DESCRIPTIVE

GOEMETRY
AND
ENGINEERING
DRAWING

1
 Descriptive geometry
Descriptive geometry allows the representation of three-dimensional objects in two dimensions by
using a specific set of procedures. The resulting techniques are important
for engineering, architecture, design and in art. The theoretical basis for descriptive geometry is
provided by planar geometric projections. Gaspard Monge (1746–1818), who is usually credited with
the invention of descriptive geometry. Gaspard Monge is usually considered the "father of descriptive
geometry" due to his developments in geometric problem solving. His first discoveries were in 1765
while he was working as a draftsman for military fortifications, although his findings were published
later on.

Descriptive geometry is a subject that studies projections of geometrical objects.

This subject is based on the projections to represent objects and solve geometrical maths.

So, projection is the most important part of this subject. Projection helps us construct
engineering drawings.

Engineering drawings are the special language to transfer the designer's informations to the
manufacturer. They do not face to face.

2
 Chapter 1: Description and possession
Lesson 1: Projection
• 1.1 Parallel projection:
Projection is main tool for construct technical
drawings
• 1.1.1 Parallel projection of a point
- Given a projection plane P and line s is a projection
direction
- Given point A
• Solve : A
- Draw the projection of point A in the direction
projection s onto the plane P
• Step 1:
- Draw line d through point A and parallel to
projection direction s. A’
• Step 2:
- Line d intersects the projection plane P at point A’ P
- Point A’ is the parallel projection of point A
• Conclusion: the projection of a point is also a point. Figure 1.1
The line s must intersect the
plane P

3
1.1.2 Parallel projection of a line
- Given line k, draw the projection
of line k
• Solve :
- Take 2 point A and B of line k, A B
respectively (figure 1.2)
- Both projections of them are point
A’ and B’ B’
- By jointning Point A’ and Point B’,
we get line k’.
A’
• - Line k’ is the projection of line k P
• Conclusion: Projection of straight
line is also a straight line.
Special case: If line k parallels to
line s, then k’ is a point.
Figure 1.2

4
• 1.1.3 Parallel Projection of a plane
• - Parallel projection of a plane figure is a plane figure
• - If the it parallels to the projection direction, its parallel projection is a
straight line
• - If it parallel to the projection plane, its parallel projection is true shape.
• It means its projection is equal to the real Image.
A
I
B
G I’
D
A’D’ G’
C H
`

H
B’C’
’ P

Figure 1.4

5
1.1.4 Properties
- If MAB M’  A’B’
A' M' AM
- (AMB)=(A’M’B’)  M' B'  MB C
a) B s
M
D
M' N' //P' Q' A

- If MN//PQ  M' N' MN C’=
 
 P' Q' PQ D’
A’ M B’
П
’
b) K
- If IK// Π 
I' K' //IK
 N Q I s
I' K'  IK

M P
N
M I’ K
’ Q’
’П ’
P’
Figure 1.5

6
• 1.1.5 Exercises
• Exercise 1:
• Given two planes: P and Q. (see figure 1.6)
• The line g is the intersection of them.
• The triangle ABC lies in the plane Q. Projection of B is B’.
• AB//g.
• Complete parallel projection of triangle ABC

Q
A B

C
g

B’
P
Figure 1.6

7
• Exercise 2:
• Complete the projection of the regular
hexagon ABCDEF. (figure 1.7)

A B'
’

E’

Figure 1.7

8
• 1.2 Perpendicular projection
• Given the projection plane P, projection direction
s perpendiculars to the plane P.
.- Thus, perpendicular projection is a special case
of parallel projection. (see figure 1.8).
- Draw perpendicular projection of point A.
• Solve:
- Draw line d passes through point A and parallel d s
to line s.
Line d intersects the plane P at point A’. A
- A’ is perpendicular projection of point A
• Properties:
Because perpendicular projection is a special case of
parallel projection, it has all properties of parallel
projection. In addition, it has one more property. A
• Given three clauses, if two of them are true then
the last is also true. ’
• Applies to two straight lines a and b.

a b (1) a//(P), b (P) (2)

Figure 1.8 s (P)
a’ b’ (3)

9
 Given a right angle AOB. OA//(P).
OA OB (See figure 1.9)
• OB is not perpendicular to plane P
Angle A’O’B’ is perpendicular projection of
right angle AOB d s
We have to prove that: angle A’O’B’ is also O
a right angle. A
OA//(P)  OA//O’A’  OO’A’A is a
rectangle
OAOO’ (1) B O’
OA OB (2)
From (1) and (2) We have: OA (OO’B’B),
A
B
OA//O’A’ so we have : O’A’ (OO’B’B)  CC’’ ’
O’A’ O’B’ P
 Angle A’O’B’ is a right angle.
Figure 1.9 s (P)

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 Lesson 2: Projection of a point

2.1 Two views of a point in two projection planes

1 is a vertical plane. It can be called the front plane of a)

projection or the vertical plane of projection
2 is a horizontal plane. It can be called the top plane of Π
projection or the horizontal plane of projection A
Line x is the intersection of two planes. So, it is a horizontal line. 1 A
1
Let’ it be axis x. II I
Two plane make four quadrant angle such as I, II, III, VI. (see A x
figure 2.1a) III I
Π x
A
Take point A in the first quadrant angle. Draw a line through
point A and perpendicular plane 1. V 2 2
This line intersects the plane 1 at point A1. Point A1 is a front
A
view of point A. b) 2
Draw a line passing through A1 and perpendicular to x-axis. It Π
intersects x –axis at point Ax. AA
Similarly, draw a line passing through point A and perpendicular 1
1
to plane 2. It intersects plane 2 at point A2
Point A2 is top view of point A. x A
The flat shape A1AxA2A is a rectangle x
- -Keep the plane 1. Rotating the plane 2 about x-axis 90
degree clockwise, the plane 2 comes to new position. It A
coincides with plane 1. Point A2 turn around point Ax 90 Π 2
degree clockwise. Point A also comes to the new position in the 2
plane 1. Now three points such as A1,Ax,A2 lie on a vertical Figure 2.1
line. See figure 2.1b

.
11
Conclude:
- Point A is represented on the
plane P1 by a pair of points A1,
A2. a)
Π A
- A1A2 is a vertical segment. 1
1 A
- A1 is the vertical projection II I A x
of point A or front view of III I
Π x
A
point A. V 2
A
2

- A2 is the horizontal b) 2

projection of point A or top Π AA

view of point A 1
1
x A
- In contrast, If we given pair of x
points A1,A2, we will get one A
point in space. Π 2
2
Figure 2.2

12
2.2 Three views of a point
in three projection planes
We have three plane: 3 is the left plane of
projection or profile plane of projection
1 2=x , 2 3=Y, 1 3=z
(see figure 2.3 a)
These three planes are at right angles to each other.
They meet at point O.
Their intersections formed a Cartesian coordinate
system. (OXYZ)
To determine the third view of point A, we draw a line
through point A and perpendicular to plane 3 . This
line intersects 3 at point A3
A3 is the third view of point A. It is also called left
view.
OAx=Xa, OAy=Ya, OAz=Za. Eight points: O, Ax, A1,
Az, Ay, A2, A, A3 make a box
Figure 2.3

13
- Rotating plane 2 about x-axis 90degree clockwise.Thus, 2 1. So A2 comes
to new position in plane 1. A1A2 is a segment of vertical straight line
Y-axis coincide with z-axis.
- Rotating plane 3 about z-axis 90degree anticlockwise. So, 3 1. Point A3
comes to new position in plane 1.
A1A3 is a segment of horizontal straight line
Y-axis coincide with X-axis.
(see figure 2.3 a, b)

Figure 2.3 14
 The arrangement of three views of a point
A1 A2 is a vertical straight line
A1A3 is a horizontal straight line
The relations of three views of a point. It means how to determine third view if two views are given.

a b c
Figure 2.4
Solve 1: assume A1 and A2 are given. We must determine A3. There are three ways to solve (see fig 2.4)
Way 1:
- Construct a horizontal line m from A1. It intersects with z-axis at Az
- Construct a horizontal line n from point A2. Line n intersects with z-axis at Ay.
- Construct a quarter circle with center o passes through point Ay anticlockwise. This arc cuts
the x-axis at point Ay.
- Draw line passes though point Ay and is parallel to the z axis. .The intersection of line m and
line l is point A3 (see figure 2.4 a)
15
 Lesson 2: perpendicular projection of a point
The relations of three views of a point. It means how to determine
third view if two views are given.
. Three views is a corner point of a rectangle. The last corner point
A* lies on the bisector of right angle YOY
Way 2: (see fig 2.6 a)
- Construct the bisector line of the right angle YOY (see figure
2.5)
- Draw horizontal line t from point A1.
- Draw horizontal line k from point A2. It intersects the bisector
on at A*.
- Draw line v through A* and parallel to Z-asix. Line v intersects Figure
line t at A3 2.5

- Way 3: (see figure 2.6)

- Draw a horizontal t through point A1. It intersects z-axis at Az.
- We have : 𝐴2𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴3𝐴𝑧

Figure
2.6
16
 Lesson 2: perpendicular projection of a point
Examples: Draw the third view of A point and B point (see figure 2.7 a and 2.7 b)

Figure
Figure
2.6
2.7

17
- Exercise 1:

O
Y
Y
Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9

Both planes 1, 2 make four quadrant angle in space such as: I, II, III, IV (see Figure 2.8).
Given 4 points such as A, B, C, D (see fig 2.9)
1, Which quadrant are they in? (see Figure 2.9)
2, Define: A3, B3, C3, D3.

18
 Lesson 2: perpendicular projection of a point
- :Exercise 2:

-The first bisector plane is the plane passing through the first and third quadrants. Let it is Pg1 (see
Figure
figure 2.10) Figure
2.10
-The second bisector plane is the plane passing through 2.11
the second and fourth quadrants. Let it is Pg2
(All points in the bisector are equidistant from the planes 1 and 2)
1, Where are points A, B, C, and D ? (see figure 2.11)
2, Draw the 3rd projection of them.

19
 Lesson 3: perpendicular projection of a line
- 3.1 Perpendicular project of a general line
- Take two points A and B of line l (see figure
3.1 a ,b)
- Draw front view A1 and top view A2 of point A a,
- Draw front view B1 and top view B2 of point B
- By Joining point A1 and B1, we obtained line
A1B1. Not only It is segment of l1 but also a
front view of line l
- Similarly, A2B2 is segment of l2
- Conclude: Projection of line l is a couple
lines such as l1 and l2 b,
- Relationship of a point a line: If a point
belongs to a line, x
- its projections also belong to the
projections of the line
-
Figure 3.1

20
 The relations of a point and a line
𝐴1 ∋ 𝑙1
- A  l  An  ln  𝐴2 ∋ 𝑙2
𝐴3 ∋ 𝑙3
- Given two view of line l (l1, l2 )
- (see figure 3.2) z
- Determine l3
+ Take point A of line L l3
- Take point A1 of line L1
B1
- Draw a vertical line through point A1. B3
This line intersects line l2 at point A2 A3
- Do the same with point B
- Determine points: A3 and B3
- A3B3 is a segment of the straight line l3
y
-

B2

y
Figure 3.2

21
3.2 Some special cases:
3.2.1 Line parallels to the projection plane
a, Line parallel to 2 (horizontal line)
AB// 2 A1B1//x., A2B2=AB,  A2B2, x =  AB, 1 ( see figure 3.3 a, b)

a b
Figure 3.3

22
b, Lines parallel to 1 (Front line)
CD// 1 C2D2//x., C1D1=CD,  C1D1, x =  CD, 2
( see figure 3.5 a, b)

a b

Figure 3.5
- S

23
c, Line parallel to 3 (profile line)
EF// 3 E3F3=EF,  E3F3, x =  EF, 2 ,  E3F3, z =  EF, 1 ( see figure 3.4 a, b)
E1F1, E2 F2 lie on a the same vertical line

24
3.2.2 Line perpendicular to plane
a, Line perpendicular to 2 (horizontal projecting line)
CD 2 C2 D2, C1D1=CD ( see figure 3.5 a, b)
C1D1 is a vertical line

Figure 3.5 Figure 3.5

a b

25
 Lesson 3: perpendicular projection of a line
b, Line perpendicular to 1 (vertical projecting line)
AB 1 A1 B1, A2B2=AB ( see figure 3.5 a, b)
A2B2 is a a vertical line

Figure 3.6 a, b

26
c, Line perpendicular to 3 (profile projecting line)
EF 3 E3 F3, E1F1// E2F2 // x, E1F1= E2F2=EF ( see figure 3.7 a, b)

z
Π1 z
E1 F1
E1 F1 E3 ≡F3
Figure 3.7 a, b
E F Π3
E3 ≡F3
x O x O

E2 F2 y
Π2
E2 F2

27
 Lesson 4: perpendicular projection of a plane
4.1 Projection of a general plane
c1 d1
B1 a1
t1
A1 b1
C1
A1
x

a2 c2 d2
C2
A2
b2
A2
B2 t2

a b c d
P(A, B, Q (a//b) R(ab) (A, d)
C)
Figure 4.1

28
4.2 some special cases
4.2.1 plane parallel to projection plane
a, Plane parallel to 2 . It can be called Horizontal plane
- // 2    1 ,   3  1//x (see figure 4.2)
- (ABC)// 2  A2B2C2= ABC
A1, B1 , C1 is a horizontal line
(see figure 4.2 b)

1 

a b
Figure 4.2

29
b, plane parallel to 1 : (vertical plane)
- // 1   2 ,   3  2//x (see figure 4.3)
- (ABC)// 1  A1B1C1= ABC
A2, B2 , C2 belong to a horizontal line
(see figure 4.3 b)

a b
Figure 4.3 a b

30
c, plane parallel to 3 (profile plane)
- // 1   1 ,   2 (see figure 4.4)
- (ABC)// 3  A3B3C3= ABC
- A1, B1 , C1, A2 ,B2 ,C2 belong to is a vertical line
(see figure 4.4 b)

a b
Figure 4.4 a b

31
 Lesson 4: perpendicular projection of a plane
4.2.2, Plane perpendiculars to projection plane
a, Plane perpendicular to 1 (vertical projecting plane)
- α  1 α1 mα,  mα , x = α , 2 (see figure 4.5)
- (ABC)  1  A1, B1, C1 belong the same line, (see figure 4.5 b, c)

a b c
Figure 4.5 a b c

32
b, plane perpendicular 2 (horizontal projecting plane)

-    2   2  n ,  n , x =  , 1 (see figure 4.6)

- (ABC)  2  A2, B2, C2 belong a line, (see figure 4.6 a, b, c)

a b c
Figure 4.6

33
b, Plane perpendicular 3 (profile projecting plane)
 

- (See figure 4.6 a, b)

- Plane  (m,n)

a b

Figure 4.6

34
4.2.3 Relations of point, line and plane
a, a line
belongs to a plane, given a view of it. Find other view.
Problem 1
 Given a plane P defined by two intersecting lines a and b. (See figure 4.7)
 Line l belongs to plane P. Given l1 . Let’s draw l2.
Solve:
 Three lines a, b, l belong to plane P, they can be parallel
or intersect. Line l intersects line a at point 1.
 Line l also intersects line b at point 2
 Point 1 belongs to line a. So 12 belongs to a2
 Point 2 belongs to line b. So 22 belongs to a2
 By joining point 12 and 22 We obtained l2

Figure 4.7

35
b, Point lies on a plane, given a
view of it. Find other views.

