CEP233 | FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL
DISTANCES AND LEVELING METHODS

MODULE 6
MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES
This module contains the discussion regarding the various terms used in leveling
procedures. It also illustrates the different leveling methods, types of levels,
leveling equipment, and leveling procedures.

Objectives
• To provide basic knowledge on the different leveling methods, types of
levels, and leveling equipment.
• To understand the step-by-step procedures in leveling.

6.1 Introduction and Definition of Terms

Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances

to determine the elevation of points or their differences in elevation. It is a
vital and important aspect of surveying since leveling operations are
undertaken to provide necessary data for engineering design and
construction, and the production of topographic maps. The suitability of a
site for development can be better determined by using the results
obtained from leveling operations. Through the processes of leveling,
buildings, roads, canals, and other vertical and horizontal structures can be
designed and laid out to best conform to the configuration of the ground.

Definition of Terms

To better understand leveling operations, the following basic terms are

defined below, and some of which are illustrated in figure.

1. Level Surface

It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the direction of

gravity or the plumb line. It is best represented by the surface of a large

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body of still water. However, a level surface is not a plane and does not
have a regular form because of local deviations of the plumb line. To some
effect, the direction of gravity depends on the distribution of the masses of
the earth’s crust and on their densities. Such that if a plumb bob is held
vertically at the base of a mountain, it will have the tendency to deflect
toward the mountain. Although the deflection would be small and
negligible, nevertheless it makes the level surface slightly irregular.

2. Level Line

A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are normal
to the direction of gravity and equidistant from center of the earth.

3. Horizontal Surface

It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular point. The

horizontal surface is also perpendicular to the plumb line at the same point.

4. Horizontal Line

A straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level line at one

point. This line is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point of
tangency. Since the mean radius of the earth is comparatively large, it is
practical for most purposes to assume that a level line and a horizontal line
are the same for short distance.

5. Vertical Line

A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction taken by a string
supporting a suspended plumb bob passing through a point. For ordinary
purposes it is convenient to assume that the earth is a true sphere with a
smooth surface, and that a plumb line is held at any point on its surface is
always directed toward the center of the sphere.

6. Mean Sea Level

Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway between
high and low tides. It is taken as the reference surface to which most
ground elevations are referred. This surface is determined by averaging the
height of the sea’s surface for all its tide stages over a long period of time
which may extend to about 20 years. Readings are usually taken at hourly
intervals on various properly distributed stations. Mean sea level is not a

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steady frame of reference due to the melting of ice in the polar regions,
the effects of volcanic activity, and many other influencing factors. It is for
these reasons that it is necessary to have a continuing observation of sea
level fluctuations to detect changes. This surface, which is considered to be
at zero elevation, conforms to the spheroidal shape of the earth and is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at every point.

7. Datum

Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea
level to which elevations of a particular area are referred. Any surface may
be used as a datum when relative elevations over a limited area needs to
be established. It is done by assigning an assumed elevation to a reference
point and determining the elevation of other points in the vicinity with
regard to this value.

8. Elevation

For a particular point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below
mean sea level or any other selected datum. Points on or near the surface
of the earth have either positive or negative elevations, depending if the
point is above or below mean sea level.

9. Difference in Elevation

The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance

between the two-level surfaces in which one points lie.

6.2 Leveling Methods

1. Direct or Spirit Leveling

Direct leveling is commonly employed method of determining the

elevation points some distance apart by a series of set up of a leveling

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instrument along a selected route. This method of leveling is also referred to

as spirit leveling since the device used is a spirit level. Differential leveling,
double-rodded leveling, and three-wire leveling are forms of direct leveling.
In direct leveling vertical distances are measured above or below a level
line and these values are used to compute the elevation of points or their
difference in elevation. Being the most precise method of leveling, it is used
when a high degree of accuracy is required.

2. Reciprocal Leveling

Reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining the difference

in elevation between two intervisible points located at a considerable
distance apart and between which points leveling could not be performed
in the usual manner. This method is commonly employed when leveling
across a wide river, a deep ravine, or impossible to maintain a foresight and
a backsight distance of nearly equal lengths. Reciprocal leveling provides
a faster method of determining difference in elevation and when it is
carefully conducted, it could be as precise as direct leveling. In
determining the difference in elevation between two points, it will require
two sets of observations and the mean of which is used, the process of
reciprocal leveling is expected to eliminate the errors resulting from

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curvature of the earth and the refraction of the atmosphere, provided that
atmospheric conditions do not change during the process of leveling.

3. Profile Leveling

This method of leveling is used to determine differences in elevation

between points at designated short measured intervals along an
established line to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground
surface can be plotted. In the design of roads, railroads, canals, drainage
systems, and transmission lines, it is necessary to first obtain a profile of the
existing ground surface. It is this method of leveling which will best suit such
requirements.

