Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism

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Training, Satisfaction with Internship Programs,

and Confidence about Future Careers among
Hospitality Students: A Case Study of Universities
in Taiwan

Wen-Hwa Ko

To cite this article: Wen-Hwa Ko (2008) Training, Satisfaction with Internship Programs,
and Confidence about Future Careers among Hospitality Students: A Case Study of
Universities in Taiwan, Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 7:4, 1-15, DOI:
10.1080/15313220802033245

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Published online: 11 Oct 2008.

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1531-3239
1531-3220
WTTT
Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism
Tourism, Vol. 7, No. 4, April 2008: pp. 1–24

ARTICLES

Training, Satisfaction with Internship

Programs, and Confidence about
Future Careers among Hospitality
Students: A Case Study of
Universities in Taiwan
Wen-Hwa Ko
Wen-Hwa Ko
JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this research is to investigate the factors

associated with hospitality students’ satisfaction with internship programs
and the relationships between training, job satisfaction, and confidence about
future careers in order to provide schools and industries with suggestions
regarding course development and training during internships. A principal
component analysis was used to determine the degree of satisfaction with the
supervisor, the educational program, the environment, the administration, and
relationships. Training classes made a significant difference in satisfaction
with the supervisor and educational program. The regression analysis showed
that training satisfaction played a positive role as a predictor of participants’

Wen-Hwa Ko, Ph.D. is an assistant professor in the Department of Restaurant,

Hotel and Institutional Management at Fu-Jen University, 510 Chung Cheng Rd.,
Hsinchuang, Taipei, Taiwan 24205, R.O.C (E-mail: 073770@mail.fju.edu.tw).
Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, Vol. 7(4) 2007
Available online at http://jttt.haworthpress.com
© 2007 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1080/15313220802033245 1
2 JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM

job satisfaction and confidence about future careers. The effect of satisfaction
with training on participants’ confidence about future careers was mediated
by their satisfaction with the internship. The administration and learning
factors in connection with participants’ satisfaction during the internship
were found to be significant predicators of their confidence about future
careers, but supervision, environment, and interpersonal relations were not.

KEYWORDS. Internship, training, job satisfaction

INTRODUCTION

The food and beverage industry in Taiwan, owing to the booming econ-
omy and the increase of average income per capita, has become diversified;
it not only offers various products but also has revolutionized the tourism
environment in this nation. Tourism businesses such as hotels, restaurants,
travel agencies, and resorts have enjoyed rapid growth in Taiwan. In today’s
competitive society, students are facing a selective job market that places a
premium on experience. The hospitality industry needs a capable, educated,
and well-trained workforce in order to be successful in the competitive mar-
ket (Purcell, 1993). Hands-on experience cannot be imparted through lec-
tures. It can only be gained through direct activity or confrontation with the
real world (Collins, 2002). Internships are vital for hospitality students; they
allow them to experience real job situations while they are in school so that
they can have realistic expectations about their careers (Ayres, 2006;
O’Mahony, McWilliams, & Whitelaw, 2001). Taiwan’s higher education
system is facing the challenge of a sharp increase in the number of hospital-
ity and tourism programs and a greater diversity of students. Programs in
general high schools provide general and classical programs that prepare stu-
dents for future studies. When students complete these programs, they need
to pass an entrance examination to enter into higher education programs.
These higher education institutions are called general universities. It is not
clear how satisfied these students in Taiwan are with internships and what
their expectations are, especially in general universities. However, we found
that quite a lot of students seem to lack confidence about their future in the
industry after their internships (Wu & Wu, 2006). Fox (2001) stated that a
bad internship experience could quickly turn a young person away from the
industry. Thus it is better to find the problems than to hide them, so we must
learn what they want and what they expect their lives as students to be like.
The purpose of this study is to understand the factors of job satisfaction
 Wen-Hwa Ko 3

during an internship period and the relationship between satisfaction with

training, job satisfaction, and confidence about future careers for students
in Northern Taiwan universities. The results could serve as a reference for
curriculum design, including business-related curricula, for these students.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Internship for Hospitality Students