Problem 2: (see Fig 4.9)

 Given a plane P defined by
two intersecting lines a and b.
 Point K lies in plane P. Given
K1 ,let’s determine K2.
Solve:
 Draw random line l of the
plane P passes through point
K.
 We draw l1 passes through K1
 Define l2. K2 belongs to l2

Figure 4.9

36
Exercise
Exercise 1: Plane figure ABC is an isosceles right triangle with angle A is 90 degrees. AH is the altitude of it.
Complete the vertical and horizontal projections of triangle ABC. ( see figure 4.10)
Exercise 2: Line k has k2//x. Line t passing through point A that intersects and perpendicular to the line k.
Determine two projections of line t. (see figure 4.11)

k1
A1

x
A1
x
A2 A2
k2

H2

Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11

37
Exercise 5: Line t passes through Point A and parallels to line k.
Define vertical and horizontal projections of line t (Figure 4.12)
Exercise 4: Line CD perpendicular to both lines a and b . Define vertical and horizontal projections of CD
(Figure 4.13)

A1 k1
b1
x
a1

x
A2 k2 b2

a2

Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13

38
 Lesson 4: perpendicular projection of a plane
Exercise 5: The line t in the plane P determined by the line k and the point A. Knowing t1//k1, find t2
(Figure 4.14)
Exercise 6 : Point C lies in plane P determined by both lines a and b . Determined C2 (Figure 4.15)

t1 b1
A1 a1
k1
C1
x

x
A2 k2 b2

a2

Figure4.14 Figure
4.15

39
 Lesson 5: POLYHEDRON and PRISM
5.1 Polyhedrons: A polyhedron is a figure with many planes (see figure 5.1 a , b).
The planes are connected by edges. Each edge has 2 vertices. The polyhedron
should represent all its edges and vertices. Some common polyhedrons in practice
such as pyramids, prisms. In geometry, a polyhedron (plural polyhedron or
polyhedrons) is a three-dimensional shape with flat polygonal faces, straight edges
and sharp corners or vertices.
Pyramid: In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a
polygonal base and a point, called the apex. Each base edge and apex form a
triangle, called a lateral face. It is a conic solid with polygonal base. A pyramid
with an n-sided base has n + 1 vertices, n + 1 faces, and 2n edges. All pyramids
are self-dual.
Prism: a prism is a polyhedron comprising an n-sided polygon base, a second
base which is a translated copy (rigidly moved without rotation) of the first,
and n other faces, necessarily all parallelograms, joining corresponding sides of
the two bases.

40
Lesson 5 POLYHEDRON
5.1 Projecting a polyhedron
To represent a polyhedron we must represent all its edges and vertices.
 Two views of tetrahedron SABC. It has 4 vertices , 6 edges and 4 plane figures. (See fig 5.1 a)
 Two views of Prism has 3 sides and base is a triangle. the sides are parallel to each other (See fig 1.5 b)
 By joining the vertices of the polyhedron to get its edges and faces
S1

A1 l1
A1
B1
C1 B1
C1
C2
C2
A2 A2
S2

l2 B2
B2
Fig 5.1 a Fig 5.1b

41
5.2 Points located on the faces of tetrahedron S1
Problem 1: Points M, N, P, Q belong to faces of
tetrahedron S.ABC. Given points: M1, N1, P1, Q2. P1
Determine points: M2, N2, P2, Q1 J1
(See fig 5.2)
Slove: M1
* Find point M2: Connect the point M to the vertex N1 Q1
S. Extend SM cut AB at point E. And SM’
intersects AC at point E’ A1 B1 I1
C1
In this case, there are 2 solutions, 2 points M and M’. E ≡E’1 Q’1
Point M belongs to figure plane SAB C2
Point M’ belongs to figure plane SAC E’2
• Find point P2: Draw a line passes from point P A2 M’2 J2
and parallels to BC and AC cut SC at point J. In N2 P’2
I2
this case there are two solutions, point P and P’. Q2
Point B belongs to figure plane SBC S2
E2 M2
Point M’ belongs to figure plane SAC
P2

42
Fig 5.2
B2
 Problem 2: Points M, N, P, Q situated on a1
Q1
faces of prism (see fig 5.3)
k1
Given views: M1, N1, P1, Q2. t1
Determine the remaining view of them b1 k’1
N1 M1
Solve: P1
A1 Q’1 c1
* Find M2: Draw line t passes point M and H1
parallel to line a. It cut AB at point E. E1≡E’1

. There are 2 solutions in this case: Point M B1

and M’. G1
C1

B’2 C2
E’2
H2
c2
P’2
A2 N2 M’2
G2 t’2 s’2
Note: We can find point by draw a line passes
k2
the point and parallels to the edge of the base E2
M2 a2 Q2
B2 t2

P2 b 2
Fig 5.3 43
5.3 Curve surface
5.3.1 Two views of oblique cone and oblique cylinder
 To represent an oblique cone we must represent its base and vertex (see fig 6.1)
 To represent the oblique cylinder, we must represent the base and the direction of its
generatrix (see fig 6.2)

S1
l1

O1 O1

O2
O2

S2
l2

Fig 5.4 Fig 5.5

 Draw the outline of each view
 Consider the visible and invisible parts of it 44
5.3.2 Projecting revolution surfaces
5.3.2.1 Projecting a right circular cylinder: It is formed by a generatrix moving about to an
axis that is parallel to it. The simplest thing to construct the orthographic projections of a
right circular cylinder that its axis is projecting line.
 Two views of the right circular cylinder that its axis perpendicular to the vertical plane of
projection (see fig 6.3)
 Two views of the right circular cylinder , its axis perpendicular to the horizontal plane of
projection (see fig 6.4)
One view is a circle

Fig 5.8

Fig 5.6 Fig 5.7

45
5.3.2.2 Projecting a right circular cone:
It is formed by a generatrix moving about to the axis of it that cut it. The simplest thing to
construct the orthographic projections of a right circular cone that its axis is projecting line.
 Two views of the circular cylinder that its axis perpendicular to horizontal plane of projection
(see fig 5.9)
 Two views of the circular cylinder that its axis perpendicular to vertical plane of projection
(see fig 5.10)
 Two views of the circular cylinder that its axis perpendicular to profile plane of projection
(see fig 5.11)

46
Fig 5.9 Fig 5.10 Fig 5.11
5.3.2.3 Projecting a sphere:
The sphere is created by a half-circle rotating around its diameter. So its projections all have an
outer circle with a radius equal to the radius of the sphere. (see fig 5.12)

Fig 5.12
47
5.3.3 Projection of a point situated on surfaces of geometrical solid
a) Projection of a point situated on the circular cone S1

Problem 1: Points: M, N, P, Q situated on the P1

surface of the circular cone K1
Given M1, N1, P1, Q2,
Find the remaining views of them. M1
Points: M2 , N2, P2, Q1. (see fig 5.13) N1 Q1
Solve:
- Find M2: By joining point M and apex S we J1 O1 I1
obtained generatrix SM. It cut the base circle at point E E1≡E’1 Q’1

Ther are two solutions in this case, point M and M’ E’2 I2

- Find P2: The circle is formed by a cutting plane
M’2
passes through point P and perpendicular the axis of P’2 Q2
the cone. The top view of this circle is a circle.
Note: J2 K2
To find the remaining projection of a point we can N2 S2 ≡ O2
attach it to the circle or generatrix of the cone P2
M2

Fig 5.13 E2
48
b) Projection of a point situated on the cylinder
Problem 4: Points: M, N, P, Q located on the surface of the a1 k’1
s1
cylinder. Given views: M1, N1, P2, Q2. Find M2 , N2, P1, Q1 P’1
Solve: (see Fig 5.14) M1 l1
- Find M2: Draw a generatrix a passes N1 Q1
through point M cut the base at point E.
J1 k1
There are 2 solutions in this case, Point H1
M and M’. E1≡E’1 P1
O1 T1
G1
H2 T2

E’2

G2 l2
J2 M’2 Q2
P2
O2 k2
N2 a’2

E2
s2
Note: If the view of the base is a T’2 M2
circle then we can attach the point
a2
to the circle parallel to the base
Figure 5.14 49
c) Projection of a point situated on the surface of the
sphere (u1)
N1 E1 M1
Problem 5: Points: M, N, P located on the surface of
the sphere
Given some views: M1, N1, P1. Find the remaining (v1)
P1
views of them: M2 , N2, P2 . (see fig 5.15)
O1
Solve:
- Find M2: Attach point M on the circle that is
parallel to plane of projection. One view of this circle
is a circle. Other is a horizontal or vertical straight
line. The length of it equal to diameter of it. This case
we attach point M on the circle that is parallel to (v2)
horizontal plane of projection. So its front view is a P’2
M’2
horizontal chord of the outline circle and the top view
is a circle.
- Find N2 , P2: They are belong to the outer (u2)
circles
N2 E2 O2
N1  (u1)  N2  (u2)
P1  (v1)  P2  (v2) M2
. Figure 5.15
P2 50
 Chapter 2
Intersetions

51
Lesson 6: intersection of plane and
other elements

52
 Projecting plane
Vertical projecting plane Hirizontal projecting plane
()  1 ()  2
Π1 mα Π1
n  x C1
B1 C mβ h1 B
α β
A1
A
x φ B x
φ C
A nβ
nα A2
B2
Π2
Π2 C2

x
α1

β2
x

Fig 6.1 Fig 6.2

53
Vertical projection is a line Horizontal projection is a line
 6.1 Intersection of plane and a line
Example 1: Define the intersection of line l and plane α(a,b) (See fig 6.3).
Solve:
- K  l => K1l1
- K () => K2
b1
t1
a1
K1
l1

b2
t2

K2 a2

l2
Fig 6.3 54
Example 2: Determin the intersection of line l and plane (α) (see Fig 6.4 and 6.5)
Solve:
- Construct horizontal projecting  passes through line l
- Line g is the intersection of plane  and (ABC) g1
g11
l
- I1
- g(ABC)  g2 21 C1

- l  g=K  l  (ABC) A1
11 K1
AC
φ φ1=l1 I
1

l
B1
K g l2
α g2
A2 22

K2 C2
12
I I
l AC
2 2

Fig 6.4 Fig 6.5

55
B2
 6.2 Intersetion of two plane E1
Example: Define the intersection
C1
of plane ( ABC) and (DEF) 21
(See Fig 6.6) A1
K1
DE  (ABC) = K N1 31

BC  (DEF) = N
11
B1
KN is the intersection of two planes F1
D1
41

B2 E2

32
12

K2 N2
A2 F2

22
C2
Fig 6.6

D2 42 56
 6.3 Intersection of plane and pyramid
S1

Example : Define the intersection of plane α1

α(α1) and tetrahedron S.ABC. (see fig 6.7)
This is the math of determine the intersections 31
of a line and a plane.
The lines are the edges of tetrahedron 21 J1
Point 3 =SC  
Point 2 =SB   B1
A1 C1
Point 1 =AC   11=41
Point 4 =AB   C2
By joining 1-2-3-4 we obtain the intersection 42
2’2
The intersection is a quadrilateral A2 J2
32

S2
12
Fig 6.7

22
57
B2
6.3 intersection of plane and curve surface
a- Intersection of a plane and a sphere
The intersection is a circle (see fig 6.8)
Step 1: The front view of this circle is the
chord of outline circle. The top view is
an ellipse.

Fig 6.8
58
Step 2: Attach points at this chord
Point 1 and point 5 are not the end points but
also are the end points of the main axis of the
ellipse (see Fig 6.9) 1
Points 3,3’ are the end
2
points of the other main
3
axis of the ellipse. They are the 4
midle point of the chord.
5
Points 2 uses to consider visible
and invisible part of the left
view of the intersection
Point 4 uses to consider visible
and invisible part of the
top view of the intersection
Fig 6.9
Point 2 and point 4 are the start
point and end point of the
visible part or invisible part.
59
 1 1
Point 1,2,3,4,5 are
also located on
2 2 2’
the surface of 3
the sphere. So 3 3’
4
we attach them 4 4’
to the circle 5
that is parallel 5
to the plane of
projection to
4
find the top 2 3
view of them
(see fig 6.10)
1 5

Fig 6.10

2’ 3’
60
4’
 1 1
For the top view,
Points 1-2-3-4 are
2 2 2’
visible because they 3
3 3’
located
4
on the top half 4 4’
of the sphere and 5
4-5 is the invisible
5
part of the sphere.
So point 4 is limit
4
Point of the visible 3
2
Part.
For the left view,
Points 1-2 are visible, 1 5
Because they located
On the left half of the Fig 6.11
sphere.
2’ 3’
(see fig 6.10) 61
4’
 The intersection of a plane and a sphere is a circle

3
3 3

Fig 6.13 Fig 6.14 Fig 6.15

If the cutting plane is not -The cutting plane is parallel to
parallel to the plane of plane Π1, the top view of the
projection, the projection intersection is a horizontal
of the intersection is an chord of the outline circle, the
ellipse front view is a true circle and
the left view is a vertical chord
of the outline circle.
-The cutting plane is parallel to
plane Π3, the front view and
the top view of the intersection
is a vertical chord of the
outline circle, the left view is a
true circle 62
b, Intersection of a projecting plane and a circular cone:

-If the cutting plane cut all generators of - If the cutting plane is parallel to 2
the cone but do not perpendicular to the generators of the cone, the intersection is
axis of it, the intersection is an ellipse parabola

4
3 is the apex of the
hypecbol
3
3
Symettrical of
2 the hypecbol 3
1
2-2’is the minor of 4
the ellipse 1
1-4 is the major of
the ellipse 2 3

1 4 Point 3 is the midle

point of chord
1-4 4
3’
2’ 3
2
1
Fig 6.16 Fig 6.17 63
 Intersection of a plane and a cone

Fig 6.20
Fig 6.18 Fig 6.19
If the cutting plane cut all of -If the cutting plane is parallel to a
-If the cutting plane is parallel to 2 generator, the intersection is a
generators but does nor generators of the cone, the
perpendicular to the axis parabola
intersection is a hyperbola
of the cone, the
intersection is an ellipse
If the cutting plane is
perpendicular to the axis
of the cone, the 64
intersection is a circle
 Intersection of a plane and a cone
(continue)

Fig 6.21 Fig 6.22 Fig 6.23

The cutting plane -The cutting plane passes through
perpendiculars to the axis the apex of the cone, the
of the cone, the intersection are 2 generators. -The cutting plane is parallel to the
intersection is a circle There are a lot of plane passing axis of the cone, the
through the apex of the cone intersection is a hypebola
but they do not cut the cone.
So the apex is a special point
of the cone. 65
 c, Intersetion of a plane and a right circular cylinder

1 1 Đường tròn

24
1 1 2 4
2 3 3 45o
2=
3 4 4 3

3 1

Fig 6.24
- If the cutting plane is normal to the axis of the
cylinder, the intersection is a circle.
- If the cutting plane is parallel to a generator or
axis of the cylinder, the intersection are 2
generators.
- If the cutting plane cut all of generators and is
not normal to the axis of the cylinder, the
intersection is a ellipse
4 Fig 6.25
- If the angle formed by the cutting plane and the
plane of projection equals to 45 degree, the
projection of this ellipse onto this projection
plane is a circle. Because the projection of two
main axes is equal to each other.
66
e- Observe visible and invisible Projection direction of the top view
Observe the visible and invisible parts.
- The common points of the visible part
and the hidden part.
Also known as the point
located at the limit of
the visible and hidden
parts. It is the Projection
beginning and the end direction
of the
of the visible or left view
hidden part.
-For the left view, the left half of the sphere
will be visible and the right half
will be hidden
Fig 6.26
For front view, the outer half
of the sphere will be visible
and the inner half of the sphere will be hidden

For top view, the top half of the sphere

will be visible and its bottom half will be invisible 67
Projection direction of the front view
Lesson 7: Intersection of
two curve surface

68
 The cylinder that the axis of it is normal to plane of projection

The axis of the cylinder is normal to the vertical The axis of the cylinder is normal to the horizontal
plane of projection plane of projection

Π1 Π1

x x
O2

Π2 Π2

The front view is The top view is a

a circle circle
The outline of the The outline of the
top view is a front view is a
rectangle rectangle

Fig 7.1 Fig 7.2

69
7.1 intersection of cylinder and sphere

If center of the sphere lies on the

axis of the cylinder, their
intersection is a circle

Fig 7.3

70
 Define a projection of the intersection
 The front view of the intersection coincides
with the circle of the cylinder
 Take points on this circle.
 Note: the important points of two surface
 These points are also located on the sphere.
Base on this we can find the top view of them.
 By joining the points in the order taken on the circle will
get the top view of the intersection
 Base on front view and top view, we can draw the
left view

Fig 7.4

71
-Take the point on the
circle of the cylinder 3 2 1
Points: 1,6 located on the front projecting
plane 1. 4 10
This is symmetrical plane of two surfaces
Points 3,7 5 9
Points 5,9
6 8
Points 2,8
Points: 4, 10 7

Fig 7.5

72
 2 2’
3 3’
3 2
1 1

4 10 10’ 4’
4 10
9
5 5 9 9’ 5’
6 6 6’
7 8 7
7’
8 8

56
7 8
4

3 9
2
10
Fig 7.6
12
10’
3’ 2’ 9’
4’
6’ 8’
7’
5’
73
 3 2
1

4 10
9
5
6
7 8

56
7 8
4

3 9
2
10

12
10’
3’ 2’ 9’
4’ Fig 7.7
6’ 8’
7’
5’
74
e, Observe visible and invisible part
2 2’
3 3’
3 2
1 1

4 10 10’ 4’
4 10
9 5
5 9 9’ 5’
6 6 6’
7 8 7 7
8 8’

56
7 8 - The intersection is visible if it must belong to
4
the visible parts of the two faces
3 9 - So we have to look at each curved surface
2
10 and find the visible part of both of them.

12
10’
3’ 2’ 9’
4’ Fig 7.8
6’ 8’
7’
5’ 75
f. Check the outline
2 2’
3 3’
3 2
1 1

4 10 10’ 4’
4 10
9 5
5 9 9’ 5’
6 6 6’
7 8 7 7
8 8’

56
7 8
4

3 9
2
10

12
10’ Fig 7.10
3’ 2’ 9’
4’
6’ 8’
7’
5’ 76
 2 2’
3 3’
3 2
1 1

4 10 10’ 4’
4 10
9 5
5 9 9’ 5’
6 6 6’
7 8 7 7
8 8’

56
7 8
4

3 9
2
10

12
10’ Fig 7.11
3’ 2’ 9’
4’
6’ 8’
7’
5’ 77
Extreme points: highest, farthest, nearest and lowest
points: 1, 6 2
3
1
The cone, cylinder, and sphere are all quadratic curves. So their
intersection is a 4 rapids curve (see Fig 7.12, 7.13) 4 10

5 9
6 8
7

Highest point

Lowest point
4 rapids curve

Fig 7.12
Fig 7.13 78
 Some types of the intersection of two curve surfaces

11 71
51
51
21 61 21
51 71 81

3 61 21
41 31
1

3
42 32 32 1
22 22
32
62

52 52 22
52 O2 62
12 72
5’
2 72 82
6’2
6’ 5’2 2’2
2
2’ 2’
2
3’ 2
3’2
4’2 3’2 2
b c
a If two curve surfaces have a If two quadratic surfaces have t
n general , the intersection of two common point of tangent, common tangent points, the
curve surfaces is a rapid curve of their intersection will be a intersection will be two
order 4 . rapids curve intersecting quadratic curves passing
79
See Fig 7.14 a, b, c at the tangent point. through two common tangen
points.
 S1
7.3 Intersection of a cone and a cylinder
51

71 81
51

71 81 61 21

61 21
31

31

32
32

52 22
52 62
62 22
S2
72 82
72 82 6’2
6’2 5’2 2’2
5’2 2’2

3’2
3’2 Fig 7.16
Fig 7.15 80
Hollow cylinder Solid cylinder
 S1

11
11 X1
X1

21
21 41 Y1
41 Y1
31
31

32 Y2
32 Y2 22
22
X2
X2
42 12 S2
42 12

X’2
X’2 2’2
2’2 3’2
3’2 Y’2
Y’2
Fig 7.17 Fig 7.18
81
Cylindrical hole Solid cylinder
 1 1 1’

2 2=4 2’=4’
4
1 1’
3

2 4
1

Two surface have a common

Fig 7.20
1’ symmetrical plane
2’ 4’ The common symmetrical plane is
formed by two intersecting axes or
3’ parallel axes.
(see fig 7.19 and 7.20) 82
Fig 7.19
 If the cone and the cylinder
have the same axis, their
intersection is a circle
(see Fig 7.21)

83
Fig 7.21
7.4 Intersection of two cylinders

1 1
1’
2 4 2=4 2’=4’

3 3 3’

1=3
2 + If the two axes of two cylinders are intersecting lines,
4 the plane formed by the two axes will be their common
plane of symmetry. (see Fig 7.22)
- If they have different diameters, their intersection is a
rapid curve of order 4 .
- If they have the same diameter, their intersection is 2
ellipses

2’ 4’ 84
1’=3’
 Intersection of two cylinders that have a common symmetrical plane
and the same diameter, their intersection are two ellipse

1 1

2 4 1 T3
2≡4
T1 II
3 4
3
T
I 2 2

T4
Fig 7.23 3
x
x
The top views and front views of two ellipses coincide y
with the circles of the cylinder.
The left view of these ellipse are incline straight line (see 85
y Fig 7.23)
 Chapter 3 Drawing standards.
3.1 Size of drawings - TCVN 2-74 (ISO5457:1980)
All drawing are made of on sheets of paper of strictly defined sizes, which are set standard.
The use of standard sizes saves paper and ensures convenient storage of
drawings. The standard establishes five preferred sizes for drawing as tabulated bellow:

Size designation
A4 A3 A2 A1 A0

Sheet dimentions ,297x210 420x297 594x420 594x841 1189x841

mm

The drawing size is designated by two figures: the first indicates how many times on side of drawing is
greater than 297 mm. The second how many times the other size is greater than 210mm. The basic size for
drawing is size A4.

A3

Title
block
Frame (1) (2) (3)
(8)
drawing (4) (5) (6)
(10)
(7) (9)
(11)

Fig 1

3.2 Title block

All production and training have a title block. It is a rectangle located in the
lower-right hand corner of the sheet. It contains such information as name of the plant or education institution,
the description or title of the drawing, dates, signature and other pertinent data.
The title block should be arranged along the short side of the sheet A4 or long side for sheet of other sizes. 86
 3.3 Types of lines
In engineering drawing various types of lines are used. Line thickness
depends on the size, complexity and purpose of the drawing.
There are four principle types of lines. They are continuous (thick, thin or
wavy); short dash; dot and dash; chain (thick and thin); open.