4. Trigonometric Leveling

This method of leveling is employed in determining by trigonometric

computations the difference in elevation between two points from
measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle
between the points. The required distances are usually obtained by stadia,
triangulation, trigonometric leveling only provides a very rough
determination of differences in elevation. Its degree of precision may be
improved by using precise measuring instruments such as optical
theodolites and total geodetic stations which measures angles to seconds.

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However, there are certain occasions such as in mapping or surveying over

very rugged terrain when it would be fully justified to undertake
trigonometric leveling. It is also a convenient method to adapt when it is
required only to determine the elevation of principal stations or control
points.

5. Stadia Leveling

Stadia leveling combines features of direct leveling with those of

trigonometric leveling. This method is in fact a form of trigonometric
leveling. It can provide reasonable accuracy for preliminary surveys,
mapping, and rough leveling where quick measurements are needed. In
stadia leveling, differences in elevations between points are computed
from observed vertical angles and the three intercepts on a rod held at
each point backsighted or foresighted. Any surveying instrument may be
employed in stadia leveling as long as it has a telescope to read the vertical
angles and is equipped with stadia hairs in addition to the standard cross
hairs.

6. Barometric Leveling

Barometric leveling involves the determination of differences in elevation

between points by measuring the variation in atmospheric pressure at each
point by means of a barometer. This leveling method depends on the basic
principle that differences in elevation are proportional to the differences in
atmospheric pressure. The readings of a barometer at different points on

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the earth’s surface provides a measure of the relative elevations of these

points. It is an accepted fact that the pressure caused by the weight of a
column of air above the observer decreases as the observer goes higher in
altitude. The method is particularly useful for low precision leveling over
rough terrain where extensive areas need to be covered and differences
in elevation are large. It is principally employed on reconnaissance surveys
or other work requiring only approximate values. However, it is not desirable
to employ when the atmospheric pressure in the area changes rapidly.

7. Cross-Section Leveling

In highway or railroad constructions it is often necessary to obtain a

representation of the ground surface on either side of the centerline. Short
profiles at right angles to the line of work are usually plotted at regular
intervals for this purpose. This type of data is obtained in the field by a
process referred to as cross-section leveling.

8. Borrow-Pit Leveling

Borrow-pit leveling is a method of determining the relative elevations of

points in borrow-pit excavations for the purpose of calculating volumes of
earthworks. This type of work is usually encountered in the construction of
roads and railroads.

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6.3 Types of Levels

1. Dumpy Level

The dumpy level is the most widely used direct leveling instrument. It has a
long telescope which is rigidly attached to the level bar. The telescope,
which can be rotated through 360 degrees, fixes the direction of the line of
sight. Attached to the level bar is a level vial which always remain in the
same vertical plane as the telescope. A leveling head supports the
telescope and permits the bubble in the tube to be centered by means of
the leveling screws. The whole instrument is in turns supported by means of
a tripod.

2. Wye Level

The wye level is very identical to the dumpy level. The only distinct
difference between these two instruments is in the manner by which their
telescopes are attached to the supporting bar. The wye level has a
detachable telescope which rests in supports called wyes. It can be
removed from the Y-Shaped supports and turned end for end during
adjustment by releasing the two clamping collars which fit across the tops
of the Y’s. Curved clips are used to fasten the telescope in place.

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3. Builder’s Level

This instrument is used primarily in the different phases of building

construction where a high degree of precision is not a primary requisite.
Engineers, architects, and builders use it in the setting of concrete forms,
batter boards, and in establishing grades for earthwork. It is often called a
construction level or an architect’s level. The level vial is not as sensitive as
in other levels and its telescope has a much lesser magnifying power. The
horizontal circle, which is found between the level vial and the leveling
head, is its special feature. This circle is used when measuring or laying out
horizontal angles.

4. Automatic Level

Self-leveling features are incorporated in automatic levels. This type of level

has become popular for conventional leveling work because of the ease
and speed of their operation. It does not use a level vial and its ability to
level itself depends upon the action of a complex pendulum-and-prism
device.

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An automatic level is equipped with a prismatic device called a

compensator which is suspended on fine, non-magnetic wires. When the
instrument is approximately centered by means of a bull’s-eye level, the
force of gravity on the compensator allows the optical system to swing into
a position which will automatically make the line of sight horizontal. The line
of sight remains horizontal as long as the circular bubble remains
approximately centered.

The level is not affected by any slight movement or settlement which would
disturb the bubble or line of sight. Its pendulum action automatically shifts
to maintain a truly horizontal line of sight whenever the instrument is slightly
disturbed. This type of leveling instrument is particularly useful where the
ground is soft or when strong winds blow against the instrument since it can
automatically relevel itself.

5. Tilting Levels

This type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its horizontal
axis. A bull’s-eye level is employed for its quick and approximate leveling.
The tilting knob is used to rotate the telescope into a correct horizontal
position. Tilting levels are commonly employed for very precise leveling
operations and in other general leveling work. It is always equipped with a
horizontal circle which makes it suitable for layout and construction surveys.