Internship carries many meanings. Fox (2001) considered internship as
an opportunity to close the gap between college-learned theory and practi-
cal reality. It is an opportunity to test skills, interests, and career choices
in real working situations while obtaining an edge on “inexperienced” job
market competitors (Davies, 1990; Neuman, 1999). Through internships
students have more chances to explore future careers, to gain deeper
knowledge of details, and to start thinking about their future careers based
on their internship experiences (Nelson, 1994). The majority of industry
professionals agree that hospitality students who participate in internship
programs are more marketable (Petrillose & Montgomery, 1998). Some
research sees internship as an opportunity to network, to learn about new
fields, or gain work experience (Seymore, II, & Higham, 1996). Addition-
ally, company and industrial groups should be encouraged to support
internship programs and disseminate information about successful pro-
grams and interns. This constitutes good advertising for university and
college programs. The essential point is that internships offer excellent
returns to all parties involved (Knouse, Tanner, Harris, & Elizabeth,
1999). If the students do not have successful internship experiences, they
are less likely to consider the hospitality industry for possible future
careers. Hite and Bellizi (1986) found that students view internships as
valuable learning experiences for which they should receive academic
credit and financial compensation, as well as earning a grade. They also
feel that internships are more valuable than classroom teaching, that for-
mal training should take place at the beginning of internships, and direct
supervision should be present throughout. From the employer’s perspec-
tive, it is a golden opportunity to “try before they buy” students they
might wish to recruit after graduation (Neuman, 1999). If employed,
interns require less training and less time adjusting than do noninterns.
Students who have been interns learn quickly and represent flexible eco-
nomic resources (Pianko, 1996).
4 JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM

Training
Training plays a critical role in the hospitality industry where quality is
the most important characteristic differentiating a company from its
competitors. The aim of training programs is consequently to enhance the
business performance of organizations, thus the effectiveness of a training
program can be conceptualized as training acquisition and transfer of train-
ing (Tracey, Hinkin, Tannenbaum, & Mathieu, 2001). Training is a planned
effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related compe-
tencies (Noe, 2002). A review of generic business and hospitality articles on
training and other resources reveals that experts perceive a strong correla-
tion between training and other factors including increased employee job
satisfaction and length of employment (Conrade & Woods, 1994; Marvin,
1994; Roehl & Swerdlow, 1999). Training can be viewed as the service pro-
vided for its internal customers: their employees. The increasing pressure
for improving a firm’s performance forces hospitality managers to focus on
employee training. Employee training is particularly important in the ser-
vice industry such as restaurants because costs associated with employee
turnover and customer dissatisfaction can be reduced by employee training
(Kraiger, Ford, & Salas, 1993). Therefore, restaurant managers should pay
increased attention to strengthening employee skills, knowledge, and abili-
ties to meet customer demands. Hospitality employee training should be
interdisciplinary with knowledge/skill requirements in technical culinary
skills, communication skills, business knowledge, and food science, to
name a few (Harrington, Mandabach, VanLeeuwen, & Thibodeaux, 2005).

Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an attitudinal measure that relates perceptions of past
events and rewards to current impressions of a job (Lawler, 1986). It refers
to the employees’ general affective evaluation of their job. Employees’ per-
ceptions of job satisfaction are particularly relevant in service-based organi-
zations due to its empirical relationship to organizational outcomes such as
turnover intention (Davy, Kinicki, & Scheck, 1991), organizational
commitment (Brooke, Russel, & Price, 1988), job performance (Meyer,
Paunonen, Gellatly, Goffin, & Jackson, 1989), and customer satisfaction
and customer involvement in the service exchange (Lengnick-Hall, 1996). It
is anticipated that employees reporting higher levels of organizational sup-
port are more likely to be satisfied with their employment situation in terms
of reported job satisfaction. In the hospitality industry, job satisfaction helps
 Wen-Hwa Ko 5

to ensure that employees will treat customers with the utmost respect
(Arnett, Laverie, & McLane, 2002). Employees who are satisfied with their
jobs have greater organizational commitment than do dissatisfied employ-
ees. Shaw (1999) argued that there is a strong negative relationship between
job satisfaction and the level of employee turnover if an individual’s per-
sonal, positive affect is taken into consideration. Petrillose and Montgomery
(1998) suggested that there is a need for research to investigate students’
perceptions on internship qualities and whether the experiences could help
to prepare them for careers in the hospitality industry.
Hypotheses
A description of the variables in the model is shown in Figure 1 as well
as a description of their hypothesized interrelationships. The following rela-
tionships are hypothesized based on the literature review. H1: Training dur-
ing internship will provide a higher job satisfaction. H2: The greater the job
satisfaction, the higher the confidence toward a future career. H3: Training
during internship will provide higher confidence for a future career.

METHODOLOGY

Instrument Design and Development

The questionnaire was developed based on a comprehensive review of
the literature. The two-section questionnaire included 24 questions
designed to assess students’ job satisfaction, 3 questions to assess training
satisfaction, 3 questions to assess confidence toward a future career, and
5 questions were designed to collect participants’ internship preferences
and demographic characteristics, including gender, internship time, place-
ment of internship, training, and salary. The items were adapted from
other research questionnaires assessing job satisfaction, and student atti-
tudes toward internship (Cheng, Wu, Lai, & Sun, 2004; Kuo, 2004). In
the first section, students were asked to indicate the degree to which they

FIGURE 1. Model Development

H1 H2
Training Job satisfaction The confidence toward future
H3
6 JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM

were satisfied or dissatisfied with each of the statements on a 5-point

Likert scale. Statements are rated on a scale from (1) strongly dissatisfied;
(2) dissatisfied; (3) acceptable; (4) satisfied; and (5) strongly satisfied.
Sampling and Data Collection
A convenience sample of students in this study was selected from
hospitality programs in five general universities in northern Taiwan. Fifty
questionnaires were distributed for the purpose of pretesting and the valid-
ity was analyzed by three teachers and two managers. It was then suggested
that 3 items be removed from the scale (originally had 27 items on job
satisfaction) because they did not represent any face validity with regard to
the satisfaction construct. Based on the comments collected during the
pretesting period and validity analysis, a complete set of questionnaires was
designed. From 300 copies of questionnaires that were distributed, a total of
295 (98.3%) copies were completed and then returned. After eliminating
the invalid ones, a total of 291 copies of questionnaires (97.0%) were coded
for further analysis. We calculated the job satisfaction from the average of
5 constructs. Training satisfaction and the confidence for a future career
from were calculated from average scale from 3 items separately.
Data Analysis
The collected data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sci-
ences (SPSS) version 10.0. Descriptive statistics: The demographic informa-
tion of the participants and their responses to internship questions were
summarized using descriptive statistics. The difference analysis between
respondents with training and without training for each job satisfaction fac-
tor was t-tested. The 24-item satisfaction questions were subjected to the fac-
tor analysis using principal component method with varimax rotation to
group the related items into components. The factor loadings, Eigenvalues,
and percent of variances explained by each component were reported. Only
items with factor loadings greater than 0.5 were retained for each factor
grouping. Regression analyses were done on the relationship between train-
ing, job satisfaction, and confidence toward future careers.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Descriptive statistics of the respondents are presented in Table 1. A total of

291 copies of questionnaires were collected. The majority of the students were
 Wen-Hwa Ko 7

TABLE 1. Description Statistics of Internship Students

Information Variable Number Percentages (%)

Gender Female 223 77.0

Male 68 23.0
Internship time During semester 143 49.1
Summer vacation 139 47.8
Winter vacation 8 2.7
Placement of internship Restaurant 167 57.4
Hotel 60 20.6
Government 14 4.8
Others 50 17.2
Training Yes 183 62.9
No 108 37.1
Salary Less than NT$10,000 123 42.6
NT$10,000˜16,000 83 28.5
NT$17,000˜20,000 33 11.3
Above NT$20,000 20 6.5
No 32 11.0

female (77%). The major intern periods for students were during semesters
and summer vacation (96.9%). More than half (57.4%) of the respondents
reported working in restaurants and 20.6% of them reported working in hotels.
When questioned about the training classes, 62.9% of the respondents indi-
cated they had received training during internship programs. In terms of per-
sonal salary, most respondents had a monthly income of NT$16,000 or less.
Factor Analysis of Job Satisfaction During Internship
A factor analysis was utilized to derive the dimensions of the students’
satisfaction as in the five construct developed by Hsu, Hsu, Wu, and Hsieh
(2004) and Kuo (2004). These 24 items were seen as attributes that would
affect the internship students’ job satisfaction. The determinants were factor-
analyzed using a principal component analysis with orthogonal varimax
rotation. Only factors with an Eigenvalue of 1 or higher were determined.
The principal component analysis extracted five factors that explained over
64% of the variances (Table 2). The factors were identified and named. The
factors for job satisfaction were: supervisor, environment, learning, admin-
istration, and relationship. The variances explained by each of the factors
were 16.210%, 14.535%, 13.621%, 13.539% and 5.692%, respectively.
All items with factors loading above 0.5 were included. Unexpectedly, one
item was loaded on other factors and eliminated. Twenty-three items were
8 JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM

TABLE 2. Principal Component Analysis of Factors Influencing Students’

Internship Job Satisfaction

Factor Lodings Eigenvalue % of Cronbach’s Mean* SD

Variance Alpha

Factor 1: Supervisor 8.371 16.210 0.868 3.43 0.73

Professional knowledge 0.776
Professional technique 0.744
Management method 0.695
Training method 0.677
Management attitude 0.644
Factor 2: Environment 2.224 14.535 0.849 3.39 0.75
Space 0.805
Air conditioning 0.785
Light 0.784
Equipment 0.724
Safety 0.601
Factor 3: Learning 1618 13.621 0.830 3.47 0.67
During training 0.778
Get more technique 0.765
Pretraining 0.695
Get more professional skill 0.671
Get more industry 0.584
experience
Factor 4: Administration 1.536 13.539 0.825 2.99 0.68
Prepare public for student 0.777
Internship time 0.728
Service for student 0.714
Internship arrange for 0.694
student
Mentor to care student 0.587
Well-being for student 0.511
Factor 5: Relationship 1.144 5.692 0.712 3.73 0.73
Relation with co-worker 0.629
Relation with consumer 0.529
Total 64.757
KMO = 0.883

*5 = strongly satisfied, 1 = strongly dissatisfied.

retained in the process. A Cronbach’s alpha test was used to determine

the internal consistency of each factor as well as the overall fit. All the
coefficients were higher than 0.8 except for the fifth factor, which was 0.71.
A Cronbach’s alpha test of 3 questions to assess training satisfaction was
0.799 and the confidence for the future career was 0.815. Relationship and
learning emerged as the two most important factors to satisfy students
 Wen-Hwa Ko 9

during internship for students with mean scores of 3.73 and 3.47. Adminis-
tration was the most dissatisfactory area for students.
Relationships Among Training Satisfaction, Job Satisfaction,
and Confidence for a Future Career
Training plays an important role for the employees to improve their abil-
ity at work. One hundred and eighty three students were provided with train-
ing during their internship period. The t test was applied to analyze whether
there were significant differences in satisfaction during internship due to
training classes. The statistically significant t test results showed satisfaction
with supervisor and learning factors were significantly different between
those with and without training (Table 3). One of the objectives of this study
was to examine the relationship between training satisfaction, job satisfac-
tion, and confidence for a future career. In order to establish mediation, the
following conditions must hold: First, the independent variable must affect
the mediator in the first equation; second, the independent variable must be
shown to affect the dependent variable in the second equation; and third, the
mediator must affect the dependent variable in the third equation. Perfect
mediation holds if the independent variable has no or low effect when the
mediator is controlled (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Table 4 presents the results
of the hypothesized relationships. Training satisfaction was found to exert a
significant impact on job satisfaction, and the training satisfaction and job
satisfaction also affected the confidence of career. All three hypotheses
were accepted. However, if we consider the important factor of mediator

TABLE 3. Factors in the Differences Between Training and No Training

For Job Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction Factor Training Mean SD T Value

Supervisor Yes 3.48 0.74 2.017*

No 3.18 0.66
Environment Yes 3.39 0.74 0.276
No 3.35 0.80
Learning Yes 3.51 0.66 2.121*
No 3.23 0.71
Administration Yes 3.01 0.67 1.495
No 2.82 0.71
Relationship Yes 3.76 0.67 1.693
No 3.53 0.79

*P < 0.005.
10 JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM

TABLE 4. Regression Analysis of Training Satisfaction, Job Satisfaction,

and Confidence Toward Career

Dependent variable -Independent variable Adjusted R2 Standardized T Value

Beta Coefficient

Job satisfaction-Training satisfaction 0.411 0.643 11.936*

The confidence of career-Training satisfaction 0.121 0.354 5.386*
The confidence of career- Job satisfaction 0.201 0.452 7.207*
The confidence of career 0.203
-Training satisfaction 0.106 1.297
-Job satisfaction 0.384 4.694*

*P < 0.005.

variable, it would show some different results. The independent variable

(training satisfaction) affected the mediator (job satisfaction); and the inde-
pendent variable (training) affected the dependent variable (the confidence
toward a career) while the mediator (job satisfaction) also affected the
dependent variable (the confidence toward a career). There was a relation-
ship between training satisfaction and job satisfaction for the confidence
toward a career. Job satisfaction significantly influenced confidence toward
a career, but training did not when these 2 variables entered into the regres-
sion analysis together. The effect of training satisfaction on confidence was
mediated by job satisfaction. Therefore, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were accepted.
Hypothesis 3 was accepted when job satisfaction was the mediator.
Table 5 presents the impact of the five independent variables on job
confidence for a future career. It was observed that the two variables learn-
ing and administration had beta coefficients that were statistically signifi-
cant (P < 0.05). Regression analysis showed that learning was a positive

TABLE 5. Factors Affecting Student Confidence Toward

a Future Career

Variable Standardized T Value Significance

Beta Coefficient

Supervisor −0.017 −0.234 0.141

Environment 0.288 3.947 0.815
Learning 0.283 3.575 0.000
Administration −0.026 −0.335 0.000
Relationship 0.081 0.953 0.738

Note: Multiple R = 0.522; Adjusted R2 = 0.254; F =14.820; Significance F = 0.000.

 Wen-Hwa Ko 11

and administration was a negative predictor for the participants’ confi-

dence toward future careers, but supervision, environment, and interper-
sonal relations were significant effects to confidence toward future careers.

DISCUSSION

Internship is an important component in the hospitality curriculum;

most hospitality programs require students to take an internship course
before graduation (Petrillose & Montgomery, 1998). In previous research,
all student participants felt that internship programs were needed. Shortt
(1992) claimed that education in tourism needed practical facilities. Gunn
(1998) claimed that there was no single education program that could
apply to everyone. Internship programs provide students with needed tools
and educate them to take responsibility in their future work life (Cheng et
al., 2004). They felt that the faculty should assist them and became bridges
between students and industry professionals. Industry professionals think
that students who have internship experiences are more marketable (Cheng
et al., 2004). The results of this study supported that the students felt satis-
faction with internship programs in general. However, the administration
should be more systematic and take more care in dealing with students’
internship programs. Nelson (1994) reported that students had higher lev-
els of satisfaction if they had supportive mentors during their internships
regardless of the mentorship being assigned or spontaneously forming.
Thus, it can be concluded that mentors could positively affect the students’
experiences during internships. Receiving instant feedback from mentors
greatly determines if students receive quality internship experiences or not.
Students agreed that satisfaction could be found if internship co-workers
could be assigned to assist them before and during the internships.
Reviewing curriculum on a regular basis, combining information from
students, industry professionals, and educators can make the curriculum
more practical and suitable in the future. A curriculum focused on inte-
grating preparation for internships during the program was necessary to
promote the success of internship programs. School mentors play a very
important role in influencing students’ internship experiences. Students
perceived more successful internship experiences with a good mentor
relationship. However, we found that administration was on the lowest
scale of all factors for job satisfaction. We also got a negative correlation
between administration and the confidence toward a future career. Maybe
it is more important to place more responsibilities on students than doing
12 JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN TRAVEL & TOURISM

things for them it will increase their confidence for future careers and life.
Fu (1999) suggested that supervision is a key factor in determining the
success of internship programs. The results of this study showed consis-
tent findings in the satisfaction of supervision in internship programs.
Supervision by industry professionals could help students learn from mis-
takes. In addition, the programs should provide students with needed
skills, and educate them to take responsibility in future work life, thus
bridging the gap (Collins, 2002).
Training is an important part of students’ learning. Training is under-
stood as providing job- related competencies in order to face problems at
work. Establishing good training programs for interns, giving interns
meaningful tasks, and empowering them to manage the tasks in a more
creative way could be solutions to improve future internship programs
(Cheng et al., 2004). The impact of training on confidence were mediated
by job satisfaction consistent with the links of the service–profit chain, in
which training (internal service quality) increased students’ confidence
through the increase of students’ internship job satisfaction (Taylor &
Baker, 1994; Woodside, Frey, & Daly, 1989). Thus, training satisfaction
influenced confidence for future career through job satisfaction. In other
words, training quality enhances training satisfaction and intention to
stay; improving quality of training drives job satisfaction, which in turn,
contributes to employees’ intention to stay working in the hotel (Chiang,
Back, & Canter, 2005). As a result, training satisfaction is still important
for students to stay in the world of hospitality. Among the factors of job
satisfaction, the regression results suggested that learning and administra-
tion were very important to the students’ confidence toward future
careers. The results might help trainers and managers in different hospi-
tality businesses in developing and designing more efficient human
resource strategies.

CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The students may have positive attitudes toward internship programs

and are generally satisfied with their internship experiences in this study.
Internship programs are often unstructured and poorly organized so that
students generally complain about the quality (Jenkins, 2001). This
results in increasingly high fallout rates of graduates from the tourism and
hospitality industry (Lam & Ching, 2007). The internship experiences
could help them prepare for and have more confidence in future careers.
 Wen-Hwa Ko 13

Students who get hands on experiences from internships will benefit in

their careers, especially for the general university students in this case.
The desired outcome of this study was to encourage hospitality managers
to give training a higher priority. Training is a direct antecedent of job sat-
isfaction. Job satisfaction is a significant determinant of confidence for a
future career in hospitality industries. This study contributes more under-
standing about training satisfaction and its consequences: job satisfaction
and confidence in a career.
The following limitations were inherent in the study. First, the study
was conducted in general universities. To overcome this limitation, future
research findings should compare students in both technical and general
universities. Second, the population in this research was limited to northern
Taiwan. Therefore, the results from the study may not be generalized
beyond this population. The cross comparison of students’ internship job
satisfaction might also be undertaken to reveal whether results differ from
city to city. In addition, the relationship of confidence for a future career,
and employees’ willingness to stay working in the hospitality industry
requires more research.

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SUBMITTED: March 2, 2007

FIRST REVISION SUBMITTED: November 1, 2007
SECOND REVISION SUBMITTED: November 20, 2007
FINAL REVISION SUBMITTED: November 30, 2007
ACCEPTED: December 5, 2007
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY