Mechanical Properties of 3d-Printing Polyactic Acid Parts Subjected To Bending Stress and Fatigue

materials
Article
Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printing Polylactic Acid
Parts subjected to Bending Stress and Fatigue Testing
J. Antonio Travieso-Rodriguez 1, * , Ramon Jerez-Mesa 2 , Jordi Llumà 3 ,
Oriol Traver-Ramos 1 , Giovanni Gomez-Gras 4 and Joan Josep Roa Rovira 3
1 Mechanical Engineering Department, Escola d’Enginyeria de Barcelona Est, Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya, Avinguda d’Eduard Maristany, 10–14, 08019 Barcelona, Spain; oriol.traver@upc.edu
2 Engineering Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Universitat de Vic—Universitat Central de
Catalunya, C. Laura, 13 Vic, 08500 Barcelona, Spain; ramon.jerez@uvic.cat
3 Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering Department, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya,
Escola d’Enginyeria de Barcelona Est, Avinguda d’Eduard Maristany, 10–14, 08019 Barcelona, Spain;
jordi.lluma@upc.edu (J.L.); joan.josep.roa@upc.edu (J.J.R.R.)
4 Industrial Engineering Department, IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta, 390,
08017 Barcelona, Spain; giovanni.gomez@iqs.url.edu
* Correspondence: antonio.travieso@upc.edu

Received: 25 October 2019; Accepted: 19 November 2019; Published: 22 November 2019
Abstract: This paper aims to analyse the mechanical properties response of polylactic acid (PLA)
parts manufactured through fused filament fabrication. The influence of six manufacturing factors
(layer height, filament width, fill density, layer orientation, printing velocity, and infill pattern) on the
flexural resistance of PLA specimens is studied through an L27 Taguchi experimental array. Different
geometries were tested on a four-point bending machine and on a rotating bending machine. From
the first experimental phase, an optimal set of parameters deriving in the highest flexural resistance
was determined. The results show that layer orientation is the most influential parameter, followed
by layer height, filament width, and printing velocity, whereas the fill density and infill pattern show
no significant influence. Finally, the fatigue fracture behaviour is evaluated and compared with that
of previous studies’ results, in order to present a comprehensive study of the mechanical properties
of the material under different kind of solicitations.
Keywords: additive manufacturing; 3D printing; fused filament fabrication; flexural properties;

fatigue; PLA
1. Introduction
Manufacturing through fused filament fabrication (FFF) or 3D-printing is a phenomenon that
has drastically changed the way manufacturing is understood, mainly during the last decade [1]. The
interest comes from the clear advantages that this group of technologies presents with respect to
traditional manufacturing technologies; that is, great freedom of design and innovation capacities,
a stronger connection between design and manufacturing, or the ability to manufacture unique
pieces [2]. In addition, additive manufacturing (AM) systems have been easily implemented in
domestic or low-scale manufacturing environments as a cheap and easy manufacturing technology.
Regardless of the rapid expansion of AM, the problem related to the identification and prediction
of the mechanical behaviour and physical characteristics of the final pieces has been the main handicap
for its application in industrial environments or final pieces. This difficulty lies in the fact that the
parameters to be defined during the manufacturing process are numerous and interact with one
another; and, on the other hand, because of the anisotropy of the material, caused by the high influence
Materials 2019, 12, 3859; doi:10.3390/ma12233859 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 3859 2 of 20
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21
of the
also filament orientations
originated thanks to thein the manufacturing
difference between the space
bonding[3]. Furthermore,
forces between anisotropy
strands ofalso originated
the same layer
thanks
(intralayer) and between layers (interlayer) [4]. For these reasons, the orientation of the layers is a and
to the difference between the bonding forces between strands of the same layer (intralayer) key
between
parameter layers
to be(interlayer)
defined when [4]. taking
For these intoreasons,
accountthe the orientation of the layers
work conditions of theispiece.
a key parameter to be
defined when taking
According into account
to Bellehumeur the[5],
et al. work
theconditions
mechanicalofresistancethe piece.of parts is the result of the addition
According to Bellehumeur et al. [5], the mechanical
of three factors: the resistance of the filaments, the resistance of the resistance of parts
unionisbetween
the resultfilaments
of the addition
of the
of three
same factors:
layer, andthe theresistance
resistance ofof
thethefilaments, the resistance
union between layers.ofThethe union
inherentbetween filaments
resistance of theoffilaments
the same
layer,
mainly and the resistance
depends on the of the union between
mechanical properties layers.
of the The rawinherent
material resistance
and theofstrength
the filaments
of themainly
joints
depends
depends on onthe themechanical
cohesion properties of the raw This
between filaments. material and the strength
is proportional of the
to the joints depends
thermal energy of on the
cohesion
filaments between
when they filaments.
come intoThiscontact
is proportional
when being to the thermal
placed. Theenergy
unionofisthe filaments
a local sinterwhen they
in which
come
polymer intochains
contact when
are being
shared. placed.
This process Theisunion
applicableis a local
to allsinter
joints,in between
which polymer chains of
layer threads areboth
shared.
the
This
sameprocess
layer and is applicable
different ones.to all joints, between layer threads of both the same layer and different ones.
The authors
authors Gurrala
Gurrala and and Regalla
Regalla [6],[6], Gray
Gray et al. [7], and Zhong et al. [8] agree that the orientation
of the layers must be coincident coincident with the directions of the the expected
expected service loads to optimize the
mechanical
mechanical properties.
properties. In contrast, in compression forces, owing to the buckling effect, the fibres tend
to bend. Therefore, the fibres should be oriented oriented perpendicular
perpendicular to to the
the load
load in
in this
this case
case [9].
[9].
This same
sameeffect
effectofofthetheorientation
orientationofof the layers
the layers ononthethe mechanical
mechanical properties
propertiesof the workpieces,
of the workpieces, has
also
has been
also observed
been observed in otherinprocesses of AM, asof
other processes in the
AM,technology
as in theoftechnology
laminated object manufacturing
of laminated object
(LOM), according
manufacturing to Olivier
(LOM), et al.to
according [10]; selective
Olivier et al. sintering
[10]; selectiveby laser, as reported
sintering by laser, Ajoku et al. [11];
as reported Ajoku or
stereolithography presented by presented
et al. [11]; or stereolithography Quintana et byal. [12].
Quintana et al. [12].
Another parameter with great influence on the mechanical mechanical properties
properties is is the
the height
height of of the
the layer.
layer.
When
When the thelayers
layershavehave a lower
a lowerheight,
height,the parts showshow
the parts an overall better cohesion
an overall betweenbetween
better cohesion layers, because
layers,
the contact
because thesurface
contactissurface
greaterisand the empty
greater and the spaceemptybetween
space filaments is smaller.isThis
between filaments effectThis
smaller. improves
effect
the transport
improves mechanism
the transport of thermal
mechanism of energy,
thermalfavouring
energy, favouringthe welding betweenbetween
the welding wires, as found
wires, in the
as found
work
in theof [9] of [9]
work
On the other hand, the thickness or width of the extruded filament is also a parameter parameter that
significantly influences
influences the the mechanical
mechanical behaviour.
behaviour. It has a great impact on the transport mechanisms
of thermal energy,
energy, which
which will will affect
affect thethe cohesion
cohesion of of the
the threads,
threads, according to the study proposed by
Wang
Wang et et al.
al. [13].
[13].
The printing
printingstrategy
strategydetermines
determines thethe
paths
paths of the
of machine
the machine headheadin theincreation of the piece.
the creation of theWithin
piece.
Within
this this context,
context, the printed the pieces
printed arepieces
composedare composed of two characteristic
of two characteristic zones: thezones:
contour theandcontour and
infill. The
infill. The
outline outline
is the skinisthat
the skin that the
delimits delimits
piecetheand piece and corresponds
corresponds to the outerto theperimeters.
outer perimeters.
The infillTheisinfill
the
is theformed
one one formedby theby the trajectories
trajectories that thethatnozzle
the nozzlefollowsfollows
to filltothe
fillempty
the emptyspace space
that that remains
remains insideinside
the
the contour,
contour, as depicted
as depicted in Figure
in Figure 1. 1.
Figure 1. Section
Figure 1. Section of
of aa piece
piece printed
printed with
with two
two types
types of
of fill
fill patterns.
patterns. Left: honeycomb, right:
Left: honeycomb, right: linear.
linear.
Generally,
Generally, in
in each
each layer,
layer, the
the contour
contour is
is first
first performed
performed followed
followed by by the
the internal
internal filling
filling with
with the
the
selected printing strategy. Each one provides different mechanical properties. In the
selected printing strategy. Each one provides different mechanical properties. In the present work,present work, the
influence of several
the influence patterns
of several shall shall
patterns be studied, as well
be studied, asas different
well infill densities,
as different to assess
infill densities, totheir impact
assess their
on the workpiece
impact flexuralflexural
on the workpiece behaviour.behaviour.
The
Materials printing
2019, 12, 3859 velocity is also a modifiable parameter. It can be defined for each printing 3zone, of 20
being independent for the contours, fills, and upper and lower layers. The velocity will be a parameter
of study in this work since it has influence in the process of melting and solidification of the filaments.
The printing
In addition, velocity
it affects the rateis also a modifiable
of extruded parameter. It can be defined for each printing zone,
material.
beingConsidering
independentthe for aforementioned
the contours, fills,baseand ofupper and lower
knowledge layers.
about FFF,The velocity
this paperwill beto
aims a parameter
study the
of study in this work since it has influence in the process of melting and solidification
influence of the manufacturing parameters on the mechanical properties of pieces made of polylactic of the filaments.
In addition, it affects the rate of extruded material.
acid (PLA) manufactured by FFF. Specifically, the flexural mechanical properties of these parts are
Considering
evaluated. the aforementioned
The results obtained are also base of knowledge
compared with theabout
thoseFFF, this paper
obtained aims to study
in a previous studytheby
influence of the manufacturing parameters on the mechanical properties of
Gómez-Gras et al. [14] and Jerez-Mesa et al. [15], performed on the same material subjected to a pieces made of polylactic
acid (PLA)loading
different manufactured
mode. The by FFF.
main Specifically, the flexural
novelty delivered by mechanical
this paper properties of these parts
is that it contributes to are
the
evaluated.
enrichmentThe results obtained
of mechanical are also
behavioural datacompared
regarding with
PLAthe those obtained
material. So far, aninextensive
a previous study
study by
about
Gómez-Gras et al. [14] and Jerez-Mesa et al. [15], performed on the same material
bending properties and their direct comparison to fatigue performance linked to process parameters subjected to a different
loading mode.
has not been Thein
found main novelty delivered
the literature. by this the
For this reason, paper is that
results it contributes
presented to thecomplement
in this paper enrichment
of mechanical
other behavioural
results regarding dataorregarding
tensile PLA material.
fatigue properties, So far,
presented byan extensive
authors study about
in previous bending
references, as
properties and their direct comparison to fatigue performance linked to process
presented above. The makers and users of FFF machines often ask about the best way to manufacture parameters has not
been
their found
parts. inThetheanswer
literature.
shouldFor this reason,
be that the results
printing presented
parameters in this
should be paper
chosencomplement
according to other
the
results regarding tensile or fatigue properties, presented by
expected part behaviour; this paper contributes to enriching that answer. authors in previous references, as presented
above. The makers and users of FFF machines often ask about the best way to manufacture their
parts. The answer
2. Materials should be that printing parameters should be chosen according to the expected part
and Methods
behaviour; this paper contributes to enriching that answer.
In this paper, the flexural mechanical properties of PLA are assessed. The influence of the
2. Materials andparameters
manufacturing Methods in these properties will also be analysed. Therefore, the first experimental
stage explained in this paper comprises a series of four-point bending tests performed on prismatic
In this paper, the flexural mechanical properties of PLA are assessed. The influence of the
test specimens, following the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D6272-2 standard
manufacturing parameters in these properties will also be analysed. Therefore, the first experimental
[16].
stage explained in this paper comprises a series of four-point bending tests performed on prismatic test
To better understand the influence of the significant parameters, different images of the
specimens, following the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D6272-2 standard [16].
fractured areas were taken and subsequently analysed. In addition, to complement the fractography,
To better understand the influence of the significant parameters, different images of the fractured
a micro scratch test was performed, which helped to better understand the fracture mechanism of the
areas were taken and subsequently analysed. In addition, to complement the fractography, a micro
pieces.
scratch test was performed, which helped to better understand the fracture mechanism of the pieces.
In a second experimental stage, a fatigue Whöler curve generated through flexural fatigue tests
In a second experimental stage, a fatigue Whöler curve generated through flexural fatigue tests
was drawn to analyse whether the best conditions obtained in the four-point bending tests also derive
was drawn to analyse whether the best conditions obtained in the four-point bending tests also derive
in good fatigue properties.
in good fatigue properties.
2.1. Four-Point Bending Tests
2.1. Four-Point Bending Tests
2.1.1. Specimens
2.1.1. Manufacture
Specimens Manufacture
The design
The design of
of the
the specimens
specimens usedused in
in the
the study
study was
was done
done with
with SOLIDWORKS
SOLIDWORKS®® Research Edition
Research Edition
2019 software (Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) and the models were
2019 software (Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) and the models were filleted with Slic3r filleted with
Slic3r software (GNU Affero General Public License) [17]. Subsequently, they were
software (GNU Affero General Public License) [17]. Subsequently, they were manufactured in the manufactured in
the domestic
domestic 3D printer,
3D printer, Pyramid
Pyramid 3Dstudio
3Dstudio XL Single
XL Single Extruder.
Extruder. Their geometry
Their geometry is shown is shown in 2,
in Figure Figure
with
2, with dimensions according to the standard that governs the bending test.
dimensions according to the standard that governs the bending test. All manufactured specimens wereAll manufactured
specimens to
submitted were submitted
a quality to ainquality
control, control,
which they wereinweighed
which they andwere weighed
measured withand measured
a calliper. with a
Therefore,
calliper.
they had Therefore, theybefore
to be validated had totesting
be validated
from a before testingand
dimensional from a dimensional
constructive pointand constructive
of view. point
The resulting
of view. The resulting lengths, widths, and weights were statistically processed, and
lengths, widths, and weights were statistically processed, and those specimens whose descriptors werethose specimens
whose
out descriptors
of the ±2% werewere out ofnot
considered theto±2% wereand
comply considered not to comply
were immediately and were immediately
discarded.
discarded.
Figure 2. Test specimen’s geometry: 80 mm × 10 mm × 4 mm, according to the D6272-02 ASTM standard.
Figure 2. Test specimen’s geometry: 80 mm × 10 mm × 4 mm, according to the D6272-02 ASTM
The material used in the manufacture of the specimens, as discussed above, is PLA. It is a
standard.
biodegradable thermoplastic. The choice of PLA as the study material was based on the fact that it is
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 4 of 20
the most used material in domestic 3D printing. In this case, the selected filament was manufactured
by Fillamentum Company from the Czech Republic. It has a diameter of 3 mm and its extrusion
temperature is around 210 ◦ C. The technical information provided by the manufacturer is indicated
in Table 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA).
Mechanical Property Value

Yield strength 60 MPa
Elongation at break 6%
Tensile modulus 3600 MPa
Flexural strength 83 MPa
Flexural modulus 3800 MPa
2.1.2. Taguchi Experimental Design

