Contents Cotour PLates Foreword PREFACE Contents oF Att VoLUMES Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter INDEX 1 ‘The steam turbine Turbine plant systems Feedwater heating systems Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Hydraulic turbines The generator vi vii xi 124 241 323 422 446 363Fo, Fe, Fis. Fc. 424 631 641 6.30 697 Colour Plates (between pp 482 and 483) Heysham 2 condenser. — modular construction Flux test on completed core View of a 660 MW generator stator end-windings Condition monitor (NEI Parsons Ltd) Dinorwig motor-generator during site windingForeword G. A. W. Blackman, CBE, FEng Chairman, Central Electricity Generating Board and Chairman, British Electricity International Led For over tainty years, since its formation in 1958, the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) has been at the forefront of technological advances in the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of power plant and transmission systems. During this time capacity increased almost fivefold, involving the introduction of thermal and nuclear generating units of 500 MW and 660 MW, to supply one of the largest integrated power systems in the world. In fulfilling its statutory responsibility to ensure continuity of a safe and economic supply of electricity, the CEGB built up a powerful engineering and scientific capability, and accumulated a wealth of experience in the operation and maintenance of power plant and systems. With the privatisation of the CEGB this experience and capability is being carried forward by its four successor companies. — National Power, PowerGen, Nuclear Electric and National Grid. ‘At the heart of the CEGB's success has been an awareness of the need to sustain and improve the skills and knowledge of its engineering and technical staff. This was achieved through formal and on-job training, aided by a series of textbooks covering the theory and practice for the whole range of technology to be found on a modern power station. A. second edition of the series, known as Modern Power Station Practice, was produced in the carly 1970s, and it was sold throughout the world to provide electricity undertakings, engineers and students with an account of the CEGB’s practices and hard-won experience, ‘The edition had substantial worldwide sales and achieved recognition as the authoritative reference work on power generation. ‘A completely revised and enlarged (third) edition has now been produced which updates the relevant information in the earlier edition together with a comprehensive account of the solutions to the many engineering and environmental challenges encountered, and which puts on record the achievements of the CEGB during its lifetime as one of the world’s leading public electricity utilities. In producing this third edition, the opportunity has been taken to restructure the information in the original eight volumes to provide a more logical and detailed exposition of the technical content. The series has also been extended to include three new volumes on ‘Station Commissioning’, ‘EHV Transmission’ and ‘System Operation’. Each of the eleven subject volumes had an Advisory Editor for the technical validation of the many contributions by individual authors. all of whom are recognised as authorities in their particular field of technology. ‘All subject volumes carry their own index and a twelfth volume provides a consolidated index for the series overall. Particular attention has been paid to the production of draft material, with text refined through a number of technical and language editorial stages and complemented by a large number of high quality illustrations. The result is a high standard of presentation designed to appeal to a wide international readership. It is with much pleasure therefore that I introduce this new series, which has been attributed to British Electricity International on behalf of the CEGB and its successor companies. I have been closely associated with its production and have no doubt that it will be invaluable to engineers worldwide who are engaged in the design, construction, commissioning, operation and maintenance of modern power stations and systems, a ra Aira.Preface The increase im generating capacity of the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) during the last thirty years has involved the introduction of new 500 MW and 660 MW turbine-generator plant for a variety of operational duties from base load to that of flexible ‘two-shift operation. These plants have been installed in nuclear, coal and oil fired power stations, The early operational experience of the 500 MW units provided important data for the design development of the 660 MW turbine-generator plant. These latter machines benefited from the high quality approach to the design of major components by UK manufacturers using their developed analysis techniques in the areas of aerodynamics and stress analysis. The soundness of this approach has been demonstrated by the improved reliability and performance of the later plants. ‘The Third’Edition of Modern Power Station Practice gives a detailed account of ex- perience obtained in the development, design, manufacture, operation and testing of large turbine-generators in the last twenty years. The practice of testing and evaluation of modern plant has proceeded as before; the advance in analytical and computational techniques has however meant that the application of this experience to future design and operation of large turbine-generator plant is of greater benefit than ever before. One of the major tasks of the Turbine-generator Plant Branch in the CEGB was to secure the development of Turbine-generators and their associated Plants to meet the needs of the CEGB with due regard to economics, performance and reliability. As Head of the Branch for some years I have felt privileged to have been asked to edit Volume C. The authors of this volume have wide experience of the plant engineering field and all are authorities in their particular field of Technology. 1 would like to record my sincere thanks to these colleagues who have produced Volume C. They have undertaken the task ‘with an enthusiasm derived from the knowledge that this work will be of the greatest assistance (0 engineers in this field of technology worldwide. P. HamBuina Advisory Editor — Volume CContents of All Volumes Volume A — Station Planning and Design Power station siting and site layout Station design and layout Civil engineering and building works Volume B — Boilers and Ancillary Plant Furnace design, gas side characteristics and combustion equipment Boiler unit — thermal and pressure parts design Ancillary plant and fittings Dust extraction, draught systems and flue gas desulphurisation Volume C — Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant The steam turbine ‘Turbine plant systems Feedwater heating systems Condensers, pumps and cooling water plant Hydraulic turbines The generator Volume D — Electrical Systems and Equipment Electrical system design Electrical system analysis, Transformers Generator main connections ‘Switchgear and control gear Cabling Motors Telecommunications Emergency supply equipment Mechanical plant electrical services Protection Synchronising Volume E — Chemistry and Metallurgy Chemistry Fuel and oil Corrosion: feed and boiler water Water treatment plant and cooling water systems Plant cleaning and inspection Metallurgy Introduction to metallurgy Materials behaviour Non-ferrous metals and alloys Non-metallic materials Materials selectionContents of All Volumes Welding processes Non-destructive testing Defect analysis and life assessment Environmental effects Volume F — Control and Instrumentation Introduction Automatic control Automation, protection and interlocks and manual controls Boiler and turbine instrumentation and actuators Electrical instruments and metering Central control rooms On-line computer systems Control and instrumentation system considerations Volume G — Station Operation and Maintenance Introduction Power plant operation Performance and operation of generators The planning and management of work Power plant maintenance Safety Plant performance and performance monitoring, Volume H — Station Commi Introduction Principles of commissioning ‘Common equipment and station plant commissioning Boiler pressteam to set commissioning Turbine-generator/feedheating systems pre-steam to set commissioning Unit commissioning and post-commissioning activities joning Volume J — Nuclear Power Generation Nuclear physics and basic technology Nuclear power station design Nuclear power station operation Nuclear safety Volume K — EHV Transmission Transmission planning and development Transmission network design Overhead line design Cable design Switching station design and equipment ‘Transformer and reactor design Reactive compensation plant HVDC transmission plant design Insulation co-ordination and surge protection Interference Power system protection and automatic switching Telecommunications for power system management Transmission operation and maintenanceContents of All Volumes Volume L — System Operation ‘System operation in England and Wales Operational planning — demand and generation Operational planning — power system Operational procedures — philosophy, principles and outline contents Control in real time System control structure, supporting services and staffing Volume M — Index ‘Complete contents of all volumes Cumulative indexCHAPTER 1 The steam turbine Introduction 1 Turbine types Lt. Direction of flow 12. Cyiinger and exhaust arrangements 13. Speed of rotation 2 Efficiency and output 2.1 Output limitations 2.1.4 Steam valve pressure drop 2.12. Swallowing capacity 22° Moving blades 22.1. Impulse-type turbine 22.2. Reaction-type turbine 22'3 effect on turbine design 224 Blade efficiency 4 22'5 Modern bleding designe t 22.6. LP turbine blading ‘ 2.3. The effect of ciearances on real designs 23.1. Profile loss i 232 Secondary loss 233 Tip teakage 234 Oise windage 23.8 Lacing wires ! 