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6. Geodetic Level

The geodetic level is basically another type of tilting level. Most of its metal
parts are made of invar to reduce the effects of temperature. Geodetic
level works where extreme precision is an important requirement. The
instrument is equipped with stadia hairs in addition to the standard vertical
and horizontal cross hairs to make is suitable for three-wire leveling. When
using the instrument the observer has to stand erect since it is designed with
high tripod to bring the line of sight way above any intervening ground
surface. This was purposely done to lessen the effects of differential
refraction of extra long line of sight.

7. Transit as a Level

The engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the “universal

surveying instrument” because of its variety of uses. There is no doubt that
it can also be used for leveling work. It can provide results which are fairly
precise although not as good as those obtained with conventional levels.
This is because the transit has a relatively shorter telescope and level vial.

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8. Laser Level

A laser system is separate unit equipped with a portable power supply and
may be a helium-neon laser or gas laser. They are usually mounted or
attached to conventional surveying instruments such as levels, transits, and
theodolites. The Wild NA2 with an attached laser eyepiece is an example
of laser converted level. The eyepiece includes a special reticle which has
a small free spot in its center to allow the laser light beam to pass freely.
Surveying instruments with laser attachments are ideally suited for
applications in leveling work, building construction, and layout, and in
many other engineering activities where reference lines have to be
established accurately.

Laser light is a low-powered beam of red light which is suitable for projecting
a line of since it is coherent and highly collimated. A sharply defined light
spot is focused at the target when the telescope image is focused. The laser
beam can be projected along an optically straight path and it spreads only
very slightly as the distance from the source to target increases. Projected
is a visible “straight line” beam which can be seen on targets under different
lighting conditions. The maximum range of the laser depends on
atmospheric conditions and the nature of the target surface. During
daylight the range is about 300 m and at nighttime it is about 600 m.

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9. Hand Level

The hand level is a hand-held instrument used on surveys involving short

sight and where a low order of accuracy is sufficient. It has been proven to
be useful in reconnaissance surveys, in cross-sectioning to obtain additional
rod reading on sloping ground, and in taping to determine if the tape is
held horizontally during measurement. This instrument also provides a quick
way of determining how high or how low the engineer’s level should be set
up in order to be able to read a leveling rod held a certain distance away.

The hand level consists of a brass tube about 15 cm long having a plain
glass objective and a peep sight eye-piece. On top of the tube is a small
level vial reflecting through a prism which appears to move vertically when
viewed through the eye piece. When the bubble appears to be on the
cross line it is in the center of the tube and a horizontal line extends across
the hand level. During leveling, the instrument is held in one hand and
leveled by raising or lowering the objective end until the cross line bisects
the bubble. To obtain a steady sight, it may be held beside a vertical staff
or by bringing it close to one’s checkbone. The user of a hand level takes a
backsight or foresight on a rod while standing in one position and then
moves ahead to repeat the process. There is no magnification by the hand
level and the length of sight is limited by the visibility of rod readings using
the naked eye.

6.4 Leveling Equipment

Leveling Rods

A leveling rod is a graduated rod which is used for measuring vertical

distance between the line of sight through a leveling instrument and the
point whose elevation is either required or known. Rods are made of wood,
fiberglass, or metal and have graduations in meters and decimals which

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start from zero at the bottom and extending upward to lengths of 3 or 4

meters.

1. Self-Reading Rod

This is the most commonly used type of leveling rod. It can be read directly
by the instrument man through the telescope by noting the apparent
intersection of the horizontal hair on the rod.

2. Target Rod

This type of rod has a sliding target which is set and read by a rodman at
the position selected by the instrument man. It can be expected that results
obtained by reading the rod directly is practically as accurate as that done
by reading the rod with the aid of the target. Under favorable conditions,
leveling rods are readable through the telescope for distances up to about
90 meters from the instrument. A target should be used when longer
distances are involved. The target is extremely useful when readings are
taken in dim lighted areas, in dense vegetation, and when establishing
several points on the same straight grade line.

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Other Types of Rods

1. Rods Named After Cities or States

Leveling rod named after cities or states include the Philadelphia, Detroit,
Chicago, Florida, Boston, New York, Troy, and San Francisco rods.

The Philadelphia rod is a combination self-reading and target rod and is the
commonly used type of rod. It is made in two sections in which the rear
section slides over the front section. Readings less than two meters are
taken using the rear section of the rod and is referred to as reading on the
short rod. For readings between two and four meters, the long (or high) rod
is used by fully extending the rear section.

The zero mark is at the bottom of the rod and the graduations extend
upward to usually four meters. Red colored numbers are used to portray
the full meter marks on the face of the rod. Black numbers are used for
tenths, and the hundredths are shown by alternative black and white
horizontal bars. The graduations on the rod are continuous when the rod is
extended. The Philadelphia rod can be read meters. For much longer
distances a target should be used.

The Chicago rod comes in three sliding sections and usually extends to
either three or four meters. It is graduated similar to the Philadelphia rod
except that the figures on the face of the rod are wider and thus more
suitable for longer distances. The rod is designed to be collapsible for ease
in transporting. This type of rod is widely used in construction surveys.