To carry out the four-point bending study, the design of experiments (DOE) technique was used.
The design consists of the combination of the printing parameters that are considered most influential
in mechanical behaviour. Six parameters are included in the study, and three levels of each one are
defined (Table 2). They were selected taking into account the bibliography studied, as well as the
experience of previous work of the research group.
Table 2. Parameters and levels used in design of experiments (DOE).
Level
Parameter
1 2 3
Filament width (mm) 0.3 0.4 0.6
Layer height (mm) 0.1 0.2 0.3
Fill density (%) 25 50 75
Printing velocity (mm/s) 20 30 40
Layer orientation X- axis Y- axis Z- axis
Infill pattern Linear Rectilinear Honeycomb
Filament width: Determined by the diameters of the extrusion nozzles: 0.3, 0.4, and 0.6 mm.
optimize
It defines the
the manufacturing time. of
volume and surface Inthe
thisextruded
study, the same velocity
threads, was
as well as thedefined
weldingforsurface
all parts of the
between
piece to homogenize
filaments (Figure 3A).its structure.
Figure 3. Schematic representation of the parameters used in the study: (A) filament width and layer
Figure (B)
height, 3. Schematic representation
infill pattern of the parameters used in the study: (A) filament width and layer
and fill density.
height, (B) infill pattern and fill density.
optimize the manufacturing time. In this study, the same velocity was defined for all parts of the
piece to homogenize its structure.
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 5 of 20
Layer height: Describes the thickness of each layer and, therefore, the number of layers the printed
piece will have. It affects the volume and surface of the threads, as well as the welding between layers.
The manufacturing time is inversely proportional to the layer height. Thinner layers imply more layers
to print and a longer production time (Figure 3A).
Fill density: Represents the amount of material that is deposited within the contours. It avoids
relative movements between contours and gives robustness to the pieces. It also determines the
distance between the inner threads and affects material consumption (Figure 3B).
Fill pattern: Defines the trajectories that the nozzle follows to fill the empty space within
the contour. Each pattern will create a different interior geometry producing different mechanical
behaviours (Figure 3B).
Orientation: The specimens will be printed in the direction of the three coordinate axes: X, Y, and
Z, as shown in Figure 4. In this way, the stacking of the layers will be done in three different ways
and their behaviour
Figure can representation
3. Schematic be studied. Normally, the stacking
of the parameters used direction is the
in the study: (A) most determinant
filament factor in
width and layer
mechanical
height,behaviour [18]. and fill density.
(B) infill pattern
(a) (b) (c)

Figure4.4.The
Figure Theorientation
orientationofofthe
thelayers’
layers’stacking,
stacking,ininthe
themanufactured
manufacturedspecimens.
specimens.(a)
(a)X-axis
X-axisoriented;
oriented;
(b) Y-axis oriented; (c) Z-axis oriented.
(b) Y-axis oriented; (c) Z-axis oriented.
In this study,
Printing a Taguchi
velocity: L27 DOE
It determines the was used.and
extrusion Thisdeposition
method has beenthreads’
of the appliedvelocity.
successfully in other
The velocity
isstudies
definedconcerning the of
for each part mechanical properties
the piece (inner, of FFF
external pieces [14].
perimeters, Table
inner 3 shows
threads, andanso
orthogonal matrix
on) to optimize
with
the a specific combination
manufacturing of parameters
time. In this used. velocity
study, the same The influence of theseforseparately
was defined as the
all parts of wellpiece
as their
to
interaction will
homogenize be studied.
its structure.
In this study, a Taguchi L27 DOE was used. This method has been applied successfully in other
Table 3. Orthogonal
studies concerning the mechanical propertiesmatrix
of FFFofpieces
Taguchi L27Table
[14]. for the3DOE.
shows an orthogonal matrix
with a specific combination Layer of parametersInfill
used. The Printing
influence of these separately as well as their
interaction Filament
will be studied. LaY-axiser
N° Height Density Velocity Infill
Width [mm] Orientation
[mm] (%) [mm/s]
1 0.3 0.1 25 20 X-axis Rectilinear
2 0.3 0.1 50 30 Y-axis Linear
3 0.3 0.1 75 40 Z-axis Honeycomb
4 0.3 0.2 25 30 Y- axis Honeycomb
5 0.3 0.2 50 40 Z- axis Rectilinear
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 6 of 20
Table 3. Orthogonal matrix of Taguchi L27 for the DOE.
Printing
Filament Layer Height Infill LaY-axiser
N◦ Velocity Infill
Width [mm] [mm] Density (%) Orientation
[mm/s]
1 0.3 0.1 25 20 X-axis Rectilinear
2 0.3 0.1 50 30 Y-axis Linear
3 0.3 0.1 75 40 Z-axis Honeycomb
5 Materials 2019,
0.312, x FOR PEER REVIEW
0.2 50 40 Z- axis Rectilinear
6 of 21
6 0.3 0.2 75 20 X- axis Linear
7 6 0.3 0.3 0.30.2 7525 2040 Z-axis
X- axis Linear
Linear
8 0.3 0.3 50 20 X- axis Honeycomb
7 0.3 0.3 25 40 Z- axis Linear
9 0.3 0.3 75 30 Y- axis Rectilinear
10 8 0.4 0.3 0.10.3 5025 2030 X-
Z-axis
axis Honeycomb
Linear
11 9 0.4 0.3 0.10.3 7550 3040 Y-
X-axis
axis Rectilinear
Honeycomb
12 10 0.4 0.4 0.10.1 2575 3020 Z-Y-axis
axis Linear
Rectilinear
13 11 0.4 0.4 0.20.1 5025 4040 X-axis
X- axis Rectilinear
Honeycomb
14 12 0.4 0.4 0.20.1 7550 2020 Y-Y-axis
axis Linear
Rectilinear
15 0.4 0.2 75 30 Z- axis Honeycomb
13 0.4 0.2 25 40 X- axis Rectilinear
17 14 0.4 0.4 0.30.2 5050 2030 Y-
Z-axis
axis Linear
Rectilinear
18 15 0.4 0.4 0.30.2 7575 3040 Z-
X-axis
axis Honeycomb
Linear
19 16 0.6 0.4 0.10.3 2525 2040 Y-Y-axis
axis Honeycomb
Honeycomb
20 17 0.6 0.4 0.10.3 5050 3020 Z-axis
Z- axis Rectilinear
Rectilinear
21 18 0.6 0.4 0.10.3 7575 4030 X-axis
X- axis Linear
Linear
22 0.6 0.2 25 20 Z- axis Linear
23 0.6 0.2 50 30 X- axis Honeycomb
24 20 0.6 0.6 0.20.1 5075 2040 Z-Y-axis
axis Rectilinear
Rectilinear
25 21 0.6 0.6 0.30.1 7525 3030 X-
X-axis
axis Linear
Rectilinear
26 22 0.6 0.6 0.30.2 2550 2040 Z-Y-axis
axis Linear
Linear
27 23 0.6 0.6 0.30.2 5075 3020 Z-axis
X- axis Honeycomb
Honeycomb
24 0.6 0.2 75 40 Y- axis Rectilinear
25 0.6 0.3 25 30 X- axis Rectilinear
The rest
26 of the parameters
0.6 that
0.3 affect the
50conception
40of the testY-
specimens
axis remained
Linear constant.
27 0.6 0.3 75 20 Z- axis Honeycomb
2.1.3. Experimental Setup
The rest of the parameters that affect the conception of the test specimens remained constant.
The tests were carried out on the Microtest EM2/20 universal electromechanical machine, with a
capacity 2.1.3.
of 20Experimental
kN, displacement
Setup of 300 mm, and a speed range 0–160 mm/min. The force acquisition
was performed The with a load
tests were cell out
carried of 500 N Microtest
on the and a precision of 0.03 N.
EM2/20 universal electromechanical machine, with
Theatest consists
capacity of placing
of 20 kN, the of
displacement specimen
300 mm, andof aaspeed
rectangular cross
range 0–160 section
mm/min. The over two supports and
force acquisition
was
loading it at performed
two points with
bya load
meanscell of
of 500
twoNloading
and a precision of 0.03
rollers; eachN.at an equal distance from the adjacent
support point. TheThe
test consists
specimen of placing
is bent theatspecimen of a rectangular
a constant speed, until cross
thesection over fibres
external two supports
break,andor until the
loading it at two points by means of two loading rollers; each at an equal distance from the adjacent
maximum deformation of the external fibres reaches a 5% elongation. The parameters
support point. The specimen is bent at a constant speed, until the external fibres break, or until the
used in the
experiment are described in the D6272-02 ASTM standard; that is, a support span
maximum deformation of the external fibres reaches a 5% elongation. The parameters used in the of 64 mm and a load
span of 21.3 mm (Figure
experiment 5). in the D6272-02 ASTM standard; that is, a support span of 64 mm and a
are described
load span of 21.3 mm (Figure 5).
Figure 5.Figure 5. Diagram

Diagram of theoffour-point
the four-point bendingtest
bending test method,
method, according to the
according toD6272-02 ASTM ASTM standard.
the D6272-02
standard.
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 7 of 20
The deflection value will be obtained through image processing. High-definition video capture
is planned for all tests. ThatThat way, the displacement will be obtained through image processing, by
following a marker painted
following a marker painted on on the
the lower
lower fibre
fibre of
of the
the specimen.
specimen. TheThe displacement
displacement willwill be
be determined
determined
to calculatethe
to calculate theoverall
overalldeflection
deflection (Figure
(Figure 6). 6).
OnOn the the other
other hand, hand, the force
the force appliedapplied
by theby the loading
loading rollers
rollers
will be will be measured
measured withcell.
with a load a load
Thecell. The objective
objective of data processing
of data processing is tothe
is to create create the stress–strain
stress–strain curve of
curve of the specimens
the specimens [19]. From [19].
theFrom the obtained
obtained curve, thecurve, the following
following results
results will will be extracted:
be extracted: Young's
Young’s modulus
modulus
(E), elastic(E), elastic
limit limit
(Rp0.2 (Rp0,2), maximum
), maximum strength (σ strength (σmax
max ), and ), and maximum
maximum deformation
deformation (ε). (ε).
Figure 6.
Figure The installation
6. The installation used
used to
to perform
perform the
the four-point
four-point bending
bending tests.
tests.
The test method used contemplates two different types, which differ in the test speed according to
The test method used contemplates two different types, which differ in the test speed according
the behaviour of the test piece.
to the behaviour of the test piece.
Type A. Used in test specimens that break with little deflection.
Type A. Used in test specimens that break with little deflection.
Type B. Used in the test specimens that absorb large deflections during the test.
Type B. Used in the test specimens that absorb large deflections during the test.
The Type A test will end when breakage is detected in the outer fibres of the test pieces, and the
The Type A test will end when breakage is detected in the outer fibres of the test pieces, and the
Type B test will end when specimens break or the deflection D = 10.9 mm, according to measurements
Type B test will end when specimens break or the deflection D = 10.9 mm, according to measurements
of the specimens and the parameters used.
of the specimens and the parameters used.
A previous experimental testing was performed to validate the adequacy of the described method.
A previous experimental testing was performed to validate the adequacy of the described
From these experiments, it was detected that specimens printed in the direction of the Z-axis do not
method. From these experiments, it was detected that specimens printed in the direction of the Z-axis
admit deflection, and present brittle failure, while the specimens printed in the direction of the X- and
do not admit deflection, and present brittle failure, while the specimens printed in the direction of
Y-axes admit large deflections. The summary of the test types can be seen in Table 4.
the X- and Y-axes admit large deflections. The summary of the test types can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4. Test parameters.
Table 4. Test parameters.
Concept Test Type A Test Type B
Concept Test Type A Test Type B
Specimen’s orientation Z X and Y
Specimen’s
Test speed
orientation 1.9 mm/min Z X
19and Y
mm/min
Test speed When break appears in the
1.9 mm/min 19 or
mm/min
End of test When breaks deflection = 10.9 mm
external fibres
When breaks or
When break appears in the
End of test deflection = 10.9
2.1.4. Data Analysis external fibres
mm
The data analysis was processed by following the steps described as follows:
2.1.4. Data Analysis
1. Separation of the frames of the High Definition videos of each test. The camera used registered
The data analysis
the image was processed
at approximately byThe
60 fps. following the steps
tests lasted described
between as 2follows:
45 s and min, so, in each of the 108
1. Separation of the frames of the High Definition
tests, between 2700 and 7200 frames were processed.videos of each test. The camera used registered
the image at approximately 60 fps. The tests lasted between 45 s and 2 min, so, in each of the 108
tests, between 2700 and 7200 frames were processed.
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 8 of 20

2. Calculation of the specimen’s deflection through the frames. Position markers were painted
2. Calculation
on the outeroffibre
the specimen’s deflection
of the specimen, through
where the frames.
the maximum Position markers
deflection occurs, andwereonpainted on
the static
the outer
rollers fibre of
(Figure theThe
7A). specimen, where
difference the maximum
between the final deflection occurs,
position and and onone,
the initial the between
static rollers
the
(Figure 7A). The difference between the final position and the initial one,
most displaced marker of the specimen and the markers on the static rollers, is considered between the most
the
displaced
maximum marker
deflectionof (Figure
the specimen
7B). Thisand the was
analysis markers on thethrough
performed static rollers, is considered
a self-designed MATLAB the®
maximum deflection (Figure 7B). This
code (version 2018) with image processing functions. analysis was performed through a self-designed
MATLAB® code (version 2018) with image processing functions.
The calculation
The calculation of of the
the stress
stress that
that is
is generated
generated inin the
the specimen
specimen at
at each
each moment
moment by by means
means of of
Equation (1) is
Equation 1 is as follows:as follows:
PL
S=𝑃𝐿bd2 , (1)
𝑆= , (1)
where 𝑏𝑑
where
S = Stress
S = Stress in thein the outermost
outermost fibre (MPa)
fibre (MPa)
P = Applied load (N)
P = Applied load (N)
L = Distance between support rollers (64 mm)
L = Distance between support rollers (64 mm)
b = Width of the specimen (10 mm)
b = Width of the specimen
d = Thickness (10 mm) (4 mm)
of the specimen
d = Thickness of the specimen (4 mm)
3. Analysis of the stress–strain curve obtained to extract the study parameters.
3. Analysis of the stress–strain curve obtained to extract the study parameters.
Figure 7.
Figure Schematic representation
7. Schematic representationof
ofthe
thedata
datacollection
collectionprocess
processduring
duringthe tests.
the (A)
tests. Initial
(A) position
Initial of
position
markers;
of (B)(B)
markers; final position
final (red
position crosses)
(red andand
crosses) initial position
initial (green
position crosses)
(green of the
crosses) markers.
of the markers.
2.2. Fractography and Scratch Test
In order to analyse the influence of the parameters that were significant, a SMZ-168 MOTIC stereo
In order to analyse the influence of the parameters that were significant, a SMZ-168 MOTIC
microscope was used to observe the fractures surfaces. The most interesting fracture phenomena
stereo microscope was used to observe the fractures surfaces. The most interesting fracture
were photographed with a MOTICAM 2300 camera. Both equipment were manufactured by Motic® ,
phenomena were photographed with a MOTICAM 2300 camera. Both equipment were
Xiamen, China.
manufactured by Motic®, Xiamen, China.
Also, micro scratch tests were conducted in a scratch tester unit (CSM-Instruments, Needham, MA,
Also, micro scratch tests were conducted in a scratch tester unit (CSM-Instruments, Needham,
USA) (Figure 8A) using a sphere-conical diamond indenter with a radius of 200 µm. Tests were done
MA, USA) (Figure 8A) using a sphere-conical diamond indenter with a radius of−1200 µm. Tests were
under a linearly increasing load, from 0 to 70 N, at a loading rate of 10 mm·min and in an interval
done under a linearly increasing load, from 0 to 70 N, at a loading rate of 10 mm·min−1 and in an
length of 5 mm, according to the ASTM C1624-05 standard [20]. Figure 8B shows the two different
interval length of 5 mm, according to the ASTM C1624-05 standard [20]. Figures 8 B shows the two
scratches per specimen that were carried out in order to observe the reproducibility of the induced
different scratches per specimen that were carried out in order to observe the reproducibility of the
induced damage. Furthermore, the micro scratch tests were conducted in the longitudinal and
transversal printing direction to observe the main plastic deformation mechanisms induced. Surface
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 9 of 20
damage.
Materials Furthermore,
Materials2019,
2019, 12,xxFOR
12, FORPEERthe
PEER micro scratch tests were conducted in the longitudinal and transversal
REVIEW
REVIEW 99 of
of 21
21
printing direction to observe the main plastic deformation mechanisms induced. Surface damage
damageduring
damage
induced induced
induced during
during
scratch scratch
scratch
tests tests
wastests wasobserved
was
observed observed byaascanning
by
by a desktop desktopscanning
desktop scanning electronmicroscopy
electron microscopy
electron microscopy (SEM)
(SEM)
(SEM) Phenom
Phenom
Phenom
XL XLfrom
XL fromThermoFisher
from ThermoFisher ThermoFisher Scientific(Waltham,
Scientific Scientific
(Waltham, (Waltham, MA,
MA, USA)MA, USA)
USA)
(Figure (Figure8C).
(Figure
8C). 8C).
Figure
Figure 8.8.Micro
Figure8. Microscratch
Micro scratchtest.
scratch test.(A)
test. (A)scratch
(A) scratchtester
scratch testerunit;
tester unit;(B)
unit; (B)specimen;
(B) specimen;(C)
specimen; (C)scanning
(C) scanningelectron
scanning electronmicroscopy
electron microscopy
microscopy
(SEM) ThermoFisher
(SEM)ThermoFisher
(SEM) Scientific
ThermoFisherScientific Phenom
ScientificPhenom XL.
PhenomXL.XL.
2.3. Fatigue Test

2.3.Fatigue
2.3. FatigueTest
Test
To complete this study, it is proposed to analyse, in a second experimental stage, how cylindrical
Tocomplete
To completethis
thisstudy,
study,ititisisproposed
proposedto toanalyse,
analyse,ininaasecond
secondexperimental
experimentalstage,
stage,how
howcylindrical
cylindrical
specimens behave when manufactured through the optimal parameter set found in the previous study,
specimens behave when manufactured through the optimal parameter
specimens behave when manufactured through the optimal parameter set found in the previous set found in the previous
subjected to a rotating fatigue test. This will also allow the comparison with other values previously
study, subjected
study, subjected to
to aa rotating
rotating fatigue
fatigue test.
test. This
This will
will also
also allow
allow the
the comparison
comparison withwith other
other values
values
obtained for the same material using other printing conditions [14].
previouslyobtained
previously obtainedfor forthe
thesame
samematerial
materialusing
usingother
otherprinting
printingconditions
conditions[14].
[14].
The rotating bending fatigue test consists of applying a variable bending moment on a cylindrical
The rotating
The rotating bending
bending fatigue
fatigue test
test consists
consists ofof applying
applying aa variable
variable bending
bending moment
moment on on aa
test piece of known dimensions that rotates on its own axis. In this way, alternative tensile and
cylindricaltest
cylindrical testpiece
pieceofofknown
knowndimensions
dimensionsthat thatrotates
rotateson onits
itsown
ownaxis.
axis.In
Inthis
thisway,
way,alternative
alternativetensile
tensile
compressive stresses are generated in the external fibres in each rotation. The test was carried out
and compressive
and compressive stresses
stresses are
are generated
generated in in the
the external
external fibres
fibres in
in each
each rotation.
rotation. The
The test
test was
was carried
carried
on printed cylindrical specimens like the one shown in Figure 9. For the fabrication of the fatigue
outon
out onprinted
printedcylindrical
cylindricalspecimens
specimenslike likethe
theoneoneshown
shownin inFigure
Figure9. 9.For
Forthe
thefabrication
fabricationof
ofthe
thefatigue
fatigue
specimens, the same 3D printer was used.
specimens,the
specimens, thesame
same3D 3Dprinter
printerwas wasused.
used.
Figure 9. Dimensions of the test specimens used in the fatigue test.

Figure9.9.Dimensions
Figure Dimensionsof
ofthe
thetest
testspecimens
specimensused
usedin
inthe
thefatigue
fatiguetest.
test.
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 10 of 20
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Four-Point Bending Test

Table 5 shows the results, for each printing configuration, of the stress-strain curve as the average
results of the five repetitions and their standard deviation.
Table 5. Average results and standard deviations of the material properties. E: Young’s modulus,
Rp0.2 : yield strength, σmax : maximum strength, ε: maximum deformation, Std: standard deviation for
each property.
Rp0.2 σmax
# E (GPa) Std Std Std ε Std
(MPa) (MPa)
1 2.36 0.18 53.8 3.19 64.2 8.18 4.72 1.16
2 3.06 0.07 83.5 0.95 96.0 2.98 4.90 0.64
3 1.79 0.03 11.8 1.74 11.8 1.74 0.70 0.13
4 2.74 0.03 69.7 4.10 79.0 4.97 4.68 1.10
5 1.23 0.10 7.92 1.58 7.96 1.58 0.81 0.24
6 2.71 0.03 60.1 3.09 80.8 2.36 5.85 0.50
7 0.59 0.05 6.71 1.76 6.7 1.76 1.20 0.22
8 2.78 0.11 60.6 3.45 64.1 4.43 3.37 0.32
9 2.81 0.06 65.1 3.61 79.2 6.11 4.91 0.59
10 2.29 0.29 37.1 4.04 37.1 4.04 1.64 0.05
11 3.34 0.19 67.9 3.16 83.7 4.53 4.57 0.17
12 3.69 0.08 95.3 4.26 120.0 1.38 5.34 0.20
13 2.41 0.07 50.2 6.97 72.3 8.23 5.72 0.18
14 3.45 0.33 85.0 3.67 104.6 2.16 4.98 0.17
15 2.07 0.21 26.2 3.34 26.1 3.34 1.49 0.41
16 3.19 0.06 73.4 1.15 83.8 3.87 4.09 0.36
17 1.20 0.09 10.6 1.60 10.6 1.60 1.02 0.13
18 1.44 0.27 26.7 3.25 35.7 4.11 5.09 0.74
19 3.61 0.07 87.4 2.53 95.5 7.35 3.73 0.72
20 3.02 0.27 43.4 3.64 43.5 3.64 1.50 0.12
21 3.23 0.02 70.8 3.51 93.1 4.52 5.09 0.22
22 2.33 0.25 21.3 3.22 21.4 3.22 0.53 0.60
23 2.85 0.19 63.4 6.54 86.4 3.27 5.36 0.64
24 3.70 0.14 90.8 2.28 109.5 4.70 5.11 0.95
25 1.90 0.08 44.0 5.16 60.4 4.43 6.21 0.28
26 2.96 0.15 75.2 3.49 86.7 8.68 4.54 1.56
27 2.30 0.15 25.3 6.61 25.4 6.61 0.91 0.61
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the dataset included in the Taguchi
experimental array, for each parameter that describes the mechanical behaviour of the evaluated
specimens. To validate the statistical relevance of the parameters included in the model, the p-value
associated with the ANOVA was compared to a significance level of 5%.
One of the first observations derived from the experimental testing is that specimens printed
in the Z-axis direction presented fragile failure, as their failure mode was governed by the lower
resistance between layers deposited vertically, thus with a lower neck growth area between them. For
that reason, the elastic limit (Rp0.2 ) associated with these specimens was by default considered equal to
their maximum strength (σmax ). This approach was necessary to perform the statistical analysis, and
allows the brittle behaviour to be included in the statistical analysis.
Alongside the yield limit and the maximum strength, the Young’s modulus and maximum
deformation were considered as response variables to analyse the influence of the different parameters
in the statistical study. The following subsections describe the influence of the different parameters on
the considered mechanical properties.
parameters in the statistical study. The following subsections describe the influence of the different
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 11 of 20
parameters on the considered mechanical properties.
3.1.1. Young’s Modulus

specimens oriented along the Z-axis direction present the lowest
As a predictable result, the specimens
orientation defined as the
rigidity of all, owing to their described brittle behaviour, and thus can be orientation
most influential parameter (Figure 10A). The highest deformation module in the elastic regime is
defined by an orientation of the fibres along the Y-axis direction, because of the different pattern
direction with
deposited in this direction with regards
regards to
to the
the X–axis
X--axisorientation.
orientation.
Figure 10.
Figure Main effects
10. Main effects of
of (A)
(A) means
means and
and (B)
(B) interactions
interactions on
on Young’s
Young's modulus.
modulus.
On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, anan increase
increase in in the
the value
value of Young’s modulus
of Young's modulus occursoccurs whenwhen the
the filament
filament width
width
increases,
increases, probably because of the higher inertia of the single filaments that restrict bending.
probably because of the higher inertia of the single filaments that restrict bending. This
This
effect
effect of higher inertia of the surface is also achieved by decreasing the layer height, as it derives in
of higher inertia of the surface is also achieved by decreasing the layer height, as it derives in aa
higher
higher value
value of of Young’s
Young'smodulus.
modulus.This Thiseffect
effectcould
couldbe berelated
relatedtotothethefact
factthat
thatporosity
porosityisisdecreased
decreased byby
a
lower layer height (and, complementarily, stiffness is increased). Following
a lower layer height (and, complementarily, stiffness is increased). Following the same line, the the same line, the printing
velocity
printingproves
velocity toproves
increase tothe stiffness
increase theofstiffness
the specimen
of the as it is lower,
specimen as itprobably
is lower,again by the
probably increase
again of
by the
the overall
increase of stiffness.
the overall stiffness.
Of
Of all the
all the tested
tested parameters,
parameters, both both thethe fill
fill density
density and
and the
the infill
infill pattern
pattern hadhad aa negligible
negligible impact
impact
(p-value of the ANOVA test > 5%) and no clear trend, which seems
(p-value of the ANOVA test > 5%) and no clear trend, which seems to disagree with the previous to disagree with the previous
analysis.
analysis. However,
However, itit mustmustbe beconsidered
consideredthat thatthethesmall
smallsize
sizeofofthe specimens
the specimens was
wasderived
derived in in
a lack of
a lack
filling, and the geometry was composed basically of boundary layers that
of filling, and the geometry was composed basically of boundary layers that have relegated the infillhave relegated the infill to a
second plane
to a second in this
plane in experimental
this experimental campaign.
campaign.
Figure
Figure 10B shows that no significantinteraction
10B shows that no significant interactionamongamongparameters
parameters is is
observed,
observed,as as
thethe
p-values
p-valuesof
them
of themareare
all all
greater
greaterthan 0.05.
than 0.05.
3.1.2. Yield Strength
3.1.2. Yield Strength
Figure 11 shows the influence of the printing parameters on the elastic limit. Again, the layer
Figure 11 shows the influence of the printing parameters on the elastic limit. Again, the layer
height and the infill pattern do not show a significant influence. The effect of the other parameters
height and the infill pattern do not show a significant influence. The effect of the other parameters on
on the response follows the same pattern as in the case of Young’s modulus. The most influential
the response follows the same pattern as in the case of Young's modulus. The most influential
parameter again is the printing orientation. With the Y-axis orientation, the highest elastic limit is
parameter again is the printing orientation. With the Y-axis orientation, the highest elastic limit is
achieved, while the Z-axis orientation shows the lowest one. In addition, with the X-axis orientation,
achieved, while the Z-axis orientation shows the lowest one. In addition, with the X-axis orientation,
an intermediate value is achieved with respect to the other printing orientations. The layer height has
an intermediate value is achieved with respect to the other printing orientations. The layer height has
an influence somewhat higher than that of the filament width, but in the opposite way; as the layer
an influence somewhat higher than that of the filament width, but in the opposite way; as the layer
height decreases or the filament width increases, the elastic limit increases. Although the printing
height decreases or the filament width increases, the elastic limit increases. Although the printing
velocity has low relevance, a trend is observed: when the velocity decreases, the elastic limit increases.
velocity has low relevance, a trend is observed: when the velocity decreases, the elastic limit increases.
When analysing the interactions between the different parameters, it is concluded that there is no
significant interaction, as the p-values in each case are much higher than 0.05. The same happens for
the rest of the parameters. This is positive because it means that the influence of the parameters on the
response is independent of each other, at least in the ranges of values analysed.
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 12 of 20
Figure 11.
Figure Main effects
11. Main effects of
of means
means for
for yield
yield strength.
strength.
3.1.3. Maximum Strength

When analysing the interactions between the different parameters, it is concluded that there is
The behaviour
no significant of the parameters
interaction, follow
as the p-values the same
in each case pattern
are much as higher
the elastic
thanlimit case
0.05. The(Figure 12). The
same happens
layer orientation is still the parameter with the greatest influence on the mean value, followed
for the rest of the parameters. This is positive because it means that the influence of the parameters by the
layer
on theheight, filament
response width, andof
is independent printing velocity,
each other, withinless
at least theinfluence.
ranges of Fill density
values and infill pattern do
analysed.
Materials
not have2019, 12, x FOR PEER
a statistically REVIEW influence.
significant 13 of 21
3.1.3. Maximum Strength
The behaviour of the parameters follow the same pattern as the elastic limit case (Figure 12). The
layer orientation is still the parameter with the greatest influence on the mean value, followed by the
layer height, filament width, and printing velocity, with less influence. Fill density and infill pattern
do not have a statistically significant influence.
Figure 12. Main effects of means for maximum strength.

3.1.4. Maximum Deformation

Figure 13 reveals that the only significant parameter is orientation. The X-axis and Y-axis
orientations cause the greatest elongation and the Z-axis orientation causes the smallest one. Filament
width, layer height, fill density, and printing velocity do not present any pattern or proportionality.
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 13 of 20
3.1.4. Maximum Deformation

Figure 13 reveals
reveals that
that the
the only
only significant
significant parameter orientation. The X-axis and Y-axis
parameter isis orientation.
orientations
orientations cause the greatest elongation
greatest elongation and and the Z-axis orientation
orientation causes
causes the smallest
smallest one.
one. Filament
width,
width, layer
layerheight,
height,fill
filldensity,
density,and
andprinting
printingvelocity
velocitydodo
notnot
present anyany
present pattern or proportionality.
pattern The
or proportionality.
honeycomb
The honeycomb fill pattern produces
fill pattern the least
produces theeffect.
leastRegarding the signalthe
effect. Regarding S–N, the only
signal S–N,robust parameter
the only robust
is again theisorientation.
parameter again the orientation.
Figure 13.
Figure Main effects
13. Main effects of
of means
means for
for maximum
maximum deformation.
deformation.
3.1.5. Summary
In Table 6, a summary of the analysis of the influence of each parameter under study on the
different mechanical properties studied can be seen. More green checks indicate that the factor is
more influential on the response. Three checks indicates that p-value < 0.01, two checks indicate that
0.01 < p-value < 0.04, one check indicates that 0.04 < p-value < 0.05. The red cross is assigned to the
parameters that are not statistically significant (p-value > 0.05). The orientation is the most influential
parameter in the zone of both the elastic and plastic behaviour of the pieces tested. The layer height
and the filament width are also parameters that influence all of the properties studied, except for the
maximum deformation. The same thing happens with printing velocity, but to a lesser extent. In
Table 7, the optimum levels of each parameter are shown.
different
more influentialmechanical on the properties
more response.
parameter influential instudied
Three
the on
zone different
can
the
checks
more be
ofresponse.
both seen.
mechanical
influential
indicates More
the Threeelasticthat
on the green
properties
checks
more
p-value
maximum
and checks
response.
influential
indicates
plastic < 0.01, studied
indicate
Three
deformation.
behaviour two
that
on the can
checks
checks that
p-value be
response.
of The
thethe
seen.
indicates
indicate factor
<pieces
0.01,
same More
Three two
thatis checks
that
thing
tested. green
checks
p-valueThechecks
happens indicates
indicate
layer< 0.01,
with indicate
heighttwo
that
that thatv
check
printingp-val
parameters
0.01 < p-value
parameters
parameter inthat
that
the are
< 0.04,
are
zone not
parameters
0.01
one
not statistically
< both
parameters check
p-value
statistically
parameter
of the
inthat
thatthe significant
indicates are
<elastic
0.04,
significant
are zone not
parameters
0.01
notone
that statistically
parameters (p-value
< both
check
p-value
0.04
statistically
parameter
and of (p-value
plastic <in
thethat
that >significant
indicates
p-value are
<elastic0.05).
0.04,
>significant
are
behaviour
the 0.05).
zone not
parameters
<and
notone
and The
that
Thestatistically
0.05.
parameter
ofofthe (p-value
check
both orientation
0.04 The
plastic
the <in
filament
statistically
(p-value
orientation that
indicates
pieces
the red
p-value
behaviour
the >significant
elastic are
0.05).
crossisnot
width
>significant
0.05).
is
tested.
zone <the
thethat
and The
of statistically
most
is0.05.
are
The
ofmost
The (p-value
both orientation
assigned
0.04The
also
(p-value influential
orientation
plastic
the layer <parameters
red
p-value
influential
pieces
the to >>significant
behaviour
height
elastic 0.05).
cross
the is the
0.05).
is
tested. <the
and The
is0.05.
The most
that
most
of
The (p-value
orientation
assigned The influential
influence
orientation
plastic
the redto
influential
layerpieces >cross
behaviour
height 0.05).
the is the
all
is
tested. the
ofisThem
as
the
m
of
Th
more
0.01 <influential
p-value < on 0.04,the
0.01 response.
one < check
p-value Three
indicates
< 0.04, checks
more
0.01
one
that <influential
indicates
check
p-value
0.04 < indicates
p-value
< that
on0.04, the
p-value
0.01<
Table
and the filament width are also parameters that influence all of the properties studied, except for response.
one
that
0.05.
< check <
p-value
0.04
7, The
the 0.01,
< Three
indicates
red
p-value
optimum< two 0.04,
crosschecks
checks
<one
that
is
0.05.
levels indicates
indicate
assigned
check
0.04 The
of <
eachindicates
red
p-value
to that
that
cross
the
parameter p-value
< that
is0.05.
assigned
0.04
are <
The 0.01,
< red
shown. two
p-value
to cross
the checks
< is0.0a
parameter
parameters
parameter
and the in
that
in
filament the
the arezone
zone
widthparameter
not
and of
parameters
of are both
statistically
parameter both
the also the
in
thethat
in
filament the
theelastic
elastic
parameters zone
significant
are zone
width parameter
not and of
parameters
parameter
and
and of are both
plastic
statistically
(p-value
both
thatplastic
the also the
in
that
the
in
influence
filament behaviour
the
elastic
behaviour
the
elastic
parameters zone
>significant
are0.05).
zone
width
all parameter
not and
and
and
of of
The
maximum
of of
of
the
are
thatboth
plastic
the
statistically
(p-value
both
plastic
the the pieces
orientationthe
in
pieces
the
properties
also
influence
filament behaviour
the
elastic
behaviour
elastic
parameters tested.
zone
>significant
deformation. 0.05).
is the
tested.
Table
width
all and
and
studied,
of of
Theof
ofThe
The
6.
the
are
thatboth
mostplastic
the
plastic
the layer
(p-value
The layer
Significance
except pieces
orientationthe
pieces
properties
also
influence behaviour
influential
same height
elastic
>thing
behaviour
height
parameters
for tested.
0.05).
is the
tested.
value
the
all and
studied,
ofofTheof
The
most
happens
of
The
the
the
that plastic
the
the layer
layer
except pieces
orientation
pieces
parameters
properties
influence behaviour
influential
with height
height
for tested.
is
tested.
with
the
all the
printing
studied,
of of
Thv
mo
Th
resp
the
0.01 < p-value
parameters that < 0.04, onestatistically
are maximum
not
parameters checkdeformation.
indicates are0.01
thatsignificant that
not <The
parameters p-value
0.04
statistically
(p-value < that
same p-value
<>significant
0.04,
are
0.05).
thing <one
not 0.05.
parameters
The check Thewith
statistically
happens (p-value
orientation indicates
red>significant
that cross
are
0.05).
isnot
printing that
the isThe assigned
0.04
statistically
most (p-value < p-value
orientation
velocity, influentialtobut the
>significant
0.05).
is <a0.05.
tothe The most
lesser The
(p-value
orientation red>cross
influential
extent. 0.05).
is the
In isTheas
m
and
parameter
and
maximum the filament
the filament width
indeformation.
the zone
width and
parameter
and
maximum are
ofare the
both
the
The also
filament
also the
filament
same parameters
indeformation.
the
elastic
parameters width
zone
width
thing and
parameter
and
and
maximum are
that
ofare the
both
that
the
happens The also
plasticinfluence
filament
also the
influence
filament
same parameters
inwith
behaviour
the
elastic
parameters
deformation. width
alland
zone
width
thing all
printing ofhappens
and of
Table
of
maximumthe
ofare
that
the
arethe
both
that The properties
also
plastic
the influence
filament
pieces
the
7,properties
alsothe
influence
velocity, same parameters
behaviour
elastic
optimum
parameters
with
deformation.
but width
thingall
studied,
tested.
all ofhappens
and
studied,
printing of ofthe
are
that
The
alevels
the except
properties
also
plastic
thatthe influence
layer
of
except pieces
properties
influence parameters
for
behaviour
each height
for the
all
studied,
tested.
parameter
the
all ofhappens
studied,
Intoof the
ofthat
The
the theexcept
properties
influence
layer
are
except pieces
propertiesshown.for
height
for the
all
studied,
tested.
the of The
studied, the
parameters
parameter in thattheare zonenot
Table statistically
parameter
of both
7, thethe inoptimum
thesignificant
elastic zone parameters
parameter
andof both
levels (p-value
plastic
of the that
in
each >are
behaviour
the
elastic0.05).
zone
parameter not Thestatistically
parameter
and of
ofboth orientation
plastic
the
arepieces the
inbehaviour
shown. the
elastic isto
significant
Table
tested.
zone theand 6.
of
lesser
of
The
The
mostvelocity,
(p-value
Significance
both
plastic
thelayer
same
extent.
with
influential
Elastic
pieces
thebehaviour>but
height
thing
elastic
printing
0.05).
Properties
value
tested. and
aThe
of of
lesser
the
The
velocity,
orientation
plastic
the layer
extent.
parameters
with
pieces
but
behaviour
height
printing
In
isto
with
tested.thearesp
lesv
mo
of
Th
maximum
and
maximum
Table the7,filament
the deformation.
width
deformation.
optimum maximum
and are
maximum
Table the
levels The
The also
7, of
thesame
filament
samedeformation.
parametersthing
deformation.
each
optimum width
thing
parameter maximum
and happens
are
that
maximum the
happens
Table
levels The
The also
7,
are of
thesame
influence
filament
samewith
deformation.
parameters
with thing
deformation.
shown.
each
optimum printing
thingall maximum
width
printing
parameter happens
ofhappens
Table the
are
that
levels The
velocity,
The properties
also
velocity,
7,
are of
the same
influence
samewith
deformation.
parameters
with
shown.
each
optimum but
but thing
printing
thingall toofhappens
studied,
printing
to
parameter ahappens
alevels
thelesser
that The
velocity,
except
lesserpropertiessame
influence
velocity,
are of extent.
with
extent.
with
shown.
each forbutbutthing
printing
the Into
all toofahappens
studied,
printing
In
parameter athe lesser
velocity,
lesserexcept
properties
velocity,
are extent.
with but
forbut
extent.
shown. printing
theInto
to aa les
studied,
In lesv e
parameter
and the filament in the zone width and ofare both
the also the
filament elastic
parameters width parameter
andare
and plastic
that
the also inparameters
influence
filament behaviour
the zone width
allandofof of
theboth
are
thatthe
the pieces
the
Factor
properties
also
influence
filament elastic
parameters tested.
width
all and
studied,
of 6. The
the
areplastic
that layer
Young’s
except
properties
also
influence behaviour
height
parameters
forvalue the
all ofof
Yield
studied, the
thatthe
Strengt
except pieces
properties
influence fortested.
the
all of The
Maxim
studied, the
Table 7,
maximum
Table 7, the
thedeformation.
optimum
optimum Table
levels
maximum
Table The
levels 7, of
7, of
the
same
the each
optimum
deformation.
each
optimum parameter
thing
parameter Table
levels
maximum
happens
Table
levels The 7,
7,are
are of
ofthe
same
the shown.
each
withoptimum
deformation.
shown.
each
optimum parameter
thing
printing
parameter Table
levels
happens
levelsThe 7,
are
velocity,
are of
the
of sameshown.
each
withoptimum
shown.
each butthing Table
parameter
printing alevels
to happens
parameter Significance
lesser are of
velocity,
are Elastic
shown.
eachbut
extent.
with
shown. Into aoflesser
Properties
parameter
printing the parameters
are
velocity, shown.
extent. butIn with
to a resples
and
maximum
Materials 2019,the12,filament width
deformation.
3859 areThe
maximum alsosame parameters
deformation. Table
thing and that
6.
maximum the
happens The influence
filament
Significance same
with
deformation. width
thingall maximum
value
printingofof the
are
the
happensThe properties
also
parameters
velocity, parameters
same
with
deformation.
but studied,
thingwith
printing
to happens that
Modulus
arespect except
lesser
The influence
velocity, to
same the
extent.
with for but the
(E)answers. all
thing ofhappens
printing
Into14 athe
of (Rp
lesserproperties
0.2) extent.
20velocity, withbut studied,
Strength
printing
Into a lesv e
Table 7, the optimum Table
Table levels 7, oftheeach
6. Significance optimum parameter
value
Table Table
levels
of6.the 7,areof
theshown.
Significance each
parametersoptimum parameter
withlevels
value
Table ofrespect
6.the areofto
Significance Factor
shown.
each
parameters parameter
the answers. value
Table
withofrespect
6.theYoung’s
are
Significance shown.
parameters
to the answers. value
withYield theStrengt
ofrespect parameters
to the answers. Maxim
with resp
maximum
Table 7, thedeformation.
optimum Table The
levels 7, ofsame
the each thing
optimum parametermaximum
happens
Table
levels 7,are of
the with
deformation.
shown.
each
optimum printing
parameter TablelevelsThe
velocity,
7,are of same
the Layer
shown.
each but
optimum thing to happens
parameter alevels
lesser are of Elastic
extent.
with
shown.
each Properties
printing
In
parameter velocity,
are shown. but to a les
Table 6.
Table 6. Significance
Significance value value
Tableof
Table of6.
6.the
the
Significance
parameters
Significance
parameters
Elastic value value
Table
withof
Table
with
Properties ofrespect
6.the
the
Significance
respect
6. parameters
Significance to the
parameters
to the answers.
answers.
value
Table
valuewithof
with of respect
6.the
Significance
respect
the
Modulus parameters
to the
parameters
Plastic to the answers.
value
answers.
Properties
(E) withof
with respect
the 0.2
respect
(Rp parameters
to the
)to the answers.
answers.
with resp
Strength
Table 7, the optimum levels ofElastic each parameter Table 7,are
Properties the shown.
optimum
Elastic Properties levelsPlastic Factor
ofElastic
each
orientation parameter
Properties Properties Young’s
areElastic
Plastic shown. Properties Yield Strengt
Properties Plastic Properties Maxim
Table 6. Significance Factorvalue Tableof6.the Significance
parameters
Young’s value
Table
with ofrespect
6.the
Significance
Yield Strengt parameters
to the
Layer answers.
value
with of
Maximum respect
the parameters
to the answers. with respect
Maximum to the answers.
TableTable
Factor 6. SignificanceYoung’s Elastic
Elastic
6. Significance Factor value Properties
Properties
value
Table ofofthe
Yield 6.the Strengt Elastic
Elastic
parameters
Young’s
Significance FactorProperties
parameters Properties
valuewith
Table
withYield
Maximum the Plastic
Plastic
6.respect
Young’s
ofrespect Strengt
SignificanceElastic
Elastic
parameters
to to
Factor
the
Layer Properties
Properties
the Properties
Properties
answers. answers.
value
Table
withYield
Maximum Modulus
ofrespect
6.the Plastic
Plastic
Young’s
Strengt
SignificanceElastic
parameters
to the Properties
Properties
Properties
(E) answers.
value
with Yield
Maximum
ofrespect Plastic
thePlastic
(Rp 0.2)to the
Strengt
parameters Properties
Properties
Strength
answers.Maxim
with resp
Modulus (E) Table (Rp )to the answers.
orientation
0.2 Strength (σ max) Deformation (ε)
Factor Table 6.Modulus
Factor Young’sElastic
Young’s
Significance Factor
Factor Properties
(E)value Yield
of Modulus
Yield the
(Rp 0.2Elastic
Young’s
Strengt
Young’s
Strengt Factor
)Factor
parameters (E)Properties
with Yield
Maximum
Yieldrespect
Maximum
Strength Plastic
0.2Elastic
Young’s
6.ModulusStrengt
Significance
(Rp Young’s
Strengt
(σ max ) Properties
Factor
Layer
)Height (E)value Properties
Yield
Maximum
Deformation
Strengthof Modulus
Yield
Maximum the
(Rp Plastic
Young’s
Strengt
parameters
Strengt
(σ
0.2max) (ε) ) Properties with
(E) Deformation Yield
Maximum
Strength respect
Maximum (Rp Plastic
Strengt
(σ0.2to) (ε)
max ) Properties
the answers. Maxim
Maxim
Deformat
Strength
Elastic Properties Elastic PropertiesPlastic Elastic Properties Properties Plastic Elastic Properties
PropertiesPlastic Properties
Factor
Layer Modulus
Young’s
Modulus Layer
FactorElastic
Layer (E) Properties
(E) Yield Modulus
(Rp
Young’s
Modulus
(Rp 0.2))Factor
Strengt
0.2 Layer (E) Strength
(E) Strength
Yield
Maximum Modulus
(Rp (σ
Young’s
Strengt
Modulus
(Rp (σ ) Layer
)max ))Plastic
orientation
0.2
0.2 max Layer
Filament (E) Deformation
(E) Properties
Deformation
Strength
Yield
Maximum
Strength Modulus
(Rp
(Rp (σ
Strengt
(σ ) (ε)
)max
0.2max
0.2 (ε))) (E) Deformation
Deformation
Strength
Maximum
Strength (Rp(σ (σ ) (ε)
0.2max
max(ε)
)) Deformat
Strength
Maximu
Deformat
Factor Elastic
Young’s Factor Properties Yield Young’s
Strengt Factor Yield
Maximum Plastic
Young’s
StrengtElastic
Factor PropertiesProperties
Yield
Maximum Young’s
Strengt YieldPlastic
Maximum StrengtProperties Maxim
Factor
Layer
Layer
orientation Young’s
Modulus orientation
Modulus
Layer
Layer
orientation(E) Yield
Modulus
(Rp 0.2 )Strengt
Layer
Layer
orientation (E) Strength Maximum
Modulus
(Rp (σ ) Height
) (E) Deformation
Layer
orientation
0.2 max width Strength (Rp Maximum
(σ ) (ε)
0.2max ) Deformation
Strength (σmax (ε)) Deformati
Factor Young’s
Modulus (E) Layer (E) Yield Strengt
Modulus
(Rp )
(Rp0.2 )
0.2 Factor (E) Maximum
Strength Young’s
Modulus
(Rp (σ
Strength (σmax )
0.2 )
Filament
max ) (E) Yield
Maximum
Deformation
Strength (Rp Strengt
Modulus (σ
Deformation (ε)
0.2 )
max(ε) ) (E) Maximum
Deformation
Strength (Rp (σ0.2 )
max(ε)) Maximu
Deformat
Strength
orientation
Layer
orientation
Layer orientation
Layer
orientation
Layer orientation
Layer
orientation
Layer Strength orientation
Height
Layer
Printing
Layer Modulus Layer
Height (E) (Rp0.2) Layer Modulus (σmax ) (E) Deformation
Layer
width (Rp0.2) (ε) Strength (σmax) Deformati
LayerorientationLayer
Layer
Height
orientation Layer
orientation
Layer
Height Layer
orientation
Layer
Height Layer
Filament
Height
velocity
Layer
orientation orientation
Filament Layer
orientation orientation
Printing
Height
Layer
Height
Filament Height
Layer
Height
Filament Height
Layer
Height
Filament Height
width
Filament
Layer orientation
Layer
Height Layer
width orientation
Layer Infill Layer
velocitydensity
Filament
Height
Filament
width Filament
Height
Filament
width Filament
Height
Filament
width Filament
Printing
width
Layer
Height Height
Printing Layer
Height Height
Filament width
Filament
width
width
Printing width
Filament
width
Printing width
Filament
width
Printing Infill width
velocity
Printingdensity
pattern
Height
Filament Filament
velocity Height
Filament Filament
Printing
width
Printing
velocity Printing
width
Printing
velocity Printing
width
Printing
velocity Infill Printing
velocitydensity
Printing Filament
velocity
width width Filament
width Infill width pattern
velocity
Printing
velocity Infill
Printingdensity
velocity
velocity velocity
Printing
velocity velocity Table 7. Parameters’ level to maximize the r
Infill
Infill width
densitydensity
Printing Infill
Printingdensity Infill width
Printingdensity Infill Printingdensity
velocity velocity velocity Infill pattern
Infill
Infill
Infill Printing
patterndensity
density
velocity Infill
Infill
Infill density
density
pattern
velocity Infill
Infill
Printing density
density
velocity Infill velocitydensity
Infill
Infill pattern
density Infill
Infill pattern
density Infill
Infill pattern
density Infill
Factor pattern Young’s Table 7. Parameters’ Yield Strength level to maximizeMaxi the r
velocity
Infill pattern
pattern Infill pattern
pattern velocity
Infill patternpattern pattern Modulus (E) (Rp0,2) Tensio
Infill density Infill density Infill density Infill density Young’s Table 7. Parameters’ Yield Strength level to maximizeMaxi the r
Infill density
pattern Table Infill Parameters’ level
7. pattern Table
Infill todensity
maximize
7. Parameters’
pattern the Factor
response.
level
Filament to maximize the response.
Infill pattern Table 7.
Infill pattern Parameters’ level
Table to
Infill pattern7.
maximize
Parameters’ the response.
level
Table to 7.
maximize
Parameters’
Infill pattern Young’s Modulus
the0.6 response.
level
Table
mm (E)
to 7.
maximize
Parameters’ the (Rp
0.6 0,2) to maximize
response.
level
mm Tensio
the
0.6r
width Yield Strength Maxi
Infill pattern Young’s Table
Table Modulus7. Parameters’
7. Parameters’ Young’s
Yield level
Table
level
Table
Infill topattern
to
Strength 7.
7.maximize
Parameters’
maximize
Parameters’ Yield the Factor
theFilament
response.
level
Table
response.
level
Table
Strength
Maximum to7.
to 7.
maximize
Parameters’
maximize
Parameters’ theMaximum
the
Maximum response.
level
Table
response.
level to 7.
to maximize
Parameters’
maximize the
the response.
level to maximize the r
response.
Maximum
Factor Factor
Young’s Yield Young’s
Strength Yield Maximum
Young’s
Layer Strength Height Modulus
Yield MaximumMaximum
Young’s
0.6
0.1 mm(E)
Strength Yield (Rp
Maximum
0.6
0.1Maximum 0,2)
Strength
mm Tensio
Maxi M
0.6
0.1
Factor Table
Factor (E) 7. Parameters’ Modulus level
Table
(Rpto
Factor (E)
0.2 7.
maximize
) Parameters’ the (Rp response.
level
Table
0,2) to
Factor
width
Tension (σ 7.
maximize
maxParameters’
) Tension the response.
level(σtomax
Deformation maximize
) (ε) the response. (ε)
Deformation
Young’s
Young’s
Modulus Table (E)7. Parameters’ Yield
Yield Young’s
Modulus
(Rp Strength
Young’s
Strength
0,2) (E)
level
Table to 7. maximize
Parameters’ Yield
Yield Maximum
Young’s
Maximum
Young’s
Tension
Modulus
the(Rp
Infill Strength
Strength
Filament
response.
level
Table (σ
)
density
0,2 (E)
to
max 7. )
maximize
Parameters’ Yield
Yield Maximum
Maximum
Tensionthe Maximum
Young’s
Strength
Maximum
Strength
Deformation
Modulus (Rp response.
75%level
Table
0,2 (σ
) (E)
to
max 7. ) (ε)
maximize
Parameters’ Yield Maximum
Tension Maximum
Maximum Strength
Maximum
Deformation
the (Rp
75% (σ
response.
level
0,2 ) to
max ) (ε)
maximize Maxi
Tensio
Defo
the M
Ma r
75
Factorwidth
Factor
Filament Factor
Factor
Filament
0.6 mm Factor
Factor
0.6 Layer Factor Height 0.6
0.1 mmmm 0.6
0.1 mm 0.6
0.1
Filament Modulus
Young’s
Modulus Table
Filament (E)
(E) 7. Parameters’ Modulus
Yield (Rp
Young’s
Modulus
(Rp
0.6 level
mm0,2))mm
Strength
Filament
0,2 (E)
(E)
to maximize Tension
YieldModulus
Tension
Modulus
the (Rp
Maximum
Young’s
(Rp
0.6 0.6
Strength
0,2(σ
response.
Table
width
mm
Filament
Printing
0,2 )mm
)(σ (E)
(E)
max
max 7.))Parameters’ Tension
Yield Deformation
Modulus
Maximum
Tension (Rp
Maximum
Deformation
(Rp
0.6 0.2
Strength
level )(σ
0,2(σ
mm
0,2 ) to(E)
max
max )) (ε)
(ε) Tension
maximize Tension
Deformation
Maximum(Rp
Maximum
Deformation
the (σ
0,2(σ
response.
0.2 )mm max)) (ε)
max (ε) Tensio DefoMa
Defor
Factor 0.6Factor
Young’s
width
mmmm Yield 0.6
0.6 Factor
Young’s
Strength
mm
mmmm Yield Maximum
Young’s
0.6Strength
Infill
0.6 mm
mmdensity Yield Maximum
0.6Maximum
Young’s
0.6 Strength
75%
0.2
mm
mm Yield Maximum
Maximum
Strength
75% Maxi Ma75
200.1mm/s ) mm 200.6
0.6
0.1mm/s
0.2
mm
mm mm 0.6
20
0.1m
0
Layer Height 0.1 0.1 0.1 mm 0.2 mm
Filament
Filament
Factor
width Modulus Filament
Filament
Factor
width (E) Modulus
(Rp 0,2) (E)
Filament
Filament
Factor
width Tension
Modulus
(Rp
Layer 0,2(σ
Filament
Factor
width
Velocity )Height
max)
(E) Tension
Deformation
(Rp mm
0,2 (σ max) (ε) Tension
Deformation mm (σ max) (ε) Defor
Infill density Young’s
0.6
0.6 mm
Modulus
Layer mm 75% (E)
Height Yield 0.6
0.6
0.6
Modulus
0.1 Strength
(Rpmm mm
mm
0,275%
) (E) Maximum
Young’s
0.6
0.6
0.6
Tension
Modulus
(Rp
0.1 mm
mmmm
Printing
0,275%
(σ
) (E) max) Yield
Tension Maximum
0.6
0.6 Strength
0.6
Deformation
Modulus (Rp
0.1 0.2
mm
0.2
mmmm 75%
0,2 mm
)mm
(σ max) (ε)
(E) Maximum
Tension0.6
0.60.2
0.6
Deformation
(Rp 0.2
mm
mm
mm
0,2(σ mm
)mm max) (ε) TensioMa
0.600
Defor
LayerFactor
width
Filament
width
Printing Height
Velocity Modulus Layer
0.1 width
Filament
width
mm
20 Height
mm/s Layer
0.1
0.1 Factor
width
Filament
width
mm
mm
20 Height 0.1width
Infill
Layer
0.1 mm
mm
Layerdensity
Height 20
0.1
0.175%
mm/s
0.2
mm
mm mm (ε) Tension 200.1 75%
0.1 mm/s
0.2
mm
mm mm 20
0.1 75m
0
Filament 0.6 mm
Filament
Infill (E)
density (Rp
0.6
0.6 mm0,2)mm/s
mm
Filament
75% Tension
Modulus
0.6
0.6 20
mm
mm
Filament
Velocity
75%
mm/s
(σ max)
(E) Deformation
(Rp
0.6
0.6 0.2
Y-75%mm30
0,2)mm
mm
axis
mm/s 0.6
Y- 0.2
mm75%
axis (σ
mm max) Defor Y-0.
Layer
Layer width
Infill
Layer Height
Height
density
Orientation Layer
0.1
Layer
0.1
0.6
Infill75%mm
width
mm
Y- Height
Height
density
axis Layer
0.1
0.1
Layer
0.1
0.6
0.6
Infill75%
75%mm
width
mmmm Height
Height
density
Y- axis Layer
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.6
Infill
75%
75% mm
mm
Printing
mmmm
Orientation Height
density
Y- axis 0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.6
75%0.2
mm
0.2
75%mmmm
mm
75%
X- mm
mm
axis 0.1
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.675%0.2
0.2
75% mm
mm
mm75% mm
mm 0.1
0.6 00
75
Filament
width width
Printing Filament
width width
Layer 20 mm/s 20 mm/s 20 m
LayerInfill
Infill
Infill pattern
density
Height
density
Printing 0.1Honeycomb
0.6
Infill
Layer
Infill75%mm
75% density
Height
density
Printing 0.6
Infill
Layer
0.1
0.1
Infill
20 Honeycomb
75%mm
75%
75%
mm
mm/s density
Height
density
Printing 0.6
0.1
200.1 Honeycomb
Infill
75%
75%mm
mm
Velocity
75%
75%
mm/s
Printingdensity
pattern 0.6
0.1
0.1
20Y-
Honeycomb Rectilinear
0.2
75%
75%mm
75%
75% mm
mm/s75%
75%
axis mm 0.6
Y-75%
0.1
Honeycomb mm
75%
0.2
75%
30 75%
75%
axis mm
mm/s Hone 0.
Y-75
width
Layer Height Layer
0.1
20 mm
Velocity
mm/s Height Layer
200.1
20 width
0.1mm/smm
mm
mm/s Height Layer
0.1
0.1mm/s mm
mm
Orientation
20
20 mm/s Height 200.1
200.1mm/s
0.2
30 mm
mm
mm/s mm/smm 200.1
0.1mm/s
20 0.2
30 mm
mm
mm/s mm/smm 0.13m
20 0
Printing
Infill density
Printing
Velocity Infill Printing
75% density
Printing
Velocity Infill Printing
75%
75% density
Printing
Velocity Printing
75%
75% Layer
Velocity 75%
75% 75% 75% 75%
Layer Height
Infill density 0.1
2075%
20
Infill mm
mm/s
mm/s
Layerdensity Layer
0.1
20
202075%
Infill mm
mm/s
mm/s
mm/s
75% Height
density 200.1
20
2075%
20
Infill mm
mm/s
mm/s
mm/s
mm/s
75% density
pattern 0.1
20
20 20
20Y-
Honeycomb 0.2
mm
mm/s
30
mm/s
mm/s
30
75%
75% axis
mm/s mm
mm/s
mm/s
75% 200.1
20
Y-75%
20
Honeycomb 30
75% mm
mm/s
30
mm/s
axis
mm/s mm/s
mm/s
75% 20
Hone 0.
3m
Y-30
75
Velocity
Printing
Velocity
Layer Velocity
Printing
Velocity
Layer Y- Velocity
Printing
Velocity
axis
Layer Velocity
Orientation
Y-75%Of
axisall parameters,Y-
Layer the
axis lack of influence X- of axisinfill density d
OfInfill
allPrinting
parameters,
density the20 lack
75%
Y- mm/s of influence of
Printing
Orientation
axis 20
20Y-infill
Infill
75%
Y-mm/s
mm/s
Printing
axis
axis density deserves
density 20
20Y-Y-mm/s
mm/s
Printing
axis
axisa special mention. 20
20 Y-75%
Y-mm/s
30
mm/s75% This
mm/s
axis
X-
axis axis observation 20 Y-
Y-75%
30mm/s mm/s
axis
X-axis axis 30X
Y-
Layer
Velocity
Layer
Orientation 20 Layer
Velocity
Layer
mm/s
Orientation 20
20 Layer
Velocity
Layer
mm/s
mm/s
Orientation Infill
20
20
observation Layer
mm/s
mm/s
Orientation pattern has Honeycomb
already 20
20 mm/s
30
mm/s
been mm/s made by Honeycomb
2020mm/s
other 30
mm/s mm/s suchHone
authors, 20 30
as Am
has already Printing
been made by20
Velocity Y-
Y-
other
Infill axis
axis
Velocity authors, such
pattern Y-Printing
Y-
Y- asaxis
axis
axis
Velocity
Honeycomb Admed & Susmel Y-
Y-
Y-
Y-
Honeycomb axis
axis
axis
axis
Of (2019)
Velocity all parameters, [21] and Y-
Y-Y-
Y-
Honeycomb axis
X-axis
axis
X-
axis axis
axis
Andrzejewska
the lack of influence et Y-
Y-
Y-al. axis
X-
X-axis
axis
Rectilinear axis
of infill density X
axis Y- X
d
Orientation
InfillLayer
Orientation
pattern mm/s
Orientation
Layer
Orientation
Honeycomb
Infill pattern 20
Honeycombmm/s
Orientation
Honeycomb
Infill Layer
Orientation pattern 20
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Infillmm/s
Orientation
Andrzejewska pattern et al. 20 mm/s
30
(2017)
Honeycomb
Honeycomb mm/s
Rectilinear [22]. These 20
authors
Honeycomb
Honeycomb mm/s explain that
Rectilinear Hone 30
th
Re
(2017) [22]. Velocity
Layer authors explain Y- axis
Layer that the mechanical Y-
Y-Velocity
axis
axis
Layer properties Y-
Y-
observationaxis
axis
Layer has already beenY-
Y- axis
X-
axis axis made by infill Y- X-
axis axis
other authors, such as A X
InfillThese
pattern
Orientation
Infill pattern Honeycomb
Infill
Orientation
Honeycomb
Infill
Y- axis pattern
pattern Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Infill
Orientation
Honeycomb
Infill
Y-
Y- axis pattern
pattern
axis Y-Of
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Infill
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Y-
specimens of
axis
axis PLA
all
pattern with specimens
parameters, Honeycomb
Honeycomb
a Honeycomb
Honeycomb
100% Y- the with
Rectilinear
Rectilinear
Y- axis
X-
axis
infillaxis a 100%
lackdensity of influence Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Y-
depend Rectilinear
Rectilinear
Y- axis
X-
axis of
axisoninfill three density
Hone
main Red
Re
Y- X
Layer
Orientation Of aspects,
Orientation all parameters, Layer
thethe
Orientation lack of influence Andrzejewska
Orientation of infilletdensity al.filaments,
(2017) deserves [22]. These
a bonding
special authors mention. explain Thisthat th
densityInfill
dependOfpattern on three
all parameters, main
Y- Of
Honeycomb
Infill axis
thepattern
all
lack parameters, namely,
of influence Y- Of
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Infill axis
the pattern
ofall
lack mechanical
infill
parameters,
of densityinfluence Y- Of
observation
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
properties properties
axis
the
deserves
of
alllack has
infill
of parameters, of
already
ofa density
filaments, influence
special Y-
Honeycomb
Honeycomb axis
theX-
been
Rectilinear
the axis
deserves
mention.
oflack
bonding the
made
infill ofaThis byHoneycomb
density
influence
special
forces Y-
other axis
Rectilinearauthors,
deserves
mention.
between of infill layers, such
aThis
density
special
and asRec
bo X
Adm
Orientation
Infill observation has already Orientation
been made byHoneycomb specimens
other authors, withsuch a 100% infill density
asRectilinear
Admed & Susmel depend (2019)on[21] threeandmain
Ofpattern
forces observation
between Of alllayers,
all parameters,
parameters, and
has already
Honeycomb
Infill Of
the
bonding
Of
observationthe
been
pattern
all
lack
all
lack parameters,
of already
forces
parameters,
made
has of
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
Infill
influence
between
influence
byobservation
other Of
the
Of
the
been
pattern
of
ofall
alllack
lack
authors, infill
parameters,
infill ofsuch
filaments
parameters,
made
has of density
density
Honeycomb
influence
influence
already
Infill
byobservation
other
the as Of
ofsame
Andrzejewskathe
the
the
pattern
deserves
deserves
Admed
been of
ofalllack
lack
authors, infill
same parameters,
infill
made
layer. has
& of
of aet
aDecreasing
Honeycomb
density
density
Honeycomb
influence
special
layer.
al. other
influence
special
Susmel
such
already
by the
deserves
mention.
asDecreasing
(2017) of[22].
deserves
mention.
(2019)
Admed
been of lack
authors,
the infill
infill
made
[21]
infill &ofaaThis
This
These density
Honeycomb
density
special
and
Susmel
such
density
Honeycomb
influence
special
the
by infill
other
Rectilinear
authors deserves
mention.
of explain
deserves
mention.
asderives
(2019)
Admedauthors, infill
[21]
in &
theaaThis
This Hone
density
special
that
special
and
Susmel
such
loss asbo
of
Red
th
(2Amm
Infill pattern Honeycomb
Andrzejewska et al. Honeycomb
Infill
(2017) pattern
[22]. TheseHoneycomb properties
authors explain of filaments, Honeycomb
that Rectilinear
the bonding mechanical forces Honeycomb
between layers,
properties of PLAandRec bo
density observation
Of all in
observation
Andrzejewska
derives has
parameters,
has
the already
observation
etalready
loss Of
the
observation
al.
Andrzejewska
(2017)
of been
been all
bondinglack made
made
[22]. has
parameters,
ofThese
has et already
by
already
byal.
strength observation
influenceother Of
observation
other
Andrzejewska
authors
(2017) been
the
been authors,
of
all
lack
authors,
between made
made
[22]. has
infill
parameters,
has
explain ofThese
et such
already
suchby
density
already
by al.observation
influence
that
filaments other
as
specimens
other
as Admed
been
Admed
Andrzejewska
of authors
(2017)
the been
the authors,
deserves
of lack
authors,
same
of made
infill
made
mechanical
[22]. has
with
explain
the &&
of
layer, aThese
same Susmel
such
already
by
density
influence
special
aby
Susmel
such
et al.100%
that other
asthe
other
as (2019)
Admed
been
(2019)
properties
authors
regardless(2017)
layer, Admed authors,
deserves
mention.
of
infill
authors, made
[21]
infill
[21]
mechanical
[22].
of of&
explain
regardless the &aThese
densityThis and
Susmel
such
and bythat
density
special
Susmel
such
PLA
distance of other
asas
depend (2019)
Admed
(2019)
properties
authors
the Admed
the
betweenauthors,
deserves
mention. on [21]
[21]
mechanical&
explain&aThis
three and
Susmel
such
special
and
Susmel
offilaments
PLA that asinth
main
prope (2
(2At
m
Of all parameters, specimens Of
the all lack parameters,
with of ainfluence
100%Of the of
infillall
lackinfill
parameters,
of density
density influence
the
depend Of
samethe
deserves
of
alllack
oninfill
layer. parameters,
ofDecreasing
three a density
influence
special
main the deserves
mention.
oflack
the
aspects, infill
infill of aThis
density
influence
specialderives
density
namely, the deserves
mention.
of infill
in the
mechanical aThis
density
special
loss of bo d
m
Andrzejewska
observation
Andrzejewska
specimens has
with etalready
et al.
aal. Andrzejewska
(2017)
observation been
Andrzejewska
100%(2017)
specimens infill[22].
made
[22]. has
with These
etalready
These
densityet by al.
aal. Andrzejewska
authors
(2017)
observation
other been
Andrzejewska
authors
(2017)
100%
specimens
depend infill [22].
authors, explain
made
[22]. has
explain These
et
such
These
et al.
already
by that
al. Andrzejewska
authors
(2017)
other
as
properties
that authors
(2017)the
Admed
been
the mechanical
authors,[22].
explain
made
of
mechanical
[22].
explain& These
et
filaments,
These aal.
Susmel
suchby that
that properties
other
asauthors
(2017)
the
(2019)
Admed
the
properties
authors mechanical
authors,[22].
bonding explain
[21]
mechanical of
explain
of& These
PLA
and
Susmel
such
PLA that
forces
thatproperties
authors
as the
(2019)
Admed
between
properties
the mechanical
explain
[21]
mechanicalof
&
layers,
of PLA
and
Susmel
PLA that
andprope
prope thi
(20
bo
distance between
observation filaments
Of all parameters,
has already in
the
observation
properties the
been lack same
made
of has layer,
of influence
already
filaments, which
byobservation
other Of
the been allon
of
authors,
bonding
with
isdensity
infill
made
three
the
parameters,
has
adirect
density
such
main
100%
already
specimens
depend
effect
byobservation
forces ofother
asthe
aspects,
infill
of
effect
the
deserves
Admed
betweenbeen lackon
infill
authors,
same
with
ofdensity
madehas
three
&
layer,
layers, anamely,
density
infill
of Susmel
such
main
100%
already
by
depend
density
influence
special other
regardless
and asbonding
aspects,
infill
reduction.
mention.
(2019)
Admed
been of mechanical
on
ofinfill
authors, made
density
reduction.
[21]
the
three
namely,
That
&This
forces density
and
Susmel
such
by
distance
main
is,depend
the
That
other
between
aspects,
effect
deserves
as between
(2019)
Admed
mechanical
on
authors,
filaments [21]
three
namely,
changing
&a and
main
special
Susmel
such
filaments of asin(2 m
At
specimens of
Andrzejewska
specimens
properties with
with et aaal.Andrzejewska
filaments, 100%
specimens
(2017)
100%
specimens
properties
the infill
infill[22].
bondingofwith
density
with These
density
filaments,aaal.Andrzejewska
etforces 100%
specimens
depend
authors
(2017)
100%
specimens
depend
properties
betweeninfill
infill
theconspicuouson
[22].
on
bonding with
density
explain
with
of three
These
density
three
layers,
filaments,aaal.
etforces main
100%
thatspecimens
depend
authors
the
main
100%
and (2017)
depend the
same
properties
when between aspects,
infill
aspects,
bonding
the infill on
mechanical
[22].
on
bonding
reducing ofwith
density
explain
layer. three
density
three
layers,
forces namely,
These
namely,
filaments, athat
Decreasing
forces
from main
100%
depend
properties
mainauthors
depend
between
and 100% the
the
the
between aspects,
infill
aspects,
bonding
the mechanical
on
mechanical
the explain
mechanical
on
bonding
to filaments
any density
of
infill three
three
layers,
forces namely,
PLAdensity
namely,
other forces
of main
that depend
properties
main
between
and
value, the
the
derives
the
between aspects,
aspects,
bonding mechanical
onin
mechanical of
mechanical
filaments
hence three
namely,
PLA
the loss
namely,
layers,
forces
the main
prope
ofbetwee
lack and ofbo th
bo
th
re
is, theobservation
effect of changing
Andrzejewska has etalready infill
al.the samebeen
Andrzejewska
(2017) densitymade
[22].
layer. etis
These byal.
Decreasing more
observation
other
Andrzejewska
authors
(2017) authors,
the[22]. has
explain
infill such
These
et already
density al.
thatwhen
as Admed
Andrzejewska
authors
(2017)
effect been
the
derives ofreducing made
in&
mechanical
[22].
explain
infill Susmel
These
et
density
the by from
al. other
that
loss properties
authors
of (2017)
the100%
(2019) authors,
reduction.
bonding [21]
mechanical
[22]. to
explain
of any
and
such
These
That
strengthPLA other
that
is, as Admed
properties
authors
the the
between effect &
mechanical
explain
of
filaments Susmel
PLA that
changing prope(20
thi
properties
specimens
properties
the same of
with
of
layer. filaments,
a 100%
filaments, properties
specimensthe
properties
Decreasing
the the
same bonding
infill
bonding
the of
with
of
layer.
infillfilaments,
density forces
a 100%
filaments,
forces
Decreasing
density properties
between
specimens
depend the
properties
the between
the
derives
same bonding
infill on
bonding
the of
of
layer. layers,
with filaments,
density
three
layers,
infill
in filaments,
the forces
aloss
forces
Decreasing
density and
properties
main
100%
depend
of
and
the
to of between
bonding
thethe
between
bonding
the
derives
same
bonding
25%. bonding
aspects,
infill
same on
bonding
the of
layer. layers,
forces
filaments,
density
three
layer,
layers,namely,
forces
infill
in
Furthermore, strength
the forces
forcesbetween
and
main
depend
regardless
between
and
Decreasing
density
loss of between
bonding
the
between
bonding
between
we derives
bonding bonding
filaments
aspects,
mechanical
on
ofinfill
filaments
the
could layers,
forces
three
the namely,
layers,
forces
filaments
in
add strength
the forces
ofbetween
distance
of
density
a lossbetween
and
main
and
second of between
bonding
the
bonding
between
derives
bonding
fact filaments
aspects,
between mechanical
filaments layers,
forces
namely,
filaments
forces
filaments
in strength
the
explaining ofbetwee
ofbetwee
lossand of
betw
the bo
the
in lat
bo
value,Andrzejewska
hence
specimens
the same
properties
the same
thelayer.
lack
with
oflayer,
layer.
et aof
al.of
Decreasing
filaments, the
(2017)
relevance
100%
specimens
the same
same
properties
Decreasing
the the
same
infill[22].
thelayer.
layer.
bonding
the of
of
with These
density
layer,
infill
decreasing
Decreasing
density
filaments,
infill forces
Decreasing
density
Andrzejewska
authors
aregardless
100%
specimens
depend
the
properties
the between
the
derives
same
infill
derives
same
itof
bonding
the
explain
on
thelayer.
of
from
with
the
layer.
infill
in
layers,
infill
in
et
density
three
the
filaments,
the
aal.
75%
distance
forces
Decreasing
density
that
Decreasing
density
loss
loss
main
100%
andthe
(2017)
when
of
effect
of
to
specimens
dependthe 25%.
derives
same
bonding
between
bonding
the
derives of
bonding
mechanical
[22].
aspects,
infill
reducing
between onwith
theinfill
bonding
the layer.
infill
in
infill
in
These
Furthermore,
density
three namely,
filaments
strength
the
layers,
forces
froma main
Decreasing
density
density
strength
the loss
forces
density
properties
100%
between
and
loss
authors
depend
100%
of
of
inthe
between
derives
bonding
between
bonding
reduction.
between
derives
bonding
towe
aspects,
infill
the
the
explain
filaments
of
mechanical
on
any
same
infill
could
density
filaments
in
PLA
three
namely,
other
layer,
strength
the
layers,
forces
filaments
in That
strength
the density
that
loss
of
add
main
depend
value,
which
between
and
loss is,ofof
the
between
the
derives
bonding
bonding
the
between
bonding
mechanical
aaspects,
ismechanical
hence on
thethe
filaments
effect
three
filaments
in
namely,
direct
strength
the
forces
of
filaments
strength
lack
loss
of
prope
mainof re
of
betw
between
changing betw
th
bo it
of the same regardless
of the same of the
layer, distance
regardless
of the between
same of the
layer,
filaments
distanceregardless
of the
in between
the
same
results, of
same the
layer,
filaments
which layer,
distance
regardless
could whichinbetween
the
be is of
same
the
related the filaments
direct
layer,
distance
to the which
in
factbetween
the is
that same
the filaments
direct
bending layer, whic
in
speci
secondspecimens
properties
of
the
offact
the
effectsame
the explaining
same
same
of
with
of
layer.
infilllayer,
a the
filaments, 100%
Decreasing
layer,
density
properties
effect
the
regardless
of
effect
the
lack
regardless
of the
same
the
infill
the
bonding
ofof
same
same
reduction.
of
of
infill
of
layer.
of
density
infill
infillthe
filaments,
influence
the
layer,
forces
density
layer, distance
Decreasing
density
distance
That
density
specimens
depend
properties
the
regardless
of
is,
effect
between
the bonding
reduction.
ofthe
regardless
of theinfill
between
derives
same same
the
between
same
reduction.
effect
of
on
layer.
of
with
of
density
of
infill
inthe
infill
three
layers,
the
That
layer,
filaments
the
layer,
of
a on
filaments,
forces
distance
Decreasing
density
filaments
That
densityloss
distance
changing
main
100%
and
properties
tothe
is, the
regardless
of the
ofthe
when
regardless
is,
effect in
derives
aspects,
infill
between
bonding
the
25%.
bonding
in the
bonding
effect
results,
between
the
same
reducing
between
the
reduction.
infill
effect
of of
of
of
same
density
infill
in
same
infill
of
the
layer,
namely,
layers,
Furthermore,forces
filaments,
strength
the the
forces
changing
which
filaments
layer,
distance
density
filaments
density
of Thatlayer,loss
from
distance
density
changing is
depend
between
and
is, of
we
could
regardless
which
between
100%
which
more
the
between
bonding
in
could
infill
between
derivesthe
bonding
in
the between
the
reduction.to
infill
mechanical
is
effect
ondensity
bonding
filaments
be
is of
same
the
three
layers,
addforces
related
the
filaments
in
any
same
the
conspicuous strength
density
ofthe
other
aforces
filaments
direct
layer,
distance
filaments
direct
layer,
That loss
changing
main
ofis
between
and
second
isto
is,
more
of the
which
in
between
value,
which
more
aspects,
between
bonding
fact
between
the
bonding
in
the the
filaments
conspicuous
issame
hence
infillis
effect same
the
the
conspicuous
namely,
layers,
forces
explaining
filaments
filaments
density
of direct
ofbetwee
layer,
strength
the
directlack
layer,
and
changing
is
thebo
whic
the
la
ofinreit
betw
whic
more
properties
thebending
same layer. of filaments, the the
Decreasing
when same bonding
the layer.
reducing infill forces
Decreasing
density
from properties
the between
100% derives
same the of
to layer.
any layers,
filaments,
infill
in theDecreasing
density
other lossand
the ofbonding
value, the
derives
same
bonding
results,bonding
the
hence layer. forces
infill
in strength
the
which
the forcesbetween
Decreasing
density
loss
lackcould of between
between
of derives
bonding
bethe
relevancefilaments layers,
infill
filaments
related in strength
the
ofdensity
toof and
losstheof
decreasing bonding
between
derives
bonding
fact that forces
filaments
it from in strength
the
bending 75% between
loss of
betw
speci bo
fact that
effect
of
effect
when of infill
the same
of infill
reducing specimens
layer,density
density
from effect
regardless
of the
effect
when are
reduction.
oftoof
same
reduction.
100% of of
infill
infill
reducing any reduced
the
layer,That
density
distance
That
density
other
from is,
regardless
of
is, dimensions,
effect
the
effect
when reduction.
the effect
of
between
same
reduction.
value,
100% toof
effect
of infill
the
infill
reducing
hence any of
layer,
of That
density
filaments
That
thedensitymeaning
changing
distance
changing
other
from
lack is,
effect
regardless
to
is,
when the
value,reduction.
in
25%.
the infill
between
the
reduction.
100%
of infillthat
effect
of
effect
relevance ofinfill
same the
Furthermore,
reducing
hence
to their
density
of
density
any of That
density
That
the changing
filaments
layer,
distance
changing
other
of from mechanical
lackis
is,
is
is,
decreasing more
the
which
we
more
value, reduction.
in
the
100%
of infill
effect
between
the
could
infillconspicuous
isitsame
effect the
conspicuous
relevance
hence
to any
from behaviour
density
addof
density
of That
the changing
filaments
direct
layer,
other
of alack
changing
75% is
is,
second
is more
the
which
more
decreasing
value,
of isinfill
infill
effect
inrelevance
the
fact conspicuous
isitsame
hence thedensity
conspicuous of
density
from changing
direct
explaining
thelayer,
of 75%
lackis which
is more
the
more
decreasinof re lai
the
of thesame same layer. Decreasing
layer, to the the
regardless
of 25%. same ofinfill
the
layer,
Furthermore, density
distance the
regardless
ofwe derives
same
the between
same
could layer.
ofin thetheDecreasing
layer,
add aloss
filaments
distance ofofthe
regardless
second bonding
in the
between
the
same
fact ofinfill
same strength
the
layer,
explaining density
filaments
layer,
distance between
regardless
the derives
whichinbetween
lacktheisof filaments
ininfluence
same
the the the
filaments
direct loss
layer,
distance ofwhich
of bonding
in between
theisdensity
infill same
the strength
filaments
direct on betw
layer, whicin t
governedwhen
effect
when
tothe by
25%. of their
reducing
infill
reducing skin
Furthermore, from
density
from and,
when
100%
effect
when
100%
towe to
reduction.
25%. of a much
reducing
to
reducing
to
could any
infill
any
Furthermore,That lesser
other
from
density
other
from
adddistance is,
a second when
value,
100%
effect
the
when
value,
100%
towe extent,
reduction.
25%. reducing
hence
to
effect
of
reducing
hence
to
could
fact any
infill
anythe
of
Furthermore, the
That
the
explaining
add infill,
other
otherfrom
density
fromlack
changing
lack is,
a second thewhich
when
value,
100%
of
the
value,
to100%
of
the
we relevance
reduction.reducing
hence
infill
results,to
effect
relevance
25%.lack hence
to
could
fact isany
any only
density
of the
which
Furthermore,
of the
explaining
add other
of
That
changing
other
of
influence comprised
from
lack
decreasing
is
is,
lack value,
could 100%
of
more
decreasing
a second the
value,
of
thewe relevance
hence
infillto
effect
be it by
any
from
conspicuous
relevance
hence
infill
lack
could
fact it density
related
from ofa the
the few
other
of 75%lack
changing
of to
75%lackislayers.
decreasing
value,
the of
more
decreasingof factrelevance
hence
infill it from
conspicuous
that
relevance it density
from the
of
bending
of 75%
lack
decreasin
75% is of
more
speci
decreasin re
of
effect same
of infill layer, regardless
density effect
the of of
reduction.
results, the
infill That
which density of
is, the
effect
could the between
same
reduction.
be effect
ofrelated
infilllayer,
filaments
of That toregardless
density
changing is,
effect
the in
the the
reduction.
fact infill
effect
ofthatofsame the
infill
density
ofThat
bending layer,
distance
density
changing is,which
is more
the between
reduction.
specimens infillisof
effect
density
explaining
the
conspicuous
add
influence
filaments
density
of
are direct
That
a onsecond
changing is
the
is, more
of reduced ininfill
the
lack
factsame
the
infill
effect
of
density
explaining
conspicuous
influence
of layer,
density
dimensions,
on which
changing
the in
is more
la
i
to
when
to
The
the 25%.
25%. Furthermore,
reducing
Furthermore,
manufacturing
results, whichfromcouldto
when
to
the we
100%
we 25%.
25%. could
could
orientation
results,
be Furthermore,
reducing add
toFurthermore,
any add
related other
plays
which aatosecond
from second
to
when
to
a
could
the
thewe
value,
100%
we25%.
25%.
vital
fact could
fact
could
fact
results,
be Furthermore,
reducing
hence
to explaining
any add
Furthermore,
role
that the
explaining
relatedaddinother
which
bending aato
fromlacksecond
second
defining tothe
the
could
the
the we
value,
100%
of
we 25%.lack
could
fact
relevance
lack
specimens
fact hence
to
could
fact
the
results,
be Furthermore,
that of
ofexplaining
any add
influence
the
explaining
add of aaof
other
influence
flexural
related which
bending
are lack
to second
decreasing
second the
value,
of
theof
ofwe
behaviour
could
reduced
the infill
lack
could
fact
relevance
hence
infill
lack
specimens
fact fact
be that of
density
ofexplaining
add
itdimensions,
from
densityinfluence
the
explaining
related of
influence
of 75%aofon
second
lack
decreasing
on
specimens,
bending
are to the
of
theoffact
of
reduced
the infill
lack
fact
relevance
infill
lack
specimens that of
density
ofexplaining
influence
itdimensions,
from
density of75%
influence
bending
are onreduced
the
decreasing
ofon of in
of
speci in
la
effect
whenof infill density
reducing fromwhen reduction.
100% to anyThat
reducing other
from is,
effect
the effect
when
value,
100% of toinfill
reducing
hence any ofthedensity
changing
other
from
lackwhen reduction.
value,
100%
of infill
relevance
reducing
hence
to any density That
the
other
offrom is
is,value,
lack more
decreasing therelevance
100%
of effect
conspicuous
hence
toit any from ofthe changing
other
of 75%lack
decreasing
value, infill
of relevance it density
hence from the
of75% is more
lack
decreasinof re
the
to
the
as stress 25%.results,
isresults,
normal which
Furthermore,
which
tofrom
the could
the
to
could
thewe
25%. results,
beFurthermore,
could
results,
specimen be related
add
related which
which ato
section, tosecond
could
the
the
to
could
the we
the fact
25%. results,
fact be
could
fact
results,
be that
thatrelated
Furthermore,
relatedaddwhich
bending
explaining
which
bending atotosecond
could
the
the
could
the specimens
we fact
results,
be
lack
specimens
fact could
fact
be that
thatrelated
of which
bending
areaof
explaining
related add
influence
bending
are of
tosecond
to could
reduced
thethespecimens
of
reduced
the fact be
infill
lack
specimens
fact fact that
dimensions,
that related
of
density bending
are filaments
explaining
influence
dimensions, bending
are ofof
to reduced
the
onreduced
thespecimens
of fact
lackthat
infill
specimens dimensions,
of
densitybending
are of
influence
dimensions,are of reduced
speci
onreduced
of inf
when
to 25%. reducing
Furthermore, to100%
we25%. toFurthermore,
could any addother a second toand
when
value,
we25%. the
reducing
hence
could
fact orientation
Furthermore,thefrom
explaining
add alacksecond
to100%
ofwe
the of
25%.lack the
relevance
could
fact ofbonding
toFurthermore,
any other
explaining
add of adecreasing
influence area
value,
second the
of
weinfill
lackbetween
hence
could
fact it of from
density the75%
explaining
add
influence alack
on
second ofofrelevance
the infill
lack
fact of density
explainingof decreasing
influence on the of inla
the results, which could the results,
be related which to could
thethefact results,
bethat related which
bending to couldthespecimens
fact bethat related bending
are of to reduced
thespecimens
fact that dimensions, bending
are of reduced specimens dimensions,are of reduced
shall define
to
the25%. the
results, way
Furthermore,
which in which
could
theweresults,therelated
could
be material
add
which atosecond processes
to
could
the
the25%.
factfact
beFurthermore,
results,that the
explaining
related which
bendingstress.
to could
the
thewe This
lack
specimens
fact could
results,
bethat result
of add
related arecontrasts
influence
which
bending aof
tosecond
couldof
reduced
the infill
specimens
fact bewith
fact that density
dimensions,
related that
explaining
bending
are of obtained
onreduced
to the
the lackthat
specimens
fact of influence
dimensions,bending
are of reduced of inf
speci
when the
the results,
specimens which arecouldsubjected be related to fatigueto the thefact results,
tests, that where which
bending layer could
specimens
heightbe related isare theof tomostreduced
the fact that
influentialdimensions, bending parameter specimens are of reduced
owing to the fact that the limiting factor here is the prevention of crack propagation, and not bearing
stress itself [9].

