1 s2.0 S2238785422011607 Main

j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 2 1 0 9 e2 1 7 2
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt
Review Article
Laser powder bed fusion: a state-of-the-art review

of the technology, materials, properties & defects,
and numerical modelling
Sohini Chowdhury a,b, N. Yadaiah a, Chander Prakash c,d,*,

Seeram Ramakrishna e, Saurav Dixit f,*, Lovi Raj Gupta c,
Dharam Buddhi g
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Nirjuli 791109,
Arunachal Pradesh, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, Tamil Nadu, India
c
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India
d
Division of Research and Development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India
e
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
f
Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
g
Division of Research & Innovation, Uttaranchal University, Uttarakhand, 248007, Dehradun, India
article info abstract
Article history: Additive Manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the manufacturing industry in several
Received 1 December 2021 directions. Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), a powder bed fusion AM process, has been
Accepted 18 July 2022 dramatically accepted in various industries due to its versatility with several materials,
Available online 11 August 2022 including alloys. This comprehensive review article primarily explains the basic principle
of the LPBF process, scientific and technological progress of several inter-related parame-
Keywords: ters, feedstock materials, produced properties/defects, and insights of numerical modelling
Additive manufacturing to virtually understand the process behavior. Specific attention has been given to selective
Defects laser-meted (LPBFed) properties, driven through the microstructure formations and,
Feedstock materials thereby, concerning defects. The scope of the post-processing techniques to refine
Numerical modeling microstructure has also been discussed in this review paper. It has been identified that the
Properties defects are vital in LPBF process and are primarily governed by the process parameters.
Selective laser melting Therefore, a wisely chosen, optimized set of parameters can play a crucial role in mini-
mizing defects considerably. Finally, the numerical modeling discussed in this review
paper will help the researchers understand the LPBF process.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
* Corresponding author.
* Correspoding author.
E-mail addresses: chander.mechengg@gmail.com (C. Prakash), sauravarambol@gmail.com (S. Dixit).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.07.121
2238-7854/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2110 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 2 1 0 9 e2 1 7 2
Furthermore, the unused feedstock can be reused in AM, making

1. Introduction it flexible on feedstock material and cost-effective [15e17]. Few
examples of AM-produced parts are shown in Fig. 1.
Additive Manufacturing (AM), popularly known as 3D printing, Currently, the main obstacle of AM is the requirement of a
has revolutionized the manufacturing industry from developing complete understanding of the relation between the pro-
concepts to producing the final functioning parts. It is also cessing parameters and the final part properties as well as
fueling the next generation of innovation and engineering. AM material properties [24,25]. The degree of properties variability
has notably impacted so many industries because it allows the is very high, mainly for metallic parts, because of the complex
manufacturing of highly complex and thin-walled parts to be thermal cycles involved in the printing processes. However,
cost-effective [1e5]. The continued growth of AM has evoked the there are few metallurgical differences in the properties of AM
requirement of new manufacturing methods, which increased and conventionally produced parts such as residual stresses,
the demand for processing reliability, consisting of application- anisotropy, and defects. These characteristics are unique to
specific optimal designs that are desirable for the intended AM only, which needs to be dealt with for high-performance
purpose based on geometry, functionality, and physical prop- requirements such as aerospace applications, mainly those
erties. The process's design ability usually consists of computer parts exposed to high-temperature fatigue [26].
software that allows the designers to predict each component's Based on the manufacturing of dense metallic parts,
performance and processing abilities, increasing design effi- powder bed-based methods like LPBF (laser powder bed
ciency and reduced production cost [6,7]. AM processes prepare fusion), EBM (Electron Beam Machining), and DED (Directed
three-dimensional (3D) parts by progressively adding thin layers Energy Deposition) are commonly used [10,14,27,]]. All these
of materials, guided by a computer-aided design (CAD) model. It processes involve the interaction of fed powder with the laser
allows the manufacturing of customized or complex shapes or electron beam that produces the melt pool, leading to rapid
straight from the design or model, without using any expensive melting and solidification [28]. High-temperature gradients
tooling such as dies or punches, and eliminates the need for and large cooling rates are observed due to the short period of
many conventional methods and steps such as tool change [8,9]. interaction and heat input highly localized in a small region
Unlike traditional manufacturing methods, intricate parts (such [29,30]. These factors also impact the as-built microstructures
as round holes or straight cuts) can be easily made in one step. and lead to high residual stresses [31,32]. Further deterioration
Also, a significant number of parts can be reduced by AM proof the part’s mechanical and fatigue properties will occur due
cesses as there is no need for any assemblies, as parts are made to the inevitable defects [33,34,35]. The mechanical properties
in one go. Citing the benefits mentioned above, the AM is widely of the final parts are used to determine whether AM can be
used and preferred in aerospace, energy, automotive, and accepted in place of traditional methods concerning service
medical industries to design and produce high-performance quality and durability of the part produced. Hence, it is
parts [8]. Compared to conventional methods, the most high- essential to compare the practical requirements and perfor-
lighted advantage of AM processes is its ability to produce mance of AM-built and conventionally built parts for quality
complex parts. It shapes directly from the feedstock material by assessment. Other AM methods include BJG (Binder Jetting)
eliminating traditional manufacturing processes like casting, and LENS (Laser Engineered Net Shaping). In LENS, metal
forging, or extrusion [9e14]. Waste minimization is also one of powders are injected into a molten pool formed by a high-
the top benefits of AM due to its near-net shaping capability. intensity laser beam to produce a part [36].
Fig. 1 e (a) 3D Ti6Al4V mesh created using EBM [18], (b) Part produced by LPBF [19], (c) Part produced by EBM [20], (d) Lattice
structure produced by EBM [21], (e) Ti blade produced by DED [22], (f) porous sample produced by LPBF [23].
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 2 1 0 9 e2 1 7 2 2111
In contrast, BJG uses the opposite principle of fusing the quality of the products they create. The new design to
metallic powders using a binding agent and then exposing it to provide uniform and consistent inert gas flow, which results in
thermal energy. All the methods have their pros and cons, and higher fusion stability, is one example of how different ma-
the selection shall be made according to the objectives. The chine characteristics affect component quality.
type of materials that can be used is one of the differentiators Furthermore, constant gas flow reduces dimensional vari-
[37,38]. Debroy et al. [1] experimented with different materials ations, resulting in products with tighter tolerances. The
in all the processes and found that LPBF was the most versatile minimum layer thickness is a direct function of the size of
method of using different materials. And subsequently, LPBF powder particles and the printer's positioning system [51].
has become an interesting research topic, mainly in the Using extremely accurate positioning devices for the build
biomedical and aerospace industries [39,40,41,42]. Keeping platform reduces the minimum layer thickness, allowing for
aside the advantages, there are several challenges in the LPBF 10 mm accuracy and better resolution for side and lateral
methods. The requirement for highly dense parts and high surfaces. Closed-loop control (CLC) systems [52] are used as an
cooling rates are there, which affects the microstructures optional feature in a few modern machines to fine-tune pro-
[43,44,45,46,47]. As a result, LPBF-produced parts usually have cess parameters, improve component quality, and improve
poor ductility [48]. Other defects such as balling and porosity the mechanical property and microstructure of the part pro-
also affect LPBF process, particularly in fatigue performance. duced. The capacity to focus intensity inside a small diameter,
The high cooling rate and temperature gradient lead to residual on the order of 1018 W/m2, is enabled by ultra-short pulse laser
stress, significantly influencing the crack initiation [49]. sources. This results in a narrow beam diameter of roughly
This review focuses on the LPBF process and ways to 30 mm, allowing for high-resolution processing of precious
optimize its manufacturability. Many processing parameters metals. Furthermore, using multiple lasers simultaneously
influence the LPBF process; therefore, the final part product [53] can reduce recoil pressure in thin walls (by forcing them
characteristics can be controlled differently. Specific attention from two or more sides) and minimize distortion, improving
has been given to collect, review, and understand the exper- dimensional accuracy.
imental data obtained in the literature's scientific volume to Even though no preheating is performed, the cooling rate
establish relationships between these input parameters and for the first and third layers close to a substrate might drop
characteristics of the LPBFed parts. The feedstock materials from 6548 to 2779 K/s, according to [54]. Preheating minimizes
systems' role in the LPBF process is also discussed in the up- the rapid cooling rate from the base, lowering the risk of
coming sections of this review paper. deformation and cracks at the sample-to-build tray contact
point. Many machines offer preheating options that raise the
1.1. Technology trends, larger built platforms and more temperature above 500 C to increase build quality and limit
lasers the risk of distortion. Another advancement in LPBF machines
is the combination of multiple chambers to provide a larger
Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) has been rapidly trans- chamber and sample size [55,56,57]. Although inert gas in the
forming since its development in the 1990s, driven largely by chamber is required to prevent oxidation, it also has some
the needs and requirements of industries such as aerospace, drawbacks, such as pushing molten, mush, and semi-solid
biomedical, defense, and automotive [2,11]. This tendency will material along the gas flow direction [58,59]. Dimensional
continue to increase in the future, assisting manufacturers in aberrations and the risk of distortion rise due to this phe-
their transition to more innovative, digital, and high-value nomenon, errors are reduced, and repeatability is improved
manufacturing. The current state of L-PBF technology and with increased automation. Instant verification of fusion
its prospects are discussed in this section. The primary quality and process stability is feasible because of the com-
emerging themes in L-PBF technology are reviewed, including bination of cameras and software. Combining part and con-
laser technology breakthroughs, novel metal powders and struction simulation [61] with in-process quality monitoring
alloys, post-processing enhancements, and recent automa- can provide even more predictability.
tion and quality control [50].
1.1.2. Technological trends to reduce production/
1.1.1. Technological trends to improve the quality manufacturing lead time
Among all AM methods that create metals, such as electron Lower production lead time is one efficient tactic to lower the
beam powder bed fusion, direct energy deposition, binder overall cost of builds. LPBF of metals has a lower build rate than
jetting, and sheet lamination, LPBF has the slowest build rate. other techniques (laser cladding, electron beam melting,
Interchangeable feedstock chambers, closed-loop control electron beam freeform fabrication, wire arc AM, and plasma
powder management, automated powder sieving, multi-layer arc AM) due to the low layer thickness and hatch space. Various
concurrent printing, 2-axis coating, and multi-powder hop- enhancements have recently been implemented to compen-
pers are among the most recent advances and future directions sate for this problem. Equipment usage rate is increased by
of LPBF printers. The new enhancements for transferring time using adjustable cylinders and autonomous powder manage-
and utilizing fast lasers are offered to speed up the procedure. ment systems to decrease installation time and increase pro-
Another advancement in the design of LPBF printers is using ductivity [62,63,64]. Some businesses additionally offer closed-
lower beam diameter lasers, multi-lasers, uniform inert gas loop control powder handling and replaceable cylinders as
flow, precise positioning systems, high vacuum systems and innovations to increase production speed [65,66,67,68]. Even
sensors, and automation to improve part quality [50]. One of when printing at maximum capacity, circular platforms pre-
the main goals of LPBF machine manufacturers is to improve vent powder dispersion and do not require any powder filling or
Fig. 2 e Laser power comparison of small machines (blue), medium-size machines (red) and heavy machines (green) [51].
unloading throughout the building cycle [69,70,71]. This allows rrent printing is the most recent technology for reducing
for a consistent construction process, reduced operator time, printing time and increasing printing speed by up to 100 times
and increased system security. Another technique to increase faster than current methods.
the LPBF performance of the machine [62] is to employ a Many layers of powder are dispersed on the build surface
standard automated powder management system [72] over simultaneously, allowing a laser to scan multiple places at the
many units in a production line. Several types of machinery use same time [76,77,78]. Introducing tilting re-coater, which de-
automatic powder sieving and recirculation [73] to cut pro- creases powder recoating time, is another innovation that
duction time significantly. Human workforce time is reduced, speeds up the process. Low operating expenses can also be
and productivity is increased by automating the screening achieved by incorporating elements such as a gas-tight design
process and recirculating powder [74,75]. Multi-layer concu- and a gas recycling system [79,80]. In modern LPBF machines,
Table 1 e The latest Renishaw LPBF machine models and specifications [74].
Specifications RenAM 500 M RenAM 500Q AM 400 AM 250
Number of lasers 1 4 1 1
Intensity of laser 500 W 500 W optical system for a smaller beam diameter 400 W 250 W
of 70 mm
Type of laser Ytterbium fibre laser Ytterbium fibre laser Ytterbium fibre laser
Build chamber size 250 mm 250 mm 350 mm 250 mm 250 mm 350 mm 250 mm 250 mm 300 mm 250 mm 250 mm 300 mm
Deposition rate Not mentioned 150 cm3/h Not mentioned Not mentioned
Interface Intuitive 480 mm touchscreen operator Intuitive 480 mm touchscreen operator Intuitive 480 mm touchscreen Intuitive 480 mm touchscreen operator
interface operator
Price Between 531,603.00 V Between 531,603.00 V NA Approximately 44,300.25 V
2113
2114
Table 2 e The latest SLM Solutions LPBF machine models and specifications [65].
Specifications SLM 125 SLM 280 2.0 SLM 280 SLM 500 SLM 800
Build chamber size 125 125 125 mm3 280 280 280 280 365 mm 500 280 365 mm3 500 280
365 mm3 850 mm
Number of lasers 1 1 or 2 1 or 2 2 or 4 4
Laser power 400 W Single (1 400 W), Twin (2 400 W), Single (1 400 W), Twin (2 400 W), Twin (2 400 W), Quad (4 400 W), Quad (4 400 W)
Single (1 700 W), Single (1 700 W), Twin (2 700 W), Dual Twin (2 700 W), Quad (4 700 W) Quad (4 700 W)
Twin (2 700 W), Dual (1 700 Wand (1 700 W and 1 1000 W)
1 1000 W)
Laser type IPG fibre laser IPG fibre laser IPG chamber laser IPG fibre laser IPG fibre laser
Build rate Up to 25 cm3/h Up to 88 cm3/h Up to 88 cm3/h Up to 171 cm3/h Up to 171 cm3/h
Variable layer thickness 20e75 mm, 1-mm 20e75 mm 20e90 mm 20e75 mm 20e90 mm
increments
Min. feature size 140 mm 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm
Beam diameter 70e100 mm 80e115 mm 80e115 mm 80e115 mm 80e115 mm
Max. scan speed 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s
Machine dimensions 1400 mm 900 mm 2600 mm 1200 mm 2900 mm 1200 mm 5200 mm 2800 mm Depending on set up
(L W H 2460 mm 2700 mm 2500 mm 2700 mm
Weight 750 kg 1300 kg 1300 kg 2400 kg NA
Price V400,000eV500,000 NA V190,500.00 V1e2 M NA
Table 3 e The latest GF LPBF machine models and specifications [84].

Specifications DMP Factory 500 Printer
Number of lasers 3
Laser power type 500 W
Laser Type Fibre laser
Layer thickness, range, pre-set Adjustable, min. 2 mm, max.200 mm, typ. 30e60-90 mm
Build chamber size 500 500 500 mm (20 20 20 in)
Repeatability x y z 20 mm (0.00079 in)
Minimum feature size 100 mm (0.0039 in)
Typical accuracy ±0.1e0.2% with ±50 mm minimum
Dimensions (w d h) 3010 2290 2820 mm (118 90 111 in)
Material loading Manual or semi-automatic
an ultra-fast Quad laser [81,82,83] with a processing speed of Tie6Ale4V alloy. Fig. 4 has been illustrated, as has the laser
up to 10 m/s and high powers of over 1000 W enhances the absorption efficiency value; it shows the melt pool cross-
build pace. Fig. 2 depicts the laser power of several machines. section images from the simulation. In the simulation, the
As can be observed, recent selective laser melting (SLM) sys- red region represents the molten area, while the black dashed
tems (SLM 800 and SLM 500), which are designated as indus- line represents the melt pool border result transferred from an
trial machines, utilize lasers with a power of 2800 W (4700 W), optical microscope image of the experimental sample cross-
allowing for faster printing of larger components. With a section. Fig. 4(a) and 4(b) show the results for 100 m and
comparable industrial categorization, GE machines (General 260 m beam diameters, respectively. Due to the software's
Electric (GE) Additive Project A.T.L.A.S.) are also equipped with post-processing procedure, the contour plot of the melt pool
a high-power laser that can output up to 1500 W for faster portion has a discontinuity at the boundary.
printing, as shown in Tables 1e4. Ahsan and Ladani [29] used a non-Gaussian laser beam
Fig. 3 shows the NXG XII 600, a new SLM® machine from model to simulate the temperature profile, bead geometry,
SLM Solutions Group AG in Lübeck, Germany, has been offi- and elemental evaporation. They compared the results with
cially launched and is now ready for commercial use [85]. The the Gaussian beam model for LPBF processing Inconel 718
Laser beam powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) Additive alloy. The comparison of thermal characteristics of non-
Manufacturing machine has twelve 1 kW lasers and a Gaussian and Gaussian beams has been performed. The
600 600 600 mm square build environment. The NXG XII Gaussian beam produces a more localized temperature pro-
600, according to the makers, is the fastest AM machine on the file, resulting in a more significant temperature build-up at the
market, with build speeds twenty times quicker than a single- melt pool's center. With the inclusion of a beam quality factor,
laser machine and technical features including a zoom capa- which lessens the beam focus, a more uniform distribution of
bility to ensure maximum productivity and dependability. It is heat away from the center of the beam is noticed. With a
intended for use in serial manufacturing for high-volume ap- lower maximum temperature than the Gaussian beam, the
plications and the construction of massive parts, opening up profile obtained with the non-gaussian beam was more
new possibilities in the automotive and aerospace industries comparable to the observed temperature profile. The camera's
and paving the way for industrialized serial AM. failure to measure temperature in the lower temperature
range causes the experimental data to spike in the lower
1.2. Laser beam profiles temperature range. This specific literature could not provide
the laser profile. However, because the temperature profile of
In the LPBF process, during the laserepowder interaction, the the non-Gaussian beam was comparable to the experimental
distribution of heat intensity throughout the powder bed is result, the laser profiles should also be similar. The Gaussian
considered to follow a Gaussian beam pattern in most cir- model for all three combinations has a higher temperature
cumstances. However, heat distribution throughout the sur- and intensity in focus because of the high concentration. Shi
face is a complex process influenced by several elements such et al. [87] used the Gaussian (circular) and elliptical (transverse
as beam quality and laser wavelength. It must be considered and longitudinal) laser beam shapes for the LPBF process for
when presenting the laserematerial interaction in a way that 316 L stainless steel. It has been seen that a wide beam width
accurately portrays the actual beam. Soylemez [86] used a produced by an elliptical transverse laser beam correlates
Gaussian laser beam model to simulate the temperature with the likelihood of producing equiaxed grains through
profile with the Gaussian beam model for LPBF processing nucleation processes. At the start of a track, columnar
Table 4 e The latest Additive Industries LPBF machine models and specifications [55].
Specifications MetalFAB1
Build chamber size 420 420 400 (mm)
Laser Yb fibre lasers 500 W
Number of lasers 1 to 4 full field, preventing laser overlap regions
Build plate Automated levelling and positioning
Minimum autonomous operation 112 (h), maximum 8 build jobs
Accuracy < |0.050 þ 0.002 part length| (mm)
Reproducibility < |0.050| (mm)
Layer thickness 20e100 mm
Price V1.8 million
development is challenging to avoid. The growth morphology coarser sub-grain microstructure. Okunkova et al. [89] re-
in the absence of heat input is determined by the melt pool ported that top-hat and donut-shaped profiles reduced spat-
width and depth achieved, as well as the degree of thermal ters' formation and denudation zone width. Wischeropp et al.
undercooling. According to the researchers, this fundamental [90] said that the donut-shaped beam profile is stable and
understanding of the physics of local beam shaping for productive. A large melt-pool, fewer defects (cracks, balling,
microstructural control should have ramifications for future and porosity), and hence better process resilience has been
complicated beam shape designs and beam modulation. observed.
Ivekovic et al. [88] studied microstructural and crack mitiga-
tion in LPBF processing of Hastelloy-X using an experimental
and numerical approach. The LPBF process was simulated by 2. LPBF: A prominent AM process
considering two different laser beam profiles, Gaussian and
top-hat. To understand the fundamental understanding of LPBF is one of the AM processes that have revolutionized the
physics, the effect of laser beam intensity distribution and manufacturing industry as it allows manufacturing complex
melt track overlap on temperature progression, solidification components to reduce cost, time, and labor. It enables
behavior, and crack creation were studied. The Gaussian- manufacturing complex shapes without tooling, castings, or
distributed beam causes keyhole melting and sharp cooling conventional manufacturing methods. The LPBF process is
rate; however, the top-hat type beam causes wide and shallow essential in understanding the relationship between operating
conduction mode melt pools, a slower cooling rate, and a parameters and the final part properties. LPBF is one of the
powder bed fusion methods where a powder bed is spread, and
pre-determined regions are exposed to high-intensity laser
energy. That way, powders can be melted and fused layer-by-
layer in compliance with the design prepared in the CAD
software. The name itself tells a lot about the process. The term
‘laser’ represents that a laser energy heat source is employed in
the process, ‘melting’ denotes that the powder is being melted
and ‘selective’ means that only selective parts of the powder
bed are under the effect of the heat source [91]. The LPBF sys-
tem layout usually includes a laser source, a building platform,
an automatic system to deliver powder, a controlling system,
and complementary parts such as rollers, scrappers, etc. [92].
The movement and the focus of the high-intensity laser beam
Fig. 3 e New SLM machine equipped with 12 lasers with is monitored by a beam deflection system which includes
1 kW (NXG XII 600) [85]. Galvano mirrors and flat field focusing lens. Overall, the stages
Fig. 4 e Illustrated melt pool comparison between the