2. Rod Ribbons

This is an improvised type of rod used in improvised type of rod used in

leveling work. The graduations on this rod are marked either on canvass or
metal strips which are attached to a long piece of selected lumber by
staples. Rod ribbons are quite handy as these can be easily removed from
the wood to after it is attached, rolled, and put into one’s pocket after it is
used. Since rod ribbons can be easily compared with a standardized tape
before it is used, they are sufficiently precise for ordinary leveling operations.

3. Precise Rods

The precise rod is a form of rod ribbon which uses a graduated invar strip
permanently fastened to a four-meter-long wooden or metal frame. It is

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equipped with a rod level to allow the rodman to hold the rod vertically
when used. For precise leveling work thermometer is attached to it for
purposes of reading the air temperature.

4. Geodetic Rod

This rod is similar to a precise rod except that a nilvar metal strip used instead
of invar. Nilvar is an alloy of metal with a very low coefficient of linear
expansion. The graduations on a geodetic rod are painted upside down
for use with inverting telescopes, and are shown in meters, decimeters, and
centimeters.

5. Tape Rod

This seldomly used rod is also known as the automatic rod. It is used
advantageously when numerous elevations are to be determined form a
single set-up of the leveling instrument. When employed in leveling work,
the tape rod eliminates the need to add backsight readings to determine
the height of instrument or to subtract foresight readings to determine the
elevation of sighted points. The tape rod is useful in profile leveling in taking
cross sections, and for the different phases involved in building construction
and layout. A three-meter long graduated metal tape is looped around
the frame of the rod by means of rollers located at both ends of the frames.
The tape can be rotated or fixed temporarily in any position for a sequence
of desired rod readings. Marks inscribed on the rod are similar to those used
in Philadelphia rods expect that graduations increase downward.

Rod Level

The rod level is a device used for fast and correct plumbing of a leveling
rod. It is L-shape in design and consists of a small circular spirit level fastened
to the rod or to a small bracket held against the side of the rod. When the
bull’s eye bubble is centered, the rod is plumb or correctly held vertical. A
different type consists of a hinged casting on each wing. It is mounted on
a level tube and held parallel to the face of the rod. The rod is plumb when
both of the bubbles are centered.

Targets

A target is a small device attached to the rod when extremely long sights
make direct reading of the rod difficult or impossible. Targets are made of

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metal and may be circular, elliptical, or rectangular in shape. Horizontal

and vertical lines are formed by the junction of alternating red and white
quadrants painted on its face. Is usually has a rectangular opening in the
front to expose a portion of the rod in order that readings can be made. A
small vernier may be attached to the target to allow more accurate
readings on the rod.

Targets are used not only on extremely long sights, but also when the rod is
held in poorly lighted places, where atmospheric conditions may cause
adverse effects on reading a rod accurately. They are also used when
vegetation or other obstructions to a line of sight make the reading difficult.
The target is moved up or down under the direction of the instrumentman
until it appears to be bisected by the cross hairs, but it is read by the
rodman. Shown in figures are other forms of targets used on rods.

Telescopes

The telescope of a surveying instrument is a metal tube containing a system

of lenses which are used to fix the direction of the line of sight and in
magnifying the apparent size of objects in its field of view

In some telescopes the objective lens is mounted on a sleeve which moves

back and forth in the telescope barrel is an object is brought into focus. This
is called external focusing. Internal focusing telescopes have an additional
auxiliary lens which moves back and forth between the objective lens and
the cross hairs as the focusing screw is turned. Both types of telescope are
illustrated in figure:

1. Objective Lens

It is a compound lens composed of crown and flint glass mounted in the

objective end of the telescope and has its optical axis concentric with the

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tube axis. The function of the objective lens is to allow light rays to enter the
telescope and form an image of the object sighted within its field of view.

2. Eye Piece

The eyepiece is a form of microscope containing either two or four lenses

and is used to enlarge altogether the image and the cross hairs. It allows
the instrumentman to sight and read accurately the graduations on a
leveling rod. Leveling instruments may have either an erecting or inverting
eyepiece depending on the arrangement of the lenses. Each type of
eyepiece has a focusing movement so that it can be focused on the image
to suit each individual eye.

An erecting eyepiece contains of four lenses which both magnify and erect
image. This type of eyepiece is popularly used since it allows sighted images
to be observed right side up. The inverting eyepiece is another type which
has only two lenses. It can only magnify the image but not erect it. Although
the observer sees the image upside down, it is clearer and better
illuminated since a lesser amount of light is absorbed by the two lenses. The
inverting eye piece is superior in its optical properties and is preferred by
most engineers and surveyors. Most precise level employ inverting
eyepieces.

3. Cross Hairs

The cross hairs in figure consists of a pair of lines which are perpendicular to
each other and are used to define the instrument’s line of sight. They are
mounted on a reticle or cross hairs ring near the eye piece of the telescope
and located at the principal focus of the objective optical system it is fixed
into position by two pairs of capstan screws placed at right angles to each
other. These screws are also used to adjust the positioning of the cross hairs.