Type Sample Thickness

Thick continuous S= (0.6 - 1.5 mm)

S
Thin continuous S/2 to S/3

Wavy continuous S/2 to S/3

Short dash S/2 to S/3
a1
Long chain (thin) S/2 to S/3
Short chain (thick) a2 S/2 to 2S/3

Open (thick) S to 1.5S

Typical applications of some of the above listed types of lines are shown in
some figures bellow:
Hatching line
Center line

Visible line

Hidden line

Break line 30

150
Ø40
Dimention line Extension line
Ø50
Fig 2
Fig 3
-Thick continuous lines used for visible lines should be 0.6-1.5mm thick. Their thickness depends on the
dimentions of the part. The choosen line thickness should be equal for all views in a given drawing presented in
one or the same scale.
-Thin continuous lines used for extention, dimentions lines should be from one half to one third the thickness of
the lines specified as the thick.
87
-Thick continuous lines used for visible lines should be 0.6-1.5mm thick. Their thickness depends on the
dimentions of the part. The choosen line thickness should be equal for all views in a given drawing presented
in one or the same scale.
-Thin continuous lines used for extention, dimentions lines should be from one half to one third the thickness
of the lines specified as the thick.
Continuous lines of the same thickness (s/3 and less) are also use for
hatching in section. The hatching lines being spaced at 2 to 8 mm depending to be cross-hatched.
Brearks are shown by a wavy line s/2 mm and less thick.
Short- dash lines are used for invisible lines or hidden outlines. The length of a dash is from 2 to 8 mm long. Let
it be a. So a=(2-8)mm. Its thickness is from s/2 to s/3. The spacing between dashes (m) being approximately 12
1 of their length
4

.
Thin dash and dash lines with the long dashes (or long chain lines) are
used for axes or center lines which are usually s/3 mm and less thick with the dashes (a1) approximately from
8-15 mm long spaced at 3 to 5 mm (m1)
In thick dot and dash line with short dashes (or short chain lines. The length of a dash (a2) is 3-8 mm. The
spacing (m2) being 3 to 4 mm. For small drawings a2 may be still less.
a m
m1
a1
a2 m2

Typical applications of thick short chain lines are used for the cut off portion of a revolve surfaces.
Center of circles should be marked by two intersecting dashes. For circles
of diameters less than 12 mm the center lines are usually drawn within continuous lines.
Thin continuous lines are used to show a surface smoothly into another as well as to indicate bending lines.
Ø60

Ø10

88
Fig 4
3.4 Lettering TCVN 6-85 (ISO 3098 : 1974)
The drawing should be carefully made and carefully lettered. The character
of the line work and the lettering gives the drawing what is known as technique, a phrase of drafting which is too
often neglected.
Since all mechanical parts are made to drawing, careless lettering may result in rejects.
Style of letter and figures to be used for engineering drawing are also standardized.
The following sizes of characters are recommended: 2.5,3.5,5,7,10,14. The size determined in the height (h) in mm
of the capital letters.
The letters and figures may be lettered in vertical characters or have a slant
of 75° to the horizontal.
ABCDEFGH ABCDEFGH

Engineering drawing 1 2 3 4 Engineering drawing 1 2 3 4

h
b The Latin Alphabet
Specification Designation Specification Designation
Height of capital letters and figures Height of the h width of the lower-case i, j, l and figure 1
lower-case letter (except b, d, g, h, i, j, k, l, p, q, t Width of the lower-case letter f, r and t b = 2/7 h
and y) h1=5/7h Width of the lower-case letter m and w Line thickness b=3/7h
Height of the lower-case letters: b, d, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, p, of capital letters and figures h
q, t and y h Line thickness of lower-case letter Spaces between
Width of the capital letters (except A, I, J, M, and W letters and words and b=1/7 h
and figures except (1) Width of the capital letter I b=4/7 h between figures in numbers b=1/10 h
Width of the capital letter J b=1/7 h Space between words and between numbers, not
b=37/ h less than A=2/7h A1=h
Width of the capital letter A and M Width of
Space between lines of lettering, not less than
the capital letter w b=5 7 h A2=11/12 h

Width of lowe-case letters (except: f, i, j, b=h

l, m, r, t and w) b=4 7 h

3.5 Scales TCVN 3-74 (ISO 5455:1979)

It is desirable to make full-size drawing of machine parts and assemblies in order to represent true shape and
dimentions.
Large objects of comparatively simple shape are drawn in less than full size; on the other hand small shape
are scale up.
The scale is the relation between of the dimentions of the drawing of an
object and the actual dinmentions. Scales should be selected acording the standard. Tabulated bellow are
the scales used in mechanical drawing.
Full size 1:1
Reduction scales 1:2 1:2,5 1:4 1:5 1:10 1:15 1:20 1:25 1:40 1:50 1:75 1:100
Magnification scales 2:1 2,5:1 4:1 5:1 10:1 15:1 20:1 40:1 50:1 89
3.6 Dimentioning TCVN 5705:1993 (ISO 129:1985)
The drawings must indicate all the necessary dimentions in a way most convenient for the workman.
The size of the object or its separate parts is usually indicated in the drawings by means of the dimentions lines, complete with
figures show the actually measurment irrespective of the scale. As a rule, dimentions in machine drawings are given in
millimeters without adding the abbreviation mm.
Dimension lines must not intersect. They must be parallel to the sides for which the dimensions are to be measured. And they
must have two arrows at the ends.
When there are many parallel dimension lines, we draw from the smallest line to the larger ones in order from inside to outside.
Dimention figures must be written clearly and neatly to avoid confusion and possible errors. They must be written above and
parallel to the dimention line and as close to its center as possible.
Extension lines must extend 2 to 5 mm beyond the ends of the arrowheads. Extension lines should be perpendicular to the
dimention lines.
If there is no room for arrowheads at the end of dimention lines arranged continuous chain. They may be replaced by dots or stick.
On half sectioned views with an axis of symmetry it is permissible to dimention (Ø50 and Ø150). In this case the dimention line
must extend to

Ø116
somewhat beyond the axis of symmetry.
2x45°
Ø50

120
Ø 100

178
160 140

40
15 17
Ø150
Fig 5
Ø200

Squares are dimentioned in the following mamner : the side x the side. When dimentioning a number of equi-spaced similar
elements of machine parts (usually one hole is dimentioned and the numbers of holes are indicated.

10xØb 88
90

a
9xa=
55x55 Fig 6

90
 Chapter 4
Orthogonal view

91
 Main content

Some concepts:
Views
Principle views
Auxiliary view, spatial view

92
Perpendicular projection

Projection plane

Projection direction
93
II-Views

94
 Two ways to locate the object
European standard (first angle) American standard (third angle)

The object is located between The projection plane is situated

the projection plane and the between the observer and the
... observer object

Symbol Symbols

95
4.1- How to construct 6 principle views of an object
An object is located inside the glasses box and 2 6
41
projected orthographically on six planes,
respectively, we obtain 6 views of its.
3 5
The 6 principle views obtained on the above are 3
called:
1- Front view
1 4
-The object must be considered
2- Top view opaque and
3- Left view
2
the projection planes are
4- Right view
transparent 6
5- Bottom view 5
6- Back view First Angle

96
4.1- How to construct 6 principle views of an object
Third Angle
2
6
3 6
2
1

4
3 1
5
4

97
 Standard arrangement of 6 principle views
• The names of the views are not given in drawings.
• Views 3,4,6 should be in horizontal alignment with view 1.
• Views 2,5 should be in vertical alignment with view 1.

Standard of European Standard of American

To convert from one system to another, we just need to change the
positions of 2 pairs of views, number 3 and 4 for each other,
numbers 5 and 2 for each other. 98
 Note:
The front view is the main view. It is the most important view.
We must choose the front direction so that the front view can
represent the main features of the object

Because the box has 3 pairs of parallel planes so the

projections of an object on parallel planes are the same.
Therefor we also have 3 pairs of the same projections such as
projections 1 and 6, projections 2 and 5, and projections 3 and
4.
Since the projection directions are opposite and the planes
also rotate in opposite directions, projection number 2 is
symmetric to number 5 through the horizontal line.
Projections 3 and 4 will be symmetrical about the vertical
line. Projections 1 and 6 are also symmetrical about the
vertical line 99
4.2 Auxiliary view and pacial view

100
 Auxiliary view is a view obtained on the
A plane that isn’t parallel to the projection plane
B
Both views are limited by
A thin wave drawn freehand
Auxiliary view

A 

B β
B A

Parcial view

Pacial view is a view obtained on the plane 101

that parallel to the projection plane
Axiliary view Parcial view
The view of obtain on the The view of obtain on the
plane that isn’t parallel to plane that parallel to the
the projection plane projection plane

Applies to surfaces of Apply when it is not

objects that are not parallel necessary to draw the entire
to the projection plane principle view

102
 Homework
Excercize 2.01
Given axonometric projection of an object. Draw three principle views: Front
view, top view and left sid view of it. Use paper size A4

10
25
10

Title block
(see page 2 of
the workbook)

103
10
Homework: Given a regular isometric projection
of an object.
Complete three principle views of it
such as front view, top view and left
view

104
How to place the object in the box
.Choose the main projection direction so that the main view
must describe the geometrical features of the object

Place objects so that their faces are parallel to the planes so

that their projections are real

GOOD NO !

105
 Choose the main projection direction
The maximum length of the object should be chosen as
the maximum width of the front view
Option 1: The blank paper Option 2 is better than option 1
area is too large

NO! GOOD

106
 The front view must show
the working state of the machine

NO!

107
 Place the object so that its edges, the axes of the cylindrical and cones...
are perpendicular to the projection planes.
 Choose the direction of view so that the front has the fewest hidden lines
 Choose the right ratio. The total area of the representations takes up
about 3/4 of the paper area

GOOD No!

108
 Chapter 6
Pictorial view
(Axonometric projection)

109
 Main content

Concept of pictorial view

Some types of pictorial views
How to construct pictorial view

110
6.1 Introduction

111
 Introduction pictorial view

Pictorial view are widely used in engineering due to its pictorial force. It is differ
from orthographic projection. The object is projected only onto one plane of
projection called picture plane or axonometric plane. It looks like a 3D object to the
viewer.
Construct pictorial view of an object helps a great deal in acquiring the skill of
reading and understanding the language of engineering drawing as well as in
developing the ability to visualize the shape of three dimensional object. 112
 6.2 How to construct pictorial view of a point
s z’
z
Az A’z Π’

A’
A
O O’
Ay A’y
Ax A’x
y y’
x x’

Given a point A in space, attach it to an OXYZ coordinate system.

The coordinates of A are: Xa, Ya, Za.
Π’ is the picture plane, s is the projection direction. Projected OXZY onto
plane Π’ we obtain O’x’y’z’. A’ is pictorial view of A
113
 s z’
z
Az A’z Π’

φ’
φ A
A’
O O’
Ay A’y
Ax A’x
y y’
A’
x A2 x’
2

Object in the space Pictorial view

 To construct pictorial view of an object we project it onto

the picture plane Π’, s is a projection direction
 Pictorial projection is parallel projection. So it has all of properties of
parallel projection.
114
 b- Deformation coefficients

Deformation coefficient along the x- axis: s

z z’
Az A’z
Π’
x' O' A' x
p 
x OAx A’
Deformation coefficient along the y- axis : A
O O’
y' O' A' y Ay A’y
q  Ax A’x
y OAy y
Deformation coefficient along the z- axis A’2 y’
x A2 x’
z' O' A' z
r 
z OAz
Deformation coefficient is the ratio between the projected image
and the real image.
To determent A’ we must find deformation coefficients: p,q,a
Each type of axonometric projections will have its own deformation
115
coefficients
c- Pictorial projection classification
There are two ways to classify
Classification according to the angle formed by the
projection direction s and the picture plane
- If the projection direction is perpendicular to the picture
plane then we have a rectangular axonometric projection.
- If the projection direction is inclined at an acute angle to the
picture plane, then we have an oblique axonometric projection

116
Rectangular axonometric projection Oblique axonometric projection
c- Pictorial projection classification
Classification according to the deforation coefficients: p, q,r
If p=q=r then we have an equilateral axonometric projection
- If p=q=2r or q=r=2p or p=r=2q then we have an isoceles
axonometric projection
- If pqr then we have an oblique axonometric projection

117
c- Pictorial projection classification

118
d- The properties of axonometric projection

Axonometric projection is a parallel projection, so it has all of

properties of parallel projection.
Some properties are commonly used.

If three points lie on a straight-line then their projection is

a straight-line

If we have 2 parallel lines then their projections are also 2 parallel

lines

119
Some commonly used
pictorial views

120
 a- Iso isometric view
If: s ’ and p=q=r0.82 This is isometric
All edges are parallel to three axes such as x, y, z then isometric of
them forshorten about 0.8 time
O
s
z’
x’
A =A’
Π’
x z’

O’ C =C’ O’
z
120o
y’ B =B’ x’ y’

Construct isometric projection :

Take three points A, B, C on ox, oy, oz, so that OA=OB=OC, respectively. By
joining we obtain the equilateral triangle ABC. The projection direction s is perpendicular
121
to plane ABC. O’ is a projection of point O. O’ is center of this equilateral triangle. AA’,
Properties of isometric view: z’
1
- The angles formed by O’x’ and O’y’, O’y’
and O’z’ , O’x’ and O’z’ equal to 120o
- When we draw isometric O’z’ is always a
vertical straight line
O’
- Three deformation coefficients are equal 120o
p=q=r =0,82. But when we construct regular 1 1
isometric we take p=q=r=1 x’ y’

Therefore, parallel lines corresponding to 3

axes ox, oy, oz, their projections must
correspond to 3 axes o'x', o'y' and o'z'
respectively. Their projection length is equal to
the true length

122
 b- Dimetric view

c- Oblique frontal dimetry view

123
6.3- Drawing isometric guidelines

124
 Construction step

1. Attach the coordinate system to the object

2 Construct three lines: o’x’, o’y’, o’z’

3. Choose the visible face to draw. Firstly, choose

the flat figures, then the surfaces and curves.
Frist, construct the straight-lines are parallel to one
of thee axes such as ox, oy, oz. Then draw incline
lines and curve lines
4.Shouldn’t draw the hidden egdes

125
126
 Example 1 : Construct Isometric view of a box
z1
Steps:
1. Attach the
coordinate system
x1
O1y1
2. Draw isometric axes z’
such as o’x’,o’y’ and o’z’ x O2z2
2
3. Steps:
- Firstly, draw the
highest rectangle
- Secondly, draw the y2 O’
front rectangle. 120o

- The last is the left

x’ y’
rectangle
127
Example 2 : Isometric view of the object has inclined plane

Vertical projecting plane

D1 A1
D’
E1

H
z

z
B1 E’ A’
C1 x C’
W
x
D

B2, A2
C2, D2 E2
B’

 Frist, draw A’B’=A1B1, B’C’= B1C1, C’D’= C1D1

 Second, define E’ and draw A’D’, D’E’
 The last, draw the lines that are parallel to O’Y’ 128
Example 3 : isometric view of Regular Hexagon

x x
B x

C A
x

z
C
B A

Inclined plane z

C B A

129
Example 4

C D
A F E

y C
E
B D F

130
 Isometric view of circle
Isometric of a circle is an ellipse
1,22d

0,7d

Base view Regular

isometric
Steps:
1. Determine the center of thee llipses.
2. Draw the isometric of the square
circumscribing the circle. It is a rhombus.
The diagonals of the rhombus are 2 main
axes of this ellipse.
3.Draw an ellipse inscribed in the rhombus and tangent to the sides of
131
the rhombus at the midpoints
 .Draw an ellipse by using a ruler and compass

Steps:

1. Determine the center of the ellipse

2. Draw isometric of
the square circumscribing the circle

3. Determine 4 centers of 4 arcs

4.
. Draw 4 arcs passing through the
midpoint of the sides of the rohmbus

132
 . Draw an ellipse with the ellipse ruler

1. Determine the center of the ellipse

2. Draw 2 main axes of the ellipse
3. Place the ellipse so that its 2 major and minor axes coincide
with the 2 lines just drawn
4. Draw ellipse
5. It is possible to draw 2 conjugate axes of the ellipse
6. D

133
Example 5

Fristly, draw isometric view of the box

Secondly, draw isometric view of the
cylinder

134
Example 6 Frist, draw isometric of two base
Second, draw isometric of two end generators
The last, draw isometric of intersection of two cylinder
2
1 3

2’
3’
1’
4’
X

3
2= 4
1 3 1
2= 4 135
136
 Homework
Bài tập 3.01 VẼ HÌNH CHIẾU THỨ BA
(Xem yêu cầu trong sách bài tập trang 10)

10
25
10

Khung tên xem

sách bài tập
trang 2

137
10
 Chapter 7
Section – section view

138
 MAIN CONTENT

Concept of setion and section view

Section
Section - view

139
Concept of section and section view

140
to reveal the internal features
A-A
Section viewA-A
Cutting plane

A A

The sectional view consists of the section and the projection of

the part of the object that lies behind the cutting plane.
Section is the figure lying on the cutting plane. It is the intersection
141
of the cutting plane with the object. Sections show interior clearly
7.1- Section view

142
 General provisions
a. Symbol of the cutting line, projection direction
Nét đậm A-A
A cutting line
Tiêu chuẩn show where object
Hướng
Mỹ was cut to obtain
Nét đậm the section chiếu
view

The projection
Hướng
direction (arrow
head) show chiếu
the
Tiêu chuẩn Nét mảnh remaining part
Nhật bản and the removed
part.
và ISO
A A
Tiêu chuẩn Hướng
Việt Nam chiếu
143
 b. Conventional symbols used in sectioning
• The kind of material should be indicated by using a specific type of section
line or cross hatching.
• Cross hatching in the section view shows the solid surface of the object
which were cut through to produce the section
• The cut surfaces of objects are distinguished from other surfaces by cross
hatching

Cross hatching

The cross hatching are parallel

lines. They are drawn at an
144
angle of 45 degree
 Section lines symbols
Each material has it own symbol

For the practical purpose, the cast ion symbol

is used most often for any materials.

Cast ion Steel Concrete Sand Wood

145
Material symbols for metals are straight lines
inclined 45 degrees to the horizontal. These lines
must be evenly spaced

Some errors

146
The hatch line shouldn’t perpendicular or
parallel to the boundary

Some errors

147
c. Conventional practices

When cutting longitudinally through parts such as ribs,

webs or thin wall, teeth of gears, lugs, pulleys, handwheels,
spokes not showing hatching lines help make section easier
to interpret correctly.

When a cutting plane passes through longitudinal axes

of solid cylinders such as shafts, bolts, screws, pins,
keys, it is considered that these parts are not cut by the
cutting plane.

148
 The thin wall and the rib
Thin walls, rib, web help keep the part strong

Thin wall
Rib
Rib
149
Example: cutting longitudinal the ripB-B B

Misunders
the struct
150
Example: Cutting longitudinal the thin wall
C C-C

151
Example : Cut across the thin wall

D D

D-D

152
Ví dụ: Cut longitudinal the spoke
E-E

E E

153
Misunderstand the
 classifcation section view
There are two ways to classify:
Classification according to the A-A
position of the cutting plane
relative to the projection plane
+ Section front view:
The cutting plane is parallel to
the vertical plane of projection
+ Section top view:
The cutting plane is parallel to
the top plane of projection
A A
+ Section left side view:
The cutting plane is parallel to
the profile plane of projection

154
Sort by the removed part of the object
+ Full section view
+ Half section view
+ Offset section
+ Revolved section (Aligned section)
+ Broken out section
+ Removed section (Detailed section)

155
 a, Full section front view
Use only one cutting plane to
cut completely through the part
A-A

A A

Imagine removing the part of the object that is 156

in front of the cutting plane
Full section view
Unimportant invisible lines can be removed

F-F

F F

157
 Full section view
The advantage of the total section is that it describes the internal structure of the object
but loses the external structure. So it only applies to objects with a simple external
structure
When the cutting plane coincides with the symmetry plane, the cut plane trace symbol
and the arrow indicates the projection direction and notes are omitted,

F-F

F F
158
 b, Half section
It is made by two perpendicular cutting planes. They cut away 1/4 of the
object. It can be seen that only one half of the view is shown in section
and other half is an external view.

159
 Half section
The interior half is separated from the exterior half by center line. It is
standard practice to place the sectioned part to the right of an axis of
symmetry or bellow it
Unimportant invisible features that are symmetrical with the visible lines
are removed
.Half-section depicts the internal structure, half-projection describes the
external structure

160
 Half section
Note:
Half section is often used with symmetrical objects
If a visible edge coincides with the symmetrical axis, then the
section is made somewhat less than one half. In such case the
external view is separated the sectional view by a thin
continuous wavy line drawn freehand.

161
 C, Offset section
An offset section view is generated by offsetting (bending) the cutting
plane to show features that are not in a straight line
The cutting planes are joined each other to form steps like stairs cut off the
entire length of the object
G-G

G
Do not show the egdes view of
162
the cutting plane
d, Align section Revovlve the section on the right of the
axis of the biggest cylinder about its
Align section is formed by two axis until it parallel to the vertical plane
of projection
intersecting planes. One is H-H
parallel to the projection plane
other is not. To section is true
size the secion that is not
parallel to the projection plane
must be rotated about the
intersection of two cutting plane
until it parallel to the plane of
projection. Then the section is
H
true shape.

163
 e, Broken out section view
It is made by passing the cutting plane normal to the
viewing direction and removing the portion of an
object in front of it

164
 Hình cắt riêng phần

A break line is used to separate

from the sectioned portion and
the unsectioned portion of the
view.
Break line is thin and continuous
and is drawn freehand
There is no cutting plane line

165
7.2- Section

166
 Types of section

Revolved section
Removed section

167
a- Removed section
A
A-A

The section is placed ouside

the view that has the cutting
plane
The boundary is thick
continuous line
168
 b, Revolved section
It is placed on the
view that the
cutting plane is
drawn
The boundary is
thin continuous line
There are no cutting
plane and the arrow
to show the
projection direction 169
 REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Basic concept

170
 REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Basic concept

171
 7.3 Application
Steps in construction
Given

Edge view of
cross-section

Step 1
a. Assign position of cutting plane.
b. Draw axis of rotation in front view. 172
 REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Steps in construction
Given

Step 2
a. Transfer the depth dimension to
the front view.
173
 REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Steps in construction
Given

FINAL PICTURE
174
 REVOLVED SECTION VIEW
Placement of revolved section
1. Superimposed to orthographic view.

2. Break from orthographic view.

Break Superimposed

175
REMOVED SECTION VIEW
6. Removed section
Removed section is revolved section.

Section view is shown outside the view.

Used where space does not enough for

revolved section

Can be located elsewhere on a drawing

with properly labeled

176
 REMOVED SECTION VIEW
Example : Revolved vs. removed sections.

Revolved section Removed section

177
 REMOVED SECTION VIEW
Example : Situation that removed section is preferred.

Poor Preferred

Too messy !!

178