simulation and the experiment at P ¼ 370 W and
v ¼ 800 mm/s. The red zone is the molten pool section of the
simulation, and the dashed line is the melt pool boundary of
the experimental cross-section for the same process
parameters. (a) D ¼ 100 mm, (b) D ¼ 260 mm [86]. Fig. 5 e Schematic of a typical LPBF machine.
an absence of any mechanical pressure in the LPBF process,

and the fluid dynamics are also governed by only gravity and
capillary forces. The lack of mechanical pressure results in the
in producing a part via LPBF can be categorized as such: (i) solubility of elements during solidification, which causes
Designing and modelling of the 3D part to be produced in a CAD discontinuous melting of tracks and the generation of poor
software and then slicing the model in the required number of and uneven surfaces [99,100]. The high degree of variation of
layers with a defined layer thickness; (ii) For the fabrication, a thermal fluctuation experienced by the materials during the
substrate is fixed on the build platform. This is the base level LPBF process increases residual stresses in layers going
upon which layers will be deposited; (iii) The build chamber is through rapid solidification [101]. Heat-affected zones (HAZ)
moved into a protective atmosphere, mostly of nitrogen and take birth around the melt pool due to a very high heating and
argon, to minimize the risk of surface oxidation; (iv) According cooling rate. This HAZ can alter the microstructure and
to the pre-defined layer thickness, the first layer is spread on composition of the material, which governs the quality of the
the build platform; (v) The laser then scans the powder bed in produced part [91]. The processing parameters can control the
the pre-defined path to fabricate the layer wise shape as thermal behavior at any instant in time. These are the hatch
commanded by the CAD software and the model designed; (vi) spacing, layer thickness, scanning speed, laser power and
Lowering of the building platform and repeating the last two scanning strategy. Fig. 6 shows the process parameters in
steps of spreading the powder bed and scanning it multiple LPBF process. The chosen parameters allow complete melting
times until the finished part is produced. The components of a of powder and complete fusion with the preceding layer.
LPBF machine is given in Fig. 5. Inappropriate selection of these parameters may lead to un-
In LPBF, the powder particles are fully melted by the heat wanted effects like thermal cracks, balling, and porosity or
supplied in the laser beam's form into welding beads, like the indicate other undesirable effects. Hence, it is essential to
principle of a welding process. Hence, it is a type of deposition establish a relation between these parameters and output
welding process [93]. Several physical behaviors are happening results to optimize the processing parameters to achieve the
in a LPBF process: reflection, phase transformation, absorption, desired result.
heat transfer, solidification, chemical reactions, transportation
of molten metal, or the flow of molten metal within the molten
pool [93,94]. The melt pool is formed due to the conversion of 3. Materials
light energy into heat energy, and eventually, due to surface
tension, the melt pool adopts the shape of a circular or This section presents recent efforts and advancements made
segmented cylinder [95]. Transient temperature filed with in processing functional materials using the additive manu-
temperature as high as 105OC are formed due to the very short facturing process to develop industrial products. Table 5 shows
interaction time period between the powder bed and laser, and the types of available materials processed via additive manu-
subsequently, a rapid quenching effect also takes place with facturing.
cooling rates as high as 106-108OC/s [96]. The rapid solidification
results are building nonequilibrium metallurgical phenomena 3.1. Titanium-based alloys
like refining microstructures, solid solution hardening, and
generation of metastable phases that could improve the me- Titanium (Ti) alloys are highly employed in various biomed-
chanical properties of the produced part [97,98]. ical, automotive, and aerospace industries due to their high
The main aim of the LPBF method is to fabricate fully dense strength-to-weight ratio, compatibility, and high-temperature
parts. The difficulty in obtaining such a result is that there is resistance [102,103]. Generally, the materials used in the
entirely governed by the processing parameters (Fig. 7) [106]. It

has been observed that scanning speed plays a vital role in
differentiating the microstructure. When scanning speed is
below 100 mm/s, for the energy density of 120 J/mm3, the full
transformation of the b-phase to a phase occurs during so-
lidification due to energy thermalization within the melt pool
(Fig. 7a). But when scanning speed is more than 100 mm/s, for
the same energy density, the formation of a0 microstructure
occurs due to the increase in thermal and kinetic under-
cooling (Fig. 7b). A widely observed LPBF microstructure pro-
duced by Tie6Ale4V is the a0 martensite in columnar prior b
grains [129,130,131,132,133]. Such microstructure formation is
due to the processing parameters selection, which could
result in a cooling rate of more than 410 K/s [134] beyond the
starting martensite temperature, which promotes a’
Fig. 6 e Schematic of LPBF processing parameters. martensite growth. Heat conduction leads to the elongation of
b grain in the build direction [135]. It has been proven that
LPBF-produced CP-Ti parts have better mechanical properties
biomedical sectors should fulfill the essential requirements of than those manufactured by conventional processes
low Young’s modulus, high strength, low density, high wear [106,137,138,139]. The superior mechanical properties might
resistance, high corrosion resistance, and high compatibility. result from grain refinement in the LPBF process, as presented
Ti alloys possess excellent properties mentioned above and in (Table 7).
prove to be a good choice for the biomedical industry
[40,43,104,105,106]. Their biomedical applications include 3.1.2. LPBF of b-type Ti-based material
dental fields, joint replacements, implants, orthodontic parts, One of the best examples of b-Ti alloy, which shows excellent
surgical instruments, and artificial heart valves. Due to high properties like high strength and low modulus, is
time, energy, and material requirement, manufacturing has Tie24Nbe4Zre8Sn, commonly known as Ti2448. This alloy
always been a problem for Ti alloys. Still, the advent of addi- also needs optimized processing parameters to develop fully
tive manufacturing, especially LPBF, has led to more dense parts [140]. The increasing scan speed shows a gradual
manufacturing of Ti parts [107,108,109,110]. Commercially decrease in hardness and density (Table 8). Hence, it can be
pure (CP) Ti is now replaced by Tie6Ale4V as an orthopedic said that microhardness and density are very much depen-
prosthesis because of its excellent mechanical characteristics dent on the processing parameters. Two sets of densities,
[111,112,113]. Other Ti alloys are also considered substitutes almost dense (99.3%) and intermediate dense (98.2%), of LPBF,
for CP Ti and Tie6Ale4V because of their non-toxic properties produced parts at two different scan speeds can be observed
[114,115,116]. Tie13Nbe13Zr is developed by alloying niobium in Fig. 8. The dark bands in the figure are nothing but laser
(Nb) and zirconium (Zr), and is emerging as an excellent allow tracks. Table 9 compares the properties of Ti2448 parts man-
with excellent properties. This alloy can readily replace ufactured by different methods, showing that the ultimate
Tie6Ale4V. Nb's presence suppresses the alpha phase for- strength and yield strength of parts produced by rolling and
mation [117,118,119]. Many research papers have already forging are slightly higher than those produced by LPBF [140].
established solid grounds for Tie13Nbe13Zr to replace
Tie6Ale4V [120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128]. Several in- 3.1.3. LPBF of (aþb) Ti based material
vestigators also examined the LPBF lattice structures for me- A microstructure of lamellar (aþb) can help enhance the
chanical performances [129,130,131] and porous biomaterials ductility of Tie6Ale4V without compromising the material's
[132,133,134]. yield strength [141]. Lamellar (aþb) can be transformed to a0
martensite by altering the energy density and utilizing the
3.1.1. LPBF of a-Ti based material cyclic reheating associated with layer deposition [45,142,143].
Optimization of the process parameters greatly influences the LPBF studies on (aþb) Ti has mostly been done on Tie6Ale4V
production part's mechanical properties, densification, and [144,145] and Tie6Ale7Nb [146,147]. Because of the large
microstructural behavior. It has been validated that an energy temperature gradients during the LPBF process, the SEM
density (E) of 120 Jmm-3 is sufficient to fabricate almost microstructure of LPBF-produced Tie6Ale4V parts shows fine
entirely dense CP-Ti parts. However, other processing pa- acicular martensite CP-Ti and the process parameters need to
rameters like scanning speed and laser power must be well be optimized for obtaining the highest possible dense parts.
optimized to achieve the highest possible density (Table 6). It Table 10 gives that LPBF-produced parts have superior char-
can be observed that the relative density increases with an acteristics to those produced by other manufacturing
increase in laser power at constant power density. However, methods. This is attributed due to the formation of martensite
the change is not uniform. microstructure during the LPBF process [144]. Tie6Ale7Nb is
Vracken et al. [48] stated that the processing parameters one other Ti-based alloy used for biomedical implants and has
ultimately influence microstructure development in LPBF a favorable character of higher resistance to corrosion and
process. The microstructural behavior of CP-Ti fabricated by better mechanical properties [148,149] compared to
LPBF varies from plate-like a to acicular martensitic a0 phase, Tie6Ale4V. Both Tie6Ale7Nb and Tie6Ale4V produced by
Table 5 e Different type of materials processed by the additive manufacturing process for various industrial applications
[40,43,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126].
Type of material Composition Applications Key benefits
Metal and Alloys Aluminum alloys Aerospace, Automobile Highest tensile strength and Hardness
Magnesium alloys Aeronautic, aerospace and biomedical Application Lightweight and high hardness
AZ31 and AZ91
Titanium alloy Biomedical Implants and Aerospace components High strength, light weight and
excellent bio-mechanical properties
(continued on next page)
2119
2120
Table 5 e (continued )
Steel Automotive, aerospace, industrial and medical applications Corrosion resistant; Bio-compatibility
Ni-based Gas turbine engines, blade, airfoil; High yield strength with high
superalloys Impeller; operating temperatures
Nitinol-based Cardiovascular Stents, Dental Implants Shape memory;

Zn-based Biocompatibility;
Degradable
Iron-based Bio-medical Implants Exhibited cytocompatibility
(continued on next page)
2121
2122
Table 5 e (continued )
Intermetallic TiAl based alloys Aeronautical, Aerospace applications Lightweight, low density, high elastic moduli, high tensile
compounds NbeSi based alloys strength, and creep resistance at high temperature.
Ultra-high-temperature resistant, higher hardness, higher room
temperature toughness and better oxidation resistance at high
temperature
Ceramics Co-based Surgical prostheses; Dental Implants, Knee implants High wear and corrosion resistance
superalloys
SLM of various Al-alloys and exploring its potential applica-

Table 6 e Respective laser power and relative density for
tion in advanced componentry [157].
LPBF produce CP-Ti with fixed energy density as 120 J/
mm3.
3.1.4. LPBF of composite Ti material
Energy Density Laser power (W) Relative density (%)
(J/mm3) Any research on LPBF and Ti alloys is mainly restricted to
some popular alloys. But to increase the wear resistance, yield
120 84.70 96.43
strength, and ultimate strength, ceramics such as SiC, TiC or
120 89.78 97.40
120 109.9 98.2
TiB2 are added to Ti [158,159]. Adding titanium monobromide
120 125.32 98.51 (TiB) as a reinforcement provides chemical, thermodynamic,
120 134.92 98.6 and mechanical stability can be seen in Fig. 9. An in-situ re-
120 149.96 99.21 action between Ti and titanium dibromide (TiB2) leads to
120 165.20 99.48 TieTiB composite creation [160,161]. Attar et al. [162] produced
120 170.28 99.33
the highest dense TieTiB part by optimizing the process pa-
120 175.17 99.21
rameters and using Ti-5wt% TiB2 mixture powder. It was
120 180.2 99.17
observed that needle-shaped morphology was distributed all
over the Ti matrix. Table 10 compares the properties of LPBF
LPBF have similar a0 martensite microstructure fabricated Ti composites with those produced by different
[150,151,152,153,154,155,156]. LPBF-produced Tie6Ale7Nb methods. It can be seen that the increase of microhardness of
parts exhibit superior properties than those obtained by TieTiB can be due to the hardening effect due to the refine-
casting (Table 11). Al alloys are one of the most popular ma- ment of Ti grains. And the superior yield and ultimate
terial systems in SLM research, as they are used in numerous strength of TieTiB are due to the strengthening effect caused
high-value applications. However, processing them is tough by TiB particles.
due to the problems of laser-melting aluminum, resulting in
parts with various flaws. In recent years, several researchers 3.1.5. LPBF of porous Ti material
have devised techniques to address these, reporting effective The primary purpose of porous Ti material is to replicate the
natural bone in the biomedical industry. The CP-Ti and
Tie6Ale4V are the main center of attention when LPBF work is
carried out for porous Ti material. 55e75% porous Ti structure
was fabricated by LPBF, which is analogous to the natural
human bone, and tested by compressive testing [163]. Attar
et al. [164] successfully fabricated porous TieTiB and CP-Ti
materials by LPBF with porosity levels varying as 10%, 17%
and 37%. These materials' elastic modulus and yield strength
were close enough to human bones, promoting that they can
be used as a substitute for implants. The major objective to
utilize the LPBF to develop high strength and biocompatible
porous Ti-alloy based implant that promote osseointegration
in the host body [165,166].
3.2. Magnesium-based alloys
Magnesium (Mg) is the sixth most available element on earth’s

crust [167]. Magnesium-based alloys are preferred for weight-
sensitive applications because of their light structural weight,
lighter than other Al or Ti elements [168]. Because of its
lightweight and high-strength properties, Mg is getting
attention from different industries such as aviation and au-
tomobiles [169,170]. The Mg-based alloy also shows excellent
mechanical properties, castability and machinability, high
thermal stability, and high thermal and electrical conductivity
[171,172,173,174,175]. But the problem with Mg is its low
corrosion resistance and other negative properties such as low
elastic modulus, low strength, and poor creep resistance
[176,177]. Mg is still not employed fully in the clinical field due
to its poor formability, rapid degradation, and hydrogen evo-
lution [178]. Therefore, researchers continuously develop new
Mg alloys and composites to fulfill specific job requirements.
One of the Mg alloys, MgeZn, is the top alloy due to the
Fig. 7 e Microstructure of LPBF produced CP-TI part. (a) a combined presence of high strength and corrosion resistance
grains and (b) a′ grains [106]. [179,180,181]. Most of the MgeZn products are produced by
Based on the quality of produced parts through LPBF, four

Table 7 e Tensile properties, Hardness properties and
regions can be categorized for the behavior of Mg powder and
Compressive properties of CP-Ti fabricated by different
methods [139]. its alloys concerning varying scan speeds and laser powers.
They are explained below.
Tensile Properties
Processing method s0.2/MPa sUTS/MPa εf/% 1. In this region, the energy density and laser power are too
LPBF 555 757 19.5
high for any range of scanning speed. As a result of this
LPBF 500 650 17
Sheet Forming 280 345 20
high temperature, there is evaporation and ionization of
Full Annealed 432 561 14.7 Mg powder in the melt pool because of low melting point of
Mg. The evaporated powders expand and create a massive
Hardness Properties Compressive Properties
recoil effect in the melt pool, which blows away the liquid
Condition Vickers Hardness/VH Condition sUCS/MPa εmax/%
and the powder to result in no track formation [191]. The
LPBF 261 LPBF 1136 51
high temperature also affects the viscosity of the over-
Casting 210 CG-Ti 820 60
55% Cold Rolled 268 UFG-Ti 900 35 heated liquid Mg, which results in melt pool instability. The
high energy input also gives birth to high thermal stresses,
Note: sUTS is the ultimate tensile strength, sUCS is the ultimate
leading to the deformation of parts [192].
compressive strength, εf is the fracture tensile strain, s0.2 is the
yield strength, εmax is the maximum strain, CG-Ti is the coarse 2. In this region, the energy density and laser power are too
grained Ti and UFG-Ti is ultrafine grained Ti. low for any range of scanning speed. Using a very low en-
ergy input and high scanning speed would not give an
appropriate interaction time resulting in partial melting of
permanent mold casting [182], extrusion [183], rolling [184], Mg powders. The low laser energy is insufficient to give rise
and pressing [185]. But due to the closed-packed hexagonal to the liquid phase, and consequently, there is a poor bond
structure (HCP) of the a Mg matrix, its formability is relatively neck between the particles. In such cases, fusion among
poor [186]. Hence, such alloys' plastic working must be con- the particles leads to parts with no mechanical strength
ducted at elevated temperatures surrounding, increasing the and a great number of un-melted debris are found on the
manufacturing cost. The introduction of AM, mainly LPBF, has surface [193]. A heat-affected zone (HAZ) is formed due to
enabled the rapid production of such alloys with high-density partial melting as heat is conducted away from the melt
products without using any moulds of fixtures [10]. pool center to the surrounding powders [188]. If the scan-
ning speed is even faster, the low density and chemical
3.2.1. LPBF processing window of Mg and Mg-based alloys characteristic of the Mg powders will lead to oxidation and
Ng et al. [187] stated the potential to employ Mg powders in the formation of MgO that is the black fog which would disturb
LPBF process as they successfully melted Mg tracks the process environment [194].
completely in an inert atmosphere. The processing window 3. In this zone, a good amount of melting can be accepted of
for the single-track Mg powders was established based on the Mg powders, with a melt pool that is relatively more stable
interaction between the laser source and the Mg powder and yields tracks with good bonding among the particles.
under different sets of processing parameters [188,189]. The range of laser energy in this zone is very favorable to
Several researchers have also tried to establish the processing increase the powder bed's temperature while diminishing
window for Mg and its alloys, such as AZ91D, WE43, ZK60, and the melt pool's viscosity such that the melt can spread
Mge9%Al based on their formability to manufacture single- evenly over the preprocessed layer to obtain a denser part.
layered and multilayers three-dimensional objects [190]. Fig Under low laser power and high scanning speed, a large
10 shows a map of processing windows for Mg alloy Mge9% low energy input causes surface melting of particles,
Al. The laser parameter, which is laser energy density, is resulting in a weak bond neck between the particulates.
considered a single parameter to influence the occurrence of Under the laser conditions, the produced samples showed
the regions and microstructures and compare the processing a powder stacking structure with no mechanical strength,
conditions for single and multiple layer parts [191]. as shown in zone [190]. LPBF in this region has proved to
produce parts with good properties when experimented
with CP-Ti [146] and TieTiB2 components [162].
4. This one is characterized by the occurring of the balling
Table 8 e Decrease in Relative density and hardness on
increase of scanning speed of LPBF produced Ti2448 at region. Balling is an agglomeration of ball-shaped melted
laser power of 200 W. powders to form large melt pools. This happens mainly due
to low laser energy density input, which is nothing but low
Laser scan Relative Hardness
speed (mm/s) density (%) (Hv) power, high layer thickness, and high scanning speed [102].
Since the balling phenomena tends to occur in this zone, it
225 96.94 214.20
could deteriorate the surface of the produced part.
300 96.90 242.45
400 96.24 241.22
500 95.61 237.54 3.3. Aluminium-based alloys
600 95.35 238.77
700 91.04 226.48 Aluminium (Al) and its alloys are the mostly employed ma-
800 87.23 221.57 terials for any structures after steel and iron, and due to their
900 82.744 193.80
excellent properties of high strength, low density and good
Al parts are at the top. Hence, structures are needed to fulfil

