant magnetic interference. Far this reason, when se 2 location for the GMU 44, recommended minimum distances must be observed ~ seeTable 4.1 for typical examples, In the event that all of the minimum distances cannot be abserved, saurces of magnetic disturbances tobe avoided are given in onder of priority. The chosen location must be surveyed prior to installation of the GMU 44 to verify acceptability Typical locations for magnetometers are shown in Figures 4,19 and 4.20, 2ttmn (GMU 44 must not be closer than 2 fest to cabin) 419 Nagretometer leeations ~ lon viewBecticmotorsarc relays, = 1oAv3m lneluding servo motors Ferromagnetic structure greater 2 82 hf ‘thar th total (eg. landing-gear 25m structure) Fertomagrete materia tess 3 3fulm thar thg total (eg. contro! cables) Blectical devices crawing mow 4 3fuim thar 100 mA eutient Bectica conductors passing 3 fut more than 100 mv cusent Bectioa dewces crawingiess 6 2 fu 6m thar 100 mA eutient ‘Magnetic measuring device 7 2 fud.6en {eg installec Fux cates) 8 3 fun Ie general, wing mounting of the GMU 44 mag- nnctometer is strongly preferred. Ml wing mounting is not possible, it may be necessary to install the GMU 44 lathe tall ection ofthe alreraft. Fuselage mounting FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 59 420 Wognetcrmeter locations = side view is permitted, but not within two feet ofthe cabin area because of numerous potential disturbances that can interfere with its operation. Ferromagnetic materials can become magnetized and cause magnetic inter- ference. It is important to use nonmagnetic materials to mount the unit, This unit receives power directly from the GRS 77 AHRS (sec the next section of this chapter) sea communicates with the GRS77 using an RS-485 digital interface. W electrical loads are grounded through the air- frame, the returt electrical current will Now through the aiframe toward the alternator, generator orbuttery. Ifthe magnetometer lies along this current returt path, the current cat cause signiticant magtctic interference. Electrical current return paths are the ‘most common cause of magnetic Interference issues, Common examples of this problem are the navi lights at the Sage oe wing-mounted sag tometers or the strobe light on the tail for vertical oes ULs ometers.60 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS Compass checks The aircraft's compass system(s) must be checked and/or adjusted for a variety of reasons, Always consult with the aireraft maintenance manual schedule for a given aircraft type, A basic compass ‘check swing consists of positioning the aircraft on four ‘cardinal headings, each 90 degrees apart, and com- paring the actual deviations with the calibrated ‘compass readings. If there are differences outside approved tolerances then a full compass ewing is required. Typical reasons for carrying out a check sneing are: 1. Whenever the compass accuracy is suspect 2. Follencing any modification, repair or component cement inval¥ing may 3. Flowing any mda hat eds i nificant changes to avionie equipment 4. When the freight/eargo contains magnetic materials 5. If the alrcraft has been subjected to physical shock, e.g turbulence or ahemy landing 6. the aircraft has been subjected to an electrical storm 7. the sircraft has heen la long-term storage (typically for over a year) 5. I the aircrafi’s operational area ts different geographic location that has a magnetic deviation. ‘The fui compass swing requires more detailed check and calibration procedure; results of the compass srsing are bept with the aircraft records and corrections values are stated on a placard adjacent to the remote compass = Figure 4,21. In the first instance, a suitable wa FOR N | 30°] 60°] E /120°/150°| STEER lo01-1o29:|060=|oaae| 120°) 152°| FOR [330° STEER |181°/212°/240°/268°|301°|330" 421 Compess calibration card location mast be established forthe calibration. Many airports and maintenance hases have a dedicated area for compass swings, referred to a8 a ‘compass rose’ this has to be tts an area where there is no magnetic interference withie a area, e, calles, falar wasatuers deal rare dered pipes and so on, A series of radial lines are marked out, these marks are referenced to magnetic north, and are made at 30- or 45. fntervals, “The aircraft is positioned on the compass rose ane aligned to the radial for ‘north, with a person in the cockpit running the engine(s} and another person approximately 40 feet in frant of the aircraft (facing south) using a calibrated sighting compass. Using hand signals, and/or radio, the person outside the aircraft signals the persan in the cockpit to make adjustments to align the aircraft with the. The ‘compass's N-S lor screw is adjusted until the aircraft compass reads North (0°). This process is repeated by moving the aircraft into an