It was already noted that the main factor that determines the strength of the specimens is the
orientation of the stacking layers. In Figure 14, the outlooks of the fracture section of some printed
specimens in the different directions of the coordinate axes are compared. The specimens printed
along the X-axis direction (Figure 14A) or along the Y-axis direction (Figure 14B) have a slight ductile
behaviour with high elongation, good flexural strength, and high rigidity. This reaction is caused by the
filaments being aligned with the main stress direction. The resistance depends on the strength of the
intra-layer bond and the strength of the filaments. The stiffness and flexural strength are slightly higher
in the Y-axis orientation specimens. The reason is once again the arrangement of the layers. Although
the two orientations have the filaments parallel to the direction of the stresses, the specimens printed in
specimens in the different directions of the coordinate axes are compared. The specimens printed
along the X-axis direction (Figure 14A) or along the Y-axis direction (Figure 14B) have a slight ductile
behaviour with high elongation, good flexural strength, and high rigidity. This reaction is caused by
the filaments being aligned with the main stress direction. The resistance depends on the strength of
the intra-layer bond and the strength of the filaments. The stiffness and flexural strength are slightly
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 15 of 20
higher in the Y-axis orientation specimens. The reason is once again the arrangement of the layers.
Although the two orientations have the filaments parallel to the direction of the stresses, the
specimens printed in the X-axis direction can become delaminated between layers when they are
the X-axis direction can become delaminated between layers when they are bent. The delamination is
bent. The delamination is produced by the breakage of the weak interlayer bonds. The specimen
produced by the breakage of the weak interlayer bonds. The specimen becomes flexible and is unable
becomes flexible and is unable to withstand the bending stress, although the intralayer bonds remain
to withstand
intact. the bending stress, although the intralayer bonds remain intact.
FigureFigure 14. Breaking

14. Breaking section,
section, specimenswith
specimens with orientation
orientation ininthe (A)(A)
the X-,X-,
(B) (B)
Y-, and (C) Z-direction.
Y-, and (C) Z-direction.
In Figure
In Figure 14C,14C,
the the section
section of of therupture
the ruptureof of a
a test
testspecimen
specimen printed in Z-axis
printed orientation
in Z-axis is shown.
orientation is shown.
These specimens have fragile behaviour and little deformation, low resistance
These specimens have fragile behaviour and little deformation, low resistance to bending, to bending, and lowand low
rigidity. This is caused because the layers are oriented perpendicularly to the stresses generated in
rigidity. This is caused because the layers are oriented perpendicularly to the stresses generated in the
the specimen during the bending test. For this reason, failure has occurred in the weak interlayer
specimen during the bending test. For this reason, failure has occurred in the weak interlayer weld
weld without the affection of filament integrity.
without the Theaffection
second of filament
most integrity.
influential factor is the layer height, followed by the filament width. The
The second
smaller mostheight
the layer influential
and thefactor
largeristhe
thefilament
layer height,
width, followed by the
the stiffer and morefilament
resistantwidth. The issmaller
to bending
the layer height
the test and the
specimen. larger
This the filament
is directly related towidth, the stifferofand
the compactness the more
threadsresistant to bending
and the welding is the test
between
threads (Figure 15).
specimen. This is directly related to the compactness of the threads and the welding between threads
(Figure 15). 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Materials 2019, 16 of 21
Figure 15. (A)

Figure 15. (A)Test
Testspecimen
specimenwith a layer
with height
a layer of 0.3of
height mm0.3and
mm filament width ofwidth
and filament 0.3 mm.
of Test specimen
0.3 mm. Test
9_2.
specimen 9_2. Microscopic photography. (B) Test specimen with a layer height of 0.1 mm and width
Microscopic photography. (B) Test specimen with a layer height of 0.1 mm and filament of
filament
0.6 mm. Test specimen 21_3. Microscopic photography.
width of 0.6 mm. Test specimen 21_3. Microscopic photography.
Figure
Figure 15A
15A shows
shows thethe extreme
extreme casecase with
with the
the maximum
maximum layer layer height
height of
of 0.3
0.3 mm
mm and
and minimum
minimum
filament
filament width of 0.3 mm. With these dimensions, the threads are cylindrical and produce low
width of 0.3 mm. With these dimensions, the threads are cylindrical and produce low
compaction
compaction and andweakweakwelding
welding owing
owing to to
thethe
scarce contact
scarce surface
contact between
surface threads.
between On the
threads. Onother
the hand,
other
as the layer
hand, as theheight decreases
layer height and theand
decreases filament width increases,
the filament the threads
width increases, have a have
the threads flat shape,
a flat with
shape, a
larger
with a welding surface.
larger welding FigureFigure
surface. 15B shows the optimal
15B shows case with
the optimal case awith
minimum layerlayer
a minimum height of 0.1ofmm
height 0.1
and maximum filament width of 0.6 mm. In summary, the welding
mm and maximum filament width of 0.6 mm. In summary, the welding surface of the threads, surface of the threads, where
where the
micro-welds
the micro-welds are produced between
are produced the chains
between of the polymer
the chains deposited
of the polymer at the beginning
deposited and those
at the beginning andof
the
thosefilament
of the that is then
filament thatdeposited on it, is determinant
is then deposited in the mechanical
on it, is determinant behaviour. behaviour.
in the mechanical The greaterThe the
welding surface, the greater the rigidity and strength of the
greater the welding surface, the greater the rigidity and strength of the piece. piece.
Figure
Figure 1616 shows
shows the the micro
micro scratch
scratch test
test tracks
tracks inin both
both the
the (A)
(A) perpendicular
perpendicular and and (B)
(B) parallel
parallel
direction to the filaments, on the same piece printed in the X-axis direction
direction to the filaments, on the same piece printed in the X-axis direction shown in Figure shown in Figure 14A.14A.
It canIt
be
can be seen how, up to the tested force (70 N), the material deforms ductilely without cracking inbase
seen how, up to the tested force (70 N), the material deforms ductilely without cracking in the the
material, as theas
base material, indenter moves.moves.
the indenter It also It
looks
alsolike
looksthelike
burrs
theproduced by the extruder
burrs produced are torn. are
by the extruder Thetorn.
fact
The fact that there are no disclosures between filaments implies that the adhesion between them in
the same layer is enough to resist the efforts applied during the test.
with a larger welding surface. Figure 15B shows the optimal case with a minimum layer height of 0.1
mm and maximum filament width of 0.6 mm. In summary, the welding surface of the threads, where
the micro-welds are produced between the chains of the polymer deposited at the beginning and
those of the filament that is then deposited on it, is determinant in the mechanical behaviour. The
greater the welding surface, the greater the rigidity and strength of the piece.
Figure 16 shows the micro scratch test tracks in both the (A) perpendicular and (B) parallel
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 16 of 20
direction to the filaments, on the same piece printed in the X-axis direction shown in Figure 14A. It
can be seen how, up to the tested force (70 N), the material deforms ductilely without cracking in the
base material, as the indenter moves. It also looks like the burrs produced by the extruder are torn.
that thereThearefact
nothat
disclosures between filaments implies that the adhesion between them in the same
there are no disclosures between filaments implies that the adhesion between them in
layer is enough to resist the efforts
the same layer is enough to resistapplied during
the efforts the
applied test. the test.
during
Figure 16. Micro

Figure scratch
16. Micro scratchtest: (A)perpendicular
test: (A) perpendicular
to the to the printing
printing direction;
direction; (B) parallel to(B) parallel to the
the printing
printing direction.
direction.
The graph in Figure 17 shows the results of the micro scratch tests: (A) perpendicular and (B)
parallel to the direction of the filaments in the range of test forces. The values of normal force, friction
force, penetration depth, residual depth, and friction coefficient are clearly observed. While the value
of the friction coefficient measured in the perpendicular test shows oscillations, owing to the abrasive
wear of the burrs (see arrows in Figure 17A), in the parallel test, its value remains almost constant. It
could be possible to sense that these pieces are not showing remarkable wear adhesive.
On the other hand, these burrs left during the extrusion process form channels on the piece surface.
If it is true that this worsens the surface roughness of the pieces, they could be useful for retaining
lubricant adhered to the sides of the burr ridges; more taking into account that they do not increase
their friction coefficient too much, as shown in Figure 17.
3.3. Fatigue Test

The parameter that marks the difference between both curves in Figure 18 is the layer height,
being 0.1 mm for the results of this study and 0.3 mm for the referenced study [14].
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 17 of 20
Figure 17. Micro scratch test results: (A) perpendicular to the printing direction; (B) parallel to the
printing direction.
1
Materials2019,
Materials 12,x3859
2019,12, FOR PEER REVIEW 1918ofof21
20
Figure 18. Wöhler curve for the results obtained in this study and those obtained in the work of [14].
Figure 18. Wöhler curve for the results obtained in this study and those obtained in the work of [14].
Although the authors of [14] find that layer height is slightly significant—and although it seems
Although
that the following the authors
assumption of [14] find that
holds: layer height
the higher is slightly
the height layer significant—and
value, the greateralthough it seems
the improvement
that the following
detected regarding assumption
resistance—thisholds:cannot
the higher the height
be assured, layer
as the value,
errors the greater
calculated for the
the improvement
multiplicative
detected
factor and regarding resistance—this
the exponent cannot mean
in both equations be assured, as the
that they canerrors
be thecalculated
same. for the multiplicative
factorTherefore,
and the exponent
althoughina both equations
dependence onmean
the layerthatheight
they can be the same.
is insinuated, the current data do not allow
it toTherefore,
assert it. although a dependence on the layer height is insinuated, the current data do not allow
it to assert it.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The influence of the layer orientation, layer height, filament width, printing velocity, fill density,
and The
infillinfluence
pattern on of the flexural performance
layer orientation, layer ofheight,
PLA specimens was studied
filament width, printingthrough a Taguchi
velocity, DOE.
fill density,
The following conclusions can be extracted:
and infill pattern on the flexural performance of PLA specimens was studied through a Taguchi DOE.
The following conclusions can be extracted:
1. The orientation of the stacking of the layers is the most influential parameter in the rigidity, in the
1. The orientation of the stacking of the layers is the most influential parameter in the rigidity, in
flexural resistance, and in the maximum deformation.
the flexural resistance, and in the maximum deformation.
2. The layer height and the filament width had a great significance in stiffness and flexural strength
2. The layer height and the filament width had a great significance in stiffness and flexural strength
and no influence on maximum deformation.
and no influence on maximum deformation.
3. Printing velocity had a small, but significant effect on rigidity and flexural strength and no
3. Printing velocity had a small, but significant effect on rigidity and flexural strength and no
influence on maximum deformation.
influence on maximum deformation.
4.
4. The Thefillfill density
density andand infill
infill pattern
pattern had hadnono effectononthe
effect thestudied
studiedmechanical
mechanicalproperties.
properties.
5.5. TheThe orientation
orientation ofof stacking
stacking layers
layers ininY,Y,thethelayer
layerheight
heightofof0.1
0.1mm,
mm,thethefilament
filamentwidth
widthofof0.60.6mm
mm
and the printing velocity of 20 mm/min was the optimal combination
and the printing velocity of 20 mm/min was the optimal combination obtained that will allow obtained that will allow
maximizing
maximizing rigidity
rigidity andand flexural
flexural resistance.
resistance.
6. The printing direction in
6. The printing direction in Y-axis showed theY-axis showed thebest
bestmechanical
mechanicalbehaviour
behaviourowing owingtotoitsitsresistance
resistance
depending
depending ononthethe strong
strong intralayer
intralayer bond.
bond.
7. The large filament width,
7. The large filament width, the small layer the small layerheight,
height,andandthe thelow
lowprinting
printingvelocity
velocityformed
formed testtest
specimens
specimens with
with bettercompaction
better compactionand andbetter
betterwelding
weldingbetween
betweenwires,
wires,and andgenerated
generatedaabetter better
rigidity and resistance
rigidity and resistance to bending. to bending.
8.8. It It could
could not
not bebe ensured
ensured thatthat higher
higher layer
layer height
height improves
improves fatiguelife.
fatigue life.
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 19 of 20
9. Depending on the mechanical property to enhance, the combination of optimal parameters to use
is different.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.A.T.-R. and R.J.-M.; Methodology, R.J.-M., G.G.-G. O.T.-R. And
J.J.R.R.; Software, J.L. And O.T.-R.; Validation, J.L., J.J.R.R. and R.J.-M.; Formal Analysis, G.G.-G. and R.J.-M.;
Investigation, J.A.T.-R., G.G.-G. and O.T.-R.; Resources, J.A.T.-R. and J.L.; Data Curation, J.L. J.J.R.R. and R.J.-M.;
Writing-Original Draft Preparation, J.A.T.-R.; Writing-Review & Editing, J.L., G.G.-G. and R.J.-M.; Visualization, J.L.
And J.J.R.R.; Supervision, J.A.T.-R. And R.J.-M.; Project Administration, J.A.T.-R., Funding Acquisition, J.A.T.-R.,
R.J.-M. and J.L.
Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or
not-for-profit sectors.
Acknowledgments: J.J. Roa would like to acknowledge the Serra Hunter program of the Generalitat de Catalunya.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
AM additive manufacturing
FFF fused filament fabrication
PLA polylactic acid
DOE design of experiments
ANOVA analysis of variance
References
1. Go, J.; Schiffres, S.N.; Stevens, A.G.; Hart, A.J. Rate limits of additive manufacturing by fused filament
fabrication and guidelines for high-throughput system design. Addit. Manuf. 2017, 16, 1–11. [CrossRef]
2. Fontrodona, J.; Blanco, R. Estado Actual y Perspectivas de la Impresión en 3D. Artículos de Economía
Industrial. 2014. Available online: http://empresa.gencat.cat/web/.content/19_-_industria/documents/
economia_industrial/impressio3d_es.pdf (accessed on 4 July 2019).
3. Domingo-Espin, M.; Puigoriol-Forcada, J.M.; Garcia-Granada, A.A.; Llumà, J.; Borros, S.; Reyes, G. Mechanical
property characterization and simulation of fused deposition modeling Polycarbonate parts. Mater. Des.
2015, 83, 670–677. [CrossRef]
4. Bellini, A.; Güçeri, S. Mechanical characterization of parts fabricated using fused deposition modeling. Rapid
Prototyp. J. 2003, 9, 252–264. [CrossRef]
5. Bellehumeur, C.; Li, L.; Sun, Q.; Gu, P. Modeling of Bond Formation Between Polymer Filaments in the Fused
Deposition Modeling Process. J. Manuf. Process. 2004, 6, 170–178. [CrossRef]
6. Gurrala, P.K.; Regalla, S.P. Part strength evolution with bonding between filaments in fused deposition
modelling: This paper studies how coalescence of filaments contributes to the strength of final FDM part.
Virtual Phys. Prototyp. 2014, 9, 141–149. [CrossRef]
7. Gray, R.W.; Baird, D.G.; Helge Bøhn, J. Effects of processing conditions on short TLCP fiber reinforced FDM
part. Rapid Prototyp. J. 1998, 4, 14–25. [CrossRef]
8. Zhong, W.; Li, F.; Zhang, Z.; Song, L.; Li, Z. Short fiber reinforced composites for fused deposition modelling.
Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2001, 301, 125–130. [CrossRef]
9. Sood, A.K.; Ohdar, R.K.; Mahapatra, S.S. Parametric appraisal of mechanical property of fused deposition
modelling processed parts. Mater. Des. 2010, 31, 287–295. [CrossRef]
10. Olivier, D.; Travieso-Rodriguez, J.A.; Borros, S.; Reyes, G.; Jerez-Mesa, R. Influence of building orientation on
the flexural strength of laminated object manufacturing specimens. J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 2017, 31, 133–139.
[CrossRef]
11. Ajoku, U.; Saleh, N.; Hopkinson, N.; Hague, R.; Erasenthiran, P. Investigating mechanical anisotropy and
end-of-vector effect in laser-sintered nylon parts. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. B J. Eng. Manuf. 2006, 220, 1077–1086.
[CrossRef]
12. Quintana, R.; Choi, J.W.; Puebla, K.; Wicker, R. Effects of build orientation on tensile strength for
stereolithography-manufactured ASTM D-638 type I specimens. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2010,
46, 201–215. [CrossRef]
Materials 2019, 12, 3859 20 of 20
13. Wang, T.; Xi, J.; Jin, Y. A model research for prototype warp deformation in the FDM process. Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 2007, 33, 1087–1096. [CrossRef]
14. Gomez-Gras, G.; Jerez-Mesa, R.; Travieso-Rodriguez, J.A.; Lluma-Fuentes, J. Fatigue performance of fused
filament fabrication PLA specimens. Mater. Des. 2018, 140, 278–285. [CrossRef]
15. Jerez-Mesa, R.; Travieso-Rodriguez, J.A.; Lluma-Fuentes, J.; Gomez-Gras, G.; Puig, D. Fatigue lifespan study
of PLA parts obtained by additive manufacturing. Procedia Manuf. 2017, 13, 872–879. [CrossRef]
16. ASTM D6272–02. Standard Test Method for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced Plastics and Electrical
Insulating Materials; Bending, F.-P., Ed.; ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2002.
17. Hodgson, G. Slic3r Manual—Infill Patterns and Density. Manualslic3rorg, 2017. Available online: http:
//manual.slic3r.org/ (accessed on 4 July 2019).
18. Puigoriol-Forcada, J.M.; Alsina, A.; Salazar-Martín, A.G.; Gomez-Gras, G.; Pérez, M.A. Flexural Fatigue
Properties of Polycarbonate Fused-deposition Modelling Specimens. Mater. Des. 2018, 141, 414–425.
[CrossRef]
19. Morales-Planas, S.; Minguella-Canela, J.; Lluma-Fuentes, J.; Travieso-Rodriguez, J.A.; García-Granada, A.A.
Multi Jet Fusion PA12 manufacturing parameters for watertightness, strength and tolerances. Materials 2018,
11, 1472. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. ASTM C1624-05. Standard Test Method for Adhesion Strength and Mechanical Failure Modes of Ceramic Coatings by
Quantitative Single Point Scratch Testing; ASTM International Standards: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2005.
21. Ahmed, A.A.; Susmel, L. Static assessment of plain/notched polylactide (PLA) 3D-printed with different
infill levels: Equivalent homogenised material concept and Theory of Critical Distances. Fatigue Fract. Eng.
Mater. Struct. 2019, 42, 883–904. [CrossRef]
22. Andrzejewska, A.; Pejkowski, Ł.; Topoliński, T. Tensile and Fatigue Behavior of Additive Manufactured
Polylactide. 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 2019, 6, 1–9. [CrossRef]
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Mechanical Properties of 3d-Printing Polyactic Acid Parts Subjected To Bending Stress and Fatigue

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanical Properties of 3d-Printing Polyactic Acid Parts Subjected To Bending Stress and Fatigue

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

materials

Keywords: additive manufacturing; 3D printing; fused filament fabrication; flexural properties;

Materials 2019, 12, 3859; doi:10.3390/ma12233859 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Table 1. Mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA).

Mechanical Property Value

2.1.2. Taguchi Experimental Design

Table 2. Parameters and levels used in design of experiments (DOE).

(a) (b) (c)

Table 3. Orthogonal matrix of Taguchi L27 for the DOE.

Figure 5.Figure 5. Diagram

Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

2.3. Fatigue Test

Figure 9. Dimensions of the test specimens used in the fatigue test.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Four-Point Bending Test

3.1.1. Young’s Modulus

3.1.3. Maximum Strength

Figure 12. Main effects of means for maximum strength.

3.1.4. Maximum Deformation

3.1.4. Maximum Deformation

3.2. Fractography and Scratch Test

FigureFigure 14. Breaking

Figure 15. (A)

Figure 16. Micro

3.3. Fatigue Test

You might also like