such requirements and be manufactured to reduce cost and
time [202,203,204].
LPBF is commonly known to be giving good results of fully
dense parts in a single scan itself. But for some alloys such as
Al/Fe2O3 powders, it was necessary to employ in situ forma-
tion of particle reinforced Al matrix to overcome defects such
as balling, doss formation and part distortion, which causes
poor surface finish of the part produced. The in-situ reaction,
which is largely affected by the concentration of Fe2O3 addi-
tives, dictates the range of the suitable processing parameters.
Furthermore, it is also affirmed that the process parameters
have a great role in influencing the microstructure, fracture
behaviour and high cycle fatigue for Alloys such as AlSi10Mg
fabricated through LPBF [205]. In the coming future, the
manufacturing methods for Al alloys with diverse design, high
accuracy and near net shape structure could be of great in-
terest in the manufacturing industry. The exposure of Al to
the LPBF process has sorted out many of the problems
attached to the traditional manufacturing processes
[206,207,208]. Louvis et al. [209] stated that the reason for the
generation of unstable large melt pools that causes balling is
high laser power and low scanning speed. This also increases
the production cost and time. The balling defect can be dealt
with by employing low laser energy and high scanning rates.
In the case of LPBF for Al, it is not possible to eliminate the
effect of oxides. Hence, further research work is required to
come up with solutions to control oxide formation. Table 12
gives detail for the commercially available Al alloys, which
are used in production with respect to applications, key
properties, and heat treatment along with constituent ele-
Fig. 8 e Microstructure of Ti2448 produced by LPBF at two ments in different series [154].
different scanning speed and with relative densities of (a)
99.3% and (b) 98.2% [140]. 3.3.1. LPBF processing window for Al alloys
The map of processing windows for Al and its alloys, partic-
ularly for pure Al, AleMg and AlSi12, was drawn out by con-
corrosion resistance, they are applicable in various industries ducting experiments with laser power ranging from 20 W to
such as weapons, power electronics, automobiles and avia- 240 W, scanning speed 20 mm/s to 250 mm/s and at a constant
tion [195,196,197]. Traditional manufacturing methods such hatch spacing of 0.1 mm [210,211]. Four regions were identi-
as extrusion, casting and forging are commonly employed to fied as no marking, partial marking, good consolidation and
manufacture any part from Al and its alloys [198]. Though excessive balling (Fig. 11).
such methods have proven to be effective manufacturing Fig. 12 shows a similar trend for all the powders that
methods for Al, there are still many drawbacks associated were investigated. There were slight differences in the
with it. In casting, coarse microstructures are formed due to boundaries parting the different regions. The regions of
low cooling rates and many defects such as porosity, slag in- partial marking were mostly including parts that were pro-
clusion, and offset defects [199,200,201]. The separated duced with very low strength. The region of good consoli-
manufacturing line for high-performance Al alloys limits the dation had samples fabricated with good coherent bonding
flexibility of the manufacturing process. Due to the advance- and having high strength. Hence, good consolidation should
ment in modern industries, the performance requirements for be considered the appropriate region for manufacturing
multi-layered parts via LPBF. The region of excessive balling
comes with the unwanted defect of balling, causing large
Table 9 e Properties of Ti2448 samples produced by melt poolsdthe reasons for forming such regions are dis-
different methods. cussed below.
Processing method E/GPa s0.2/MPa sUTS/MPa εf/%
1. The region of no marking is influenced by the short inter-
LPBF 53 563 665 13.8
action time period between the laser and the material and
Hot Rolling 46 700 830 15
low energy density, which causes poor inter particulate
Hot Forging 55 570 765 13
bonding. Poor bonding can also result from using high
Note: s0.2 is the yield strength, εf is the fracture tensile strain, sUTS is
scanning speeds for low laser powers during the LPBF
the ultimate tensile strength and E is the young’s modulus.
process.
Table 10 e Properties of LPBF produced Ti alloys composites with those produced by different methods.
Material Type Condition Vickers Hardness/VH s0.2/MPa sUCS/MPa εmax/%
Ti-8.35 vol- % TiB LPBF 402 1103 1421 17.8
CP-Ti Casting/ECAP 210 700 900 35
Tie6Ale4V Superplastic forming/annealed 346 1000 1300 10
Note: s0.2 is the yield strength, εmax is the maximum strain, sUCS is the ultimate compressive strength.
2. The region of partial marking is characterized by parts properties of LPBF fabricated samples show that LPBF can
fabricated with a large amount of porous defects. This is produce samples with superior properties to those manufac-
also due to the adoption of low energy density, which in tured using traditional processes such as casting. It has also
turn is due to low laser powers and high scan speeds. This been found that the addition of other metals to develop an
combination of processing parameters leads to the for- alloy proves to be more effective when processed under the
mation of an inadequate liquid phase that ultimately re- LPBF process.
sults in poor inter particulate bonding.
3. The region of good consolidation is characterized by the
fabrication of parts through LPBF with fair level of density, 4. LPBF process parameters
almost 60%e80%. The energy density range employed in
this region leads to an increase in the powder bed tem- In any manufacturing process, the influence of process pa-
perature and a decrease in the melt pool's viscosity, hence rameters plays a significant role in the manufacturing process
improving the densification of the fabricated part. This setup conditions. Table 13 depict the ranges of process pa-
result is obtained due to the adoption of higher energy rameters such as laser power, scan speed, spacing, and par-
density which leads to the generation of an adequate liquid ticle size, along with significant effects.
phase that promotes ed complete melting of powders [212].
4. The region of excessive balling is characterized by parts 4.1. Effects of LPBF process parameters on densification
fabricated via LPBF with fully dense parts but a very rough
surface. This result is obtained due to the adoption of high LPBF is considered a very complex process due to the
laser energy density, which is adopting high laser power at involvement of many process parameters. It is necessary to
low scanning rates. These findings were also confirmed by achieve the correct combination of such parameters while
Zhang et al. [191], who also show the excessive generation processing to get a fully dense part. Some of the critical pa-
of liquid phase leading to balling. rameters associated with LPBF can be categorized as given in
Fig. 13.
3.3.2. Hard metals 4.1.1. Effects of laser processing parameters on densification

Hard metals manufacturing has always been difficult due to The individual parameters of laser power (P), scan speed (u),
the high requirement of time, energy, and materials. The hatch spacing (h) and layer thickness (d) can be combined to
advent of SLM has led to more convenience in manufacturing form a single equation:
these materials. Understanding the relationships between the
P
densification of the fabricated part and the process parame- 2¼ (1)
u:h:d
ters plays an important role in concluding the microstructures
and the fabricated parts' mechanical properties. Among all the where, 2 is nothing but the laser energy density [213]. The
metals, Ti, Mg and Al are widely considered for application in variation in the parameter of laser energy density, which de-
various industries such as aerospace and biomedicals because pends on the combination of varying parameters, influences
of their properties. This difference in microstructure in the the densification of the part fabricated through LPBF. Since
case of Ti can be due to the different laser parameters, mainly every material has different characteristics in terms of ther-
laser scanning speed. In the case of Mg, microstructural evo- mal and mechanical behavior, separate experimental work
lution is monitored by the specific laser energy input and has been carried out for each material to draw the map of the
cooling rates. Mechanical properties like tensile strength, processing window [214,215]. One of such experiments was
compressive strength, hardness and microhardness conducted by Zhang et al. [191] on Mge9%Al alloy. They
studied the effect of laser energy density on the density of the
part produced via a continuous Nd: YAG laser. They recorded
an increase in the laser energy density from 7.5 to 15 J/mm2,
Table 11 e Properties of Tie6Ale7Nb part manufactured
by LPBF and casting. significantly improving the relative density from 74.5 to 82%.
In low laser energy density cases, mainly due to high scan
Processing method E/GPa s0.2/MPa sUTS/MPa εf/%
speeds, partial melting occurs, leading to porosity and gen-
LPBF 109 1110 1267 7.28 eration of discontinuous tracks. When the laser energy den-
Casting 110 847 976 5.1
sity was increased, better melting of powders was observed,
Note: s0.2 is the yield strength, εf is the fracture tensile strain, sUTS is leading to the disappearance of pores and a smooth surface
the ultimate tensile strength and E is the young’s modulus. finish. But, if the laser energy density is increased further to
Fig. 9 e SEM images for the microstructures of the SLM-produced TieTiB composite at different magnifications: (a, b) cross-
sectional views and (c, d) longitudinal views showing needle-shape TiB particles within the Ti matrix. White arrows
indicate TiB particles [158].
approximately 20 J/mm2, density is reduced. This is because Wei et al. [218] worked to understand the effects of pro-
though sufficient energy is there to generate the liquid phase, cessing parameters on LPBF processed AZ91D alloy. They
low scan speed causes spheroidization and the molten pool observed that with the increase in both the hatch spacing and
breakdown [194]. scan speed, there is a significant drop in the fabricated part's
Small circumference to length ratio and unstable small density. Lowering the scan speed at constant laser energy
dimensional molten pools are developed when the laser provided more interaction between the laser and the material
energy is not adequate to generate the liquid phase [216,217]. and better densification [219]. A new term, overlapping scan
This unstable molten pool finally hits the necking stage and lines, comes in the picture when hatch spacing, also known as
breaks into balls, causing balling. A typical phenomenon was scan spacing, is discussed. It usually depicts the amount of
observed in case of LPBF fabricates CP-Ti [106] and overlap of the consecutive scan lines. The hatch spacing's
Tie24 Ne4Zre8Sn alloy [140] which highlighted that if the usual selection is such that it is in the range of half and the
powder is fully melted, there was no further benefits in entire width of the molten pool for strong bonding of adjacent
increasing the laser energy density because any more in- scan tracks [90]. If a scan spacing of size wider than the laser
crease in the laser energy density resulted in balling, poor spot is chosen, there is a reduction in the overlapping, and
surface finish and lower density. In the LPBF process, much poor bonding of the adjacent scan tracks was observed,
of the research work highlighted that low energy density, leading to porosity. In an experiment with AZ91D parts, a
due to low laser power and high scanning speed, could not maximum density of 99.52% was recorded for the hatch
generate sufficient liquid phase for the powder to bond spacing of 90 mm at a low scan speed of 0.33 m/s. The com-
together, resulting in poor densification due to partial bination of parameters giving the laser density of approxi-
melting. But as the laser power is increased at lower scan mately 166.7 J/mm3 was enough to penetrate any oxide layers
rates, there is a significant rise in laser energy density which and give maximum dense (more than 99.5%) parts. In another
now provides adequate energy for the generation of liquid experiment [220] to understand the effect of scan speed with
phase for powders to bond together. This results in higher the ZK60 alloy, the investigation was done by keeping the
densification as the process approaches full melting. Hence, other parameters constant. Laser power, scan spacing, layer
it can be concluded that high temperature can be achieved thickness, and laser spot size were kept constant as 200 W;
with appropriate increments of laser energy density. 80 mm, 20 mm, and 150 mm, respectively. Within the range of
This increases the densification of the produced part. It re- scan speed from 100 to 900 mm/s, it was seen that the
duces surface tensions and viscosity, which favors the gen- maximum dense of 94.05% was achieved at a speed of
eration of connective streams and flows within the molten 300 mm/s. Severe vaporization and burning of materials were
pool. seen at a low scan speed of 100 mm/s. At scan speed higher
Fig. 10 e Processing window map of Mge9%Al in accordance with scan speed and laser power.
than 500 mm/s, powders didn’t undergo complete melting and lower layer thickness was employed, surfaces with no defects
caused porosity and reduced density up to 82.25%. It was also and no heat-affected zones were obtained. The primary
observed that melt tracks have an evident transition from reason is that since there is less material to be melted with a
continuous to discontinuous track on continuously increasing small layer thickness, enough energy is to melt the powders
the scan speed [219,221]. Fig. 14 shows the effect of scanning completely. Also, the heat conducted melts the neighboring
speed on balling [222]. particles. So, when remelting occurs, the melt pool's enough
Another critical parameter in the LPBF process is layer wetting doesn’t let spheroidization occur [194,226]. Agarwal
thickness. It affects the parts' mechanical properties and et al. [227] stated that the minimum layer thickness, which
dimensional accuracy [223]. Establishing an appropriate layer will give a porous free part, is nothing but the maximum size
thickness concerning other processing parameters is crucial. of the particle deposited in the powder bed and also depends
If the layer thickness is large, the powders' complete melting upon the powder delivery mechanism. Olakanmi et al. [228]
will not be possible because there will not be enough laser stated that if a layer thickness less than the minimum value is
power to penetrate the powder bed. This results in large voids set, there will be difficulties in the homogenous distribution of
and pores, which decreases the density of the produced part. the powder, which would impact the surface finish.
Hence, an optimum layer thickness value should be for fine All combined, it can be stated that the densification is
resolution and better bonding between the intermediate increased with rise in laser power and reduction in scan
layers with fewer defects such as porosity. Small layer thick- speed, layer thickness and scan spacing. This result is also
ness helps in the better fusion of interlayers by allowing more verified for other materials and alloys such as Al12Si [229] and
laser energy to penetrate the powder bed. This exposes the NieCu alloy. SEM photographs of the microstructure of AlSi12
previously melted layers for multiple remelting, increasing alloy generated by the LePBF process under varying laser
the density and the wetting properties [220]. power and scanning velocity are shown in Fig. 16. The -Al and
Olakanmi et al. [224] observed in their experiment with Si phases are the brilliant and dark phases, respectively. All of
AlSi12 that there is a particular layer thickness value. Such a the samples had a cellular microstructure with a primary-Al
product with no porosity proved to have excellent micro- phase surrounded by a eutectic -Al/Si microstructure. Micro-
structural properties because the multiple remelting of layers structural morphology is widely found in AleSi alloys pro-
proved to showcase excellent inter-layer bonding with mini- duced via LePBF. Although the primary -Al phase was slightly
mum balling. Fig. 15 shows the TEM images revealing the ef- coarsened when a high-power laser was used at a low scan-
fect of molten metal solidifying to give the fine resolution of ning velocity, the morphology of cellular microstructure did
grains [225]. Most of the gas bubbles escape to the surface and not change substantially depending on the laser settings. At
collapse when the molten metal solidifies to provide a fine the FEeSEM resolution, no phases were found inside the
resolution of grains. elongated -Al phase [230].
Another experiment was done by Salavni et al. [190] on Mg
powder to understand the effects of layer thickness. With all 4.1.2. Effects of scanning strategy
the process parameters set constant, scan speed ranged from The generation of non-uniform thermal gradients leads to
10 to 200 mm/s, and layer thickness varied from 150 to 300 mm. LPBF defects such as porosity, residual stresses, and poor
They showed a critical value of layer thickness beyond which surface finish. A scanning strategy was used to tackle the
successful remelting layers is impossible. If done so, the dis- thermal gradient problem during the heating and cooling
rupted and irregularly finished surface is generated. When phases [231,232,233,234]. Several researchers devised various
scanning strategies to produce fully dense parts with almost
Aircraft industry, weapon manufacturing, sports equipment

no defects. Some of the common strategies that are widely
Building and construction, storage tank, pressure vessels,

accepted are unidirectional, bidirectional and island/chess-
Building sheets, electrical appliances, cooking utencils,

board strategies as shown in Fig. 17. Some strategies were
Electrical application, food packaging, chemical developed by modifying a few of these basic ones. A rotation
of certain angles such as 60 [235] or 90 [236] or a shift for a
particular distance between the layers [237] could be some
Architectural and automotive application
Used in aircraft industry, weapons, bolts

modifications. The unidirectional strategy is the simplest but
Applications
gives the worst density results among other methods [238].

application, building components
Welding wires and brazing alloys

Fig. 18 shows different kinds of scanning strategies applied
in AlSi10Mg. Scanning strategies A (unidirectional), B (bidi-
rectional), C (bidirectional rescanning with 90 rotation in
scanning direction) and D (island scanning) achieved relative
marine application
density of 99%, 98.9%, 99.4% and 98.2% respectively [235].
heat exchangers
Dewidar et al. [231] categorized the scanning strategies as

standard, diagonal, and perimeter scanning for single-layer
melting of powders (Fig. 19). Su et al. [232] tried employing
different scan strategies to understand their impacts (Fig. 20).
It was observed that the perimeter scan strategy did not give
relevant results, while the diagonal and standard scan stra-
tegies gave pretty much the same result [231].
One another alternative to reduce defects such as porosity
High weldability, Excellent corrosion
Low melting point, good weldability,
Excellent corrosion resistance and
is remelting. It is nothing but melting the same powder bed

Low strength, excellent corrosion
Good plasticity and weldability,
twice or thrice before a new powder layer is introduced. This

good heat and wear resistance
resistance, High conductivity,
High strength and toughness,
Excellent fatigue resistance,
step eliminates surface defects and surface contaminants,

Key Properties
poor corrosion resistance,
resistance, High strength
along with any oxides. This also helps obtain higher densifi-
cation when other parameters cannot attain the full density.
good heat resistance
The only drawback is that its time is taking and energy-

Easy processing
consuming. To avoid any residual stresses or cracks, it is

High strength
low strength
weldability
proposed to carry out the remelting process under low energy

density [238]. It was also concluded that remelting on densi-
fication depends on the careful selection of other parameters
[239].
Another four kinds of strategies for remelting on TiC/316 L,
investigated by AlMangour et al. (Fig. 20) [235], gave relative
Treatable
densities of 92.48%, 96.04%, 86.91%, and 96.40%, respectively.

Heat
It was concluded that higher densification was achieved on

remelting by adopting strategies I and II, but strategy III gives
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
lower densification than strategy I. It was also supposed that

remelting with the same direction gave aggravated texture,
while remelting with rotation in the scanning direction had
or AleCueMg
better texture results. Hence rotational remelting is highly

Elements
AleZneMg
AleMgeSi
suggested.
Table 12 e Al alloy series and their properties.
AleMn
AleMg
Al -Cu
AleSi
4.2. Effect of powder parameters on densification
The properties and quality of the powder used in the LPBF

process play a huge role in monitoring the stability of the
Mg þ Si þ (Zn, Fe, Mn)
Zn þ Mg þ (Si, Fe, Cu)
process and determining the properties of the parts produced.

Cu þ (Fe, Mn, Zn, Zr)
Si þ (Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg)
Mg þ (Mn, Si, Fe, Zn)

Constitueents
When we consider the characteristics of the powder, it is

Mn þ (Cu, Fe, Si)
generally talked about the size, shape, composition, internal

porosity, and surface morphology. Physical variables such as
apparent density (degree of how good the powder can be
Pure Al
packed) and flowability (the degree of the tendency of pow-

ders to flow) are also considered [240]. The powder
morphology is one character that monitors all the other pro-
cess parameters such as packing of powders, flowability, and
the nature of the thermal effects. They also play an essential
Series
1xxx
2xxx
3xxx
4xxx
5xxx
6xxx
7xxx
role in choosing the layer thickness and other parameters for

the process [241].
Fig. 11 e A map for processing window for parts fabricated in (a) air atomized Pure Al (b) gas atomized pure Al (c) water
atomized Al-5.6 Mg (d) water atomized Ale6Mg (E) Gas atomized Ale12Si. [210] (1: No marking; 2: Partial Marking; 3: Good
Consolidation 4: Excessive Balling).
4.2.1. Effect of flowability, absorptivity, reflectivity and One of the LPBF process's essential procedures is the laser
conductivity beam's interaction with the powder particles and the ab-
It is well known that Al powder has poor flowability because of sorption of laser energy by the powder. An absorptance,
its low density and non-spherical-shaped powders. This poor calculated as the ratio of absorbed energy radiation to incident
flowability makes the task of depositing Al powders very energy radiation, plays a key role in giving accurate results in
tough, which is an essential LPBF process. Also, surface oxides the LPBF process. Determining the absorption of powders can
are developed during atomization, restricting the surface be of prime importance because then we can avoid the supply
tension forces that try to spheroidize the particles. This con- of extra laser energy, which causes superheating and evapo-
tributes to poor flowability [242]. So, spherical powders should ration of the powders. It can help to map out a more effective
be employed for better densification and accuracy because it processing window [244]. The layer of powders first absorbs
improve flowability [240]. Another critical factor is that the the laser energy on the surface leading to the rise of temper-
powder should be free from significant defects such as pores ature on the surface. The heat then starts to flow to the center
as they can cause low fusion among the particles, directly of the particles, leading to the development of thermal cycles.
influencing the density. The powders' size also affects fine and The transfer of heat takes place until a steady state is reached,
narrow-size particles that tend to come together and fuse, and it also depends on the properties of the surrounding
opposite with larger and coarse particles [243]. powder particles [240]. If the absorptivity of powders in a
complex-shaped metal parts. If powder particles engage with

the energy source but are not consolidated into an AM
component, they can undergo a variety of dynamic thermal
interactions, resulting in varied particle behavior. Heiden et al.
[246] reported a comprehensive analysis of 316 L powder
characteristics from the virgin phase via 30 powder recycles.
According to the results, the pristine condition has more di-
versity in component stiffness. With recycling, the feedstock's
size distribution, bulk composition, and hardness changed
slightly, but particle shape, microstructure, magnetic proper-
ties, surface composition, and oxide thickness changed
significantly. Dipl.-Ing et al. [247] compared the surface qual-
ity, part density, and mechanical properties of AlSi10Mg parts
produced by LPBF, using different particle size distributions
and morphologies. The results revealed that powder particle
morphology and manufacturing process significantly affect
the part bulk density, surface quality, and layer densities of
powders. Powder feedstock quality is critical in the LPBF pro-
Fig. 12 e Map of the processing window for Al powder cess because the technique relies on small layers of powder
showing different microstructures with varying process being distributed and selectively melted to create 3D metallic
parameters. [210] (1: No marking; 2: Partial Marking; 3: components. Particle morphology, particle size distribution,
Good Consolidation 4: Excessive Balling). apparent density, and flowability are the only parameters used
to evaluate powder quality in additive manufacturing. Recent
research suggests that these strategies may not be the most
particular local area differs, it will vaporize the powder. Al is suited. The difficulty of investigating aluminum particles
highly reflective when it comes to light in the infrared range. worsens since their complicated cohesive behaviors affect
For a 1 mm wavelength laser, Al almost reflects everything their flowability. Mun ~ iz-Lerma et al. [248] studied the powder
and absorbs only around 7% of the energy [245]. Though the spread density, moisture sorption, surface energy, work of
absorption of the whole powder bed will be higher than the cohesion, and powder rheology along with conventional
expected value due to multiple absorption and reflection, it is powder characterization assessments. The involvement of
essential to supply laser energy more elevated than that small particulates enhances wetness pick-up, enhancing total
calculated to overcome the reflectivity problem. Also, ab- particle surface energy and inter-particle cohesion, according
sorptivity will be different between the already scanned layers to this research. This impact obstructs powder flow and, as a
and the fresh neighboring particles. Hence temperature gra- result, the uniform layer spreading required for optimal
dients will be developed in the overlapped tracks scenario, printing. Moisture adsorption, surface energy, and cohesion
which might cause balling. properties are reduced when spherical particles are more
Al is also known for its high conductivity. In such cases, the significant. This finding suggests that problematic powder
heat energy supplies quickly conduct away to the nearby feedstocks can be adjusted for LPBF by adjusting particle dis-
already scanned and solidified part. This can have multiple tribution, size, and shape. Santecchia et al. [249] reported that
impacts. Firstly, more energy consumption will be there than recycling the unfused powder from a building job is critical to
for low conductivity materials. The melt tracks' width for making LPBF more cost-effective and environmentally benign.
higher conductive material will be much more than low However, more profound knowledge of the complete process
conductive materials because heat is conducted away from is required because the laserepowder interaction involves
the neighboring areas. Mg has the property of both high con- complex physical phenomena and generates by-products that
ductivity and reflectivity. But the deposited powder has rela- could compromise the feedstock and end construction part's
tively poor conductivity compared to the solid substrate [240]. integrity. Hupfeld et al. [250] reported that adding nano-
When the heat is applied, it flows slowly, leading to the particles in the feedstock is the ultimate solution for tailoring
overheating of the melt pool. This influences the melt pool's the feedstock material properties for printable and obtaining
size and creates a difference in densities between the powder the desired properties of the printed parts.
and the solid [245]. Another drawback of high conductivity Additives have been discovered to be an effective way to
and reflectivity is that it is challenging to control and monitor improve feedstock materials' mechanical and functional
the LPBF process. qualities. Further, Kusoglu et al. [251] also confirmed that the
alloying of particle additives in feed stock significantly solved
4.2.2. Powder feedstock the processing and metallurgic issues, such as anisotropic
Persistent defect creation in produced components, high ma- microstructure, segregations, and fracture formation in as-
terial costs, and a lack of consistency in powder feedstock are built parts during L-PBF. It was also reported that Alealloy is
all major roadblocks to mainstream adoption of metal additive the third most studied material in LPBF process. The alloying
manufacturing (AM). Understanding how feedstock qualities of particle additives in feed stock was found promising and
change with reuse and how these impacts build mechanical industrializing to improve the mechanical properties and
performance is critical for producing more dependable, avoid crack sensitivity in the as-built. Furthermore, Kusoglu
Table 13 e Process parameters of (LPBF) selective laser melting.