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In telescopes of old surveying instruments, cross hairs were made of spider

web or fine filaments of platinum wire. Some are made of fine glass threads
and other have a glass diaphragm on which lines are etched. The
disadvantage of spider threads is that they slacken when moist and require
some skill to mount with just the right amount of tension.

In newer instruments, cross hairs are ruled and etched on a thin glass plate,
with dark metal filaments deposited to make the lines visible. Cross hairs
mounted on glass also have a disadvantage since it causes a slight loss of
light and allows dust to collect on the glass which fogs the image. Most
levels used for ordinary leveling work only have one horizontal and one
vertical hair. Instruments used for precise leveling have two additional
horizontal hairs called stadia hairs. Stadia hairs are shorter, are parallel to
and equidistant from the horizontal hair and the other is positioned below.
Various patterns of cross hairs and stadia hairs are used. Some of these are
illustrated in figures.

Magnification

The magnification of a telescope is the ratio of the apparent size of an

object viewed through a telescope to its size as seen by the unaided eye
from the same distance. It may also be taken as the amount by which an
object is increased in apparent size. The amount of magnification is fixed
by the ratio of the focal length of the objective and the eyepiece lenses.
Magnification is expresses in terms of diameters. For most levels, the
magnification may vary from 25 to 40 diameters. High magnification is not
always an advantage since it limits the field of view of the telescope and
reduces the brightness or illumination of the viewed objects.

Level Vial

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A level vial in figure, is a sealed graduated glass tube containing some

amount of liquid and a small air bubble. It is used to determine the direction
of gravity. The type of liquid used must have a low viscosity and freezing
point. It must be able to move quickly with very slight shifting or tilting of the
vial and should be relatively stable in length under normal variations in
temperature. Alcohol mixed with ether, and pentane hydrocarbons were
popularly used earlier. Newly designed level vials now use purified synthetic
alcohol.

Uniformly spaced graduations, about 2 mm long, etched on the tube’s

surface locate the bubble’s relative position. When the liquid drops to the
lower part of the vial, the entrapped air bubble moves to the highest point
in the tube. A line tangent to the top center of the bubble is a horizontal
line which is perpendicular to a plumb line. The line of sight of the telescope
is said to be horizontal when the bubble is located at the center of the
graduations on the tube.

Coincidence Bubble

This type of bubble is on most and precise instruments such as the tilting and
automatic levels. It employs an optical device which splits the bubble
longitudinally, then turns one end around to make it appear adjacent to
the other end. When the two ends form a smooth curve which apparently
looks like the tip of a hot dog, the bubble is correspondingly centered.

With the use of a coincidence bubble, the set up and leveling of an

instrument can be made more accurately than by means of the
conventional level vial. The use of a coincidence bubble, however, has a
disadvantage since it is not always clear which way the level needs to be
tilted to bring the images together.

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Tripods

Tripods serve as a base to prevent movement of the instrument after it is set

up. A tripod consists of three wooden or aluminum legs which are securely
fastened to the tripod head by means of a hinged joint. The legs are spread
wide enough to provide a stable platform for the instrument. When setting
up it is good practice to center and level the instrument first by adjusting
the tripod legs. If the leveling head is established nearly horizontal by means
of the tripod, only a minimum of shifting and adjustment with the leveling
screws would be necessary.

Two types of tripod are used with a leveling instrument. A tripod whose legs
are made of a solid piece of wood is called a fixed-leg (or high) tripod. If
the legs have a sliding section it is called an extension tripod. The fixed-leg
tripod is more rigid and makes it possible to keep the line of sight higher
above the ground. This reduces considerably the effect of atmospheric
refraction. On the other hand, an extension tripod is suitable for use in rough
terrain set ups where the legs need to be adjusted to fit the configuration
of the ground.

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At each end of a tripod is attached a pointed piece of metal called a shoe.

The shoes of the tripod are forced into the ground by stepping on it with
one’s foot. Usually each shoe has a spur which facilitates pushing the point
in. It is necessary to press them deeply enough so that the tripod will not
settle especially when setting over soft or unstable ground.

6.5 Important Leveling Procedures

Setting Up the Level

The leveling instrument may be set up at any suitable or desired location.

When starting a leveling operation, the instrument man should first consider
where he intends to position the instrument. The level is then pulled from its
box by holding the level bar or base plate and screwed securely onto the
tripod head. Care should be exercised in screwing the level. The instrument
should fit snugly and bear firmly. If loosely fitted, the instrument will wobble
and be unstable; if too tight due to excessive pressure, it would be difficult
to unscrew the instrument later and may cause some damage.

Solid ground should be selected when setting up the instrument. Muddy

and wet areas should be avoided as these are unstable to stand on and
may only cause serious errors in leveling work. Tripod legs are spread so that
the foot plate will be approximately horizontal. It will be easier and quicker
to level the instrument later if the plate is already horizontally positioned.
The legs should be far enough apart for a rigid set up, and they should be
pushed firmly into the ground to make it stand stable. The instrument should
see to it that the telescope is at a convenient height for sighting and he
must be able to stand comfortably between the tripod legs. A preferable
and convenient height of setup is one which will enable the instrumentman
to sight through the telescope without having to stretch or stoop. When
setting up the instrument on hillsides or along a slope, one of its legs should
extend uphill and two downhill. It is advisable for the instrumentman to carry
along a hand level to determine the approximate height at which the
instrument should be set up in order that points to be sighted will fall within
the established line of sight.

Leveling the Instrument

A considerable amount of practice in leveling the instrument will be

needed by a beginner. It is only by constant practice that one would really

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be able to feel and experience the proper turning of leveling screws to

bring the bubble in a level vial to its center. Most conventional levels are
designed with four leveling screws. The screws are used to center the
bubble in a level tube which is attached to the telescope of the instrument.
Newer models often have only three leveling screws to center the bubble
of either a level tube or a circular bull’s eye level. The procedures followed
in leveling each type of instrument are outlined as follows:

1. Instruments with Four Leveling Screws

The bubble is first centered approximately over one pair of opposite

leveling screws. Time is wasted by exact centering in the first attempt, since
the bubble will be thrown off during cross leveling. The telescope is next
tuned 90 degrees (either clockwise or counterclockwise) and positioned
over the two other opposite leveling screws. The bubble is again centered
approximately. This procedure is repeated about three or more times with
increasing care until the bubble finally remains centered in any direction
the telescope is pointed. The instrument is leveled if the bubble reamin
centered. This condition will occur only with a properly adjusted level vial
since its vertical axis assumes a truly vertical position when the bubble is
centered.

The thumb and the index finger of each hand are used to turn the screws.
Screws are turned always in opposite directions; that is, the thumbs should
move either away from each other or toward each other. It is only during
final centering when just one screws needs to be turned to move the
bubble thru a small graduations on the level vial. It will be important to
remember that when the leveling screws are turned, the bubble moves in
the direction of motion of the left thumb. Since all screws have exactly the
same thread length, one should be extended and the other shortened by
turning in opposite directions. Turning opposite screws should be at the
same time and also at about the same rate. This procedure will allow the
screws to constantly bear evenly on the foot plate while the instrument is
being leveled. The instrumentman must see to it that the screws should be
snug and not set too tight to avoid damage to threads and the base plate.
It should yield easily to a turn when held between the thumb and index
finger.

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2. Instruments with Three Leveling Screws

For instruments with only three leveling screws, the telescope is turned until
the bubble tube is positioned parallel to the line through any two of the
screws. The bubble is then centered on the level vial by turning these two
screws in opposite directions. As usual, the thumb and the index finger of
each hand are used to turn the screws. Also, the bubble will still move in the
direction of motion of the left thumb.

The telescope is next rotated about the vertical axis of the instrument so
that the bubble tube is brought perpendicular to a line through the two
screws turned earlier. Again, the bubble is brought carefully to center by
means of the third screw alone. This process of leveling is illustrated in figure:

The instrument is leveled if the bubble remains centered on the level vial
when the telescope is brought back to its first position. If the bubble does
not remain within the center graduations, the process is repeated until it
remains in the center for any position of the telescope. This method of

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repeated centering will only work if the level vial is in adjustment. Should it
be out of adjustment, no amount of repeated centering will work.

In automatic and tilting levels, a three-screw head and a circular bull’s eye
level are usually employed. Prior to leveling it is important that the legs of
the tripod are positioned so that leveling head is nearly horizontal, and the
bubble in the circular level is brought as close to the center of the vial. With
the telescope in any convenient position, the bull’s eye bubble is centered,
in one direction by operating two leveling screws. It is then centered in the
other direction by means of the third screw. The process of centering the
bubble is done by alternately turning two screws and then the other one
singly. The telescope does not have to be turned to any direction during
the process of leveling.

Holding the Leveling Rod

The leveling rod is held on a points by a rodman when a sight is to be taken

on it. To obtain the correct distance from the line of sight to the point on
which the rod is placed, it is extremely important that the rod be held plumb
when the reading is made. The instrumentman checks the rod by observing
through the telescope and noting if it is held parallel to the vertical cross
hair. If the rod is not correctly plumbed, the instrumentman gives out a
signal to plumb the rod. The accuracy of a leveling operation is significantly
improved if the rod is always held correctly, and it also increases the speed
with which the work may be performed.

The rodman either stands beside the rod or behind it. He should face the
instrumentman and see to it that the rod is held nearly at right angles to the
line of sight. The vertical side of a building, a smokestack, or a flagpole are
convenient aids to the rodman in judging if his rod is plumbed properly
when a reading is taken on it. The rod is lightly supported between the
fingers of both hands and is allowed to balance on its own weight. The
fingers must not cover the face of the rod. The rodman should see to it that
the graduations are always clearly visible and not obstructed.

In high precision surveys the leveling rods used are equipped with a rod
level. Although this device is not generally used in ordinary leveling work, it
is advisable to use one when inexperienced rodmen are employed. A rod
level is securely held against the back of the rod or it may be permanently
attached to it. It should not in any way obstruct the rod graduations.

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Taking Rod Reading

Before rod readings are taken on a rod, it is important to first examine how
the graduations are indicated on it. The metric rod in the figure is graduated
in centimeters and numerals are indicated for every full meter and
decimeter mark. The single dot shown below each numeral indicates that
readings taken on it are in the 1-m range. Since most rods extend to lengths
of either 3 or 4 meters, three or four dots are used to correspondingly identify
each meter and decimeter graduations.

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Each blackened graduation and each space between graduation is one

centimeter (0.01 m) high. The full meter marks are identified on the rod by
large numerals which are usually painted in red. The decimeter marks are
identified by smaller black-painted numerals. In figure, the readings for six
different positions are given as examples. It will be noted that readings to
thousandths of a meter are estimated as in d and f which are 2.165 m and
2.235 m, respectively.

Once the instrument is set up and leveled, the following steps are
performed in taking rod readings:

1. Position the Rod

The leveling rod is held by the rodman on a designated point whose

elevation is to be determined. He stands beside or behind the rod, faces it
toward the instrumentman, and holds it as nearly plumb as possible. Since
directions and signals emanate from the instrumentman, the rodman
should always focus his attention on him.

2. Focus on the Rod

The instrumentman aims and focuses the telescope on the rod at the
same time seeing to it that the bubble continues to remain in the center
of the level vial. He makes use of the vertical hair to check if the rod is
held plumb.

3. Read the Rod

If the self-reading rod is used, the instrumentman observes directly from the
telescope and records the reading indicated by the line of sight. The
reading is shown by the apparent position of the horizontal cross hair on the
rod. The view through the telescope is similar to that shown in figure. When
using a target rod, the process of reading is identical except that the target
is set (raised or lowered) so that the horizontal cross hair bisects it while the
bubble is in the center of the level vial. The instrumentman directs the
setting of the target but the rod is read by the rodman. It is extremely
important that a check is made on the centering of the bubble before and
after readings are taken on the rod.

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Determining Difference In Elevation

In figure illustrates a typical set up for determining difference in elevation

between two points, A and B, using the engineer’s level and leveling rod.

The sequence of steps involved are as follows:

1. The instrument is set up and leveled at a point about halfway between

A and B

2. Sight on the rod held vertically at point A and record the rod reading. In
the given illustration the rod reading at A is 2.00 meters. This means that
point A on the ground is 2.00 m below the horizontal plane of reference (or
line of sight) established by the level.

3. Rotate the telescope carefully about the vertical axis and sight on a rod
held vertically at B. Record the rod reading at B. To avoid instrumental errors
only one rod should be used during the measurement. The illustrated rod
reading at B is 3.50 m which means that point B on the ground is 3.50 m
below the same horizontal plane of reference.

4. The difference in elevation between points A and B is determined by

noting the difference in their respective rod readings, or 3.50 m – 2.00 m =
1.50 m. This value corresponds to the vertical distance between the two
imaginary level surfaces (assumed to be horizontal lines) passing through
points A and B.

From the given illustration, it can easily be seen that point B is lower in
elevation that point A since its vertical distance measured downward from
the established line of sight is greater than that taken at point A. Also, if the
elevation of point A is known, the elevation of point B may be determined
by subtracting the computed difference in elevation from the elevation of

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A. The procedure just described where the engineer’s level and a leveling
rod were employed for measuring differences in elevation is called direct
or spirit leveling.

Lengths of Sight

It is always best to take slight at moderate lengths to attain speed and

accuracy in leveling work. However, very short or extremely long sights
should be avoided. The most suitable sight lengths will depend upon the
required degree of precision, the surface of the terrain, the type of
instrument used, and upon the distance at which the rod remains readable
to the instrument man. Under ordinary conditions the length of sight should
not exceed about 90 meters where elevations to the nearest 0.001 m are
desired. Beyond this length it is difficult to read the rod accurately and the
errors caused by curvature and refraction have to be considered.

Irregular refraction during summer months usually causes “boiling” of the

air. In such a condition, the refraction is quite large and precise results could
not be expected when very long sights are taken. They should be made
considerably shorter especially if the line of sight clears the ground surface
by only as much as one-half meter. Extra long sights, however, may be
taken where the terrain is fairly level, only an ordinary degree of accuracy
is required, and completion time is of primary importance. Very short sights
cannot be avoided when the ground surface rises or falls rapidly such as in
mountain ous areas and where the terrain is significantly rough.

Waving the Rod

By aligning the rod with the vertical cross hair, the instrument man can
determine if a rod is held in a vertical plane passing through the instrument.
He cannot, however, tell if the rod is tipped forward or backward in this
plane. This can only be accomplished by waving the rod. The procedure is
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used to determine whether the rod is plumb when a reading is taken on it.
It is accomplished by slowly waving or tilting the top of the rod through an
arc, first toward the instrument man and then away from it. To the
instrument man, it will appear that the cross hair is moving up and down the
rod.

As the rod is waved, the instrument man takes note of the rod readings
which will alternately increase and decrease. The minimum reading
observed is considered as the correct rod reading at the particular point
sighted.

When the long rod is used it is always advisable to wave the rod if the target
rod is used, it must be raised or lowered until there is found just one position
when the target rises as high as the line of sight while the rod is being
waved.

Carrying the Instrument

The level should always be kept in a box when it is not used. It should remain
in it carrying case when transported to the work site or when it must be
moved to another distant set up or over rough terrain. The level does not
have to be detached from the tripod when transferring to another nearby
station, if it is securely fastened to the tripod and is carried properly. In open
spaces, the level may be carried on the shoulder in preferably a near-
vertical position. The spindle is clamped slightly so that the telescope does
not rotate when carried.

Arm and Hand Signals

An arm and hand signal are any gesture or motion that conveys
information or gives a command, direction, or warning. The use of signals is
essential in surveying since it is usually difficult or impossible at times to
communicate verbally in the field due to distance, wind conditions, and
surrounding noise. In many instances it is necessary or practical to use

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signals rather than call out directions since much of the work involves long
sights where calling out to one another is impractical. It is in such instances
that arm, and hand signals allow the survey party members to better
communicate with each other.

Any set of signals which can be mutually understood by the members of a

survey party are acceptable. In surveying, no standard set of hand signals
has yet been accepted. It is usually left upon the surveyors themselves to
devise their own signals. Each survey party should adopt some set of
definite signals as these will speed up and improve the efficiency of
surveying procedures and operations. All signals used, however, must be
distinct to leave no doubt as to their meaning. To fit unusual situations,
special signals can be invented for a need. They can easily be devised for
different kinds of distant work and for various conditions.

The set of arm and hand signals illustrated in figure are suggested for use in
leveling work. These signals are used to transmit the following commands:

1. Move Right or Left

The instrument man uses this signal to direct the rodman to move either to
the left or to the right. The desired direction of movement is pointed out by
the forefinger.

2. Give a Sight

The right or left hand is raised up and held for a moment in a vertical
position.

3. All Right

The levelman extends both arms horizontally and moves them up or down.
When both arms are brought still and horizontal it is meant to transmit a
command to “hold steady”

4. This is a Point

The rodman raises the rod and holds it in a horizontal position over his head.
It could also be taken to mean, “Give me a Line”

5. Move Back

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The instrument man uses this signal to direct the rodman to move back
farther. He transmits the command by raising his right hand with the palm
facing toward the rodman and then moving it into a horizontal position with
his palm down.

6. Pick Up Instruments

When a new set of the level is desired, the chief of party signals the
instrument man by first extending both arms downward then raising them
up quickly as thought an object is being lifted.

7. Raise (or Lower) Target

The instrument man motions to the rodman by either raising his arm above
his shoulder to raise the rod, or by dropping his arm below his waist to lower
the target. When the raised or lowered target approaches the desired
setting, the arm is brought back to a horizontal position.

8. Come In

The chief of party or the instrument man uses this signal to direct any
member of the survey party to come in or assemble. It is executed by
moving the arm into a circular motion starting from below the waist to the
front of his face.

9. Plumb the Rod

The hand is extended vertically above the head and moved slowly in the
direction it is desired to plumb the rod.

10. Establish A Turning Point

To establish a turning point, the arm is swung slowly in a circle above the
hand.

11. This is A Turning Point

To identify a turning point, the leveling rod (or range pole) is raised
overhead in a horizontal position. It is then lowered into a vertical position
and held on the point.

12. Wave the Rod

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The instrument man holds his arm above his head and continuously waves
it back and forth.

13. Face the Rod

This is a signal given out by the instrument man to direct the rodman to face
the rod towards the line of sight. It is executed by raising both arms above
the head and twisting both hands back and forth.

14. Reverse the Rod

The command to reverse the rod is transmitted to the rodman by extending

the arms above the head and slowly rotating both arms in a circular motion
towards one side of the body.

15. Move Forward

From a position where both arms are extended horizontally, the arms are
slowly bent on the elbows and the hands raised into a vertical position. This
signal is used to direct the rodman to move forward.

16. Use the Long Rod

To give the signal to use the long rod, the instrument man extends both arms
downward then slowly raises it over his head.

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Modular Questions

M6-1 Briefly discuss the term ‘Leveling’

M6-2 Enumerate and Discuss at least three (3) leveling methods

M6-3 Enumerate and Discuss at least three (3) types of level

References
La Putt, J.P. (1987). Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.). Baguio City, Philippines:
Baguio Research & Publishing Center

Disclaimer
This module may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may not
have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. However, this
module was created and made to serve as a tool for educational purposes
only and will be distributed without any profit.

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