23.8 Other losses It 23.7 Wetress loss 23.8 _Annulus lose t 2.4 Stage efficiency and the condition tine i 24.1. Effcieney of stage L 24:2. The condition tine 243. Cylinder efficiency ; 2.4.4 Loaving lose 245 Hood loss t 246 Wetress loss \ 2.4.7 Parval admission 3 Thermodynamics of the steam cycle 3.1._Devolopment of the moder steam cycle 3.1.1. The steam cycle 3112. The Rankine cycle 3.13 Practical cycle using superneat 314 The rehoat cycle 3.1.5 Regenerative feedheating 32 Cycle efficiency and heat rate 32.1 Cylinder effcioney ‘ 32.2_Heat rate 33. Terminal conditions 32.3.1. Effect of steam inlet concitions 3.3.2 Effect of reheat conditions 3.3°3. Effect of pressure lose in pipework and valves ' 3.3.4 Effect of final food temperatures 3355 Effect of exhaust pressure 3.4 Suporheat cycle H 3.4.1 Steam conditions 342 Reheat 343 Double reheat 3444 CEGB cycles 345. Turbine designs 35 Wet steam cycle 35.1 The PWR steam cycle 35.2 Cycle considerations ‘ 355.3. Fullspeed or hal speed machines Economies of the steam cycle 4.1 Choice of exhaust pressure 4.1.1. Thermodynamic optimisation 4.1.2. General economic optimisation of plant 4.1.3 Economic optimisation of exhaust pressure, condenser and CW system 4.2 Regenerative feedheating 42.1. Feedheating plant stages — superheat cycles 42.2. Feedheating plant stages — wet steam cycle 42.3 Feedwater de-acration 42.4 Low preseure feodwator hoators 4255. High pressure feedwater heaters 42.6 Summary 4.3 Choice of feed pump and drive system 4.3.1. Feed pump size and number 432 Food pump duty, merging, and the need for variable speed 43:3 Economic comparison of steam turbine drives with lactic motor dives 4.3.4 Economic comparison of variable spoed motor (VSM) tive with induction motor plus fiié-couping drive 4.3.5. Example of tho results of an overall comparison of the throughelfe costs of four feed pump system options. 4.4 Turbine by-pass systems 44.1" Supetheat plant 44.2. By-pass capacity 4.4.3. System effects 4.4.4. Improverent of start-up capabity 4.455 PWR wet steam plant Turbine blading 5.1 Impulse stages 5.1.1 Moving blades — details ond construction 5.1.2 Fixed blades — detale and construction 5.1.8. Velocity:compounded stage 5.2. Reacton stages 52.1. Fixed and moving blades — details and construction 5.3. Low pressure stages 53.1 Aerodynamic and mechanical constraints 53.2 Blade tip restraint 5.33 Baumann exhaust 8.4. Moving blade root attachments 54.1. Firtree roots 5.42. Pinned roots 5.5. Diaphragm constuction and support 5.5.1. Kinematic support 552. Radial suppor pads 55.3. Diaphragm construction 56. Blading matoriats 8.6.1 12% Cr steole 56.2_Titanium 57 Blade vibration conwot 5.7.1. Natural frequencies and excitation frequencies 5.7.2 Sources of vibration excitation 5.73. Veiificaion of estimated natural frequencies and whoet ‘chamber tests 5.7.4 Methods of vibration control 5.8 Erosion protection 5.8.1. Erosion mechanism 5.8.2. Erosion progression 5.83. Protection and erosion shield materialsThe steam turbine Chapter 1 6 Turbine casings 6.1. Forms of casing construction 6.1.1 High prosoure casings 6.1.2. Intormeciate pressure casings 6.1.3. Low pressure casings 8.2. Horizontal joints 8.2.1. Flange design 62.2. Boling 5.3. Extemal connections 63.1. Steam inios — HP and 1P 6.3.2 HP exhausts 6.33 IP exhausts G34 Use of thermal skirts and piston rings 635 LP evinders 63.6 Bled tear connections 64 Caring materials 65 Supoort and alignment 65-1. HP and IP cylinder supports 652 LP cylinder supports 6.6. Casing and dlaprragm glands 67 Legging 7 7.1 Types of rotor construction 71.4 Design for high temperature operation 7.1.2. Cooling of IP rotors 72. Rotor materials 72.1 HP and I rotors 722 LP rotors 713° Rotor testing and balancing 73.1 Thermal stabiity 73.2. Overspoed testing 73.3. Rotor balancing ine rotors and couplings 7.34 Critical speeds 738. Rotor fast fracture risk assessment 74 Couplings 7.4.1 Flexible couplings 74.2 Somiflexble couptings 7.433. Rigid couplings 715. Rotor aignmant 78. Alignment technique 75.2. Oreline monitoring 8 Bearings, pedestals and turning gear 2.1. Journal bearings 8.1.1" Construction 8.12. Instrumentation 8.1.3 Bearing performance 8.14 _ Factor affecting bearing ite 82 Thrust bearings 3 Pedestals 8.4 OF soaling arrangements 85 Tuning gear 8.5.1. Hand baring arrangement 852 Electrical turing gear (ETC) 9 Turbine applications 8.1 Powor generation 9.2. Mechanical dive 9.3 Combined heat and power (CHP) 8.4 Combined-cyce plant 10 Future outlook. 10.1. Unit size and rating 302 Supererveal plant 403. Turbine blading development 11 References Introduction In order to function, a turbine requires a suitable working fluid, a source of high grade energy and a sink for low grade energy. When the fluid flows through the turbine, part of the energy content is continuously extracted and converted into useful mechanical work. Steam and gas turbines use heat energy, while water turbines use pressure energy. The main objectives of the turbine designer are (0 ensure that this process is, carried out with ‘maximum efficiency’ by means of plant having ‘maximum reliability’ at ‘minimum cost. Second objectives are that the plant should require ‘minimum supervision’ and ‘minimum starting time’ These five objectives conflict with cach other and the final outcome will be an acceptable compromise between them. Chapters 1 and 2 outline modern power station practice as implemented by UK turbine makers. The reasons behind every facet of turbine development are explained and, where necessary, technical terms are defined quantitatively and qualitatively to emphasise standard practice. 1 Turbine types ‘Thorough reviews of the development of the steam turbine have been presented by Traupel (1] and Harris Ry 1.1. Direction of flow ‘Almost without exception, modern large steam turbines are of the axial-flow type (Fig 1.1). Even from the early days in the late nineteenth century, this has been the preferred solution for steam turbines of all ratings. ‘The principal exception to this rule has been the radial-flow turbine (Fig 1.2), originally introduced by Ljungstrom, and developed to its most recent form by Stal-Laval (now ASEA-Stal). In this design, steam js admitted to the centre of the machine, expanding outwards through two contra-rotating rotors to the exhaust at the periphery. The concept was success: fully executed and has been applied at ratings up to about 60 MW. ASEA-Stal still offer the radial-flow turbine for small industrial sets up to about 30 MW output. However, the design is not adaptable to large ‘outputs because of the mass of the blades which would be mounted at the outer periphery. The largest ap- plication of the radial-flow turbine is for the high pressure (HP) cylinder of a 460 MW unit associated with a boiling water reactor at Oskarshamn in Sweden. ‘Axial flow is therefore the characteristic Feature of modern steam turbines. These are often categorisedTurbine types FiG, 1.1 Axial-fow turbine Flo. 1.2. Radialflow turbine according to the type of blading used (see Section 5 of this chapter), but in terms of direction of flow, the steam approaches a group of stages at one end, flows axially through the radially-mounted blading and exhausts at the other end of the group of stages. The simplest configuration of blading is in single-flow (Fig 13 (@). Groups of stages within a turbine cylinder may be arranged for flow in opposing axial directions. The normal situation for this is the double-flow turbine (a) Sigietow FiG. 1.3 Direction of flow for different categories ‘of turbine (Fig 1.3 (b)), in which the steam is admitted at the centre of the cylinder and is divided to flow in op- posite axial directions towards the ends of the rotor. This arrangement is used to avoid the excessively long blades which would be incurred by a single-flow arrangement. For turbines of large output, it is nor- mal to have several double-flow low pressure (LP) cylinders operating in parallel. The second benefit is that the double-flow cylinder effectively reduces to zero the axial thrust caused by the steam forces on the moving blading. ‘One oF both of these objectives are also the reasons for other arrangements of stage groups within a tur- bine cylinder. Thrust reduction is the main target for the reversed-flow cylinder (Fig 1.3 (c)), in which the steam flows in one direction through one group of stages and is then ducted (internally or externally) to flow through a second group of stages in