S.no. Parameter Range Effect
Laser Related Parameters Laser Power 10 We110 W generally Mainly responsible for melting. Laser
power increase with the increase in the
melting point of powder used.
Pulse Duration/ 20e30 mm, till 300 mm Laser power, spot size, scan speed, and
PulseFrequency in typical cases bed temperature determine the energy
input needed to fuse the powder into a
useable part. The longer the laser dwells in
a particular location, the deeper the fusion
depth and the larger the melt pool
diameter.
Scan Related Parameters Scan Speed 100e600 mm/s generally Scan pattern and scan strategy can have a
Scan Spacing profound impact on residual stress
Scan Pattern accumulation within a part. For instance,
if a part is moved from one location to
another within a machine, the exact laser
paths to build the part may change. These
laser path changes may cause the part to
distort more in one location than another.
Thus, a part can build successfully in one
location but not in another location in the
same machine due simply to how the scan
strategy is applied in different locations.
Powder Related Particle Size 15-50 microns Powder shape, size, and size distribution
Parameters Particle Shape Spherical strongly influence laser absorption
Particle size 1.38 microns characteristics as well as Powder bed
Distribution width density, powder bed thermal conductivity,
Layer thickness 20 mme100 mm and powder spreading. Finer particles
provide greater surface area and absorb
laser energy more efficiently than coarser
particles.
Uniformity in microstructure
Powder Bed Density - As governed by powder shape, size,
distribution, and spreading mechanism,
the powder bed density can strongly
influence the part quality. Powder bed
densities typically range between 50% and
60% for most commercially available
powders but may be as low as 30% for
irregular ceramic powders. Generally the
higher the powder packing density, the
higher the bed thermal conductivity and
the better the part mechanical properties
Material Properties Mechanical properties of material after
printing generally depends upon
combination of parameters
Temperature Related Powder Bed Temperature Powder bed temperature and varies
Parameters Powder Feeder Temperature depending upon the absorptivity
characteristics of the powder bed, which
is influenced by material type and powder
shape, size, and packing density. Infrared
or resistive heaters are generally used.
et al. [252] extended the study and collected the literature on considered to be of less value. But much work has been done
powder feedstocks for LPBF processing of polymers. Carbon- on understanding the effects of powder properties such as
based compounds are commonly used in applications that shape, size, surface morphology, chemical composition, and
require mechanical characteristics. In addition, for L-PBF of size distribution on the SLS process [253,254]. However, better
polymer powder feedstocks, carbon fibers, Ca-phosphates, densification always enhances the LPBF result, and we would
and SiO2 are the most frequently reported additions. generally try to understand the effect of powder size in addi-
tive manufacturing processes, especially SLS.
4.2.3. Effect of particle shape, size and distribution on Olakanmi et al. [224], in their work with laser sintering of
densification AleSi, stated that powder particle size and size distribution
Since complete melting is the critical objective of the LPBF have a crucial influence on the densification of the final part. It
process, the effect of particle size and shape are generally was pointed out that smaller particles were sintered quickly,
Fig. 13 e Categorization of process parameters.
and densification shall happen by neck formation at points of different-sized particles during processing is different. Larger-
contact among the particles. To obtain better sintering for the sized particles need more time and energy to melt. Hence, the
powders, blending the powders of different sizes is necessary. parameters must be optimized to avoid local overheating or
However, fine powder particles help in increasing the packing partial melting, resulting in porosity [256]. Though the small-
density and the sintering response. Small particles experience sized particles can give better results than coarser and large
stress due to sintering in a much larger magnitude than that of particles for even low laser energy density value, they can get
the larger particles. Therefore, the small particles are very blown away by the gas in the shielding chamber and adhered
prone to defects. This also means that the larger particles to the surface. This disturbs the distribution of the next
restrict the shrinkage of the small particles, which gives rise to powder bed [194].
cracking around the large particles [255]. The response of It was stated by Liu et al. [257] that the shape of the powder
particle also influences the densification process. They found
that the thermal expansion between the Al powder and the
oxide layer caused the oxide to fracture. The characteristics of
this fracture differed for spherical and irregularly shaped
particles. Niu et al. [258] experimented on water atomized
angular particles and gas atomized spherical particles. They
found that the SLS of gas atomized spherical particles gave a
homogenous and dense single layer. Irregularly shaped par-
ticles and high oxygen content caused the porous outcome for
the water atomized particles. Olakanmi et al. [210] studied the
effect of powder properties on densification kinetics of Al
powders undergoing the LPBF process. It was found that the
densification kinetics is primarily affected by the oxide
constitution and the shape and density of the powders used.
Olakanmi et al. [224] that the apparent and tapping density of
the part results from the thermal cycles that happened during
the process and can easily be controlled by using particle of
Fig. 14 e The effect of the scanning speed on the diameter different sizes. This technique is often known as bimodal or
of bead caused by balling phenomenon (Raw Powder trimodal powder distribution.
D50 ¼ 6.43 mm) [222].
was that the addition of Nickel improved the density of the

titanium-nickel alloy. A similar experiment was carried on by
Dadbaksh et al. [260] to understand the addition of 15% Fe2O3
by weight to different Al alloys such as pure Al, AlMgSiCu, and
AlSi10Mg. The conclusion was that adding Fe2O3 worked for
the consolidation performance of the Al alloys (Fig. 21). The
addition also helped in lowering defects like porosity and
oxide layer breakdowns.
Wang et al. [261] studied the effect of alloying elements X
(Cr, Mn, Mo, Ni, Si) on the interface stability of TiC (001)/g-Fe
(001) in TiC/316 L stainless steel composite formed by selective
Fig. 15 e TEM bright-field images of the SLMed AlSiMg1.4 laser melting. The adhesion work, bond length, interlayer
alloy showing (a) the dislocation substructure in an a-Al distance, and electrical properties of Cr4, Mn4, Mo4, Ni1, and Si1
grain and (b) a high density of dislocation tangles in the interface models were shown to be more conducive to
interior of a subgrain [225]. improving interface bonding strength, and Cr-, Mn-, and Mo-
doped interfaces are more stable than other interfaces. The
doping of an alloy atom is represented by both the X1 and X4
4.2.4. Effect of alloying elements on densification structures but only in distinct crystallographic positions. As a
An experiment was conducted by Zhang et al. [259] to un- result, adding Cr, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Si to TiC will accelerate Fe
derstand the effect of adding Ni as an alloying element to heterogeneous nucleation, increase TiC's heterogeneous
tungsten powder. LPBF process was carried on titanium nucleation potential, and improve the TiC/316 L stainless steel
powders with 10%, 20%, and 40% Ni by weight. The conclusion composite's interfacial bonding strength. Wei et al. studied
Fig. 16 e SEM images showing microstructure in AlSi12 alloys manufactured by LePBF process under various laser power
and scanning velocity [230].
Fig. 17 e Different kinds of scanning strategies.
the effect of Zn-content on the densification behavior, prevents oxidation and improves dimensional stability [266].
microstructure, and mechanical property of MgeZn binary Wu et al. [267] studied the effect of oxygen content on the
alloys [262]. The quantity of Mg7Zn3 rose in lockstep with the microstructure of Ti alloy, Tie25 Ve15Cre2Al-0.2C. The
rise in Zn concentration, while its morphology gradually shielding gas was used as argon, and the oxygen concentra-
changed from granular to virtually reticular. According to tion in the argon shielded chamber was less than 5 ppm. The
hardness and tensile testing, only the Mge1Zn sample has results showed that the microstructure of parts processed in
equivalent mechanical qualities to the as-cast counterpart. the air has large dendrite-like structures and was coarser. At
Mechanical characteristics of LPBF-processed alloys were the same time, the part produced in the shielded atmosphere
dramatically reduced at increasing Zn concentrations, owing had uniformly distributed finer grains. Schaffer et al. carried
to the worsening of the densification degree. Kimura et al. out the study of atmospheric conditions on the sintering of AL
[263] studied the effect of silicon (Si)-content (Si ¼ 0, 1, 4, 7, 10, and its alloys [266]. And they pointed out that vacuum, ni-
12, and 20 mass%) on densification, mechanical and thermal trogen, argon and hydrogen gases were commonly used as
properties of Al-xSi binary alloys fabricated using selective shielding gases. It was found that for the alloy AL-Mg-0.5Si-
laser melting. The ultimate tensile strength and proof stress 0.2Cu, nitrogen gave better results, while Al-4.5Cu-0.5Mg-
increased as the silicon content increased, whereas elonga- 0.2Si had better processing results with a vacuum shielding
tion and thermal conductivity declined. With increasing sili- chamber. The basic reason for the differences was pointed out
con content, higher amounts of the crystallized phases of to be the different cooling rates after the process.
silicon were attributed to these mechanical qualities.
4.3.2. Densification behavior and process variables
4.3. Alternate parameters The discussion of the relationship between the densification
behavior and processing parameters can be focused on laser
4.3.1. Atmospheric conditions energy density, which is nothing but a combination of varia-
The presence of oxygen in the atmosphere during the LPBF tions of parameters. Generally, it was observed that with an
process, especially metals, can prove disastrous as it forms increase in the value of laser energy density, smooth surfaces
oxide and will also lead to balling formation [264,265]. Hence, were observed with minimum pores. This is because of the
it is very important to control the LPBF process atmosphere so better melting and flow of the liquid phase into the voids. The
undesirable reactions can be avoided. The controlled atmo- decrease in the scanning speed gave more time for the laser
sphere can also lead to the initiation of some desired re- beam interaction and the powder, resulting in full melting
sponses. For example, adding nitrogen to Al to form AlN and, consequently, gave better density. There is also an
Fig. 18 e Standard, diagonal and perimeter scan strategies.

Fig. 19 e Different scan strategies: The numbers depict the scanning sequence and arrows depict the scanning direction.
increase in the density with decrease in the hatch spacing as prevents undesirable reactions and reduces oxide on the
the flowing and distribution of liquid molten metal was metal surfaces, resulting in defects such as balling.
increased when the scan lines were brought closer to each
other. Higher layer thickness will result in a lack of laser en-
ergy density for the complete melting of the powder bed, and 5. Properties of LPBFed parts
shallow layer thickness will increase production and cost
time. Hence, an optimum layer thickness needs to be calcu- 5.1. Microstructures
lated to balance both extremes. The powder properties also
influence the densification behavior. The quality of the pow- The microstructures in the LPBFed parts are governed by short
der is determined by size, shape, surface morphology, cooling cycles. The rapid solidification and the directional
composition, and amount of internal porosity and via physical solidification give out finer microstructures for the LPBFed
variables, such as flowability, absorptivity, reflectivity, and part. The phase compositions, phase percentages, and grain
thermal conductivity. Also, keeping the atmosphere during sizes can also be monitored by controlling the process pa-
LPBF processing under control is very important because it rameters. The performance-based on the quality of the part
Fig. 20 e Four different strategies for remelting used in [235].

supports the concept of higher undercooling, which gives

birth to more refined grains. Hence these rates of different
thermal cycles control the type and scale of the microstruc-
tures formed [273,274,275,276]. Superheated molten pool
high-temperature surfaces are developed with a longer
interaction time between the laser and the material. This
could also result in high energy density due to low scan speed
or high laser power [272,277]. Such conditions increase the
base temperature too. This leads to the reduction of the
temperature gradient and reduces the cooling rate, giving a
coarser microstructure.
Contrary to this, when parameters are changed to give low
laser energy density, superheating does not occur. The
average temperature gradient is maintained, and an adequate
cooling rate develops more refined grains. Process parameters
also govern the geometry of the molten pool. A cylindrical
geometry melt pool is formed due to high surface tension
Fig. 21 e Effect of addition of 15% Fe2O3 by weight on when the laser energy density is just enough to melt the
densification for different Al alloys [260]. powders. If the previous layer or substrate layer is pre-heated
or partially dissolved in multiple layers, it affects the cooling
rate and the microstructure [272].
In the LPBF process, there is a possibility of changes in
produced strongly depends on the thermal cycles it experi- composition and microstructures due to the vaporization of
enced during its fabrication. The thermal processes consist of elements with high vapor pressure. This also enriches the
high cooling and heating rates, large temperature gradients, percentage of the elements which did not evaporate by the
sudden temperature rise, and many more. The final micro- Solute capture phenomenon [278]. The improvement in the
structures of the LPBFed part mainly depend on the high so- homogenous distribution of the alloy elements is seen with
lidification rate [268]. high-temperature gradients. This is due to the effect known as
All the process parameters, including layer thickness, scan the Marangoni effect [220]. It is also noted that the type and
speed, hatch spacing, and laser power, strongly influence the mode of the laser used in LPBF process also affects the
microstructure development [269]. Many studies have been microstructure development [98]. Mg powders were processed
done to understand the effect of process parameters on the under continuous and pulsed modes [189]. When the constant
cooling rate of the process and subsequently on the micro- wave was used, fully recrystallized grains were developed. But
structures developed. Do et al. [270] and Han et al. [271] when the pulsed mode was used, the grains' incomplete
studied the effects of laser energy on the microstructure generation was observed (Fig. 22). This is because the solidi-
development of LPBF processed Ti64. And both the research fication rate was higher under pulse mode than in a contin-
work showed the same result of the presence of martensitic uous way. Also, there is insufficient time in pulse mode for
structures with all laser energy values. There was observed a grains to rearrange and align themselves to attain equilib-
decrease in cooling rate and an increase in the size of rium. The average size of the grains developed under contin-
martensite grains with the laser energy density. Particularly, it uous mode was higher than those set under the pulse mode.
was also observed that the increase in laser energy density Compared with other additive manufacturing methods, LPBF
decreases the width of the a0 and the spacing between them employs a smaller laser spot size and smaller layer thickness.
but increases columnar grains' width. Many pieces of research This involves small melt pool formation and results in more
with LPBF on Tie6AleV4 showed acicular a’ martensite grains refined grains [279]. Layer thickness alone does not influence
in columnar prior-b [130,131,132,133,134]. The main reason for the development of the microstructure until it is combined
the generation of this microstructure is selecting process pa- with the variation in other parameters. But, Salvani et al. [190]
rameters that would give the cooling rate greater than 410 K/s observed that the layer thickness directly influences the ox-
[135,136]. It was also observed for the microstructures of Mg ygen content and governs the microstructural changes.
processed parts that a lower energy density, due to high speed Further research is required to predict the microstructure of
and low power, resulted in more refined grains due to high different materials under different circumstances.
cooling rates. And by reducing the speed and increasing the
power, low cooling rates and coarser grains can be produced. 5.1.1. Effect of process parameters on microstructures
Apart from varying the process parameters, the nature of Cherry et al. [280] reported that the effect of LPBF process
the developed microstructure also depends on the time of parameters significantly impacts the microstructural and
interaction between the laser and the powder. This relation- physical properties of 316 L stainless steel parts. Material
ship between the interaction period and the laser energy hardness peaked at 225 HV at 125 J/mm3 and was proportional
density gives rise to the temperature gradients (G), the solid- to porosity, with higher porosity resulting in lower material
ification rate (R), and the cooling rate. It was observed that hardness. From small ball features at low laser energy density
increasing the G/R ratio inclines dendritic formation to to a mixture of both small and large ball features at high laser
cellular dendritic grains [272]. Also, a higher cooling rate energy density, several types of particle coalescence resulting
Fig. 22 e Microstructure of LPBFed part with continuous and pulsed mode laser [189].
in convex surface patterns were found. Total porosity is in the case of Ti alloys [49,131]. Considering such heat treat-
affected by laser energy density. Song et al. [281] investigated ment processes, the final microstructure of the part is influ-
the effect of processing parameters on microstructure and enced by the relationship between temperatures, thermal
mechanical property of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V. Se- cycles, and residence time [48].
lective laser melting with a laser power of 110 W and a scan- One of the properties which are greatly influenced by heat
ning speed of 0.4 m/s, corresponding to a continuous melting treatment is micro-hardness. It is also relatively easier to test,
mechanism, may produce an excellent Ti6Al4V part with a the requirement of a small sample size being one of the rea-
high microhardness and smooth surface. The density is so sons. Table 14 summarizes the effects of heat treatment on Al
great that it can be compared to bulk Ti6Al4V alloy density. alloys and compares the microhardness of as-built and heat-
Bang et al. investigated the effect of laser energy density on treated samples. It can be observed that some of the sam-
microstructural, mechanical properties, and chemical ples had enhanced hardness after the treatment. Softening
composition of stainless steel 316 L (SUS316L) parts fabricated was also observed in some of the samples, mainly those un-
by LPBF technology. Tensile characteristics declined with dergoing annealing treatment. The reason is mostly consid-
grain expansion as energy density rose, and light element ered to be the reduction in density after treatment. All the
concentrations were enhanced by accelerating dissolution. cases in Table 14 are subjected to various process parameters
The mechanism of destructive behavior shifted from and heat treatments such as annealing, solution heat treat-
ductile fracture to brittle fracture as light element concen- ment (SHT), and SHT followed by aging [154]. But all the LPBF
trations rose, increasing hardness. Many aluminum alloys sample values are equal to or more than those fabricated by
have yet to be extensively studied in terms of mechanical conventional methods.
characteristics and microstructure because of the difficulty of
manufacturing them using LPBF. The influence of laser power, 5.1.2.1. Effect of temperature. The microstructure of the LPBF-
hatch spacing, and scanning speed on the mechanical and produced part has a significant say in determining its me-
microstructural properties of as-fabricated aluminum 2024 chanical properties. And the microstructure is defined by the
alloy (AA2024) produced by LPBF is investigated in this study. interface energy between the different layers, kinetic and
The findings show that nearly crack-free constructions with thermodynamic factors like local stresses and wettability. The
high relative density (99.9%) and Archimedes density (99.7%) temperature has a considerable influence on microstructural
were created. The highest microhardness (116 HV0.2) was formation. Various studies have been done to understand the
attained with one of the lowest EDs (100 J/mm3), which is 45 effects of temperature on the characteristic of the alloys. For
percent greater than as-cast AA2024-0 but 17 percent lower Ti alloys, it was suggested that annealing at very high tem-
than wrought AA2024-T6 alloy [282]. The LPBF used an optimal peratures gave results with excellent properties of ductility
process parameter to produce the nearly completely dense and fracture toughness [285]. Wu et al. [286] studied the effects
24CrNiMo steel. The TRIP effect was used to provide excellent of temperature on Ti64. The temperature range was set from
mechanical characteristics in 24CrNiMo steel [283]. 300 to 1020 C. Below the temperature of 600 C, there was
almost no change from the built structure. In between the
5.1.2. Effect of heat treatment on microstructures range of 750 Ce990 C, the degeneration of acicular structure
The post-production heat treatment methods are found to be started. And beyond the temperature of 10,00 C, the original b
very important in terms of refining the microstructure of the grains completely transformed into equiaxed b grains. Simi-
part and also improving its mechanical properties. In Ti alloys, larly, in another experiment with Ti64, there was an increase
the main objective of the heat treatment process, annealing or in the volume of b grains with increments in the temperature
Hot Isostatic Processing (HIP), thermomechanical processing (Fig. 23) [48]. Before the heat treatment, prior b grains were
is to transform the a’ martensite grains to aþb grains. easily observed, but after the heat treatment, prior b are
Annealing and HIP are the most used processes because they converted and are not visible anymore. This shows an
are aligned in giving out the fully dense parts [48,49,284,285]. It extensive growth in the grain structure. Similar results were
has been stated that these two processes fulfill their objectives found in another research as well [46,175,287,288].
Table 14 e Effect of heat treatment on microhardness of LPBF fabricated Al alloys.

Al Alloy Heat Treatment Details Hardness of As-built (HV) Hardness of Heat treated (HV)
AlSi7 AA 573 K (0.1e168 h) 94 45
AlSi7Mg T2 573 K (3 h) 124e133 76e78
AA 438 K (0.01e60 h) 115e150
SHT þ AA 808 K (1e8 h) 60e115
438 K (0.01e60 h)
SHT þ AA 808 K (1e8 h) 63e115
453 K (0.01e60 h)
AlSi10Mg Annealing 573 K (2 h) 132 88
SHT 803 K (6 h) 132 60
SHT 793 K (1e4 h) 110 62e68
SHT þ AA 793 K (1 h) 110 75e79
433 K (6e12 h)
SHT þ AA 793 K (4 h) 110 94e96
433 K (6e12 h)
SHT þ AA 793 K (1 h) 125 100e103
433 K (6e7 h)
AlSi12 Annealing 573 K (3 h) 145e150 105e115
Annealing 723 K (6 h) 135 65
AA-7075 AA 423 K (6 h) 160 170
SHT 743 K (2 h) 160 100
SHT þ AA 743 K (2 h) 160 115
423 K (6 h)
SHT þ AA þ AA 743 K (1 h) 80 150e170
383 K (14 h)
423 K (14 h)
Al-Sc-Zr AA 573 K (0.1e168 h) 40 115
AleMg-Sc-Zr AA 573 K (12 h) 110e135 160e170
Al-3.6Mg-1.18Zr AA 673 K (0.5e144 h) 275 320e410
Al-3.66Mg-1.57Zr AA 673 K (0.5e144 h) 300 360e420
It is stated that martensite decomposition is the factor form of the resulting melt pool changes with time. Different
responsible for balancing strength and ductility [288]. As input configurations with an energy density of EV > 57 J/mm3
temperature increases, ductility improves while yield and aspect ratios ranging from 0.35 to 1.00 were proven to
strength and ultimate strength decrease. But in AleCueMg's create dense reliably (m(r) > 99.95 percent) parts, illustrating
case, the microstructure became coarser when the heat the feasibility of practical techniques in both regimes. Jadhav
treatment temperature was increased [289]. In this case, the et al. [293] studied the LPBF processing of pure copper using a
ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation seem conventional infrared fiber laser. The L-PBF processing
to grow in the temperature. And if there is any further tem- behavior is elucidated using an analytical model, which
perature increase, the tensile strength decreases. This is identifies conduction and keyhole regimes corresponding to
because the distribution and size of particles do not aid in the used L-PBF parameters. According to the results of the
strengthening the grains anymore due to low degree of satu- analytical model, bulk solid copper parts with near-total
ration after quenching [290]. density are created in a keyhole regime before the
commencement of keyhole-induced porosity, which is
5.1.2.2. Conduction and keyhole regimes. High-power- consistent with the porosity types found in the parts. When
controlled laser beams are utilized in LPBF additive metal compared to the international annealed copper standard
fabrication. The depth of the molten pool is usually controlled (IACS), the L-PBF manufactured copper components have an
by heat conduction in the solid substance beneath it. How- electrical conductivity of 94 ± 1%, a tensile strength of
ever, under some circumstances, the melting mechanism can 211 ± 4 MPa, a yield strength of 122 ± 1 MPa, and an elongation
shift from conduction to “keyhole-mode” laser melting. The at break of 43 ± 3% in the as-built condition. Gargalis et al. [294]
metal's evaporation controls the molten pool's level in this studied the processing behavior of Pure-Cu in LPBS using
phase. Melt pool depths in keyhole-mode laser melting can be direct micro-calorimetry. They reported that the evolution of
substantially deeper than those seen in conduction mode. the keyhole melting regime and heating, melting, boiling, and
Furthermore, the collapse of the vapor cavity created by metal vapor formation behavior while interacting with a laser beam
evaporation might leave a trail of voids in the aftermath of the within an LPBF environment is essential for predictable and
laser beam [291]. reproducible copper deposition. Fig. 24 depicts the melt pool
For LPBF, the dominating process regime, such as keyhole evolution for bare copper surfaces with increasing scanning
and conduction mode melting, was discovered as a function of speed at a maximum laser power of 540 W. White arrows
line energy and intensity [292]. The aspect ratio is directly denote the oxides. After cross-sectioning and polishing the
dependent on these two compound variables; therefore, the samples, oxide particles were discovered, concluding that
Fig. 23 e The microstructure of LPBF built Ti64 on heat treatment. (a) and (b) is after sub transus heat treatment and (c) and
(d) is after super transus heat treatment [48].
oxides formed during metallographic preparation. Melt pool simulations show that increasing the melt track temperature
formation was shown to be highly unstable, and when in the significantly lengthens the melt track length.
keyhole regime, significant swings in absorptivity values
triggered explosive behavior. Melt ponds reach a depth of 5.1.2.3. Residence time. Residence time is nothing but the time
400 m, indicating deep penetration keyholing. The depth is period for which a sample has been kept at maximum tem-
independent of scan speed, albeit the instability of the perature during the heat treatment process. The effect of heat
laserematter interaction can explain some variance in the treatment on the microstructure of Ti64 was studied by Plaza
geometry of the melt pools. Overall, it is evident that the et al. [296]. Heat treatment (annealing) was done to several
melting regime determines a variety of unique profiles: heat- samples with varying residence times; the furnace cooled
ing, melting, and the transition from conduction to the them to 760 C and then air-cooled them. On comparing
keyhole. Chen et al. [295] reported that ex-situ sample char- samples that were annealed at the same temperature but for
acterization and computation thermal fluid dynamics (CtFD) different residence times, it came out that finer grains and
modelling are used to explore melt pool shape modification as high ductility were achieved with larger residence time.
a function of preheating temperature in the conduction, Similar results were also confirmed by Vracken et al. [48].
transition, and keyhole regimes, as well as the underlying Fig. 29 shows two heat-treated samples at 940 C for two and
mechanisms in each regime as shows in Figs. 25e28. The 20 h. The image shows the limited growth of a grains, but it
experimental melt pool depth increases by 49 percent in the gradually transforms into equiaxed ones, as indicated by ar-
conduction regime, 34 percent in the transition regime, and 33 rows (Fig. 29 b). In another case of AlSi12, longer residence
percent in the keyhole regime at 500 C, respectively. In time gave better results for LPBF fabricated parts than those
contrast, the variation of melt pool width in each regime does made by conventional methods such as casting [297].
not all follow an increasing trend but depends on the melt
pool regimes. The increased heat conduction, directly related 5.1.2.4. Cooling rate. LPBF is very popular for fabricating parts
to temperature-dependent thermal characteristics, affects with metallic powders, and the thermal cycles, especially
melt pool width variation in the conduction and transition cooling rates, play a huge role in controlling the microstruc-
regimes. Higher preheating temperature increases the evap- tural behavior [60,298,299]. Cooling rates dictate the grain size
oration mass, recoil pressure, and laser drilling effect in the segregation in the metallic parts [300,301]. But faster-cooling
keyhole regime, resulting in a deeper melt pool, according to rates can restrict specific physics during the process, allow-
confirmed CtFD simulations. Due to the higher flow rate and ing for thermodynamically unstable phases [302,303]. And as
intense recoil pressure that accelerates the backward flow, the microstructures are monitored by cooling rate, we can say
Fig. 24 e SEM images in back-scatter mode showing the evolution of a deep melt pool for 540 W laser power in the transition
regime from conduction to keyholing for bare copper substrates with increasing scan speed; From Figure (a) to (e) scan speed
increases with intervals of 100 mm/s and the dashed white lines show the melt pool boundaries; note the difference in scale
size at the last micrograph [294].
that the part's properties are also monitored by it. Hence it is and to understand the thermal history of the LPBF process
essential to ground strong relationships between the param- [97,304,305,306,307,308]. But as LPBF is a complex process with
eters and the cooling rate to develop features with good many interrelated parameters, it is always difficult to theo-
properties. Many models have been established to fund the retically describe any such relations. It is stated that studying
relationship between the parameters and the cooling rates only energy input is inadequate for understanding cooling
Fig. 25 e Melt pool morphology variation with preheating temperature in conduction regime [295].
Fig. 26 e Melt pool dimensions versus preheating temperature in conduction regime (P ¼ 250 W and V ¼ 1.5 m/s): (a) depth,
(b) width, (c) aspect ratio and comparison of melt pool between experiment and simulation at the preheating temperature of
(d) 100 C, (e) 300 C, and (f) 500 C [295].
rates' effect on metallic powders. The volumetric energy samples, the cooling rates at the edges seemed slightly higher
density cannot predict the accurate behavior of the molten than those at the center [312]. And another interesting fact is
pool [309,310]. The same results were concluded for the ex- that the bottom of any LPBF sample is cooled much faster than
periments conducted by Pauly et al. [311] with Ale33Cu. Apart its top part [97,313,314,315]. And the reason for this slow
from laser energy input, other parameters such as laser power cooling rate is the accumulation of high temperatures during
and scanning speed are of prime importance in dictating the the process [307,313,314]. Also, the base plate act as a heat
thermal cycle behavior in LPBF. And particularly in LPBF sink, which results in faster cooling of the base plate. The
Fig. 27 e Melt pool morphology variation with preheating temperature in keyhole regime [295].
Fig. 28 e Melt pool dimensions versus preheating temperature in keyhole regime (P ¼ 250 W and V ¼ 0.5 m/s): (a) depth, (b)
width, (c) aspect ratio and comparison of melt pool between experiment and simulation at the preheating temperature of (d)
100 C, (e) 300 C, and (f) 500 C [295].
cooling rate effect was studied on heat-treated LPBF fabricated manufactured in LPBF process as rapid solidification of small
Ti64 [48]. Surprisingly, it was concluded that the cooling rate's amount of melted material takes place. Finer grains and mi-
effect on the microstructures' evolution is significantly less. crostructures are seen in the part due to the process. In alloys,
Owing to heat treatment above b-transus, coarse b-phase too, there is negligible segregation of the alloying elements
grain growth occurred. For AleSi12, it was concluded that a during LPBF, resulting in a much more homogenous compo-
cooling rate greater than 100K/s gave out fine microstructures. sition and higher strength [316]. In an experiment by Wei et al.
The ultrafine eutectic microstructure formed due to super- [218] for LPBF fabricated AZ91D, it was noted that the laser
heating and extremely high cooling; as a result, Si grows its energy input significantly impacts the samples' tensile prop-
most stable plan. This shows the cooling rate's effect on erties. They figured out that as the laser energy input de-
transforming the microstructure of the LPBFed alloys [215]. creases, there is also a substantial drop in the fabricated part's
yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. The reason for
5.2. Mechanical properties such behavior came out to be the low-density parts due to the
low supply of laser energy.
5.2.1. Tensile strength Since the LPBF fabrication mechanism relies upon the
The comparison between the parts fabricated by the LPBF layer-by-layer addition technique, the building direction of
process and the conventional method like casting for the yield layers also plays an important role in dictating the tensile
strength shows that the one fabricated by LPBF has superior strength of the part. In cases where laser scans were run
strength. The very reason for this is how parts are parallel to the tensile direction, higher tensile strength was
Fig. 29 e Microstructure of heat-treated Ti alloy at 940 C for (a) 2 h and (b) 20 h [48].
observed than in those parts where scans were run in a di- part's hardness is independent of the values of hatch spac-
rection perpendicular to the tensile length [317]. It was ings. It was also reported that the hardness achieved by
observed that LPBF specimens of BreNi had shown higher AlSi10Mg fabricated by LPBF was twice that achieved when
tensile strength when they were fabricated and scanned in a the same alloy was processed through casting. The reason
transverse direction than those scanned in the longitudinal for this is the rapid solidification occurring in the processing
direction [227]. The reason was that the short vector scan of LPBF. The same results were true for Mg, where optimum
which gave better results. Short scan vectors had more ca- hardness for LPBF fabricated parts was higher than that of
pacity to absorb the net energy than longer scans [318]. casted parts. But in any material undergoing LPBF, the
Another factor influencing the tensile strength is the layer hardness usually fluctuates from the center to the periphery
thickness. Agarwala et al. [227] found that for the LPBF fabri- of the molten pool because of the differences in micro-
cated BreNi parts, and the tensile strength rapidly rose when structures in those sections. But still, microhardness for the
the layer thickness was reduced. It was shown that the tensile LPBF process is generally considered to be independent of
strength increased from 35 MPa to approximately 60 MPa the directions.
when layer thickness varied from 500 to 200 mm. As discussed It has always been notably known that residual stresses
in the previous section, the low layer thickness aids in better are defects as they decrease the density and initiate cracks
bonding between the layers, increasing the part density. But and pores. But Mercelis et al. [323] and Gu et al. [324] argued
too less layer thickness will be an obstacle in distributing the that if the density and cracks can be managed, and if re-
powder bed. Powder properties also monitor the tensile sidual stresses are retainable at a reasonable amount, they
properties of the parts fabricated by LPBF. Spierings et al. [319] can enhance the hardness of the parts. Another reason LPBF
experimented with steel parts manufactured through LPBF fabricated part has good hardness properties is the rapid
with different powder granulations. They observed that solidification that the part undergoes during the process.
powders with finer granulation though having different size This helps in the grain refinement and development of better
distribution, gave out better tensile strength than those with microstructures. Consequently, the COF (coefficient of fric-
coarser granulation. They concluded that more granulated tion) also decreases, enhancing the wear resistance of the
powders with bigger sizes might have more pores and possibly part. Gu et al. [43] experimented on the effects of scan speed
more hollow spaces between them, affecting the bonding and, on COF and wear resistance. When a scan speed of 100 mm/s
ultimately, the tensile strength. Another reason was that was used to fabricate parts from CP-Ti, the COF reached a
higher coarser powders would set up larger layer thickness. maximum level of 1.41 and increased the wear rate. Some
This would restrict the amount of heat penetrating through loose debris and grooves on the surface indicated deforma-
the powder bed and ultimately affect tensile strength [320]. It tion and wear (Fig. 30a). When the scan speed of 200 mm/s
is also evident that introducing coarser powders in the powder was used, COF was reduced, and so was the wear rate.
mixture can improve the part's ductility. This is only valid for Shallower grooves were now present with no evidence of
lower layer thickness. But they have also mentioned that if the any loose debris (Fig. 30b). An optimum scan speed of
laser energy input is more, layer thickness doesn’t have any 300 mm/s was achieved when the COF and the wear rates
big impact as the laser penetrates deep and results in good reached the minimum. When the scan speed of 400 mm/s
bonding [319]. was used, plastic adherent layers were developed, which
reduced the wear rate (Fig. 30c). This was also proved by Jain
5.2.2. Hardness and wear resistance et al. [326]. More spalling and delamination were observed
The main output from this experiment was that the high when scan speeds of more than 400 mm/s were used
scanning speed and laser power did not influence the (Fig. 30d). This again increased the COF and the wear rates.
hardness of the part as suggested by Buchbinder et al., Gu et al. [43] concluded that a lower hardness value is ach-
where the increase in scanning speed increased the hard- ieved due to the intense densification and defects at low
ness [322]. Table 15 shows that the optimum hardness ach- scan speed. With the formation of better microstructures,
ieved by LPBF processes AlSi10Mg when the scanning rate hardness increases but is still vulnerable to the micro
was varied from 1000 mm/s to 4000 mm/s at very high laser interlayer pores at higher scan speeds. Due to a low liquid
powers [321]. Table 15 also shows the effect of change in viscosity, a long liquid lifetime, and the resulting enhanced
hatch spacings on the hardness [321]. From the table, the thermal stress, a combination of a low scan speed and
Table 15 e Effect on hardness due to changes in scan speeds and scan spacings.
Scan Speed (mm/s) Hardness (HV) Scan Spacing (mm) Hardness (HV)
At 500 W At 900 W At 500 W At 900 W
1295.5 144.58 143.91 0.15 147.56 148.45
1698.6 147.57 148.5 0.200 146.10 140.44
2097.4 148.815 144.57 0.249 141.299 146.12
2493.344 141.39 148.06 0.30 140.46
2896.37 144.791 142.06 0.35 145.21
3290.07 149.410
3703.16 147.792
Fig. 30 e SEM of surfaces of LPBF fabricated Ti parts at (a) 900J/m and 100 mm/s (b) 450 J/m and 200 mm/s (c) 300 J/m and
300 mm/s and (d) 225 J/m and 400 mm/s [43].
accompanying high laser energy density resulted in the 5.2.3. Ductility

creation of microscopic balling phenomenon and interlayer Ductility is usually incorporated in parts at the expense of
thermal microcracks. On the other hand, they were using a strength. Generally, in the LPBF process, a tradeoff is
fast scan speed resulting in a chaotic liquid solidification encountered between ductility and strength. So, all the opti-
front and significant balling due to increased liquid insta- mized parameters to enhance the strength of the produced
bility caused by Marangoni convection. part will ultimately reduce that part's ductility. Some of the
It was shown that the laser energy density could signifi- main measures accounted for the strength-enhancing and
cantly dictate the hardness of the processed part [189]. The simultaneously decreasing the ductility are rapid solidifica-
hardness value was indirectly proportional to the energy tion, the steep temperature gradients, and faster cooling rates
density. As lower energy density resulted in smaller grains' of small volumetric area [48,327,328]. The mechanism for
formation due to the high cooling rate, hardness was also improving ductility is well summarized in [329]. Process pa-
influenced by the grain sizes [325]. The effect of the direction rameters are deeply involved in enhancing the ductility of the
of built parts in LPBF on hardness was studied by Chelbus et al. part [330]. The relative density and distribution of sized par-
[157] on Tie6Ale7Nb. They demonstrated that the larger the ticles also influence ductility. The parameters which give out
area and the built platform and the smaller the specimen poor density lead to poor ductile parts.
height, the more the hardness achieved. This is due to the
formation of specific microstructures. This, in total, states 5.2.4. Fatigue
that the part's hardness value is strongly governed by factors The exposure of LPBF parts to repeated cyclic stresses causes
including thermal history, microstructures, and process fatigue in parts, one of the most common failures. Fatigue in a
parameters. LPBFed part greatly depends on the existence of any pores or
building direction has the least considerable effect on fatigue

properties. The heating of the powder bed reduces the cooling
rate and results in fewer defects, resulting in better fatigue
properties. Many studies have already established that pores
on or beneath the surfaces are the main reasons for the crack
initiation. This is because of the local stress generation and
discontinuity in surface formation [339,340]. Figs 31 and 32
show the SEM images of the crack initiation site and area of
forced fractured for the samples. Fig. 23a shows the area of
forced fracture of samples that were peak hardened. Fig. 32b
Fig. 31 e Surface of LPBFed AlSi10Mg with powder bed shows the samples which didn’t go through any hardening
temperature of 300 C, built direction of 0 and peak process and had ductile fractures [208]. It was also stated that
hardened showing (a) sites for crack initiation and (b) area the peak hardened samples had a fracture behavior period
of forced fracture [208]. independent of any powder bed temperature and the built
direction.
In the LPBF process, the variation in the process parame-
cracks. The presence of pores between the layers results in ters can give rise to a whole new set of properties such as grain
reduced dynamic strength due to the stress concentration and sizes and shapes, phase composition, and microstructures to
reduction in load-bearing capacity [47,49,208,331,332,333]. In- produce a tailored part. The thermal history of the part un-
vestigations were taken out by Wang et al. on LPBFed FeNiCu dergoing the LPBF process greatly dictates the microstructural
alloy to understand the crack initiation pattern and its prop- characteristics. The thermal cycles may include high heating
agation that finally leads to fatigue failures [332,333,334]. They and cooling rates, temperature gradients, temperature rise,
found that the area containing pores, between the layers or on etc. Coarse microstructures are formed when the interaction
the surfaces, are the crack initiation sites. The investigation time between the laser and the material increases or a very
also concluded that porosity is the factor that affects the fa- high laser energy density is used. The result is that it produces
tigue properties most prominently. For better fatigue proper- a superheated melt pool and increased surface temperature.
ties of LPBF parts, it is necessary to eliminate the process This also results in a longer duration of solidification and
defects such as pores, oxides formation, and other surface lowers the temperature gradient and cooling rates. When
defects. The pores' location and size are also of prime impor- parameters are adjusted to provide adequate laser energy
tance when we talk about fatigue. The pores of larger sizes, density, the generation of a super-heated melt pool is
huge in numbers and located near the surface, give extremely restricted, and temperature gradients give birth to faster
poor fatigue strength [49,335,336,337,338]. Oxides and partially cooling rates. More refined grains are manufactured in such a
melted or un-melted powder particles also reduced the fatigue process. But these parameters are not inclined to higher
strength [289,339]. The presence of porosity and residual densification. The post-production heat treatment methods
stresses makes it challenging to understand the effects of are found to be very important in terms of refining the
post-surface machining on parts. However, it has been stated microstructure of the part and also improving its mechanical
that machining can help to increase fatigue strength [338]. properties [341].
Brandl et al. [208] investigated LPBF processed AlSi10Mg to LPBFed parts show superior yield strengths when
understand the responses of temperature, heat treatment, compared to those manufactured by conventional methods.
build direction, and fatigue performance. It was observed that This is due to the basic LPBF process methodology wherein a
powders' heat treatment and heating led to better micro- very small amount of powder is melted at a time, is exposed to
structure development and less cracks initiation sites. This rapid solidification, and provides finer microstructure
increases ductility and fatigue resistance. However, the throughout. Many researchers have found no effect of scan
Fig. 32 e Surface of LPBFed AlSi10Mg with powder bed temperature of 300 C, built direction of 0 and as built showing (a)
sites for crack initiation and (b) area of forced fracture [208].
spacing on the hardness of the samples. The LPBF parts have
Post processing: Shot blasting and chemical etching

good hardness because of the rapid solidification that the part
undergoes which produces refined microstructures. Also,
ductility is usually achieved at the expense of tensile strength.
The exposure of LPBF parts to repeated cyclic stresses causes
Solution Methodology
fatigue in parts, one of the most common failures. And the

fatigue life of the part is very much dependent on the exis-
High power and low scan speed
Optimizing process parameters
Use heated substrate/chamber

tence of inevitable defects such as cracks and porosity [242].
Vacuum in processing zone

Reduce scan vector length
Increase scan line spacing

Increase layer thickness
Providing shielding gas
Increase laser velocity
Reduce laser velocity

Remelting/Reheating
Remelting/Reheating
6. Defects in LPBF process
Reduce laser energy

Reduce laser power
Reduce laser power

All the AM processes, including the LPBF process, are the
modern way of manufacturing. These methods have lots of
advantages, but they also come with setbacks. LPBF is no
exception. The output result of the LPBF process depends on
various co-related parameters, making it challenging to opti-
mize the process and making the part prone to defects. Also, a
lot of work still needs to be done to overcome all the defects
and produce defect-free products through the LPBF process.
Some of the significant defects influencing the result of the
LPBFed parts are discussed below. Table 16 shows the defects,
causes, and solution methodology [341,342].
6.1. Balling
Low penetration due to insufficient laser energy density
Balling is the result of typical microstructures on the surface

Oxidation due to the presence of the atmospheric
of the LPBF fabricated parts due to the presence of loose

powders in the powder bed [98]. It is nothing but the accu-
Presence of loose powders in the powder bed
mulation of small particles when the liquid molten phase

gases and the adhesion of partially melted
Uneven heating of different local zones
material is broken down into miniature spheres to minimize

the surface energy. Another definition states that when liquid
powders on the surface of the part.
Great affinity to oxygen and leads
molten metal is in poor contact with a substrate or base metal,

Vaporization due to overheating
Causes
then according to the principle of minimum surface energy,

the liquid is broken down into small spheres due to surface
Rapid heating and colling
tension. This process is nothing but a defect called balling

to the oxide inclusion
[343]. And when a low energy density, low power, large layer
thickness, and high scanning speed are provided, these
spherical balls come together to form a large melt pool known
Table 16 e Defects, causes, and solutions in LPBF process.
as the balling region [102]. The balling region impacts the

surface finish and makes it poor. It also results in many pores
in the processed part and might even damage the roller,
affecting the distribution of the next layer [344]. Generally, two
types of balling were reported by the researchers working on
defects in LPBF. The first one is the balling phenomenon with
ellipsoidal balls. Their sizes are about 500 mm. These balls are
formed when the wetting ability of the melt tracks are wors-
ened. This results in poor bonding with the previous layer and
broken melt tracks. And the wetting capabilities are further
exacerbated by the low energy input or extremely severe
oxidation [224]. The second type of balling is of spherical
Composition change/Loss of
shape balls. This occurs because of the molten metal splash-

Residual stress. Distortion,
High Surface Roughness
ing, reducing its surface energy [345]. Both types of balling give
rise to further defects such as cracks and porosity and hinder
alloying element
powder distribution in the next layer.

Oxide Inclusion
and Cracking
In general, the balling phenomenon is due to the molten

metal's splashing and the molten metal's poor wettability
Defects
Porosity
characteristics. The literature also says that the melt pool has
Balling
two different sections. The upper part is the powder in the

molten liquid phase, and the lower part is the molten base or
Fig. 33 e The phenomenon of balling with less molten substrate and more molten substrate metal.
substrate. The air-liquid or the upper part's gaseliquid inter- sudden drop in the laser energy density, which led to unstable
face boosts the formation of balls, and the lower part tries to melt pool formation. This unstable melt pool had capillary
restrict the upper part's tendency (Figs. 33 and 34). If the upper instability, which reduced the molten phases' surface energy
part's amount is less and more of the molten substrate part in at small scales and the splashing of droplets of small size from
the melt pool, then the upper part's tendency to cause balling the liquid surface. Furthermore, balling leads to rough sur-
can be eliminated [346]. Hence, providing a high energy den- faces due to the formation of discontinuous melt tracks. One
sity can generate more molten substrate in the melt pool, and way to tackle the balling phenomenon is to reduce the molten
balling can be reduced. Also, high energy density can give rise pool's instability by reducing the scan speed or increasing the
to high temperatures, reducing the liquid phase's viscosity. laser power. Increasing the contact area/width or reducing the
This would increase the fluidity and the wettability of the length/width ratio can stabilize the melt pool [349]. Li et al.
liquid phase further reducing balling. But if the energy density [222] also stated that the balling phenomenon is related to
is too high, it will lead to deformation along with balling oxides' formation. Hence, lowering oxygen levels, using a
[347,348]. This is because of the generation of residual shielding chamber, and introducing repeated lasers to break
stresses. Excess energy also results in the vaporization of the the oxide films can reduce balling. It was experimentally
metals. With too much energy and the sudden introduction of stated that in LPBF processed Ni and stainless steel, the balling
the gaseous phase, a very large recoil pressure is generated in defect was significantly reduced by maintaining the oxygen
the melt pool, leading to the escape of metal in the form of a level at 0.1%. Balling was also reduced when high power and
jet. This jet is broken down into tiny droplets, which causes low scan speed was employed. But as Mg is very reactive to
balling. Also, the un-melted powder in the vicinity of the melt oxygen, maintaining oxygen level at around 0.2% could not
pool splashes away [38]. eliminate the balling effect in Mg powders [197].
A large number of micro-meter scale spherical balls and
splashes can be seen in Fig. 35. It shows the balling defect 6.2. Porosity
taking place in the case of Mge9%Al powder during LPBF [191].
When a very high scanning speed was used, there was a Since LPBF employs the complete melting of the metal pow-
ders, melt pools are generated, which are not stable. Further, it
may develop many defects such as porosity if adequate pa-
rameters are not chosen. The pores that are developed in the
LPBF process are of three types. The fusion pores, the gas
pores, and the shrinkage pores [43,350,351]. Fusion pores are
formed where there is insufficient laser energy density. This
insufficiency leads to poor heat penetration, and the already
melted and solidified layer's top layer doesn’t get re-melted.
This results in poor bonding with the new layers [351]. So
basically, overlapping of tracks and shallow penetration are
its main cause. And low laser energy density, low power, high
speed, large scan space, and large layer thickness drive this
defect. Such pores are strongly dominated by the process
parameters and are influenced by partial or incomplete
melting along the layer boundaries [226,228,352]. Such po-
rosities are majorly localized in the area where partial melting
is dominated.
In contrast, this porosity is minimized significantly in areas
with good coherent bonding among the interlayers
Fig. 34 e Droplet splash in LPBF causing balling. [225,226,227,228,229,353]. Fusion pores are also the result of
Fig. 35 e Balling effects due to poor selection of process parameters [191].
the gas/air trapped between the powders [354]. When these density was almost 100%, whereas, in the as-built or the
gas escapes, they form a dangerous scanning path. As the annealed part, a relative density of 99.77% was achieved.
process continues, with the formation of cavities, the fluid Similar results were obtained in [289].
force balances with the vapor pressure causing liquid phases If a layer experiences a severe balling defect, then there is a
to collapse and create pores [332,355]. Shrinkage pores are huge chance of a ripple effect, that is, the occurrence of both
caused mainly during solidification when insufficient molten porosities and balling in the next layer. This leads to parts
metal is produced [352]. Due to the surface tension, gas bub- with poor properties and low density. If there is sufficient
bles are spherical; hence, gas pores are usually spherical molten metal with good fluidity and if the molten pool's life is
[354,355]. The gas present largely influences the gas pores in more with slow solidification, the pores can be filled, and
the shielding chamber incorporated partly via turbulence or porosity can be reduced. In the case of hydrogen, the water
when such gases cannot escape completely [356]. absorptivity is very high, and the solubility level of hydrogen
In a study done on LPBF processed AlSi12 for understand- in Al liquid and solid is different. Hence, to check the
ing the process in the presence of a shielding chamber, it was hydrogen porosity, the Al powders should be well dried up
observed that more porosity defect was detected in the at- before bringing them for application. The powder bed's pre-
mosphere of He than in the atmosphere of Ar or N2. These heating can also help because hydrogen dissolution in the
pores will finally be the initial site for the cracks and will result melt pool gives rise to severe porosity [364]. Pores at the top
in the material's fracture [357,358]. Experiments on Ti64 LPBF layer of LPBFed Ti6eAle4V is shown in Fig. 36.
fabricated parts denoted that porosity has disastrous effects
on the part properties. The track instability and formation of 6.3. Surface roughness
pores can be minimized by adjusting the laser beam's focus
[360,361,362,363]. Porosity has a detrimental effect on fracture The surface finish problem has always been of great concern
properties and fatigue properties [152,359]. Heat treatment for parts produced via the LPBF process. It is also a big draw-
also influences the effects of porosity on part properties. back in the AM process as well. Among the various AM pro-
Leuders et al. [49] examined LPBF fabricated Ti64 parts without cesses, DED gives out the best part in terms of surface finish,
heat treatment, annealing, and HIP process. It was observed followed by LPBF and then EBM. It was stated that the main
that HIP reduced the porosity, and the resulting relative reason causing surface roughness is the oxidation due to the
Fig. 36 e (a) Pores at top layer of LPBFed Ti6eAle4V, (b) magnified image of open pores and (c) magnified image of cave pores
[364].
presence of the atmospheric gases and the adhesion of the volumetric expansions happening in part during the
partially melted powders on the part's surface [365]. As in the phase transformations [377]. When the residual stresses in-
LPBF process, the unused powders never leave the process side the part are more than the yield stress, either deforma-
area or always remain in the powder bed itself. There is still a tion of the part occurs or cracks are initiated to relieve the
chance of adhesion of these particles to the part surface. The stress [378]. The cracking in the LPBF part is divided into two
average size of the roughness caused by the particles adhered parts: the liquation cracking and the solidification cracking.
on the surface is almost the same magnitude as the powder's The layer deposited experiences contraction because of the
diameter. solidification shrinkages and cycles arising due to the thermal
The small spherical balls formed in the melt pool are conditions. But the base/substrate's temperature or the pre-
drawn to the melt pool's outer periphery due to the surface viously solidified layer is much lower than the freshly melted
tension gradient inside the melt pool's flow. These balls then layer. Hence contraction of the new layer is much more than
get solidified in the edges, resulting in surface roughness the previously laid layer and the difference also tends to
[366,367]. So, surface roughness can be reduced by reducing hinder the contraction of this new layer. This leads to the
balling by providing high energy density, high laser power at formation of stresses in the newly melted layer during solid-
low speed, low layer thickness, and inadequate hatch spacing. ification and cracking [379]. This is solidification cracking. The
Also, large-sized particles are difficult to melt completely; liquation cracking takes place in areas of partially melted
hence the final part produced may come out with a lower powder. In these zones, rapid heating results in the melting of
surface finish. The other factor influencing the surface certain grains, especially the low melting point carbides.
roughness in LPBFed parts is the ‘stair case’ effect related to When the part undergoes cooling, tensile forces develop;
the number of layers. As the layer thickness increases, the under these forces, the melted carbides act as a site of crack
surface roughness increases too [364]. Hence, the obvious initiation [380].
obstacle is to balance the tradeoff between the surface It was found experimentally that to reduce the residual
roughness and the built-up time of the product. Surface stresses, remelting of tracks and the substrate's preheating
roughness also depends mainly on the process parameters. It can help. Shiomil et al. [345] found approximately 55% and
is also evident that there is a reduction in surface roughness 40% reduction in residual stresses due to remelting and pre-
with the powder's feed rate [368]. It should be kept in mind heating. Process parameters also effect the generation of
that selecting an optimum set of parameters can only solve cracks. Severe balling leads to cracks when the set of param-
the surface roughness problem to a limited extent. And con- eters is chosen to give low energy density [228]. Thermal
ventional polishing seems to be the best method to minimize stresses are increased at very high energy density values,
surface roughness. But it was stated that parts with polished which offers low viscosity and longer dwelling time of liquid
surfaces had a higher strain to failure when compared to as- phase [380]. Crack initiation takes place when the stress
built parts [369]. This is because mechanical work on the gradient is high. And this stress gradient is developed due to
surface leads to stress concentration and cracks. Almost all the thermal strain due to high cooling rates. Hence, rapid
LPBFed parts need some post-processing like simple cooling should be avoided to overcome cracks [373].
machining for simple parts [51,369] and chemical etching for
complex parts [370]. 6.5. Loss of alloying elements
6.4. Cracks and residual stresses Volatile metals, mostly Mg, Zn, Al etc., are very prone to
vaporization from the melt pool due to very high tempera-
Two major kinds of cracks can be identified in the LPBF pro- tures. When the laser meets the metal, these elements' high
cess. These are the cold cracks and the hot cracks. The hot vapor pressure and low boiling points lead to their vapor-
cracks, also called the solidification cracks, usually generate ization [381]. The molten pool's temperature is much higher
the solidification process's end-stage. Hot cracks are mainly than the elements' boiling points. The vaporization of these
formed due to the deformation in the solid structure of the elements changes the composition of the part produced and
part during solidification. Also, hot cracks can be created by alters the mechanical properties [382]. Properties that change
insufficient convection in the liquid region. Cold cracks are mainly the strength, corrosion resistance, creep, and
caused by the residual stresses are more common in the LPBF elongation of microstructures [383]. Collur et al. [384] divided
processes [371]. LPBF is accompanied by a higher cooling rate the vaporization process into three parts. It starts with
and higher temperature gradient due to its rapid melting and transporting the elements that must be vaporized from the
solidification [372]. Since the part undergoing LPBF continu- bulk of the melt pool to the melt pool surface. It then evapo-
ously experiences thermal cycles, the solidified structures rates at the surface, and the vaporized gases travel to the
undergo rapid contraction and expansion [373]. Hence resid- surrounding spaces. In some cases, the vaporized conden-
ual stresses in LPBF cannot be avoided. The strains in LPBF can sates quickly back and get deposited again. This is due to the
mainly be categorized into structural and thermal stresses low diffusivity and these condensate metals gets remelted
[374]. The thermal stresses in the ALM part are formed due to and covers up some of the losses [220].
the uneven heating of different local zones. This results in Most of the vaporization takes place due to overheating of
further expansion and shrinkage in different areas near the the melt pool. Hence laser energy density is an essential factor
melt pool and away from the melt pool [375]. The thermal in such cases [346,385]. Vaporization leads to instability of the
stresses are the main reason for crack initiation in the LPBF melt pool and changes in the composition of the deposited
fabricated parts [376]. Structural stresses are developed due to layers [384]. Vaporization also forms a recoil pressure within
the melt pool. This pressure pushes away the melt zone's change in the composition of the part and alters the part's
liquid and leads to a defect known as the keyhole effect [301]. properties. The presence of an oxide layer in the pre-solidified
Vaporization also leads to a lower density of the final part as it layer hinders the new layer's distribution and inhibits the
increases porosity. Different experiments have been taken out interlayer bonding. This results in poor densification. All the
to see the vaporization of certain elements. TiAl samples were defects are somewhat inevitable but can be significantly
treated under LPBF, and significant Al losses were observed minimized by selecting parameters.
[346]. LPBFed parts of Cue4Sn had a loss of tin due to vapor-
ization [386]. Such vaporization affects the properties and 6.7. Qualification of AM parts
increases the instability of the melt tracks [287]. But the
vaporization and the losses can be controlled. It can be Evaluating the ‘fitness-for-purpose’ of fatigue-loaded parts,
minimized by monitoring the melt pool's temperature and the which is directly linked to the microstructure and flaws
laser energy density [387]. But as low energy density will developed during the manufacturing process, is one of the
reduce the loss of elements, it would also trigger the part's fundamental challenges. Micro-computed tomography (m-CT)
inhomogeneity and could result in deviation of the properties is one of the most effective techniques for detecting faults
from the required set of properties. near the surface or in thin, complex geometries. The advan-
tages and restrictions of using statistics of extremes to
6.6. Oxide inclusion analyze X-ray CT scan measurements in the context of
component assessment have been discussed [393]. Romano
One of the inevitable defects that also deteriorates the prop- et al. [394] reported that quality assessment of AM products is
erties of the produced part is the oxides' inclusion. If an oxide a crucial requirement, as the AM process induces internal
layer is present on the previous layer, it can bond with the defects that can have detrimental effects on fatigue resis-
newly deposited layer. Since the bonding is affected by the tance. Light microscopy on PSs and CT on three batches of
oxide layers, they also contribute to balling. Campbell stated fatigue specimens with various interior porosities were used
that the alloying elements helps in introducing the oxides in to evaluate the magnitude of the most harmful defect. Both
the melt pool during the primary processing [388]. It has been methodologies were able to locate a significant difference in
observed that the addition of certain elements like Si or Mg to the potential greatest flaw in a material volume corresponding
any Al alloy changes the nature of the oxide formed to a specimen's gauge section, according to the findings [395].
[389,390,391,392,393,394]. Simonelli et al. tried to track the Using synchrotron tomography techniques, Bao et al. [396]
presence of oxide films with different alloys and found that examined the defect evolution during high-temperature
spatters and oxidation due to LPBF on alloys such as 316 L steel tensionetension fatigue of LPBF AISi10Mg alloy. This study
and AlSi10Mg no oxides were found on Ti6Al4V [214]. The used time-lapse synchrotron radiation X-ray micro-computed
reason is that the elements present in particular alloys have a tomography (SR-CT) to track damage accumulation for
great affinity to oxygen and lead to oxide inclusion. It has been AlSi10Mg test-pieces fabricated by LPBF over their entire fa-
argued that the oxide films so developed in the Ti alloys and tigue lives under tensionetension cyclic loading at 250 C in
stainless steel are thinner than the ones created on Al alloys. situ (ranging from 180 to 38,000 cycles). Under combined-cycle
Hence, the oxide films thin in nature do not significantly fatigue circumstances, Patriarca et al. [397] provided a proba-
impact any of the properties of LPBF fabricated parts as they bilistic approach for defining design stress and allowable
get dissolved in the high-temperature melt pool or might get faults. The data were utilized to determine the average and
vaporized [207]. Many researchers are finding solutions to variation of the materials parameters, which were then used
counter the oxidation of AL alloys because as Al has a great to feed Montecarlo simulations and determine the design
affinity to oxygen, oxides are formed even at low oxygen stress based on a target likelihood of failure. This research
concentrations. focuses on determining safety margins that are only depen-
Balling is defined as the agglomeration of small metallic dent on the inherent variability of the elements that influence
spherical balls. The surface tension in the liquid phase and the the accumulation of damage in mechanical components.
poor contact between the liquid metal and the substrate leads The specific attributes of SR-CT were provided by Wu
to balling formation. And these spherical balls tend to et al. for the investigation of fatigue characteristics in
generate large melt pools due to the supply of insufficient structural engineering materials. Non-destructively, there is
laser energy density. Balling defects result in surface rough- a lot of knowledge about fracture and fatigue in both 3D and
ness and decrease the finished part's density due to the 4D. For environmental and mechanical loads allow for 3D
porosity it brings along with. The LPBF process's defect imaging of damage buildup and time-lapse imaging of
porosity occurs in three types: the fusion pores, gas pores, and damage evolution [398]. Hu et al. [399] studied the impacts of
shrinkage pores. The effect of porosity can be reduced by fabrication defects on the fatigue behavior of Tie6Ale4V
employing the process in a shielding chamber. AS in LPBF, the structures that were selectively laser melted. In terms of
unused powders or partially melted powders remain in the population, morphology, dimension, and position, X-ray
process area only. They adhere to the part surface and gives micro-computed tomography (CT) is utilized to quantify the
rise to surface roughness. The residual stress that is more porosity and lack of fusion flaws. To forecast the anticipated
commonly observed in LPBF is the hot crack. The high cooling fatigue life, the defect size and location are integrated with
and heating rates make the LPBF of residual stresses inevi- the NASA/FLACGRO (NASGRO) fatigue crack growth model,
table. Also, the substantial temperature in the melt pool re- in which an effective beginning crack length is determined
sults in the vaporization of certain elements. This leads to a using the cyclic plastic zone and defect radius. X-ray
computed tomography (CT) has been used to study the effect improving the mechanical properties of parts. Nezhadfar et al.
of metallurgical defects that critically influence the aniso- [408] studied the structural integrity and effects of build
tropic fatigue resistance of additively manufactured parts orientation on microstructure, porosity, and fatigue behavior
under cyclic loading [400]. Based on X-ray CT data, extreme of additively manufactured aluminum alloys. Xie et al. [409]
value statistics were utilized to forecast the anticipated studied the effect of rolling on the WAAM processed
defect population in the critical near-surface region of fa- AleMgeMn alloy. The results show that advanced HRAM can
tigue samples. The elevated temp cyclic loading governed result in significant grain refinement and enhance the mate-
low cycle fatigue experiments of a laser powder bead fused rial failure resistance compared with standard WAAM.
AlSi10Mg alloy were investigated by Bao et al. [401].
Following stress relief (2 h at 300 C), three temperatures
(100 C, 250 C, and 400 C) and two cyclic loading waveforms 7. Numerical modelling, optimization, and
(standard triangular and dwell-type trapezoidal waveforms) machine learning techniques
were used to investigate both the mechanical response and
related microstructural changes of this additively manufac- 7.1. Governing equation for heat transfer analysis
tured (AM) aluminum alloy. The bulk mechanical reactions
were found to soften in a cyclic pattern, with less stress Shiva et al. [410] elaborated for heat transfer analysis;
relaxation and less energy wasted per cycle. generally, heat input is taken under the Gaussian distribu-
Zhang et al. [402] studied the high-cycle and very-high- tion, and the losses due to convection and radiation are also
cycle fatigue lifetime prediction of additively manufactured accounted for. The transient thermal analysis must deter-
AlSi10Mg via the crystal plasticity finite element method. The mine the temperature history at each specific point of the
fatigue life of the sample with defects is much lower than that deposited material over the substrate and across the powder
without defects. 0 specimens have a better fatigue perfor- bed. The heat conduction governing equation in three di-
mance than 90 ones. This work is beneficial in determining mensions is given as
the fatigue lifetime and helps to improve the fatigue behavior 2
of AlSi10Mg. The population, morphology, and dimensions of v T v2 T v2 T vT vT
km þ þ ¼ rC p V (2)
porosity, as well as the lack of fusion defects, were all quan- vx2 vy2 vz2 vt vy
tified using high-resolution synchrotron radiation X-ray where V is the velocity vector (m s1), r is the density of the
computed tomography (CT). The larger-sized flaws in the LPBF material (kg m1), Cp represents the specific heat (J kg1 K1), T
product alloy are more essential for crack initiation than the is the temperature (K), km represents the thermal conductivity
grains, resulting in low fatigue resistance and a wide variation (W m1 K1). The thermal conductivity which will compensate
in fatigue life. Using a combination of statistics of extremes the flow of fluid in the molten metal is given as
and the Murakami model, the fatigue strength was then
evaluated in terms of the defect population [403]. In situ X-ray ko ; T < Tm
km ¼ (3)
imaging was used to assess fatigue fracture propagation from ko þ k0 ; T Tm
various flaws in an additively made AlSi10Mg alloy [404]. The where Tm represents the melting point of the material, k’ is
crack propagation phase was estimated to account for 35e60% used in the thermal model as the additional value for the
of overall fatigue life, with a greater proportion at high stress convection heat transfer capability and ko represents the
amplitudes. Ravi et al. studied the crack closure mechanism of thermal conductivity of the materials used. The natural
an additively generated, naturally occurring, tortuous, 3D boundary condition is mathematically represented as
microstructurally small fatigue crack (SFC) in Inconel 718. In-
situ non-destructive characterization employing high-energy vT
kn q þ hðT To Þ þ sε T4 To 4 ¼ 0 (4)
X-ray diffraction techniques is used to track the evolution of vn
the 3D microstructure and micromechanical response in the where s represents the StefaneBoltzmann constant, ε repre-
crack front region. Based on the stress state of twelve grains sents the emissivity, kn is thermal conductivity (W m1K1)
examined at the crack tip, the crack closure events of the SFC normal to the surface, q is the imposed heat flux onto the
front were found to be spatially diverse in terms of loading surface (W), h is the convection heat transfer coefficient
progression driven by the local stress state of the grains [405]. (Wm2K1) and To is the ambient temperature (K). The initial
Choo et al. [406] used in-situ synchrotron x-ray computed condition is set to be t ¼ 0 for the analysis of transient heat
microtomography study methodologies to investigate the transfer as
deformation and fracture behavior of a laser powder bed
fusion produced stainless steel. Using high-resolution syn- Tðx; y; z; 0Þ ¼ T0 (5)
chrotron x-ray computed microtomography, the tensile plas- where T0 represents the initial temperature (K).
tic deformation and fracture behavior of a laser powder bed
fusion treated 316 L stainless steel alloy were examined in situ 7.2. Governing equation of mechanical analysis
(sXCT).
Hu et al. investigated the effect of in-situ micro-rolling on The mechanical analysis is usually carried out by a method
the strength and ductility of the part fabricated by wire arc including the incremental variation of stress and strain. In
hybrid additive manufacturing [407]. The WAAM processed cartesian coordinates, the relation for the strain-displacement
part comprised higher defects, whereas, after micro-rolling, is given as
the defects were removed and microstructure also improved,
vu vv vw stages of solidification. During melting in the powder layer,

εx ¼ ; εy ¼ ; εz ¼ (6) the values of r, Cp, and k are determined by averaging the
vx vy vz
values in the liquid and powder phase.
vu vv vv vw vw vu
gxy ¼ þ ;g ¼ þ ;g ¼ þ (7) r ¼ 1 fL rp þ fL rL (13)
vy vx yz vz vy zx vx vz
where u, v and w represent the displacements along the x, y

k ¼ 1 fL kp þ fL kL (14)
and z direction. εx , εy and εz represents the normal strains in x,
y and z directions respectively and gxy , gyz and gzx represents
1 Lvam
the shear strain in xy, yz, and zx planes respectively. The Cp ¼ 1 fL rp CpS þ fL rL CpL þ (15)
r vT
thermal strains are considered to be equal in three directions
considering isotropic material. The sum of the incremental In above equations, fL is the liquid fraction, rL is liquid
plastic strain, incremental thermal strain and incremental metal density, kL is thermal conductivity and CpL is the specific
elastic strain gives the increment of the total strain, which is heat capacity of liquid metal. rp is the powder layer density
represented as and kp is the powder thermal conductivity. The eq. (15) ap-
proximates the effective specific heat capacity of the powder
fdεg ¼ dεt þ fdεp g þ fdεe g (8) layer considering the solideliquid phase change. In Eq. (15),
The incremental stress can be mathematically represented CpS is used as the specific heat of solid powder and is usually
according to the Prandtl-Reuss flow rule and Von-Mises yield considered the same as that of bulk solid. The quantity L is the
criteria as, latent heat of phase change, and am is the mass fraction given
as

fdsg ¼ Dep fdεg ½De fagðDTÞ (9)

1 fL rL 1 fL rp
where am ¼ (16)
2 fL rL þ 1 fL rp
T !

vf vf 1 The liquid fraction fL is calculated as
Dep ¼ ½De ½De ½Dε (10)
vs vs 3G þ ET 8
>
> 0
>
< TT T < TS
where ½De is the elasticity matrix consisting of mechanical S
fL ¼ TS T TL (17)
properties like Poisson’s ratio m and Young’s Modulus E (GPa), >
> TL TS
>
: T > TL
ET is the local slope between stress and plastic strain of the 1
particular material, G represents the shear modulus (GPa) and
In Eq. (17), TS and TL are solidus and liquidus temperatures
a is the thermal expansion. The first part of the equation of
of the material. In the solid domain as well as the solidifying
½Dep is due to the elastic response of the material or recovery
material, the values of r, cp, and k to be used in Eq. (12) are
of elastic response when the materials in the plastic zone. The
determined using same Eq. (13)e(15), except for using rS and kS
second term of the equation is due to the plastic flow of ma-
in place of rP and kP .
terial, which is zero when the material is elastic zone only.
The mechanical boundary conditions in modeling and real
7.4. Modelling of laser energy
practical cases are very similar.
LPBF process typically uses laser as a heat source to melt the

7.3. Governing equation for thermo fluid analysis
powders. It has been also noted that the laser spot has the
maximum intensity at its center and it gradually decreases
According to Mishra and Kumar [411], The governing equation
towards the periphery. The laser energy hence is modelled
of the analysis take into account the mass, momentum and
generally according to the Gaussian distribution and its
energy transport in the powder and in the solid domain. The
equation is given as:
equation to represent the mass transport is

2AP 2r2
Vu ¼ 0 (11) q¼ exp (18)
pR2 R2
where u represents the molten metal flow velocity vector. All
where P is laser power, r is radial distance from a point on
the energy that is given in the form of the laser is consumed in
powder bed surface to the center of laser spot, R is the effec-
heating the metal and melting it and is also helpful in
tive radius, A is laser energy absorptance of material.
compensating the heat losses to the surroundings. The
equation for the energy transport is
7.5. Numerical modelling of LPBF process

v rCp T
þ u:V rCp T ¼ V:ðkVTÞ þ q (12) AM has brought a change in how things were done from the
vt
beginning of designing and getting the parts to life and in
where r is the mixture density, T is the temperature, Cp is the
fields of innovations. AM has revolutionized many industries
specific heat capacity at constant pressure, t is time and k is
by decreasing the cost and manufacturing complex compo-
the thermal conductivity. The quantities r, Cp and k are
nents [1,2,7]. In the design step, the designers are accompa-
functions of powder layer and liquid metal properties. These
nied by the latest software available in the market. The
properties are functions of solid and liquid metal properties in
software enables one to predict the characteristics and per- developed a CFD model to study the temperature profile and
formance of a part built with specific parameters. It helps in the melt pool's size during the LPBF process. Leitz et al. [420]
reducing cost and time. But such technology needs a detailed used a Thermo fluid multi-phase dynamical model for the
understanding of all the physics happening during the phys- LPBF process. This model deals with the basic fluid flow in the
ical printing of any part. And the main obstacle is under- molten metal and heat transfer during the process. The same
standing the relationship between the parameters and the model was also used to understand the effects of powder
output properties, which varies from material to material characteristics of molybdenum in the LPBF process [421]. The
[24,25]. LPBF uses a layer-by-layer approach to build a part and results gave a better understanding of the powder's properties,
where powders are melted to form the 3D part. It is now powders distribution, and their effects on the LPBF process.
certain to say that such complex processes can never be fully For the LPBF of Ti6Al4V, a coupled thermo-metallurgical-
defects-free. The manufacturers' challenge is to make a mechanical model was established to understand the tem-
product with minimum defects, including optimizing the perature cycles and phase changes in the multi-layer LPBF
process parameters. Researchers are developing new ways to process. The thermal analysis of LPBF is based on heat con-
optimize the process parameters, such as numerical duction and heat source with the absorption of heat and
modeling. The iterations for optimizing the process parame- powder bed scattering [341].
ters by practically manufacturing a dozen parts and The modelling of the heat source is also very important. As
improving it stepwise take a lot of time and resources. The studied by various researchers, heat input in the LPBF process
main advantage of numerical modeling is that it does not need is one of the main parameters influencing the output prod-
any physical product fabrication to study. Hence, saving time, uct's characteristics. Gaussian heat distribution is commonly
raw materials, and cost [412,413]. One of the essential models used as a laser source in the simulation and modelling for
is the thermomechanical model, where all the thermal history LPBF as in [55,242]. However, some alternations are noticed in
and the residual stresses are taken into account. It has been different research according to the parameters and objectives.
known that experiment-based optimization is necessary, but Tan et al. [422] used a laser beam in the LPBF was assumed to
numerical modeling gives a steady start to the researchers for be asymmetric concerning Gaussian distribution. Also, a
manufacturing a part by any complex process. They have an moving point Gaussian laser scan was modeled to understand
insight into the process at an early stage and can now opti- the temperature distribution in a solid model undergoing LPBF
mize the process to give out the best results [414]. [423]. In the research work of [400] and many others, the laser
The governing equations mentioned in the previous sec- source is modeled as per Gaussian distribution. In LPBF, laser
tion are the basic mathematical background for any simula- energy is transmitted by a specific area called the laser spot,
tion work. Researchers have opted for other methods to and the modelling is done to replicate the heat intensity in the
simulate the LPBF process accordingly to their objective. Any center and the laser's periphery.
model to give an appropriate result must contain factors Luo et al. [424] stated that most of the modelling work that
related to all the thermal and temperature behavior of the has been done on LPBF uses a moving Gaussian heat source to
process. Conti et al. [415] developed thermomechanical model the melt pool profile, and it is evident that such a model
modelling of the growth process using a finite element that takes a lot of time and computational cost and cannot be used
studies the changes in the part's behavior during the phase for the lower level. To reduce the computational time and
changes of the material from powder to liquid to solid. The cost, a line heat source is proposed to accelerate heat transfer
study of the effect of scan strategy on the residual stresses simulation in the LPBF process by increasing the time step and
was done by formulating thermomechanical modelling [31]. It reducing the number of cells. The line heat source replaces the
has been noted that stress development and its distribution moving laser source. The simulation results show that the
vary with different scan strategies. Hussein et al. [416] studied replacement does not have any more significant effects on the
the stress and temperature field in LPBF fabricated 316L Steel development but can reduce the computational time by a
using a nonlinear transient thermomechanical model. The considerable margin.
study was done using the finite element method and for parts FEM has always been a very approachable method for re-
showing high-temperature gradients and thermal stress for- searchers for numerical modeling and simulation. Many re-
mation. They used ANSYS software to establish a non-linear searchers have opted FEM for the simulation and study of
transient finite element model for studying the various pa- LPBF too. Schanzel et al. [425] describe a nonlinear macro-
rameters associated with LPBF. The general governing equa- scale FEM simulation method to predict the detailed temper-
tion used for the thermal analysis mentioned in the previous ature history of the material and the residual stresses. In [414],
section (eq. (2)) is used in this paper. The same is used in the the island strategy is modelled to reduce residual stresses and
research reported by Hu et al. [307]. It has been stated that a deformation generation. Majeed et al. [423] proposed a FE
single source melts the powders in the LPBF process, only that model to understand layers' behavior on different underlying
is the laser beam [417,418]. surfaces due to varying process parameters. Hu et al. [307]
The primary modes of transfer of heat from a laser to a developed a model using FE to simulate the deposition of
material and then to other parts of the material are radiation, multiple layers of AlSi10Mg in the LPBF process. The FE model
convection, and conduction. And all these modes are well helped investigate crucial physics such as temperature dis-
incorporated in eq. (2), which serves as a good model for tribution, cooling rates, morphology, melt pool dimensions,
thermal analysis. Gusarov et al. [217] establish a model etc. The investigation was conducted for multi-layer parts
combining the effect of heat transfer and radiation on the using finite elements, and also the experiments on melt pool
balling defect with different scan speeds. Baere et al. [419] formations for single tracks were carried out using FE [337]. Li
et al. [426] developed a FE model to study the temperature cases, the chronology of the validation process may be
profile and the residual stress fields in LPBF. The temperature reversed too. Ho et al. [434] experimentally investigated the
profile is obtained by independently conducting the heat fabrication of the LPBF part of the rectangular airflow channel
transfer analysis, and the temperature history is taken as a and found it has a higher efficiency than the circular one.
temperature load for the subsequent investigation step. Then the numerical studies were done to affirm the results of
Another model based on FE was developed to simulate ther- the case.
mal behavior on the melt pool [427]. The effects of the process One of the main obstacles in LPBF is understanding the
parameters like the scan speed and laser power were inves- relationship between processing parameters and final part
tigated on LPBFed parts of AlSi10Mg using a finite element properties. Hence, researchers have developed process
method [55]. simulation as iterations for optimizing process parameters.
A lot of research has been going on to optimize the LPBF The governing equations are the mathematical background
process through modelling and simulation. But due to the for any simulation work. Different objectives may call upon
intense process complexity, there are always some gaps in the the usage of different model. A model must consider the de-
results. Many researchers are now trying different simulation pendency of the process on temperature. Thermo-mechanical
approaches to increase accuracy as far as possible. Olleak and thermo-fluid models are popular among researchers due
et al. [428] proposed a system that includes remeshing. The to the similarity in the practical world. The modelling of heat
remeshing technique drastically reduces the computational sources is also of prime importance. It is noted that the laser's
time with almost no change in results. The LPBF of powders maximum energy intensity is focused on the center of the
was simulated in software by developing a grid model to laser, and it gradually decreases along the periphery of the
transfer heat in porous material [429]. This grid technique laser spot. Hence, Gaussian distribution models the heat
used contact surfaces between the particles to study heat source with maximum intensity at the center. The solutions
conductivity. Ahmad et al. [430] developed the contour mode for most of the models are extracted using FEM. Multiple re-
and inherent strain-based numerical model to study the stress searchers have opted FEM as the primary method to solve the
concentration in the LPBFed part. Ti-alloys and Inconel were thermal equations. But any simulation gives a result based on
also analyzed for different parameters such as cooling rates computational figures only; hence, it is essential to validate
and temperature gradient based on the same material. Scan- the simulation results with an experimental result.
ning strategy is also believed to be an important and decisive
factor in contributing to the final properties of the LPBFed 7.6. Machine learning methods for predicting LPBF
product. Jhabvala et al. [431] used techniques to eliminate process characteristics
drawbacks, exploit the scanning strategy's benefits, and detect
the part's heat-affected zones. Because of its capacity to make complicated geometric parts,
The simulation of any process gives results based on LPBF is the most prevalent metal additive manufacturing
computational figures only. It completely ignores the practical process. It has a large body of academic research and indus-
obstructions or variations that might occur during the prac- trial investment behind it. Despite the extensive numerical
tical execution of the process. Hence, validating the simula- simulation of LPBF using finite element analysis, process
tion results with the result of an experimental set is very monitoring is still required to assure dependable part
important. Mohanty et al. [432] used a 3D finite volume manufacturing and reduce post-build quality evaluations.
alternating directional implicit numerical technique to simu- Artificial intelligence-based machine learning and deep
late the single-track scanning. The parameters used in the learning techniques are needed to make the LPBF process
model were calibrated with the experiment of a single layer efficient. Gaikwad et al. [435] used height map-derived quality
scan of Ti alloys. The results obtained in the simulation of measures for single tracks and pyrometer and high-speed
[400] were also compared to experimental paper results. The video camera data acquired under various laser power and
results were validated that the melt pool's temperature, HAZ, laser velocity settings to construct and test machine learning-
and dimensions increased with the number of layers. Hu et al. based predictive models. Sequential Decision Analysis Neural
[307] compared the simulation results of the melt pool Network (SeDANN) a scientific machine learning model, was
dimension with the experimental values. There was a used to predict the melt pool dynamics and post-build quality
considerable resemblance in both the results, especially con- measurements. Fig. 37 shows the methodology to implement
cerning the melt pool shape. It was also seen that melt pool the machine learning-based predictive models. Singh et al.
depth was more well-matched with the experimental values, [436] reported that machine learning (ML) could resolve this
but the melt pool length was not. Any deviation from the barrier by leveraging datasets obtained at various phases of
experimental value indicates further improvement of the the LPBF process chain. The incorporation of ML into the
simulations. Dai et al. [314] studied the effect of linear energy multiple stages of the LPBF process chain, which could lead to
density on the densification and melt pool dimensions of the enhanced quality control, is investigated in this viewpoint
LPBFed part. And the results for the calculation of the relative paper. ML can be used for part design and file preparation
density was compared to that of experimental work. And it before L-PBF. Then, machine learning techniques may be used
was found that the resemblance in the results was pretty good to optimize process parameters and monitor in real-time.
too. Loh et al. [433] used different laser powers and scan Finally, machine learning can be included into post-
speeds on Al alloy undergoing LPBF. A very effective model processing. Okaro et al. [437] proposed applying ML-system
was established even to account for the shrinkages and to predict flaws/defects in AM products automatically. A
vaporization, and the results were then validated. In some semi-supervised learning approach was used, which can use
Fig. 37 e A schematic of the sequential decision analysis neural network (SeDANN). The sensor data and height map shown
above belong to a single-track deposited at linear energy density (EL) of 0.33, i.e. balling regime. The statistical probability
distribution features extracted from the pyrometer are used in the first echelon artificial neural network (ANN) to predict the
laser process parameters (P and V) followed by melt pool features derived from the high-speed video camera to predict the
mean width and standard deviation and single-track continuity at higher echelons [435].
data from both builds where the resulting components were and suitable to operate in real-time even on less powerful
certified and build where the quality of the resulting compo- hardware. Most defects such as keyholing, porosity, and
nents was uncertain during training. This makes the method balling occurred at the size and timescales of the melt pool
cost-effective, especially when part certification is expensive itself. Monitoring of such defects is critical. Scime and Beuth
and time-consuming. [440] proposed a deep learning approach that proposed the
Ogoke et al. [438] proposed deep reinforcement learning for possibility of in-situ detection of such important defects. The
predicting thermal characteristics and minimizing the likeli- morphology of LPBF melt pools in the Inconel 718 material
hood defects of the LPBF process, as shown in Fig. 38. During system is studied using a high-speed visible-light camera with
the melting process, the developed control algorithm changes a fixed field of view. Computer Vision techniques are utilized
the laser's velocity or power to assure melt pool consistency to create a scale-invariant description of melt pool shape, and
and minimize overheating in the formed product. The control unsupervised Machine Learning is used to distinguish be-
algorithm is trained and verified using accurate simulations of tween observed melt pools. In-situ signatures can be found by
the powder bed layer's continuum temperature distribution observing melt pools created across process space, which may
under varied laser paths. reveal faults similar to those seen ex-situ. The application of
Baumgartl et al. [439] proposed an integrated model com- supervised Machine Learning to categorize melts pools
bination of neural network deep learning-based model and observed (with the high-speed camera) during the fusing of
thermographic off-axis imaging as a data source to predict non-bulk geometries such as overhangs was facilitated by this
printing defects and process monitoring such as melt pool or coupling of ex-situ and in-situ morphology.
off-axis infrared monitoring. The proposed methodology is Sanchez et al. [441] utilized the potential of ML to establish a
96.80% accurate in predicting delamination and splatter. relationship between process, structure, and properties to
Moreover, the model is very small with low computing cost predict the creep rate of 78-alloy-based parts produced by LPBF
Fig. 38 e The Deep Reinforcement Learning framework. (a) In Reinforcement Learning, an agent selects an action, based on
the current state s and the policy p mapping each state to an action. The action is deployed in the environment, influencing
the environment, modifying its state, and producing a reward based on this influence. The policy is updated based on
reward, aiming to maximize the cumulative reward. (b) The state is represented by cross sections of the domain in the x-y,
y-z, and x-z planes near the location of the laser, for the three previous timesteps of the simulation. (c) The policy network is
a fully connected neural network that takes in the state’s current representation and predicts an action to maximize the
expected reward. The Policy Network is implemented as a two-layer multi-layer perceptron with hyperbolic tangent
activation functions and 64 neurons per hidden layer [438].
process. The ML algorithm was trained using input data that construction direction, it was discovered that the vast pro-
included LPBF process parameters and geometrical charac- jected area of the flaws on the fracture plane was principally
teristics (porosity images) of materials obtained from the responsible for the reduced lifetimes observed. The more
image analysis techniques. The model significantly and generic two-variable Murakami model adequately predicted
accurately predicts the minimum creep rate of LPBF with a fatigue lifetimes, and an empirical model for which the ML
high 98.60%. Zhang et al. [442] developed a hybrid machine model validated empirical dependences was even more nearly
learning model to predict the manufacturability assessment of expected. Zhang et al. [445] used a neuro-fuzzy-based machine
the LPBF process. For the design aspect, a voxel-based con- learning method for predicting the high cycle fatigue life of
volutional neural network (CNN) model was used, and for the LPBF processed stainless steel 316 L. A training dataset con-
process aspect, a neural network (NN) model was used. After taining fatigue life data for samples subjected to varied pro-
that, the two models are integrated to forecast the architec- cessing conditions, post-processing treatments, and cyclic
ture's manufacturability under the chosen LPBF process pa- loads was created to simulate a complex nonlinear
rameters. The validation samples were randomly selected, inputeoutput environment. The associated fracture mecha-
and the findings confirmed that the proposed model can nisms were investigated, such as crack initiation and defor-
properly forecast the design's manufacturability. However, the mation modes. The training data was used to create two
computational capacity and amount of training datasets of the models that used the processing/post-processing parameters
proposed model are limited, necessitating future research in and the static tensile characteristics as inputs. Despite the
this area. Liu et al. [443] developed a machine-learning algo- wide range of fatigue and fracture parameters, the models
rithm based on Gaussian process regression to predict the showed good prediction accuracy compared to test data, and
optimal condition of LPBD for manufacturability of fully dense the computationally produced fuzzy rules match the fracture
AlSi10Mg samples with high strength and ductility. mechanisms well. Bao et al. [446] utilized the potential of the
Peng et al. [444] used the capability of ML to predict the fa- ML technique to determine the effect of defect location, size,
tigue life of LPBF processed AlSi10Mg alloy. An Extreme and morphology on the fatigue-performance of LPBF pro-
Gradient Boosting model was found to be capable of accurately cessed components. The critical and important defects
predicting fatigue lives. The importance of these variables in responsible for high-cycle fatigue failure were identified using
limiting fatigue life is rated in the order provided above. The the characterization technique and used as input data for
model predicted varied sample lifespan, implying that micro- training using a support vector machine (SVM). The grid search
structure played a modest role. When testing parallel to the strategy with testing data was chosen for fitting the model
parameters to speed up the optimization process. The coeffi- their thermal history, which includes the variation of
cient of determination between predicted and experimental heating and cooling rates, temperature gradients, tem-
fatigue life is found to be as high as 0.99, showing that the SVM perature rises, and many more. The post-production
model has good training ability. Moon et al. [447] established a treatment methods are very important for refining the
relationship between surface roughness and pore character- microstructure, and the standard processes include
istics on fatigue performance of Tie6Ale4V alloy-based sam- annealing and thermomechanical processing.
ples. The data were further used for training a machine The thermal history, mainly the solidification rate, cooling
learning model for the prediction of the fatigue life of com- rates, and thermal gradient, also dictates the mechanical
ponents. To build a relationship between surface and pore properties of the LPBFed part. Most of the mechanical
features and fatigue data (logN), a drop-out neural network properties are attributed to the refinement of microstruc-
(DONN) was used, and good prediction accuracy was exhibited. tures of grains and hence depend on the thermal history.
Hassanin et al. [448] proposed a deep learning neural network As complete melting is a significant LPBF feature, the pro-
(DLNN) model to rationalize and predict the densification and cess is very much prone to melt pool instability. This could
hardness of LPBF processed Tie6Ale2Sne4Zre6Mo alloy. A also result in microstructural defects if the choice of the
relationship between the process parameters and output process parameters is poor. All the defects have detri-
characteristics has been developed and used as a input data to mental effects on the properties of the part. Also, larger
train the DLNN model. The model that was created was vali- powder particles are difficult to melt. Therefore, the poor
dated and utilized to create process maps. The trained deep finish of surfaces is observed when LPBF is carried out with
learning neural network model had the highest accuracy with coarser and large powders.
a mean percentage error of 3% and 0.2 percent for porosity and One crucial factor dictating defects is the “Staircase” effect
hardness, respectively. Deep learning neural networks were related to the increased number of layers: defects, particu-
found to be an effective technique for predicting material larly surface roughness, increase with the increase in layer
qualities from tiny data sets, according to the findings. thickness. Hence, the idea is to balance the trade-off between
the surface roughness and the product's built-up time.
Artificial intelligence-based machine learning and deep
8. Summary learning techniques were used for process monitoring,
predicting product quality, and optimizing process control.
Additive manufacturing is a ubiquitous topic in the industrial
and academic fields. This review deals with the understanding
and recent up-gradation of the LPBF process. LPBF became a
versatile method applicable to many metals and their alloys, Declaration of competing interest
and hence it is receiving significant attention. A complete
review of the LPBF process is done, and some key points have The authors declare the following financial interests/personal
emerged, which are of prime importance. The significance of relationships which may be considered as potential
various process parameters is also dealt with to minimize the competing interests:
defects in the final product. Chander Prakash reports financial support was provided by
Lovely Professional University. Chander Prakash reports a
For the LPBF process application on any material and to relationship with Lovely Professional University that includes:
achieve the highest possible density and the required employment. NA.
mechanical properties on the LPBFed part, the most
important thing is to precisely monitor the processing
parameters.
Acknowledgments
The exposure of metals/alloys to the LPBF process has
sorted out many problems attached to the traditional
The research is partially funded by the Ministry of Science and
manufacturing processes. The properties inherited by the
Higher Education of the Russian Federation under the stra-
LPBFed sample show that LPBF can produce samples with
tegic academic leadership program 'Priority 2030' (Agreement
properties superior to those produced by the conventional
075-15-2021-1333 dated 30.09.2021). The authors would like to
methods.
thank all his masters/PhD students (Mr. Justin Hijam and Mr.
The densification behavior of metals is primarily influ-
Benjamin Das) for their support during the preparation of this
enced by the variation of laser energy density controlled
manuscript. Also, he would like to acknowledge the support
and altered by several other process parameters. The
provided by the North Eastern Regional Institute of Science
densification can be directly related to the change in laser
and Technology.
energy density due to the variation of process parameters.
In LPBF, powder particle size and distribution's effect is
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1;201:316e28. tive, Subtractive, and Hybrid’, CRC Press Taylor & Francis, where
[444] Peng X, Wu S, Qian W, Bao J, Hu Y, Zhan Z, et al. The more than 25 edited books were published by national and in-
potency of defects on fatigue of additively manufactured ternational researchers. He is serving editorial board member of
metals. Int J Mech Sci 2022 May 1;221:107185. peer reviewer intranational journal “Cogent Engineering” and
[445] Zhang M, Sun CN, Zhang X, Goh PC, Wei J, Hardacre D, et al. “Frontiers in Manufacturing Technology”. He is serving Guest
High cycle fatigue life prediction of laser additive Editor of peer reviewed SCI-indexed Journals.
manufactured stainless steel: a machine learning approach.
Int J Fatig 2019 Nov 1;128:105194. Prof. Seeram Ramakrishna (0000e0001e8479e8686), FREng has
[446] Bao H, Wu S, Wu Z, Kang G, Peng X, Withers PJ. A machine- more than 1750 publications in the domain of Material Science,
learning fatigue life prediction approach of additively Biomedical Engineering, Polymer Technology, Advance
manufactured metals. Eng Fract Mech 2021 Feb Manufacturing, Additive Manufacturing, and Sustainability. Here
1;242:107508. are top 5 list of publications included for ready reference: 1. A
[447] Moon S, Ma R, Attardo R, Tomonto C, Nordin M, Wheelock P, review on polymer nanofibers by electrospinning and their ap-
et al. Impact of surface and pore characteristics on fatigue plications in nanocomposites, Composites Science and Technol-
life of laser powder bed fusion Tie6Ale4V alloy described by ogy, 63 (2003), 2223e2253 (Total citation: 8103). 2. Electrospinning
neural network models. Sci Rep 2021 Oct 14;11(1):1e7. of nano/micro scale poly (L-lactic acid) aligned fibers and their
[448] Hassanin H, Zweiri Y, Finet L, Essa K, Qiu C, Attallah M. potential in neural tissue engineering, Biomaterials, 26 (2005),
Laser powder bed fusion of Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo alloy and 2603e2610 (Total citation: 1935). 3. Biomedical applications of
properties prediction using deep learning approaches. polymer-composite materials: a review, Composites Science and
Materials 2021;14:2056. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14082056. Technology 61 (2001), 1189e1224 (Total citation: 1504). 4. Aligned
biodegradable nanofibrous structure: a potential scaffold for blood
Dr. Sohini Chowdhury (Orcid ID: 0000e0003e4802e3722) has vessel engineering, Biomaterials 25 (2004), 877e886 (Total citation:
finished her Doctoral studies in December 2020 in Department of 1395). 5. Potential of nanofiber matrix as tissue-engineering scaf-
Mechanical Engineering at North Eastern Regional Institute of folds, Tissue engineering, 11 (2005), 101e109 (Total citation: 1136).
Science and Technology, Nirjuli, India. She also finished her post- Please refer to the google scholar profile to review complete list of
graduation (M.Tech.-masters) in the same institution and publications: https://scholar.google.com/citations?
department and completed with GOLD MEDAL in 2016. Her user¼a49NVmkAAAAJ&hl¼en
research area include laser based additive manufacturing tech-
nologies, FEM, Computational modeling of manufacturing pro- Prof. Saurav Dixit is working as a Postdoc fellow at “Peter the
cesses etc. She published over 18 research articles in the peer- Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University”, St Petersburg, Russia.
reviewed international journals, conference proceedings, and His area of research is synthesis/development, construction pro-
book chapters. Google Scholar Profile: <u>https://scholar.google. ductivity, self-healing concrete, chemical and physical properties
co.in/citations?user¼1Vc_VxwAAAAJ&hl¼en&authuser¼1; of fly-ash, advance concrete production, additive manufacturing,
</u>ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sohini- and surface modification. He won the award for “Best Leadership
Chowdhury-2 Qualities” (2015) at Amity University Uttar Pradesh, India. Dr.
Saurav has authored more than 57 research articles (among them
Dr. Yadaiah Nirsanametla (ORCID Id: 0000e0002e8316e8188) is >15 SCI indexed research article) in the journals, conference
currently working as Senior Grade Assistant Professor in the proceedings, and books (H-index 14, i10-index 19, Google Scholars
Department of Mechanical Engineering at North Eastern Regional citation 533). He has 3 authored books for various reputed pub-
Institute of Science and Technology (since February 2015), Nirjuli, lisher like Springer, Elsevier, CRC Press, and World Scientific. He is
India. More details can be found in the following links: Google serving as an active reviewer and editorial board member for
Scholar Profile: https://scholar.google.co.in/citations? several scientific international journals that include.
hl¼en&user¼hb1lMJoAAAAJ; ResearchGate: https://www.
researchgate.net/profile/Yadaiah-Nirsanametla; Institute’s Professor Dharam Buddhi, Vice chancellor, Uttaranchal Univer-
Homepage: https://nerist.ac.in/mechanical/faculties/yadaiah sity Dehradun India, an alumnus of IIT Delhi (Ph D; Energy Sys-
tems) and Ex-Professor, School of Energy and Environmental
Chander Prakash:- Dr. Prakash working as a Professor in the Studies, Devi Ahilya University, Indore and became University full
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Professor in the year 2000. Dr Buddhi has also worked in industry
Punjab, India. His area of research is synthesis/development, as Director (Technical), Chief Technical Advisor & Head R & D and
surface modification, and advanced/precision machining of also transferred the technology. His areas of Research are mate-
metallic and non-metallic biomaterials. Synthesis and develop- rials science, Renewable Energy, Energy Conservation, Energy
ment of magnesium-based biodegradable and titanium-based Storage and Green Buildings. Recently, Dr Buddhi has been listed
alloys and composites, respectively, using innovative in 2% globally top researches by Elsevier and Stanford University
manufacturing techniques such as spark plasma sintering, elec- USA. He has been International consultant to Asian Development
trospinning and 3D printing. Surface modification of polymer, Bank during 2016e2018 for Green Power project in Sri Lanka. Dr
biodegradable-magnesium, and titanium-based biomaterials by Buddhi is Ex-Vice Chancellor, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jai-
electro-deposition, plasma spray deposition, and friction stir pur. Presently, Dr Buddhi is Indian Coordinator of Indo-Australia
processing etc. Precise and advanced machining of biomaterials collaboration Project on “Thermal Energy Storage for Food/Grain
using electric discharge machining, magnetic abrasive finishing, Drying with CST/RE to Lower Pollution”. He was member of ‘Pro-
and diamond turning processes. Dr. PRAKASH has authored more gram Advisory Committee’, on Technology System Development,
than 180 research articles (among them >95 SCI indexed research Department of Science and Technology, GOI. Professor Buddhi
article) in the journals, conference proceedings, and books (H- had been Visiting Professor at UPC Barcelona Spain, Mie Univer-
index 31, i10-index 84, Google Scholars citation 3185). In 2018 and sity Japan, Kun Shan University Tainan, Taiwan and Auckland
2019 he received the Research Excellence Award for publishing the University New Zealand. Dr Buddhi was on the Editorial Board of
highest number of publications at the University. He has edited 23 “Energy Conversion and Management”, an Elsevier International
books and 3 authored books for various reputed publisher like Journal and is Reviewer of severally globally renowned Research
Springer, Elsevier, CRC Press, and World Scientific. He is series Journal and a member of numerous professional bodies. He has
guided more than 90 M. Tech students theses. He guided 16 certifications and specializations online on IoT, Augmented
research scholars leading to Ph.D. degree in the field of Heat Reality, Gamification, Machine Learning from University of
Transfer, Solar Energy, Green Buildings, Thermal Load Manage- California at Irvine, Wharton School, University of Pennsyl-
ment, Fuel Cell, Cold Chain Solutions & RAC and has published/ vania, Deep Learning.AI and Google Machine Learning Group.
presented more than 126 research papers and reviews and 93 His research interests are in the areas of Robotics, Mecha-
patents to his credit out of which a few are granted. He has the tronics, Bioinformatics, Internet of Things (IoT), AI & ML using
credit of first patent granted at Devi Ahilya University, Indore. Dr Tensor Flow (CMLE) and Gamification. In 2001 he was
Buddhi has international academic and industrial exposure of appointed as Assistant Controller (Technology), Ministry of IT,
U.K, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Switzerland, Japan, Govt. of India by the Honourable President of India in the Of-
Korea, New Zealand, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Australia and US. Dr fice of the Controller of Certifying Authorities (CCA). In 2013 he
Buddhi has very high citations of the order of 11,000þ of his was accorded the role in the National Advisory Board for What
publications. As per the report of Government of India, Interna- Can I Give Mission- Kalam Foundation of Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam.
tional Comparative Research Base (2009-14) by Department of In 2011 he received the MIT Technology Review Grand Chal-
Science & Technology, Top 10 publications in Energy, Dr Buddhi's lenge Award followed by the coveted Infosys InfyMakers
paper was ranked number one. Award in the year 2016. Recently collaborating in research
project with Stanford University. Has been nominated as the
Lovi Raj Gupta: Prof. Gupta is working as Pro-Vice chancellor, Chairman to ASSOCHAM North Region Council for Innovation.
Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India. He holds a Sports enthusiast having flair to amalgamate data points from
PhD in Bioinformatics. He did his M.Tech. in Computer Aided sports with algorithms for performance assessment and pre-
Design & Interactive Graphics from IIT, Kanpur and B. E. dictive analytics. Has authored 7 books on IoT, Mobile Robotic
(Hons) Mechanical Engineering from MITS, Gwalior. Having Platforms, Biomedical Sensors and Machine Learning & Data
flair for endless learning, has done more than 50þ Analytics. 150þ patents, 100þ published, 10 Granted.

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j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 2 1 0 9 e2 1 7 2

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Laser powder bed fusion: a state-of-the-art review

Sohini Chowdhury a,b, N. Yadaiah a, Chander Prakash c,d,*,

article info abstract

Furthermore, the unused feedstock can be reused in AM, making

Table 3 e The latest GF LPBF machine models and specifications [84].

Fig. 4 e Illustrated melt pool comparison between the

an absence of any mechanical pressure in the LPBF process,

entirely governed by the processing parameters (Fig. 7) [106]. It

(continued on next page)

Nitinol-based Cardiovascular Stents, Dental Implants Shape memory;

(continued on next page)

SLM of various Al-alloys and exploring its potential applica-

3.2. Magnesium-based alloys

Magnesium (Mg) is the sixth most available element on earth’s

Based on the quality of produced parts through LPBF, four

Al parts are at the top. Hence, structures are needed to fulfil

3.3.2. Hard metals 4.1.1. Effects of laser processing parameters on densification

scanning strategies to produce fully dense parts with almost

Aircraft industry, weapon manufacturing, sports equipment

Building and construction, storage tank, pressure vessels,

Building sheets, electrical appliances, cooking utencils,

Architectural and automotive application

Used in aircraft industry, weapons, bolts

gives the worst density results among other methods [238].

Welding wires and brazing alloys

Dewidar et al. [231] categorized the scanning strategies as

Excellent corrosion resistance and

is remelting. It is nothing but melting the same powder bed

Good plasticity and weldability,

twice or thrice before a new powder layer is introduced. This

High strength and toughness,

Excellent fatigue resistance,

step eliminates surface defects and surface contaminants,

poor corrosion resistance,

resistance, High strength

The only drawback is that its time is taking and energy-

consuming. To avoid any residual stresses or cracks, it is

proposed to carry out the remelting process under low energy

densities of 92.48%, 96.04%, 86.91%, and 96.40%, respectively.

It was concluded that higher densification was achieved on

lower densification than strategy I. It was also supposed that

better texture results. Hence rotational remelting is highly

4.2. Effect of powder parameters on densification

The properties and quality of the powder used in the LPBF

Zn þ Mg þ (Si, Fe, Cu)

process and determining the properties of the parts produced.

Si þ (Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg)

Mg þ (Mn, Si, Fe, Zn)

When we consider the characteristics of the powder, it is

generally talked about the size, shape, composition, internal

packed) and flowability (the degree of the tendency of pow-

role in choosing the layer thickness and other parameters for

complex-shaped metal parts. If powder particles engage with

Table 13 e Process parameters of (LPBF) selective laser melting.

Fig. 13 e Categorization of process parameters.

was that the addition of Nickel improved the density of the

Fig. 17 e Different kinds of scanning strategies.

Fig. 18 e Standard, diagonal and perimeter scan strategies.

Fig. 20 e Four different strategies for remelting used in [235].

supports the concept of higher undercooling, which gives

where u, v and w represent the displacements along the x, y

fdsg ¼ Dep fdεg ½De fagðDTÞ (9)