E-W direction, and then through a full 360 degrees, As adjustments are made for N-S and E-W, the calibration, process takes a difference between readings, leading toa mid-point reading When the campass swing is completed, the results are filed with the aircraft records, and the calibration card is and placed in the approved pilot's full view. NAVIGATION INDICATORS Following on from the gyrocompass, navigation displays have evolved into enhanced navigation indi- ators — the course-deviation indicator (CDI) and horizantal-situation indicator (HSI). A typical CDi is shown in Figure 4.22. ‘The horizontal situation indicator (HSE) = Figure 4.23 — te located below the artificial hortaon/ attitude indicator; it ts based om the CDI, but with adklitional features and functions. The HSI combines heading (usually slaved to a remote compass) and VOR/ILS displays, reducing pilot workload. The HSI pointer is set to VOR/ILS course, giving left/right deviations. ‘The HSI is normally interfaced with an autopilot, as described in the autopilot chapter. With the HST selected to a VOR course, left and right and TO/ FROM is indicated by 2 symbol pointing to the VOR station. With the symbol pointing to the same side as the course-selector arrow it Indicates TO. the VOR station, and if it points behind to the side423 Horizontal situation endieator ypposite the course selector, it indicates FROM the station HSIs for a larger aircraft will include more je HSL display functions and interfaces, An elect EHS!) is ihustrated in Figure FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 64 42h Bectronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSID ATTITUDE AND HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEMS AHRS overview An attitude and heading reference system (AHRS consists of sensors on tree anes that provide heading, attitude and yaw data for the aircraft. They are designed to replace tradi Aight in increased reliability and ad p AHRS consist of laser or MEMS gyroscopes accelerometers and magnetometers on all three axce The AHRS will alo incor porate integrated pro that calculates attitude and beading solutions, O: essential of advanced navigation systems is 4 after Dr Richard iatroduced this coacept in the 1960s the use of Kalman fi Kalman, » Kalman filters are optim I recursive data processing ter navigation sensor measurements natical model is based an equations solved ples a system based algorithee that The rat by the navigation processor. To illustrate the jain of Kalman filters, consider 4 navi sensors with pe oon inertial navigati odie: updates from radio-navigation aids (see Chapter 5), One key operational aspect of inertial navigation is that system62 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS, errors accumulate sith time. When the system _receives a position fix fram navigation aids, the inertial system's errors can be corrected, The key feature of the Kalman filter is that i car anakse these errors and determine how they might Ihave occurred; the filters are recursive, Le. they repeat the correction procest on a succession of navigation Cccolatone and can ear about the specific error characteristics of the sensors wed. The numerous types of navigation sensors employed in RNAV syt= tems vary in their of operation, as described in the eee book. Kalman filters take advantage of the dissimilar nature of cach sensor type; with repeated processing of errors, comple- mentary filtering of sensors can be achieved, AHIRS differs from traditional inertial smh ae he roll, pitch and yaw) states, rather than heading, and velocity, as isthe case with an INS. AHS. are in widespread use in commercial and business aireraft and are typically integrated with electronic flight-infor mation systems (EFIS) to form the primary fight display. AHIRS ear also be integeated with air- dita computers to form ‘air data, attitude and heading, reference systems" (ADAHRS). Attitude and heading reference system “The attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) combine inputs from navigation sensors, ¢.g, GPS, magnetometer and an ait-data The AHRS Frecuesan accurate digital output and eeferencing of aircraft position, rate, vector and acceleration data, It is able to restart and properly itself while the aireraft is mosing. Garmin's GRS 77 AHRS has the following physical specifications © Height: 3.25 inches (8.36 em) + Wideh: 3,75 inches (9.53 cam) + Length: 8.5 inches (21.59 em) + Weight: 2,40 Ib (1,08 kg) * Voltage Range: 10-33 VDC GRS77 AHRS Performance: + Bank/Pitch Exror; #1, 25" within 30° roll, left or right and 15° pitch, nose up or down . siadl s 360" pitch and roll + Rotation Rate: £200" per second + Heading: £2" straight and level flight Prague ELECTRONIC FLIGHT DISPLAYS Introduction Electronic flight displays can either be installed as retrofit, ¢-g. the Aspen EFD range, or installed during production of the aircraft, e.g the Garmin 1000 system Garmin's G1000 is an all-glass avionics suite designed for or ginal equipment manufacturer (OEM) installation on a wide range of business aircraft. It is an integrated package that makes flight information ‘easier to scan and process, (1000's design brings new levels of situational awareness, simplicity and safety to the cockpit. The G1000 synthetic vision technology is described in more detail in a subsequent chapter. Aspen Avionics’ Evolution Flight Display (EFD) System This is a exible, expandable and upgradable elec tronic fight-instrument system (EFIS) available for {general aviation aircraft, designed to replace tradi- tonal mechanical primary flight instruments, in whole or in part, all at once or in phases, This moxa- larity and upgradability allows the system to grow with the pilot and the airplane, over time and afford ably. The EFD system i built around the EFD1000 PED, which replaces a vertical palr of the six primary flight instruments, The PED has» bright, high- resolution, six-inch diagonal liquid-crystal display (LCD) and a number of knobs, buttons and keys the pilot uses to control the system. The three-inch diameter, four-inch deep can on the back of the display slides into existing panel cut-outs (where the top ‘mechanical instrament used to be) see Figure 4.25.425 £01000 retroit prine pies The centre of the EFD System is the EFD1000 Primary Flight Display (PFD), which replaces the traditional mechanical attitude indicator (AN) and directional gyro (DG) or horizontal situation indicator (HS) —Figure 4.26, The PFD system typically consists of four components 1. EFD1000 primary fying display unit (PED) 2. Configuration module (CM) 3. Remote.sensar module (RSM) 4. Analogue converter unit (ACU) The ACU converts older analogue signals and Enter faces to the industry-standard digital ARINC 429 interface, which is the standard means nicati wh pommnu- of the PFD, In some installations, generally the aircraft i» nat equipped with an autopilot and has only digital GPS/'Nav/Comm, the ACU may be omitted ‘The system architecture in Figure 4.27 shows the relationships of the PED, RSM, CM and ACU. The primary flight-display (PED) unit is a digital system that consists of a high resolution, six-inch diagonal 426 £F01000 graphics FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 636 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS BS ees ——| aoe Leelee ae) 427 £FD1000 system architecture : ocell and microSD data-card slot, The three-inch diameter, four-inch deep can on the back of the display contains colour LCD display, user controls, phot a non-temovable clectronies module that includes: + A senor board with solid-state attitude and heading reference system (AHS) and digital air. dats computer (ADC) + A main application procestar (MAP) board with central processing unit (CPU), graphics processor and system memory + An input-output processor (IOP) board for integrat- tng communications with other aircraft systema Also om the rear of the unit are: + Am access cover far remoring and replacing the built-in backup buttery * Preumatic connections to the aircraft's pitot and + A44-pin Dusub connector for electrical comnee- tions to the PFD * A cooling fan, to col the electronics and LCD Isleighes The PFD mounts to the front surface of the instru- ment panel The configuration module (CM) contains an ‘crarable electronic progeammable read-only memory (EEPROM) device that retains system configuration and calibration data and provides two primary *+ Retains aircraft-specific configeration information, ‘ablbration data and user settings, allowing the PFD to be swapped for service purposes without re- entering or recalibrating the installation * Contains a licence key that configures the PFD software featuresThe CM is typically attached to the wire bundle ing out of the D-sub connector an the display unit. The analogue converter unit (ACU) included with the PED system enables the all-digital EFD1000 System to interface with analogue avionics when required, The ACU converts multiple analogue inter. faces to the digital ARINC 429 buses supported by the PED. Control parameters, such as desired beading, are also sent from the PFD to the ACU. analogue format for autopilot support, The ACU is required when any of the following capabilities are Fequited in a PED installation: + Interface to supporte + Interface to conventional VHF navigation radion Interface to legaey (nan-ARINC 429} GPS navi. gators * Interface to supported radar altimeter decision height annunciations autopilots MARINC 429-based digital radios, such as the Garmin 400/300-scries GPS, navigation, and communications radios, are installed in the aircraft, and no other air craft interfaces are desired, the ACU is not required The remote-sensor module (RSM) is an integral part of the PFD system and works together with the stisplay-unit sensors as part of the AHRS and ADC. The RSM looks and mounts like a GPS antenna and is mounted on the exterior of the fuselage, typically at of the cabin The RSM contains the following sub-systems + 31 magnetic fhux (heading) sensors © Outside air temperature (OAT) sensor + Emergency backup GPS engine and antenna The RSM communicates with the PFD wia 4 digital ‘able connection, The PFD isa flat-panel LCD primary flight instrument that presente the pilot with sll of the information from the tradition six-pack of mechan fcal instruments: airspeed, attitude, altitude, turn coordinator, heading indicator (or HI) and vertical speed indicator (VS), Modern technology aed seapalard EFIS symbology enable the consolidation of all six instruments into a single display, tightening the pilt's instrument sean and reducing pilot workload ‘The PFD is a single vertical instrument that replaces the existing atitude indicstor and heading indicator/HSL The display is divided into three parts: an upper attitude display, a lower navig. display and a data bar between the upper and lower halves, The attitude and navigation displays are highly FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 65 428 FFD disploy list ‘customizable = from stripped-down, mini presentations, to dense, information-rich displays — clepending on pilot preference and phase of fight. This section gives an overview of all the instruments, {information and cont the Aspen PFD “Tables 4.2 through 4.5, and Figure 4.28 Garmin 1000 system This section gives an overview of the Garmin 1000 Integrated cockpit system as installed im a range of GA aircraft; Figure 4.29 shows the King Air installation, The G1000 offers a wealth of flight-critical data at the pilot's fingertips, Its glass Might deck presents Might Instrumentation, navigation, weather, terrain, tral 429 61000 king Ar66 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS Table 4.2 Aspen EFD cortrots 1. Reversion and power button 2 Range buttons 3. Meny button 4 V2Hothey menu 2/2 Hot key mera 1of2 2of2 5S. MIN—Misimums — Nofuretion onvoft 6 360/ARC View ——Nofunetion 7. GFSsteetingon/olf TREC traffic ovesioy ontoft 8 BARO 9 Right tnob 10. Lower right buttor, couble!ine bearing pointer source select 11. CDI navigation source select button 12. Lowes left button, single-Ire bearing pointes source select 13. eft knob 14 Automatic¢imming photacet 15. miqoSD card slot Table 43 Aspen [FD attitude ctsplay ce 16 Attitude splay 17. Avcraft reference symbol 18 Single-cve fight director 2 19. Roll painter 20. Sliprstid ind cator 21. Alttude tape ‘22 Selected altitude feld (contro’s the aitude bug) 23. Abitude olerter 24 Numerical atitude indication oltituce ‘crumfpointer Abitude tiend vector Abitude bus 27. Becsonheght ennuncation 3, 4 28. Selected micimurns field Radio att tude 3, 4 30. Mivmurs marter 31, Lotera deviation indicator (LD1) navigator source incication 32 Airspeedtape 33. Selected airspeed field (contro’s the arspeed bug) 34 Auspeedbug 35, Numerical aspeed indicator, orspeed crumdpoirter 36. Vertical ceviation indicator (VD1) 37. Lotered deviation inctcator (LDD) ‘Table 44 Databar 38. Tveaspeed (TAS) or Mach number 39, Boromeuc presse setting fed 40. Wind direction ane speed 41. Wend drection orrow 42, Qutsce oir temperature (CAT) 43. Ground speed‘Table 45 Navigation display ‘44, Newgation display 45. Qwnship symbol 46, Course ponter 47. TCIFROM indleatot 48. Rote of tum indicator 49, Ground track indicator 50. Numerical cirection incicator 51, Selected course (CRS) fele 52. Selected heading feld 53, Headng bug 54, Course dewation scale 5S. Course deviation indicator 56. Vertical speed numerical value 57. Vettical speed tope 58. Singlesine bearing pointer 59, Singledine bearing polrter source 60. Single-ine beating polrter source info block 61. Double-iine bearing porter 62. Double-ling bearing ponter source 63. Doubledine bearing poirter source info block 64. Selected CDI navigatior source 65. Selected CDI navigation source information block 66. Left knob state 67. Rghtinab state 68. Hot hey labels 69, Baye map range 70. De-duttes evel FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 67 and engine data on large-format, high-resolution displays, ‘The G1000 adapts to a load range of aireraft ‘models, kecan be configured asa 2-display or 3-display system, with a chaice of 10° or 17" flat-panel LCDs inter for wse as either a primary flight display (PED) or multi-function display (MFD), An ‘optional 15" sereen is also available for even larger format MFD_ rations, The 1000 replaces traditional mechanical gyto- seople instruments with Garmin's GRS77 attitude and heading reference system (AHRS). AHRS provides accurate, digital output and referencing of the aircraft's position, rate, vector and acceleration data, It is able to restart and properly reference itself while the aircraft is 1000 also includes the GFC 700 autopilot. The GEC 700 is capable of using all data wallable to G1OO0 tw navigate, including the ability to maintain airspeed references and optimize performance over the entire 1000 built- and in terrain and navigation databases, providing a dear, concise picture for situational awareness. A database supports onscreen navigation, communication and functions, including an overlay of the aircraft's position om the electronic chart ta provide 4 visual cross. cheek. Using ieformation from the builtin terrats and obstacles databases, G1000 displays colour coding to _gtaphically alert the pilot when proximity conflicts Joo hea, In addition, the plat can augment 1000 with optional Class-B terrain awareness and w: yee (TAWS) for an extra margin of safety im the Fe pln can la sew position on taxiways with a built-in database of airport diagrams. Optional features let the pilot quickly find and view (DP), standard terminal arrival routes (STARs), approach charts and airport diagrams on the MED. For added visual orestatian, optional Garmin syn- ‘thetic vision (SVT™) is now available, Using sophisticated graphics modelling, the system recreates a 3D “virtual reality’ database Landscape ‘on the pilot and copilot PFDs, Thus, Garmin SVT ‘enables the pilot to clearly visualize nearby flight and ‘en-route navigation features ~ even in solid IFR oF night-time VER conditions, With ae ton to XMW Satelite Weather™ and the adkition of the GDL 69 ar 69468 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS data link receiver, the pilot will have access to high- resolution weather for the US, right in the cockpit. ‘The GDL 69 provides NEXRAD, METAR, TAFs, lightning and more that can be laid directly over topographic map databases, For global weather oration, ab optiogal GSR 56 ean eoancet the pilot to the Iridium satellite network, which also provides voice and text mesaging connectivity, as well as poxition reporting For the best in ‘sean-your-own" ‘weather analysis, the G1000 can be interfaced with 4 Garmin Mode § transponder, the G1000 will also display traffic.infor mation services (TIS) alerts that identify surrounding air traffic. The G1000 system includes the following line-repliceabe units (LRUs) GDU 1040 Primary Flight Display (PFD) GDU 1040 Multi-Function Display (MFD) ‘GIA 63 Integrated Avionics Units (2) (GEA 71 Engine/ Airframe Unit GDC 74A Air-Data Compuster (ADC) GRS 77 Attitude and Fleading Reference System (AHRS) GMU 44 Magnotometer High-so@ed data bus (Etemet) 430 61000 top-evel nterfocesFLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 69 ugh-apees cata bus (eveernet) Honeywei Honeywetl CO Guardian aerneaee KRG? KN 63 (Ortage mroncnide Lnhieieg tira anc ‘AOF recess OME saecten tmoedartionr datecor 431 61000 optional interfaces + GMA 1147 Audio System with integrated Marker Normal mode Beacon Receiver * GTX 3] Mode-STransponde + GDL69/69A Data Link The LRUs are further described in the following section. All LRUs have a modular design, which eases troubleshooting and maintenance of the G1000 sys- tem. A top-level G1000 block diagram is given in Figure 4,30, Additional or opti depicted in Figure 4.31 The PED and MED ate connected together ona ted share Ethernet bus, allowing far high-speed commun between the two units, Each GIA 63 i « tora single display, which allows the units informat gration, In hormal operating mode, the PFD displays graphical fi ntation in lieu of the traditional gyro instruments. Attitude, heading, airspeed, altitude and vertical speed are all shown on one display. The MFD on, thas enabling true system70 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS, a) 432 61000 functional d:splays: (a) Pathways (b) Obstacles (c) Thc (f) Runway shows a full-colour moving map with navigation information. Both displays offer contral far COM and NAV frequency selection, as well as for the heading, ‘course /baro and abutude-reference functions. On the left of the MED di (EIS) claster shows engine and tation, Typical G 1000 functional modes are illust in Figure 4.32 play, the Eng ine Indication System Reversionary mode Should a failure occur in cither display, the G1000 automatically en ary mode, all important flight inf shown isplay fails, the C cut of Th aan no c with display, and the NAV and COM functions provided to the failed display by the GIA are flagged as iad om ‘on the remaining display. Ifa GDU 1040 Ethernet tnterfac the remaining display. The system reverts to using backup paths for the GRS 77, GDC 74A, GEA 71 and GTX 33, a required. The change to backup paths is ted for all LRUs, and no pilot completely aut action is requi Reversicnar manually activated 1 a display d manually by wile may alse the system fails to by the pilot nin of the Audio Panel, Pressing this bar deactivates reversionary mode ELECTRONIC FLIGHT BAGS An electronic flight hag (EFB) isan electronic display system intended for flight crew (ar cabin crew mem. bets), replacing information and data traditionally based on paper docurments and manuals (e.g. navi- ing manuals and s0 on). The gation chartsEFB may also support other functions that have 0 paper equivalent, e.g. data communication and other rysteme, A basic EFB can perform flight-planning calculations and display 4 variety of navigational charts, operations manuals, ai ‘on. Advanced EFBs are fully c . EFB three ways: Class 1, 2 or 3. lacs || EFB systems are typically standard com- he-ahelf (COTS) equipment such ax nic devices, These devices with aircraft ey mercial laptops or handheld elect mercial off-the-shelf (COTS) eqquipment or designed for the purpose. They are typically mounted in the aircraft, with the display being viewable to the pilot during all phases of flight Under certain conditions, they can be certified to interface with aircraft systems, They do not share any display or other input/output device (c.g keyboard, pointing device) with certified aircraft systems, Class 2 EFBs alo not require any installation /remaal tools Clas 3 EFBs are neither Clas 1 nor 2; they are ith certified operating. installed items of equipnent 4633 Electronic fight bog FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 714 system software. A Class 1 EFW is part of the cert — including installed applica tons, database, resources and #0 cn, ical Clase 1/2 EFB is the Garmin ‘GPSMAP fs anall-in-ane EFB designed exclusively for Featuring a 7" diagonal high-detin adable display screen, detailed electre charts and weather data, the 696 is a pilot's personal avionics system. Referring to Figure 4.33, the bene! around the screen includes soft keys and a Jaystick control. The internal GPS provides position updates five times per second, allowing the 696 to present flighe dat nuously With optional modes, the GPSMAP 696 provides key functions of ¢ Class 1/Class 2 electronte flight bag (EFB), reducing the use of paper charts in the cockpit. The 696 can display vector airways, jet routes, min- imum en-route altitudes and leg distance, standard terminal arrival routes (STARS), approach charts and airport diagrams replicating traditional en-route charts sunlight oothly and ec MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS cct-reading compass, the angle of dip is (a) The equator (b) East/ west headings (©) The tie poles This bance pack’ configuration bs arranged with al horizon, alts (a) Top row: airspeed, a ters bottom tow : radio ec indicator, vertical speed (b) Top row: ve 1, artificial horiaoe, altimeter; bottom row airspeed, radio pass, direction ‘compass direction Indicator (€) Toprow: cirectian indicator, vertical speed, artificial horizon; bottom row: ai ed, ), altimeter radio camp 3. Acceleration error direct-reading compasses are (2) Minimum on east/ west headings (6) Maximum on north/south headings (©) Maximum on east/ west headings72 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND GUIDANCE SYSTEMS In reversionary mode, all important PFD flight {infarmatian is shown an the: (a) Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) (b) Remaining display (e) AHRS The gyrocompass synchronizing indicator shows when the gyroscopic and magnetic references are (a) Not in agreement (b) Inagreement (c} Powered off ‘The PFD is a single vertical instrument that replaces the existing (a) Altimeter/VSI/AST (b) Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) (©). Attitude Indicator and Heading tndicator/ HSE Magnetic interference caused by the aircraft's structure and components is called: (a) Deviation (b) Variation (6). Magnetic sip 4, Class 1 EFB systems are typically: (a) Standard commercial off-the-shelf devices (b)_ Fully certified and integrated with aircraft systems (c) Viewable to the pilot during all phases of flight 9. The flux-gate sensor is a pendulous device, free to move in response to: (2) Pitch and yaw, but fixed in roll (b)_ Pitch and roll, but fixed in yaw (©) Allthree axes, pitch, roll and yaw 10, The ‘lying’T’ configuration is arranged with the: (2) Artificial horignn /atitude indicator in the tup/ centre, air-speed indicator (AST) to the right, altimeter to the left and directional gyto underneath Artificial horizon /attitade inulicator in the top/ centre, air-speed indicator (AST) to the left, altimeter to the right and directional gyro underneath Directional pyro in the top/centre, air- speed indicator (ASI) to the left, altimeter to the right and artificial horizon/attitude indicator underneath by ©