the opposite axial direction. In some cases, the second group of stages may have several sections in parallel to accom- modate the increasing volumettic flow rate.The steam turbine Chapter 1 In axial turbines, the steam is admitted to the cyl- inder and exhausted from it, by one or more circular pipes in a radial or near-radial orientation (see Section 6 of this chapter). At the LP turbine exhaust, the connection flange(s) to the condenser will however normally be rectangular, at an appropriate location and orientation to match the condenser design. This always involves radial flow in one or more directions. ‘The steam is therefore required to turn through a right angle to enter the axial-flow blading and to exhaust from it, at the same time redistributing itself around the circumference. The inlet and exhaust areas therefore require sufficient space to allow an orderly flow without undue pressure loss or flow separation. In some cases, particularly low pressure turbine ex- hausts, flow guides may be incorporated 1.2. Cylinder and exhaust arrangements For turbines driving electrical generators, the limit of a single-cylinder turbine is around 100 MW, depending fon the design concepts, the initial steam’ conditions (oressure and temperature), whether or not a reheat cycle is used, the exhaust conditions and the speed of rotation, Frequently turbines of this size are designed and built on a modular basis, with the inlet sections, blad- ing sections, and exhaust sections selected from a range of standard designs to suit a range of output powers, initial and exhaust conditions and spevial applications such as extraction steam for process heating or district heating For larger machines, multi-cylinder designs are used (Fig 1.4). The number of cylinders depends on a simi- Jar list of terminal conditions and design considerations. A typical turbine of 500-900 MW output in a fossil fired power station (coal, oil, or gas) or a gas-cooled nuclear station would have one HP turbine, one inter- mediate pressure (IP) turbine and two (LP) turbines, rotating at 3000 or 3600 r/min, depending on the grid Frequency (see Section 1.3 of this chapter). The IP and LP turbines would probably be double-flow. In a power station with a water-cooled reactor (PWR, BWR, CANDU, etc.), the initial steam is at lower pressure and temperature, so the steam mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate are likely to be much higher for a given output. The turbine might then have one double-flow HP turbine and two or three LP turbines The turbine with a number of cylinders on a single shaft is described as a tandem-compound machine (Fig 1.5 (a)). The other main type is the cross-compound machine (Fig 1.5 (b)), in which the turbine cylinders are mounted on two separate parallel shafts driving two separate generators. The steam connections and the auxiliary systems are arranged as for a single generating unit. This design of plant has been more widely used where the grid frequency is 60 Hz and the available LP turbine blading results in a large 4 number of LP cylinders being required: the use of a very long shaft can be avoided by the use of a cross- compound machine. Further, the number of LP cylin- ders can be reduced if the LP turbine shaft rotates at 1800 r/min, while the HP shaft rotates at 3600 r/min. ‘The arrangement of the LP turbine and its con- nection to the condenser depends critically on the location of the condenser, and the orientation of the condenser tubes with respect to the turbine axis. The condenser has traditionally been mounted below the turbine, with the condenser tubes either axial or transverse. During the 1960s and 1970s, many 500 MW and 660 MW turbines were built in the UK with side- mounted condensers and axial tubes, Variants of this, design are called the pannier condenser (Fig 1.6 (a)) and the integral condenser (Fig 1.6 (b)). The main, objective was to reduce the overall height of the turbine, with a view to reducing the height and size of the turbine hall, Because the tubes were axial, the condenser steam space could be sectionalised, thus allowing a lower condenser pressure in the cold end, This provided a small efficiency benefit. The main disadvantage of this design is that the condenser becomes an important part of the turbine in terms of structural integrity, loading, foundations, ete. ‘This makes the condenser design dependent on the number and size of LP turbines, thus inhibiting the concept of modular design and complicating the de- sign interface between a turbine maker and a number of possible condenser makers. This design may also complicate access to the turbine for maintenance, for example, to the bearing pedestals. Later plant in British stations has therefore reverted to the use of underslung condensers with transverse tubes (Fig 1.6 (©)), using a connecting duct between the turbine outlet flange and the condenser inlet flange. Because the condenser tubes are normally much longer than the width of the turbine casing, this duet is, trapezoidal in shape. (On some turbines built between 1920 and 1960, where the available last stage blading provided a limitation, on turbine output or efficiency, the Baumann exhaust turbine (Fig 1.7) has been used by certain manufac turers, particularly Metropolitan-Viekers in the UK. In this design, the penultimate turbine stage is divided: the steam flow through the outer annular part of the stage is led directly to the condenser, while that flowing through the inner part flows through the final stage on its way to the condenser. Because the two parts of the penultimate stage moving-blading have different duties, there is a discontinuity in the blade profile which makes it a difficult concept to use in the most highly-rated turbines 1.3. Speed of rotation In the normal case, steam turbines are directly cou- pled to the electrical generator, no gearbox beingTurbine typesThe steam turbine Chapter 1 nm a ©) Fic. 1.5 Tandemn-sompound and cross-compound machines necessary. The speed of rotation is thus given by: f = pn where f = frequency of the electrical grid system P= number of generator pole pairs n= the rotational speed Although there have been exceptions in the past, effectively the only two grid frequencies in use world- wide are 50 Hz and 60 Hz, and generators are usually cither of two pole or four pole design. Large turbine- generators therefore fall into one of the following four categories: 6 Machine type Rotational speed (r/min) 30 Hz 60 Hz 3000 (S0 Hz) 3600 (60 Hz) 1500 (25 Hz) 1800 (30 Hz) System frequency ‘Two-pole (full-speed) Four-pole (half-speed) Itis, however, not uncommon for smaller turbines. — particularly those associated with special applications such as Combined Heat and Power, or Combined Cycle — to operate at a higher speed, but driving the generator through a speed-reducing gearbox. This re- sults in a smaller and less costly turbine, although the gearbox may introduce losses and affect availability Mechanically-driven turbines are required to operate at variable speed to cover the operational range ofTurbine types o A peiaust (0) Pari or sorounne (2) Rai orto ae (0 Unset ose FIG. 1.6 Types of condenser in common use the driven machine. In the power generation field, the largest such turbines are used to drive the boiler feed pumps for large units (see Section 4.3 of this chapter). The maximum operational speed range may be as high as 8500 r/min. Variable-speed turbines have also been used to drive the gas circulators in some gas-cooled reactors, and small single-stage tur- bines may also be used to drive emergency feed pumps in nuclear stations, The selection of the rotational speed of a turbine generator depends on a number of factors, as follows: © Unit size, initial steam condit of designs. ons and availability ‘© Standardisation, affecting spares holdings. or cena Fig. 1.7 The Baumann exhaust turbine © Relative size and weights, affecting cost and transport, © Relative expectations of reliability, operational flexi bility and ease of maintenance. ‘© Relative thermal efficiency and economic comparison of alternatives, © Available LP turbine modules, with choice of exhaust, area to suit output and exhaust pressure. For superheat plant, a full-speed machine is normally preferred. However, when a plant is proposed of higher output than a current range which would have led to very high stresses or very high LP turbine exhaust loadings, this favours a half-speed machine. Half-speed tandem-compound machines are almost unknown for superheat plant, but cross-compound machines with a full-speed HP/IP line and a half: speed LP line have been used, particularly in 60 Hz systems where the exhaust loading is exacerbated. For saturated-steam plant, the balance is much more even. The higher steam volumetric flow rate for a given output makes the exhaust loading more critical so, for 60 Hz systems, the rotational speed is almost universally 1800 r/min. In 50 Hz systems, this exhaust loading is less critical, so there are a number of full- speed machines. However, at the time the choice was made of standard reactor sizes, 1500 r/min machines were often chosen as stress levels on 3000 r/min ma- chines would have been beyond the experience at that time. In some cases, including Sizewell B (the first PWR in the UK), two half-size, but full-speed, ma- chines were selected, to take advantage of modules such as the LP turbine and the generator developed 7The steam turbine Chapter 1 and proven for the full-speed superheat machines then in service. A comprehensive review of the choice of speed for saturated-steam machines in 50 Hz systems hhas been made by Harris and Kalderon [3]. They indicate that 1500 r/min machines may be more economical for the lowest optimum exhaust pressures, i.e., in those countries with the lowest cooling water temperatures. By contrast, 3600 r/min machines could conly become the preferred solution in 60 Hz. systems where the optimum exhaust pressure is above 90 mbar; such high values are rarely the optimum, even in the warmest climates 2. Efficiency and output 2.1. Output limitations When steam passes through a narrow orifice or noz- ale, it acquires kinetic energy at the expense of heat (enthalpy). The expansion of steam beyond the nozzle causes some of the generated kinetic energy to be converted to frictional heat. The result is the retention of some enthalpy, but a loss in pressure and increase in entropy (loss in availability of energy). 244 An example of this occurs in turbine governor valves, where the steam expands rapidly after passing through the valve, converting all its generated kinetic energy to frictional reheat. This has the effect of maintain ing the enthalpy at the valve inlet value, but at the expense of a large increase in entropy and pressure drop. This is known as ¢hrottling and is used to shed load. More load is shed by reducing the valve area, so permitting less mass flow and increasing the pressure drop across the valve. Steam valve pressure drop 2.1.2 Swallowing capacity Whilst the effect of pressure drop is useful in throttle valves for reducing load it is a restriction on the turbine itself. The pressure drop produced at the novzles of the turbine inlet and all subsequent fixed blades restricts the mass flow through the turbine and hence the power output. A relationship between mass flow and the fall in pressure across the turbine vas first produced by Stodola in 1927 [4] am = K(p? = p2*)? ay where qm is the mass flow rate, py and p3 are the inlet and exhaust pressures and K is a constant. The 8 relationship is known as the ‘Ellipse Law’, ‘The relationship was later modified to include the effect of inlet temperature: K (2 m= ~ (p a2) am = Tr, where T, is the inlet absolute temperature. ‘A more comprehensive analysis is given by Traupel [5] who showed th am = «(PV)* [1 (Pv) a4 val aay where V represents the specific volume and n is the polytropic exponent, related to the efficiency » and isentropic exponent k by ‘The Ellipse Law is a useful tool when modelling the effects of partial load on a turbine. Generally, sufficient accuracy is obtained by using the version given in Equation (1.2) where steam is the working fluid. The Ellipse Law constant K can be obtained from cither design or test data for the turbine, and knowing the required flow, the pressures at each stage of the unit can be evaluated successively from the exhaust end where the conditions remain at constant condenser levels. 2.2 Moving blades The moving blades of a turbine stage receive steam that has been accelerated in a nozzle or fixed blades and convert its kinetic energy into mechanical work on the turbine shaft. The impingement of the steam on the blades produces a change in direction of motion of the steam which gives rise to a change in momen- tum and therefore to a force. Ideally, the angle through which the steam is turned is as near to 180° as possible. Figure 1.8 shows a typical velocity vector diagram in relation to the moving blade profile, The manner by which the transfer of energy occurs in the moving blades is dependent upon whether the turbine is of an impulse or reaction type. 2.2.1 Impulse-type turbine Invented by Professor Rateau, an impulse turbine converts a proportion of the heat in the steam into velocity in the fixed blades. There is no heat drop and therefore no pressure drop across the moving blades, The mechanical work done in the moving blades is therefore solely due to the loss of a propor- tion of the velocity gained in the fixed blades.Efficiency and output Fic. 1.8 Typical blade velocity vector diagram U = tinear velocity of moving blade, m/s Cy ~ absolute velocity of steam at moving blade inlet, m/s 3 = absolute velocity of steam at moving blade outlet m/s Wi = steam velocity relative to moving blade at inlet, m/s W= steam velocity relative to moving blade at outlet, m/s ‘= outlet angle of fixed blade 1 = outlet angle of moving blade 6 = inkt angle of moving blade 9 = inlet angle of steam co following stage Figure 1.9 shows a typical impulse-type stage velocity diagram. The relative velocity of the steam leaving the ‘moving blades (W,) is less than the relative velocity of the steam entering the moving blades (W,), This emphasises the point stressed earlier that conversion of kinetic energy to mechanical energy takes place in the moving blades. Fic, 1.9 Impulseype stage velocity diagram 2.2.2 Reaction-type turbine Strictly speaking such turbines should be termed impulse/SO% reaction’ turbines. The term $0% reaction was used because only half the stage heat drop occurs in the fixed blades, the remaining half occurring in the moving blades. This results in a rise in steam velocity at the moving blades, creating a thrust or reaction in the opposite direction to the flow leaving the blades. Some impulse also occurs in the moving blades due to the change of direction of the flow but it is not sufficient to cause a net drop in velocity. The fixed blades behave in the same way as the impulse turbine fixed blades by converting heat drop into velocity. Figure 1.10 shows a typical reaction-type stage velocity diagram. The relative velocity of the steam leaving the moving blades (W3) is greater than the relative velocity of the steam entering the moving blades (W,): this is because of the increase in velocity through the moving blades due to the presence of the heat drop there. FIG. 1.10 Reaction-ype stage velocity diagram The different characteristics of impulse and reaction blading means that there are significant differences in the turbine designs. Impulse-turbine moving blades are carried om discs which are cither integral with or attached to a small diameter shaft. The axial thrust on the rotor is small since there is no pressure drop across the blades and therefore no pressure forces across the discs. The presence of a pressure drop across the moving blades of the reaction turbine makes discs unviable. Instead, the discs are replaced by a greatly expanded hollow shalt known as a drum rotor. 2.2.4 Blade efficiency ‘The efficiency with which the transfer of energy to the moving blades occurs is essentially dependent upon the ratio of moving blade velocity and the steam absolute velocity (U/C, = 8). As one might expect, the effect of the velocity ratio on efficiency in an impulse stage is somewhat different to that in @ reaction stage.The steam turbine Chapter 1 Ideal impulse-stage blade efficiency Work done by moving blades Bade efficiency (q) = Wark cone BE movie Hates For the simplest case we will assume W, = W, and 6 = 6 (no friction present) as shown in Fig 1.9. For the work done WD = mUAV, where m is the mass flow rate and AV = W,cos 9 + Wycos 6 = 2W, cos &. Also, W,cos 0 = Cycos a ~ U. Therefore WD = mUaV = 2mU (C,cos « ~ U). ‘The available energy to the rotor blades is that delivered by the fixed blades = (mC,)?/2. Hence » = 2mU(C,cos a — U)/[(mC,)/2} = (4U/C,)/(c0s @ - U/C) = 4u(c0s a - This describes a parabola and is shown in Fig 1.11 ‘The maximum value of efficiency may be derived by differentiating the above expression with respect to U and equating to zero. dy/a = U/C, Neos « ~ 2 = 0 Therefore tna, = cosa when £ = cos @/2. By inspection of Fig 1.11, it can be seen this occurs when the outlet velocity is axial (6 = 90°). Ideal reaction-stage blade efficrency For an ideal 50% reaction stage the velocity diagram will appear as Fig 1.11. Since the fixed and moving blades have the same shape, 6 = a and @ = 4, AV 2Cy(cos « — U). Therefore, WD = mUAV = mU(2Cycos « — U). In a reaction stage, there is an enthalpy drop across the moving blade as well as the fixed; the available energy is therefore: mU(C,F/2 + (Wy — WP)/2 and since by symmetry W; = C, the available energy = mC? — W,?)/2 furthermore W,? = C)? + UP - 2C,U cos e, therefore, available energy = m/2(C\? — U? + 2C,Ucos a) and hence = 2UQC\cos @ — U/C, — U? + 2C,Ucos a = 28(2cosa — H/( ~ # + 2E cos a) and max = 2c0sta/1 + cos 2a when £ = cos a Figure 1.11 shows the diagram efficiency of a reaction, stage in comparison to the impulse stage. 10 FIG, 1.11 Ideal efficiency eurves In reality there are a number of factors that affect blade efficiency and these will be discussed in section 2.3 of this chapter. To achieve the best efficiency for both designs, reaction turbines require twice the num: ber of stages of an impulse turbine. This is because the high velocity ratio (U/C,) for the reaction turbine means only a small heat drop can be accommodated at each stage. 2.2.5 Modern blading designs Modern turbines are neither purely impuls action but a combination of both, for the following reasons. Impulse turbines began employing reaction ‘of up to 20% at the root of the moving blades in order to counteract the poor efficiency incurred from zero ot even negative reaction. On the other hand, reaction at the root of reaction turbines has come down to as little as 30-40% resulting in the reduction, of the number of stages required and the sustaining of 50%» reaction at the midpoint. Today it may be more accurate to describe the two designs as: © ‘Dise and diaphragm’ turbine, using low reaction blading. ‘© ‘Drum-rotor’ turbine, using high reaction blading [2]. 2.2.6 LP turbine blading Steam passing through the stages of an LP turbine ex- pands rapidly and accelerates to a high velocity, often supersonic. Steam at exit from the cylinder can have up to 10% moisture content. The flow then is complex and the design of LP blading reflects this. The blades are long and have a highly-twisted profile so that the inlet and outlet angles conform (o the three-dimensional flow characteristics at all blade heights.Fie. 1.11 Mal efficiency curvesEfficiency and output When large plant was being designed in the late 1950s and early 1960s there were no analytical tools available to confidently predict the three-dimensional nature of the flow in LP cylinders. Today, traverse tests on these machines reveal the significant radial components of velocity in the highly divergent flow. Techniques of through-flow analysis now employed permit the calculation in detail of the flow around each individual blade, using modern computational techniques, and have enabled the complex flow field in LP cylinders to be analysed effectively. These methods, have been refined and validated by input of data from flow measurement probes on model turbines in manufacturers’ works and on full-scale machines in service, The accuracy of prediction of flow is now high and blading can be designed to obtain the de- sired three-dimensional flow pattern. Modern final stage blades are twisted considerably, since the flow at its most complex at the exit plane. The cross- sectional area at the tip is only around 15% of that at the root (Fig 1.12). FIG. 1.12 LP last stage moving blade To illustrate the point Jet us assume, for the moment, that the final stage is designed to have a fairly low degree of reaction at the base diameter, near the periphery of the rotor disc. The fixed and moving blade profiles are then as shown in Fig 1.13. Let us now move to the region half-way up the moving blade, i.e., to the stage mean diameter. Typi- cally, on modern blading, the tip diameter is about double the base diameter so at the mean, the blade pitch (i.e., the circumferential distance between ad- jacent blades) is about 1.5 times the pitch at the base diameter. The peripheral speed of the blading is also 1.5 times as great as at the base. If the same moving blade section was used at the mean diameter as at the base, the flow passage through the moving blading, would be rendered incorrect by the increased pitch whilst the effect of increased blade speed would be Vp = MOVING BLADE LEAVING VELOCITY DESIRED TO BE UNIFORMLY AXIAL /\ y n TP MEAN FIG, 1.13 LP last stage velocity profiles to change the direction of the incident velocity of the steam relative to the moving blade, so the blade inlet angle would not line up with the direction of the oncoming steam flow, Furthermore, the leaving velocity would depart substantially from the axial direction, thus increasing the leaving loss and reduc- ing efficiency. This is overcome by changing the shape of the moving blade section. The outlet angle is re- duced to restrict the flow area so that a pressure drop develops across the moving blades, and the steam leaves the moving blades at a higher speed to offset the higher peripheral speed and arrive at an axial leaving velocity. This causes the pressure drop across the fixed blading to fall in order to maintain the same pressure drop over the stage as a whole There is therefore a substantial degree of reaction at the mean diameter. Figure 1.13 shows the effect that increasing reaction from root to tip has on the profile and on the velocity vectors at root, mean and tip sections, ‘The effect of these changes leads to a more order: ly streamline flow with substantial increase in the efficiency of LP turbines. The pressure losses after the last stage moving blades (proportional to the velocity squared) have also been reduced by achieving a reduced and substantially uniform velocity over the "Pa Ke ‘secTION Fic. 1.12 LP last stage moving bladeThe steam turbine Chapter 1 annular region immediately downstream of the last stage blades. A further beneficial effect of reducing crowding of flow at the blade-tip is that the excessive steam leakage over the moving blade-tips, which did no useful work, has been reduced. 2.3 The effect of clearances on real designs Blade efficiencies are far from ideal and the main causes of this are aerodynamic factors. The three most important factors are profile loss, secondary loss and tip leakage loss. These are of roughly the same magnitude whilst other sources of aerodynamic loss, such as windage and lacing wires, are much smaller, 234 This is due to the formation of boundary layers on the blade surfaces. The fluid in the boundary layer is subject to viscous forces which slow it down and increase its entropy relative to the flow in the main- stream, This results in the steam downstream of the moving blades having a higher entropy than the steam upstream. At a given flow rate this would result in a larger pressure drop across the blades than there would be in isentropic flow. Since the pressures in a turbine are fixed, the flow rate becomes less than isentropic and the entropy of the exhaust steam greater than isentropic, This means the heat drop obtained across the stage is less than that for an isentropic expansion and is therefore less efficient. Profile loss is a boundary layer phenomenon and is therefore subject to factors that influence bound- ary layer development. These factors are Reynolds Number, Surface Roughness, Exit Mach Number and Trailing Edge Thickness. Profile loss 2.3.2 Secondary loss This is due to friction on the casing wall and on the blade root and tip. It is a boundary layer effect and therefore dependent upon the same considerations as those for profile loss. Figure 1.14 shows how the interaction of the boundary layer phenomenon be- tween tip and casing and between root and shaft, creates the secondary flows A and B 2.3.3. Tip leakage This leakage, as its name implies, arises from steam passing through the small clearance required between, the moving blade tip and the casing, or between the end of the fixed blades and the rotating shaft. The problem is overcome to a certain extent through the use of inter-stage seals. At the blade tips there is a shroud band which extends around the entire cir 12 Fo. 114 8 cumference of the moving blades, joining the tips ‘The shroud is sealed against the casing by several knife edges. The extent of the leakage depends on whether the turbine is of an impulse or reaction type. Reaction turbines suffer a pressure drop across the moving blades, so encouraging flow through the clearances Consequently, it is more important for a reaction turbine to have good tip sealing than it is for an impulse turbine (Fig 1.15) FIG, 1.15. Reaction and impulse turbine interstage sealingEfficiency and output 2.3.4 Disc windage This is the friction loss due to the surface friction created on the discs of an impulse turbine as the disc rotates in the steam atmosphere. The result is the forfeiture of shaft power for an increase in kinetic and heat energy of the steam, 2.3.5 Lacing wires The long blades of the LP cylinder are stiffened towards the tip with lacing wires. Their purpose is to damp vibrations and raise the resonant frequency of the blade so that it does not coincide with any exciting frequency present in the turbine. The pre- sence of these wires, however, produces losses in blade efficiency because of the passage area that they block, 2.3.6 Other losses ‘There are further losses which, though not due to the design of the moving blades, do affect the blade efficiency. These losses are Wetness loss and Annulus loss 23.7 Wetness loss This is incurred by moisture entrained in the low pressure steam towards the exit plarfe of the LP tur. bine, The loss is a combination of two effects; the first is the reduction in efficiency due to absorption of energy by the water droplets and the second is the erosion of the final moving blades leading-edges. Erosion occurs because the water droplets travel far slower than steam, consequently their velocity relative to the blades is significantly different in di- rection as well as speed. The result is the impact of condensation droplets on the blades, in particular at the tip where the blade rotational velocity is highest. In the past, the leading edge has been protected cither by an edge-hardening process or by the brazing- on of stellite, which is a very hard material. More recently, a better understanding of the mechanism of droplet erosion has produced means of alleviating much of the problem. Higher last-stage heat drops are employed, along with higher mass flow loading. The result is a higher pressure at the inlet to the moving blades leading to the reduction in the size of droplets. 2.38 Annulus loss This occurs when there is a significant amount of diffusion between two adjacent stages or where wall cavities occur between the fixed and moving blades. The extent of the loss is greatly reduced at high an- ulus area ratios (inlet/outlet) if the expansion of the steam is controlled by a flared casing wall 2.4 Stage efficiency and the condi 2.4.1 Efficiency of stage The efficiency of a turbine stage will always be some. what less than ideal because of the losses discussed in Section 2.2 of this chapter. The efficiency of a well designed stage in a modern HP turbine is about 85-90%, This stage efficiency is obtained in the following way: Act xe heat dro} = —Actual stage heat drop sag) oy: Isentropie stage heat drop (enthalpy at fixed blade inlet) — enthalpy at moving blade outlet {enthalpy at movin, tle) oom (enthalpy at fixed blade inlet) — (enthalpy at isentropic moving blade outlet) This can be more clearly envisaged through the use of a turbine condition line. 2.4.2 The condition The condition line is the locus of the conditions of the steam as it passes from the stop valve at the inlet to the HP cylinder, through all the turbine stages to the exit plane of the final moving blade of the LP cylinder (Fig 1.16). Ideally the expansion of steam Uwough the turbine will occur isentropically, that is, at constant entropy shown by the vertical dotted line. In reality the friction effects, such as profile and sec- ondary loss, cause an increase in the heat and entropy of the steam. Figure 1.17 shows a section of the condition line displaying one stage only. H, — Ha represents the isentropic heat drop and H, — Hy the actual heat drop. Cylinder efficiency then is obtained for HP, IP and LP turbines by considering the heat drop across all the stages of the cylinder. 2.4.3 Cylinder efficiency There are two commonly used cylinder efficiency definitions for HP and IP turbines. The first is the fone described above and is known as the infernal efficiency. The second includes the effect of the pres- sure drop through the stop and governor valves on the HP turbine and intercept, stop and governor valves on the IP turbine and is known as the external efficiency (Fig 1.18). It can be seen that, though the pressure drop across the valves is at constant enthalpy, the change in entropy affects the moving blade-exit isentropic en thalpy so that 12The steam turbine Chapter 1 Fic. 1.16 Turbine condition tine H, - Hy Hany % 100% and 1 internal) = Hy - (external) = x 100% H, - Hs For HP and IP steam turbines, the kinetic energy effects at inlet and exhaust are small and usually ignored. The kinetic energy at inlet to the LP turbine is also negligible but at the exhaust it is not. As a result LP efficiencies are derived by considering either: © The total exhaust conditions — which includes the steam kinetic energy and is measurable with a correctly aligned pitot. ¢ The static exhaust conditions — which represents conditions when the kinetic energy has been re duced to zero and is measurable with pressure gauge. “ iG. 1.17 Stage condition line Both exhaust conditions are displayed in Fig 1.19 from which the following LP efficiencies can be obtained: Total Static/Total Static efficiency (TS/TS) H, — Hs Total Total/Total Static efficiency (TT/TS) H, - Hy Hy ~ Hs x 100% Total Total/Total Total efficiency (TT/TT) Hy — H, Hy — Hy x 100% TT/TS efficiencies are usually obtained from heat rate tests (see Section 3 of this chapter). The exhaustEfficiency and output FiG. 118 HP ana IP cylinder efficiences total enthalpy is derived from the measured power output and the static isentropic enthalpy is normally taken at condenser pressure. TT/TT efficiencies are commonly derived from wetness probe (traverse) tests. The isentropic exhaust enthalpy in this case is at the blade exit plane total pressure. Traverse tests measure the wetness and other properties of the steam along the height of a moving blade. The test is restricted to the measurement across LP turbine stages where there is sufficient distance between stages to permit the free passage of the probe. 2.4.4 Leaving loss Steam leaves the final stage of an LP turbine with Kinetic energy at the total pressure and enthalpy shown in Fig 1.19. If the steam could be slowed down isentropically to zero kinetic energy, it would be at static pressure and enthalpy. In practice the steam does slow down after leaving the last blade, but FIG. 1.19 LP cylinder effcioney through the conversion of its kinetic energy to flow friction losses. This is a constant enthalpy process since the steam cannot do work on blades that it has already left. Consequently the steam comes to rest at the point X on Fig 1.19. The heat loss between the total conditions at blade exit (H,) and the static pressure line (H,) is known as the leaving Joss. The significance leaving loss has on efficiency can be seen in the following example: Leaving loss = v<2/2 J/kg where v, is the velocity of steam leaving the last row of blades. For a 500 MW turbine, the velocity v, is typically 170 m/s: thus leaving loss 14450 J/kg = 14.45 kI/ke This would be responsible for a 2% reduction in LP cylinder efficiency. 2.4.5 Hood loss Another loss which occurs between the final stage and the condenser inlet is a pressure drop known as 6The steam turbine Chapter 1 hood loss (Fig 1.20), Normally the condenser static pressure is less than that at blade exit. The steam expands in the hood which joins the exhaust of the LP cylinder to the condenser inlet. The expansion converts enthalpy to kinetic energy which is then converted back 10 heat by flow friction losses. In some cases the hood loss is negative and the condenser pressure is higher than blade-exit static conditions. This occurs when the steam kinetic energy is converted to pressure, a process known as diffusion. Fic. 1.20 Hood loss 2.4.6 Wetness loss Figure 1.16 shows how the condition line curves sub- stantially towards higher entropy values below the saturation line. The reason for this is the increasing wetness towards the exhaust in an LP turbine, dis- cussed in Section 2.2 of this chapter. If the efficiency is adjusted to exclude the wetness loss, it is called the dry stage efficiency. It is common practice to assume that the total weiness loss is proportional to the mean stage wetness. Baumann suggested that 1% total wetness loss be assumed per 1% mean stage wetness, 16 2.4.7. Partial admission Partial admission gives a loss in turbine efficiency if the steam supply to the turbine is governed by the number of nozzles in use. The alternative means of steam governing is throttle-control, where admission is over the complete circumference of the first stage, and control is achieved by reducing the main steam supply. Partial admission is therefore not experienced by throttle-controlled turbines. The problem with reducing steam flow by the use of nozzle-control is that when the blades are aligned with a nozzle group they run full of steam, but when they pass into a blank arc, eddies are produced, so caus- ing a loss. The first and last blades in line with the nozzle group will only be partially full of steam and therefore the flow in them will be considerably dis- turbed. This is often referred to as “blade windage’, “blade ventilation’ or ‘vane action’ loss. ‘There is also an additional factor to consider. As the idle blades come under the influence of the noz~ les, the steam in the blade passages has to be ac- celerated rapidly, so causing a loss in power. The magnitude of this loss increases with the work done per row, the heat drop, the blade speed, blade width and height, and the number of steam admissions. This factor, known as the steam inertia loss, can account for 15-20% of the total windage loss in a stage with single are admission. In the UK, there are many interconnected units in service so that each can be kept in efficient operation, at high load. System load reduction is achieved by shutting down complete units, so that there is no benefit from the adoption of nozzle control for individual units. Alternatively, load reduction is accomplished by reducing the boiler pressure, so that the turbine valves are maintained wide open over most of the load range up to 100%. Part-load efficiencies obtained in this manner are comparable to nozzle-governed machines, whilst the full-load efficiency is better. 3. Thermodynamics of the steam cycle 3.1 Development of the modern steam cycle ‘This section will outline a modern steam cycle and then discuss its development from the basic thermo- dynamic power cycle. Having developed a modern steam cycle, the means of assessing its efficiency and economic implications will be introduced. 3.1.1. The steam cycle A power station operates using a closed steam power cycle, where water undergoes various thermodynamicThermodynamics of the steam cycle 1) Fic. 1.21 Simplified steam power plant eyele processes in a cyclic process. Figure 1.21 is a sim- plified diagram of a modern steam plant. showing most of the essential elements. One half of the cycle consists of the boiler (or heat source) and its auxiliaries; the other, the turbine cyele, consists of turbine, generator, condenser, feed pump and feedwater heaters. Consider first the boiler plant involved in the cycle Feedwater is supplied to the boiler drum, where water is boiled and converted into dry saturated steam This dry steam is further superheated in the super- heater and then fed to the HP cylinder of the tur bine. The steam expands in the turbine giving up heat energy, a high proportion of which is transferred into work energy on the turbine shaft. The shaft turns an electrical generator which produces electric power. Steam leaving the HP cylinder returns to the boiler, where it is reheated. The reheated steam is further expanded in the IP and LP cylinders, before passing into the condenser. In the condenser, which is a large surface-type heat exchanger, the steam is condensed by transferring its latent heat of vaporisation to the cooling water (CW). The main steam, having been condensed in the condenser, is now in aliquid state at a very low pressure and approximately saturation temperature. This water drains from the condenser, where it enters the hotwell. The water in the hotwell is pumped by the condensate extraction pump through the low pressure feedheating system to another pump, the boiler feed pump. In a modern regenerative cycle, some of the steam passing through the turbine cylinders is bled from a series of extraction belts located after selected moving blade stages and fed to the condensate and feedwater heaters. This steam is used to heat the condensate in the LP heaters and the feedwater in the HP heaters, Which are of a surface type. The boiler feed pump increases the water pressure to a level in excess of the drum pressure, to provide for the pressure loss in the boiler circuit and HP feedheating train. The cycle is now complete 3.1.2. The Rankine cycle Having presented a modern practical steam power cycle, attention will now be given to the development ”The steam turbine Chapter 1 of such a cycle from a basic vapour power cycle — the Rankine cycle For the purpose of illustrating the various power eycles, the Temperature-Entropy (T-S) and Enthalpy- Entropy (H-S) diagrams will be used, An understand- ing of thermodynamic properties. — Entropy and Enthalpy is assumed. However, in the context of, the following description of steam cycles, a review of Entropy will be beneficial. Entropy is an abstract property of steam which increases when heat is added and decreases when heat is rejected. Its magnitude is such that if the temperature at which heat is transferred is multiplied by the change in entropy that results in the pro- cess, then that product equals the amount of heat transferred. Now consider the simple Rankine cycle for steam, shown schematically in Fig 1.22 and on the T-S dia: gram in Fig. 1.23 Water is pumped into the boiler by the feed pump (process A-B). In the ideal Rankine cycle, there is no temperature rise across the pump and points A-B are coincident. The water is then heated to produce dry saturated steam (process B-C). The dry saturated steam is expanded through the turbine isentropically, i.e., without loss. This process (C-D) produces work along the turbine shaft, Finally the wet steam issuing from the turbine gives up its heat in the condenser and, returns to water (process O-A). ‘The heat input to the boiler or ‘the energy paid for’ is represented by the area EABCDF on the T-S diagram. The work done by the cycle is represented by the area within the polygon ABCD. The heat rejected to the condenser is represented by the rec- tangle ADFE. In the context of power generation, Thermal Efficiency » is defined as: Work done = (Energy for gencration)/Heat input (ie., energy paid for). Hence the Thermal Efficiency of the Rankine cycle, based upon Fig 1.23, 1.23 is 7 (Rankine) = Area ABCD/Area EABCDF. The economic implication of cycle efficiency is a major factor behind the development of the cycle, whilst maintaining or reducing capital cost per clec- trical unit supplied. The other major consideration in the choice of cycle, is the engineering feasibility of 1G, 1.22 Simple Rankine eyele power plantThermodynamics of the steam cycle Eunos Fic, 1.23. Rankine cycle TS diagram various terminal conditions. The effect of changing terminal conditions is dealt with thoroughly in Section 3.3 of this chapter. However, it is useful to consider the following criteria when attempting to change eycle terminal conditions: 6h © No saturated steam must enter the condenser, i.e., point D must be within the vapour boundary (Fig 1.23). © The exhaust wetness in the last turbine stage must not exceed 12M, i.e., DD’ must be less than 12% of AD’. © Material properties limit the maximum temperature within the cycle 3.1.3. Practical cycle using superheat The first development of the Rankine cycle into a more practical steam cycle involves raising the pres- sure and temperature of the steam entering the turbine The superheated steam cycle is shown schematically in Fig 1.24, and on the T-S diagram in Fig 1.25. In the supetheat cycle, the saturated dry steam leaving the boiler drum is further heated before entering the turbine. For the same quality of steam entering th condenser (ie., same point D), the increase in work done is shown on Fig 1.25. The quantity of heat rejected to the condenser is the same as for the Rankine cycle Hence, there is an improvement in the eycle efficiency. ee \ Heitoreo Fic. 1.24 Superheat eyele plantThermodynamics of the steam cycle 1 e ENTROWS Fig. 1.23 Rankine eyele TS diag various terminal conditions. The effect of changing terminal conditions is dealt with thoroughly in Section However, it is useful to consider ria when attempting to change cycle terminal conditions: © No saturated steam must enter the condenser, i.e., point D must be within the vapour boundary (Fig 1.23). © The exhaust wetness in the last turbine stage must not exceed 12M, ie., DD’ must be less than 12% of AD’. © Material properties limit the maximum temperature within the eycle. 3.1.3. Practical cycle using superheat The first development of the Rankine cycle into a more practical steam cycle involves raising the pres- sure and temperature of the steam entering the turbine. The superheated steam cycle is shown schematically in Fig 1.24, and on the T-S diagram in Fig 1.25. In the superheat cycle, the saturated dry steam leaving the boiler drum is further heated before entering the turbine. For the same quality of steam entering the condenser (i.., same point D), the increase in work done is shown on Fig 1.25. The quantity of heat rejected to the condenser is the same as for the Rankine cycle. Hence, there is an improvement in the cycle efficiency. EM rcie / ( \ Q——— + FiG. 1.24 Supereat evte plant 19The steam turbine Chapter 1 verre =| 7 Fic, 1.25 Superheat eyele T'S diagram Area ABCD. Yous) ~ Resa EABC\DF = Aen PQ Area (P + Q + R) superheat efficiency is greater than the Rankine iency as Area (P + Q\/(P + Q + R) is greater than Q/(Q + R). ‘This superheat cycle was chosen to have the same turbine exhaust conditions as the previous Rankine cycle. However, a major advantage of superheating steam is that for increasing cycle temperature and pressure, the exhaust wetness in the turbine can be ‘maintained within the physical limits mentioned earlier. 3.1.4 The reheat cyclo ‘The desire for further increases in cycle conditions and consequent increases in cycle efficiency, led to the addition of steam reheat during turbine expansion. The reheat cycle is shown schematically in Fig 1.26 and on the T-S diagram in Fig 1.27. In the reheat cycle, steam at a given initial tem- perature is partially expanded through the turbine (process C-D) doing some work, and then is fed back to the boiler, where it is reheated to about original temperature (process D-E). The heated steam is then fed through the remainder of the turbine before being condensed (process E-F). wom) ee Fic, 1.26 Reheat eye plant 20The steam turbine Chapter 1 oomonAt aan) Monon WORK DONE Tio, 1.25 Supertest cycle T-S diagram Area ABCD ‘Area EABC, DF _ Area (P + Q) ~ ‘Area + Q+ R) superbe) = ‘The superheat efficiency is greater than the Rankine efficiency as Area (P + Q\V(P + Q + R) is greater than Q/(Q + R). ‘This superheat cycle was chosen to have the same turbine exhaust conditions as the previous Rankine cycle. However, a major advantage of superheating steam is that for increasing cycle temperature and pressure, the exhaust wetness in the turbine can be maintained within the physical limits mentioned earlier. 3.1.4 The reheat cycle The desire for further increases in cycle conditions and consequent increases in cycle efficiency, led to the addition of steam reheat during turbine expansion. The reheat cycle is shown schematically in Fig 1.26 and on the T-S diagram in Fig 1.27. In the reheat cycle, steam at a given initial tem- perature is partially expanded through the turbine (process C-D) doing some work, and then is fed back to the boiler, where it is reheated to about original temperature (process D-E). The heated steam is then fed through the remainder of the turbine before being condensed (process E-F). FIG. 1.26 Reheat eyele plantThermodynamics of the steam cycle @ ENTROPY 8 Fig. 1.27 Rebeat cycle T-S diagram ‘The reheat cycle incorporates an improvement in thermal efficiency over the superheat cycle, The thermal efficiency from the T-S diagram is niesean = (Area ABCDEF)/(Area GABCDEFH). ‘The rcheat cycle benefits from reduced wetness in the turbine exhaust, but presents an increased capital outlay in terms of reheater pipework to, from and within the boiler. The turbine is usually split into HP and LP cylinders to avoid the high thermal gradients which would be introduced between stages of reheat on a single-cylinder machine, 3.1.8 Regenerative feedheating To complete the cycle development of the steam cycle fo that of Fig 1.21, the inclusion of regenerative feedheating must be discussed. Physically, a propor- ion of the steam is bled from various points on the turbine, which is then condensed to heat feedwater on its return to the boiler. Figure 1.28 illustrates the improvement in thermal efficiency for a simple Rankine cycle (Fig 1.29), by virtue of the bled-steam releasing all of its heat to the feedwater, and little rs FIG, 1.28 Rankine eycle with egenerative feedheating aFic. 1.27 Reheat cycle T-S diagramThe steam turbine Chapter 1 FIG, 1.29 TS diagram Yor the Rankine cycle with feeaheating or none to the condenser. There will be a small loss of work available from the bled-steam not ex- panding in the turbine; however, this loss is out- weighed by the gain in cycle efficiency. The greater the number of feedheaters installed, the greater the improvement in thermal efficiency, However, the incremental gain for each additional feedheater reduces as the number of heaters increases. The methods of optimising the number of heaters for a particular size of plant are covered in Section 4.2. of this chapter. The cycle has now been developed to the modern plant cycle that was first considered. Before going fon to discuss this in detail, the T-S diagram for a reheat cycle with regenerative feedheating is given in Fig 1.30, ] ’ io. 1.30 Rankine eyele with reheat and regenerative feedheating 3.2 Cycle efficiency and heat rate ‘The last section dealt with the theoretical aspects of steam cycles. An attempt is now made to investigate the differences between an ideal turbine expansion (one which is isentropic) and an actual turbine ex- pansion, leading to expressions for turbine heat rate and efficiency. The general cycle efficiency was illustrated with the use of the T-S diagram; for the turbine alone, effi- ciency is best discussed using the Mollier or enthalpy- entropy (H-S) diagram, A comparison of actual and isentropic turbine expansions is illustrated in Fig 1.31 The turbine expansion shown is that for an HP eylin- der, i.e., wholly in the superheat region. Fic. 1.31 Comparison of isentropic and ‘actual turbine expansions 3.2.1 Cylinder efficiency In Section 2, the stage efficiency was defined. Re- ferring to Fig 1.31, the overall cylinder efficiency is, ven by: Hy~He _ Hy —Hy (Useful work done) (isentropic enthalpy change) stages) =The steam turbine Chapter 1 Fig, 1.29 TS diagram for the Rankine cycle wth feeaheating ‘or none to the condenser. There will be a small loss of work available from the bled-steam not ex- panding in the turbine; however, this loss is out- ‘weighed by the gain in cycle efficiency. The greater the number of feedheaters installed, the greater the improvement in thermal efficiency. However, the incremental gain for each additional feedheater reduces as the number of heaters increase. ‘The methods of optimising the number of heaters for a particular size of plant are covered in Section 4.2. of this chapter. The cycle has now been developed to the modern pplant cycle that was first considered. Before going ‘on to discuss this in detail, the T-S diagram for a reheat cycle with regenerative feedheating is given in Fig 1.30. Fic. 1.30 Rankine eyele with reheat and regenerative Teedbeating 3.2. Cycle efficiency and heat rate The last section dealt with the theoretical aspects of, steam cycles. An attempt is now made to investigate the differences between an ideal turbine expansion (one which is isentropic) and an actual turbine ex- pansion, leading to expressions for turbine heat rate and efficiency. The general cycle efficiency was illustrated with the use of the T-S diagram; for the turbine alone, effi ciency is best discussed using the Mollier or enthalpy- entropy (H-S) diagram. A comparison of actual and isentropic turbine expansions is illustrated in Fig 1.31. The turbine expansion shown is that for an HP cylin- der, i.e., wholly in the superheat region. Fic. 1.31 Comparison of ienteopic and sotual turbine expansions 3.2.1 Cylinder efficiency In Section 2, the stage efficiency was defined. Re- ferring to Fig 1.31, the overall cylinder ef given by: (Useful work done) Hy -He (entropic enthalpy change) Tooter,Thermodynamics of the steam cycle ‘A real turbine expansion incorporates losses or ir reversibilities corresponding to an increase in entropy, It can be seen from the Mollier diagram, that for fan expansion between two pressures, the greater the entropy rise (.e., the greater number of losses), the less energy there is available for work, Refinement in turbine design aims to reduce the losses and in- crease the available energy. Now consider the whole turbine expansion process through HP, IP and LP cylinders on a Mollier dia- gram, as shown in Fig 1.32 Fic, 1.32 Moller chart for actual turbine expansion The actual turbine expansion line includes the ma Jor losses encountered: HP throttling loss. through the governor valve and associated pipework; reheater pressure loss through pipework (to, within and from the boiler); the leaving and hood losses at the last stage of the LP turbine (see Section 2 of this chapter) From Fig 1.32 it is possible to derive the following exlinder efficiencies H, - Hy Hy HP cylinder IP cylinder Ha = Hy Hs Hy ees LP eylinder 9 = P cylinder 9 i. Hs In the case of the HP and IP cylinders, these are external efficiencies because the throttling loss is included, One small advantage of the irreversibilities in the IP and LP turbines is the reduction in exhaust steam wetness, causing less erosion on the final stages of blading. The condition of the plant can be monitored by measuring the temperature and pressure of the steam at points between the cylinder, hence deriving the steam enthalpy. It should then be possible to compare cylinder efficiencies with the original design values. Turbine blade erosion or steam leakage results in a reduced cylinder efficiency. In practice, the LP cylinder exhaust enthalpy is not directly measurable and it must be derived from an overall heat balance. 3.2.2 Heat rate ‘The principles of stage and cylinder efficiency having been introduced, consideration is now given to the definition of turbine heat rate. The heat rate is deter- mined by measurement of various plant operating parameters. These include: ‘© Flow rate, using a differential pressure device. ‘© Enthalpy, based on calibrated pressure and tem- perature measurement. © Electric power, based on calibrated voltage and current measurements. Consider a steam cycle with single reheat and re- generative feedheating, shown in Fig 1.33. ‘The heat rate is defined by: Heat input from boiler (ki/h) HEAT RATE = ——““ "PU fom oo __ [Electrical output from generator (KW) Using measurements around the cycle from Fig 1.33 My (Hy — Hy) + My(Hy ~ Ha) Ps HEAT RATE ku/eWh ‘The corresponding thermal efficiency is given by: 3600 yy KW) HEAT RATE as) 23JG. 1.32 Mollier chart for actual turbine expansionThe steam turbine Chapter 1 iG. 1.33. Cycle used for derivation of heat rate ‘A means of measuring cycle heat rate having been defined, consideration can now be given to varia- ions between the design heat rates quoted by the turbine manufacturers and the heat rates achieved in operation t, consider the variation of the hourly heat consumed by the turbine-generator with the load produced. This characteristic is known as Willans line (Fig 1.34), and is based on turbine test runs at 100%, 80%, 60% and 40% load. It is British practice to specify performance and test at these four loads, A linear relationship exists and extrapolation to the no-load output condition reveals a no-load heat con- sumption of about 3% of the full-load value. The variation in heat rate with load (Fig 1.35) shows the high thermal cost of operating plant on part-load. The optimum heat rate (i.e., the minimum condition) should correspond to the design output (100% load). ‘The major contributory loss comes from the throttling loss across the turbine governor valves. The effects of throttling are discussed later in this chapter. Operating the unit at partload is one of the ‘external’ factors preventing the achievement of the design heat rate. The other major external factor, which increases average heat rate, is the need to start, the unit as required by the operating regime. During start-up, the unit is unloaded and additional works power is needed for start-up systems. 24 Fic. 1.44 Willans line for atypical 660 MW unit Plant operating losses cause the other major in- crease in design heat rate. In practice, turbine heat rates increase due to: