Story of Antarctica

THE STORY OF ANTARCTICA
NATIONAL CENTRE FOR ANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCH & GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA
Story The Story of Antarctica

Anju Tiwari, K.P.Krishnan and Rasik Ravindra Pages : 64 Year : 2008 ISBN : 978-81-906526-0-5
c National
Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
Ministry of Earth Sciences, Goa
Geological Society of India

Bangalore
Designed and Printed by National Institute of Science Communication And Information Resources, C.S.I.R., Dr. K. S. Krishnan Marg, New Delhi-110 012.
Secretary Ministry of Earth Sciences Government of India, Mahasagar Bhavan, Block-12, C.G.O. Complex, Lodhi Road,
Dr. P.S. Goel
New Delhi - 110 003
FOREWORD
ntarctica is the only place on the Earth that is not owned by anyone. It is a continent of peace, tranquility and science. The Antarctic Treaty System currently in place, offers an opportunity to the scientific community world over, to search for the answers to many unresolved questions pertaining to our mother earth. Common people, especially the young generation needs to know more about this continent and its role in global perspective. Bringing together historical and scientific aspects of Antarctica in a lucid and interactive manner so that children find it interesting, has been a major objective of this venture. The triennium 2007-2009 is being celebrated as the International Year of Planet Earth as also the International Polar Year. It is therefore befitting that information relating to a lesser-understood region of earth - Antarctica, is being brought in the present form. This book is an outcome of determined effort made by many enthusiastic, young researchers and scientists of National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research who were encouraged by the Ministry of Earth Sciences and Geological Society of India to take up this task. I sincerely hope that this book would enthuse and excite the imagination of our school children and inspire them to know more about the icy continent of Antarctica so that its pristine environment is preserved for the generations to come.
(P. S. Goel)
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PROLOGUE PROLOGUE
ntarctica deserves special place in Earths geography not only because of its location but also due to its importance in influencing Earths climate and sea level. Unfortunately it continues to be the least studied continent because of its remote and inhospitable location. Attempts to understand it commenced in earnest during the past 50 year with the launch of International Geophysical Year in 1957-58. India joined the select group of nations active in Polar Science by launching its first Antarctic expedition in 1981. Since 1981, scientific expeditions to Antarctica are launched every year. The 26th expedition in this series coincided with International Polar Year (2007-2008). Geological Society of India has been actively involved in science popularization via books under Popularization of Science Series. Under its aegis two books have already been published by GSI, which are Story of Oceans & Glaciers: The Rivers of Ice. In continuation to this, the society prompted National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) under Ministry of Earth Sciences, which is the premier institute for Antarctic research, to bring out a book on Antarctica for school children so that mysteries surrounding it can be uncovered. I would like to congratulate NCAOR for producing an informative and beautifully illustrated book and I believe that it will go a long way in creating awareness about this icy continent in general public and especially school childrens minds.
(Harsh Gupta)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. P.S.Goel, Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences is gratefully acknowledged for approving this popular write up. Dr. B.P. Radhakrishna and Dr. Harsh K. Gupta have been the driving force in bringing out this series. Mr. S. Mukherjee, Mr. Arun Chaturvedi, Mr. M.J.DSouza and Mr. M.J.Beg from the Antarctica Division, Geological Survey of India are earnestly thanked for reviewing the draft of the book and providing their valuable comments. Many websites were scoured to get the right photographs to add visuals to the text. These are all listed in the bibliography and are duly acknowledged. Two postgraduate students of the Pune University (Mr. Ashok Sunwade and Ms.Preeti Oswal) have contributed some of the pictures incorporated in the book.
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CONTENTS
Foreword ..............................................iii Prologue ............................................... v I. II. The mysterious continent...................1 It is ice and ice every where..................4
III. Life in Antarctica.............................................................................9 IV. V. Discovery of Antarctica...................................................................14 Is it really no mans land .....................21
VI. Indias journey to Antarctica................24 VII. Antarctic science....................36 VIII. The Indian Contribution to Antarctic Science.................................45 IX. Amazing facts about Antarctica...................52
Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Bibliography . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
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The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA
THE MYSTERIOUS CONTINENT

information about many mysteries of the earth. This frozen continent holds the key to the story of drifting continents and the past climate of earth. It also controls the key to global climate-pattern of today.
If youre exploring the planet, Antarctica is the last stop on the train.... Barry Lopez
ntarctica, the white continent, of ten called as the last wilderness of our planet earth, stands isolated at the earths southern most part today. This huge landmass covered with a thick blanket of ice throws relentless challenges to the adventurous instinct of mankind. It is wild, breathtakingly beautiful and still remains unexplored fully by man. The pristine environment makes the icy continent a unique place to conduct scientific research. Very wisely, the world has designated Antarctica as the continent for Peace and Science. Today, we have realized that Antarctica is a virtual storehouse of
A place of extremes
Antarctica is the highest, coldest and windiest continent. With very low amount of snowfall and practically no rainfall, most of the continent is technically a desert. The Antarctic icecap stores almost 70% of the worlds freshwater and 90% of ice. The Southern Ocean surrounding this continent freezes up to a distance of 1500
An Iceberg
1 1
km in winter, more than doubling the actual size (13.9 million sq km) of the continent. This is also a place of midnight sun and a continent where darkness prevails for months together during the Polar winters. The continent is as large as India and China put together with no permanent habitation. There are no forests, no perennial rivers and no industrial or military activity. There are also no markets or super bazaars. Explorers from different nations mingle with one-another and call themselves Polar men.
explosions are frozen in the ice. Equally important is the evidence for ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere. Studies on the ice sheet and its contribution to world sea level rise are vital to our Antarctica is not a merely scientific understanding of the global change. curiosity but a key part of the fabric of the Southern lights or Aurora Australis, seen Earth system. The processes taking place during the dark periods in Antarctic sky, is in the Antarctic system affect the worlds another unique and fascinating climate and its oceans, linking the continent inextricably to what we experience thousands of kilometers away. urora Australis Aurora Australis In understanding global climate change, Antarctica has a crucial role to play. Locked up in its more than 4 km thick ice sheet, is a record of past climate for the last 5,00,000 years or even more. Trapped bubbles held in the ice act as an archive of atmospheric gases. Evidence for levels of global pollution by industry, agriculture and atomic
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Penguins moving into the sea
Snow covered mountains in Antarctica
phenomenon viewed in Antarctica by the charged particles received from solar flares. These lights are like dancing ballerina wearing multicolored bright dresses. Snowstorms, blizzards and magnetic storms are rather a common sight. Infact, their frequency is so great that one starts missing these if a spell of good weather continues for a long period. Some of the magnetic storms can seriously damage satellites and even power systems. Early detection of
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these storms and prediction of their possible damage can save electronic equipment. The wild life on the peripheral regions of the continent, comprising birds such as petrels, skuas, penguins and larger animals like seals and whales make the place really lively and interesting as it brings to our knowledge the art of surviving, breeding and community living in the most hostile environment.
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II
IT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHERE
ntarctica surrounds the geographic South Pole of the earth and is the fifth largest among the seven continents of the earth. Ninety eight percent of the Antarctic continent is under ice cover. Antarctica totals 13.9 million sq km with an average elevation of about 2300 m (about 7500 ft) and its shape is almost circular with an arm - the Antarctic Peninsula - protruding
Indian Antarctic Expedition Vessel enters the Polar Circle
northward and reaching very close to South America. Ice is the typical, defining property associated with Antarctica. The various forms and shapes in which ice exists in this continent are astounding and constitute characteristic features of Antarctica. So, lets first acquaint ourselves with the diverse forms of ice in this polar mass of land and surrounding ocean.
Under The Sheet Of Ice Sheet

The ice that covers the land of Antarctica is called ice sheet. This sheet is formed because layers of snow continuously got deposited over this continent for hundreds of thousands of years. The ice sheet is continuously in motion and its physical parameters are changing. It forms as snow crystals fall and pile on top of each other, creating a huge weight that compresses the earlier snow and converts it into ice. This weight places pressure on the ice, which in turn is forced to move down and across
Icebergs
the land, flowing from the high interior of Antarctica to the coast. Near the edge of the continent, ice is channeled, which form great rivers of moving ice called glaciers. Pushing through to the coast, glaciers can also flow out over the ocean creating Ice Shelf. The ice shelf is anchored to the land but floats upon the ocean. With the push of the ice sheet from behind and the pounding ocean down below, parts of the floating ice shelves eventually break off and become icebergs. Some of these are grounded near the coast becoming spectacular guardians to the continent, while others float with the currents to great distances. They can vary in size and shape. Some icebergs are as big as a small country. Some could take a city on their back on a cruise and can take years to melt as they float in the ocean surrounding Antarctica the Southern Ocean.
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Glaciers
Continental Ice
The ice that envelops the continent of Antarctica is called continental ice. This is also known as ice cap, ice sheet or polar ice. This ice sheet is not just a flat, solid mass. It is dynamic and continuously changing. Some of its varied characteristics are described and illustrated below.
1. Hexagonal Ice Crystals appear in a variety of places! 2. Ice Cliffs The margins of the ice sheet are exposed at times as great cliffs. 3. A Crevasse, as here, shows typical Antarctic blue ice. It can become covered by falling snow. This is dangerous as the gap beneath cannot be seen and accidents can take place. 4. Blue ice- Antarctic lakes start freezing as the temperature drops with the advent of the Antarctic winter. Blue Ice is the frozen surface of a lake or continental ice that is very hard and shines like a glass surface.
Icebergs
Icebergs are not sea ice. They are actually pieces of freshwater ice that break off the glaciers or ice shelves. They are found in various shapes and sizes and are one of the most enchanting features of Antarctica. The different sizes and shapes of icebergs tell a story of the kind of hostile and harsh weather they have endured with success. Icebergs look striking during sunrise and sunset. 1 & 2 Weathered ice berg, 3 & 4 Flat topped ice bergs, 5 Pinnacle ice berg, 6 Tilted ice berg.
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Sea The Sea Ice
Pancake ice
Polynya
Pack ice
Fast ice
The ice that forms on the sea is very different from that which forms on the continent. As the ocean surrounding Antarctica lives through its annual cycle of freezing and melting, it depicts different forms of ice. Close to the continent there are areas of Fast ice and Polynya. Fast ice is sea ice attached to the shelf ice and melts away during Antarctic summer. The initiation of freezing gives rise to a greasy surface on the sea, which on further freezing forms like small Pancake ice floes.
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These pancake floes join together to form Pack ice. During winters, large tracks of Southern Ocean are covered by this Pack Ice. In between areas of fast/shelf Ice and the Pack ice, there are areas of open water called Polynya. These are formed due to (i) cold winds from the continent or ocean currents that instantly drive away the freshly formed ice in continents close proximity, (ii) warm water upwelling (influx of deep seawater to the sea surface), which reduces and altogether stops ice formation.
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III
ANTARCTICA LIFE IN ANTARCTICA
et's now meet the inhabitants of this wonderful continent. The abnormally harsh climatic conditions in Antarctica make the survival of any form of life a struggle. When one thinks of life forms in Antarctica, the first one to cross our minds is the penguin. The obvious question that follows is how do penguins survive in the coldest and windiest continent? The answer is that penguins (and also other forms of life in Antarctica like seals and whales) are protected from the cold and wind by a thick layer of insulating fat under their skins. Small forms of lives such as algae, lichens and mosses can be found beneath insulating layers of rocks or any other form of shelter from cold. As the winter passes by and spring leads to Antarctic summer,
the ice starts melting and the Sun shines over the continent. This breathes life in the icy continent and one can see the birds like skua, snow petrels, albatross etc. making their nests where they tend to rear their chicks. Except for the Emperor, it is the breeding season for all other types of penguins. Once the chicks arrive, penguins
Emperor penguins (Scientific name: Aptenodytes forsteri) have the upright, regal posture to express their dignity. They are the largest of penguin species with an average weight of around 30-40kg and a height of more than a meter (~3.8ft.) Macaroni penguins (Scientific name: Eudyptes chrysolophus) can be easily recognized with their bright yellow crest feathers. They nest on Antarctic islands like South Georgia and Heard Island. They are about 4.2 kg in weight and some 70 cm tall. Adelie penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelis adeliae) outnumber any other penguin species in Antarctica. They weigh 5-8 kg and are about 70 cm in height. Their distribution is circumpolar, all around the Antarctic coastline. Gentoo penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelis papua ) are the largest of the Pygoscelis penguins, though not by much, they average about 5.5 kg and 71 cm tall for the southern gentoo; while about 0.7 kg heavier and 10cm taller for the northern gentoo. Chinstrap penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelis antarctica) are so called because of their characteristic band of dark feathers under the chin that appears to be keeping their dark hats on.
know how to care for them! Penguins are known for their responsible parental care. In a penguin rookery (please see inner cover page for a view of Adelie penguin rookery), one parent waits with the baby to keep it warm, while the other parent goes to the ocean and gets back with the meal of the day. Some-
Adelie Penguins Emperor Penguins
Macaroni Penguins Gentoo Penguin
Chinstrap Penguins
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times it takes longer for him to get back but the family waits for him. It is amazing how they remember their way back to the family! Antarctica and the adjoining regions
abound in the seal population, especially after the ban on its killing was implemented. Seals are mammals that had to adapt to sea life for survival. There were nineteen species of seals in the seas but two of these have become extinct. Mainly five species of seals are encountered in Antarctica which can be found basking on the pack ice that surrounds Antarctica.
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Plant Antarctic Plant Life

SEALS
1. Crabeaters (Scientific name: Lobodon carcinophagus) are large seals, weighing about 220kg. They are frequently scarred, sometimes quite badly by predatory leopard seals or killer whales. 2. Antarctic fur Seals (Scientific name: Arctocephalus gazella) are more accurately called Southern fur seals. The males can reach 200kg and can be up to 4 times larger than the females. They are restricted mainly to the sub-Antarctic islands, with 95% of the worlds population being found on the island off South Georgia. 3. Leopard Seal (Scientific name: Hydrurga leptonyx) is one of the largest predators in Antarctica, smaller only than the killer whale. They are named for the spotting on its underside. Females are larger than males and average about 10ft long and are around 350kg in weight. 4. Weddell Seals (Scientific name: Leptonychotes weddellii) are animals of the ice. The pups of these seals stop drinking milk and begin eating normal seal food, i.e. fish from around 7 weeks. When adult, they weigh about 400kg and can be up to 10ft long. 5. Elephant Seals Males can grow to15ft long and weigh up to 4 tonnes. They are called elephant seals partly because of their size.
There are no trees or shrubs, and only two species of flowering plants, Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) are found, occurring on the South Orkney Islands, the South Shetland Islands and along the western Antarctic Peninsula. There are, in total, around 100 species of mosses, 25 species of liverworts, 300 to 400 species of lichens and 20-odd species of macro-fungi. The greatest diversity of species is found along the western side of the Antarctic Peninsula where the climate is generally warmer and wetter than elsewhere in the Antarctic continent.
Antarctic pearlwort
Antarctic hair grass
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Antarctic Marine Life

It is a strange paradox that marine life remarkably outnumbers the terrestrial life in Antarctica! Most life in the Antarctic begins in the ocean. Plankton is the foundation of the marine food chain. In the nutrient-rich waters south of the Antarctic Convergence, phytoplankton and zooplankton (microscopic plants and animals) like Krill occur in profusion in the summer season. During the remainder of the year because of the lack of light and heavy cloud cover, as well as the extensive packice, the productivity of the oceans gets limited. The krill swarms are also seasonal and much of the food chain is dependent on them. So much so, that if they fail to appear other species such as penguins and whales experience drastic breeding failures. The ocean bottom flora is rich in diversity with several species of sea anemones, star fish etc.
Star fish
Krill
Sea Anemone
Minke Whale
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IV
ANTARCTICA DISCOVERY OF ANTARCTICA
ow that we know Antarctica is an icy continental mass situated at the southern most part of the globe, dont you wonder how this land was discovered? Who was the first person to stand on this pristine, beautiful white continent located in the middle of the ocean? Let us take a journey back in time and find out the fascinating story behind the discovery of this last wilderness Ancient Greeks had postulated that a large, southern continent must exist to balance the Arctic in the northern hemisphere. It is relevant to remember; here that Arctic (around the North Pole) was discovered much before the discovery of the South Pole or Antarctica. The imaginary southern mass of land was referred to as AntiArctic or opposite to Arctic and hence the name Antarctic. However, Antarctica remained an imaginary, mysterious land be-
cause no one could cross the ice barrier, surrounding the continent. In one of the earliest maps of the world, this southern landmass is shown as Terra Australis Incognita i.e. the Unknown Southern Land.
Early Voyages
Imagine the condition of those initial explorers who ventured into the task of discovering the Antarctic continent in wooden ships! But man is known for his invincible nature, and the fire to find Antarctica had been ignited.
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Captain James Cook , the famous navigator and explorer of the Pacific and Antarctic, became the first human being to cross the Antarctic Circle reaching 6715S, when the pack ice forced him to turn back his ship Resolution, a mere 80 miles from his destination! Cook had not taken hu-
man greed into consideration. Ironically, it was Cooks own penchant for thoroughness that fueled the burst of activity because he had noted in his log (records) that large numbers of seals and whales were present in the high latitudes. The motivation for reaching Antarctica now was search for new locations where seals and whales could be found.
The Early Explorers

The seal hunters were actually the early explorers who located areas of abundance of seals and raised the hopes that new and undiscovered lands might be lying further south. Ships of many countries started encircling the Southern Ocean. The Russian government sent Captain Thaddeus von Bellingshausen, with a team of two hundred sailors to get the accurate information about Antarctica. On 27th January 1820 for the first time human eyes saw some distant mountains towards the southern end of earth. Bellingshausen had actually become the first person in the human history to see Antarctic continent! Captain Bellingshausen
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Antarctic Circle
Captain James Cook
Another remarkable sealer-scientist, was James Weddell, captain of a British ship. Weddell had taken part in exploration during 1820-21 and 1821-22 and had gained a lot of experience. On February 20, 1823 at longitude 341645"W, and latitude 7415S,Weddell became the first man to go farthest south that anyone had ever gone before! It would be over 80 years before anyone could get that far south again in the Weddell Sea. Inspired by Weddells deep foray into the Weddell Sea and by the tantalizing glimpses of land reported by the sealers, the French, British, and United States governments launched exploratory misCaptain Weddell sions in 1840s.
France sent Jules Sebastian Dumont dUrville as the Captain of its ship, USAs Leader of the expedition was Captain Charles Wilkes and the James Ross Leader of the Great Britains expedition was Captain James Clark Ross. These three explorers not only discovered different parts of the Antarctic landmass but also deciphered that each piece of newly discovered land in Antarctica was connected with other parts and hence it was not an archipelago of islands, but actually a huge continent!
earch South Search for the South Magnetic Pole

James Clark Ross was specifically assigned the job of finding the elusive South Magnetic Pole as he had already found the north magnetic pole in 1831. Rosss advent to the South Magnetic Pole was, however, stopped by an Ice Shelf (which Ross called the Victoria Barrier but was renamed after him). He, did establish that the South Magnetic Pole lay inland, inaccessible by the sea.
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South Pole Race To The South Pole

Discovery of the South Pole posed a greater challenge to the Antarctic Explorers. Each one of them wanted to set his feet first at the Pole and become immortal in the human history. The first person to accept this challenge was a British, Captain Robert Falcon Scott, who started his expedition in 1902 in a ship named Terra Nova. Unfortunately his expedition had to be abruptly ended when he was still about 800 km away from the South Pole because all his dogs and many of the team members started suffering from Scurvy (Vitamin-C deficiency). Three main members of Captain R.F. Scott this team, Shackleton, Wilson and Scott himself were on the verge of death. Shackleton, who was an exceptionally bright member of the Scotts team in Terra Nova, started preparing for his own expedition immediately after returning back home. After four years
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of preparation, in 1908 he was again in the Ross Sea with NIMROD, a more mechanized ship than Terra Nova. In January 1909, when Shackleton and his four colleagues were only 180 km away from the South Pole, they found that they were suffering from immense frostbites and their bodies were not supporting them. They had to return back completely shattered, both physically and mentally.
Scott vs Amundsen
Robert Scott planned his expedition to Antarctica immediately after the unsuccessful return of Shackleton. Scott started his expedition in November 1910, unaware that Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen was already on his way to the South Pole! Amundsen and his team worked remarkably well and as a result they reached the South Pole on 14th December 1911. Before returning home to a heroic welcome, they raised Roald Amundsen the Norwe-
blizzard started which continued for five days. The last lines of Scotts diary on 29th March, state: There has been nothing to eat for the past three days. Now, I am not even able to write. End is not far. For Gods sake, take care of our families.
gian flag and kept the records of reaching the South Pole in a safe box. On the other hand, Scott and his team faced lot of difficulties in reaching the Pole. On 17th January 1912, they fond the Norwegian flag hoisted there on the South Pole! This told us the whole story. The Norwegians have forestalled us and are first at the Pole. It is a terrible disappointment and I am very sorry for my loyal companions. Many thoughts come and much discussion we have had. To-morrow we must march on the Pole, and then hasten home with all the speed we can compass. All the day-dreams must go; it will be a wearisome return. -January 17th1912, quotes from Scotts Diary. They were already facing shortage of food and by 21st March they were not left with anything to eat. Suddenly a formidable
The last major expedition of the heroic era was marked by Ernest Shackletons voyage in Endurance on August 8, 1914, planned to cross Antarctica by approaching it through the Weddell Sea. However, Shackleton was trapped in the pack ice of the Weddell Sea and drifted through the winter. Ultimately, Endurance was crushed by the ice and sank on November 21, 1915. Shackleton and his men dragged and rowed their lifeboats over the pack ice and open waters until they made it to Elephant Island.
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The Story of Endurance in pictures
Mechanized The Mechanized Age of Exploration explorers were not completely isolated from
The advent of more powerful engines, steel hulled ships, airplanes, and radios considerably enhanced mans ability to reach difficult and inaccessible area of Antarctica, aiding to success of several exploration programmes. The radio was particularly important as for the first time; Antarctic
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the rest of the world. One of the first to use the new aeronautical technology was Sir Hubert Wilkins (Standing on right side of the cockpit in the picture ; page 20). In an expedition supported by Randolph Hearst (a well known publisher) and the American Geographical Society, Wilkins
Sir Hubert Wilkins (right side)
made the first Antarctic flight on 16th No- Antarctic explorer to discover new land by vember 1928. On December 20, he flew air. After that, Antarctic explorers have over Graham Land and became the first never looked back.
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REALLY LAND? IS IT REALLY NO MANS LAND?
rior to 19th Century when new lands the U.S. Congress to establish the U.S. Antwere being discovered, the explorers arctic Service in 1939 to take control of would raise the flag of their countries and American Antarctic exploration. Other claim the territory in the name of their countries soon followed suit. kings or rulers. The first such formal claim The world, however, soon realized that one over Antarctic territory was made by Brit- could get more from this pristine, unain in 1908. In 1923 Britain handed over touched reserve of snow and ice, in terms part of their claim on the Ross Dependen- of science rather than the worldly riches. cies to New Zealand. In 1924, France laid This realization gave birth to a drive to gain claim to Terre Adelie. Australia claimed a scientific knowledge and enrich humanity large chunk of territory in 1933. In Janu- by the unique opportunity provided by this ary 1939, Norway formalized its claim to natural laboratory. Dronning Maud Land. While most of the claims took different slices of United Kingdom the continent, there were many Norway Argentina areas where different parties made overlapping claims. For Australia example, in 1940, Chile became the third country to claim overlapping-sovereignty Chile over the Antarctic Peninsula (after Britain and Argentina). Although the United States Unclaimed France pursued no claims of its own, Australia New Zealand the flurry of claims encouraged
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The International Geophysical other time in history. In 1957-58 there Paving Road Year: Paving the Road to the were 44 continental bases, 21 island bases, and 5,362 people involved in the largest Antarctic Treaty Treaty
By December of 1955, preparations for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) were well underway. The year saw thirteen ships proceeding to Antarctica with personnel for seven separate expeditions. As winter of 1956 closed in, there were twenty-nine separate parties in Antarctica from seven countries: British, Chilean, and Argentine outposts on the Peninsula, and French, American, Australian, Soviet, and British stations on the continent proper. In all, 508 people stationed in Antarctica, were ready to stay there through out the long winter. Preparations continued during the 195657 austral summer season. Thirteen more stations were established, bringing the total on the continent to 42, representing 12 countries (Belgium, Norway, New Zealand, Japan, and South Africa had joined the effort). An additional 21 stations were established on Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands. By this time the IGY was well underway. During the summer of 1956-57, 42 bases and supporting ships accommodated 6,167 people in Antarctica, more than at any multinational scientific research effort in the history. The IGY was originally scheduled to last from June 1957 through December 1958. However, it was so successful, that all participating nations soon formed permanent research programs to continue their presence and activities in Antarctica. The International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), which had proposed the IGY, formed the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to coordinate the continued scientific cooperation among nations. The success of the effort, and the need to defuse competing territorial claims also led to the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. In essence, this treaty (ratified by all parties in 1961) set the continent of Antarctica aside for peace-
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ful and scientific purposes; and placed all ter- research in Antarctica. Another 16 nations ritorial claims in abeyance till the Treaty lasts. have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Austria, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Peoples Republic of Treaty Antarctica After the Treaty The original signatories i.e. Argentina, Aus- Korea, Denmark, Greece, Guatemala, tralia, Belgium, Chile, the French Repub- Hungary, Papua New Guinea, Romania, lic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and Union of South Africa, The Union of So- Venezuela. These nations agree to abide by viet Socialist Republics, The United King- the Treaty and may attend consultative dom of Great Britain and Northern Ire- meetings as observers. At present scientists land, and the United States of America, and other professionals live and work more signed the Antarctic Treaty on 1st Decem- or less effortlessly at Antarctic stations esber 1959 at Washington, D.C. These 12 tablished by these nations. These stations signatories became the original consulta- help each other in the hour of need and tive nations. As of today, 16 additional na- evolve together as one community. tions (Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Ecuador, Neumayer (Germany) ANTARCTIC Finland, GerPENNINSULA many, India, Italy, King sejong (Korea) Netherlands, PoPalmer (U.S.) RONNE land, Peru, ReICE SHELF public of Korea, Rothera (U.K.) Sweden, Spain, and Uruguay) have achieved consultative status by acceding to the Treaty and by conducting subROSS ICE SHELF stantial scientific
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Maitri (India)
VI
INDIAS ANTARCTICA INDIAS JOURNEY TO ANTARCTICA
n December 1981, the first Indian Ant arctic Expedition was launched from Goa under the leadership of the eminent scientist Dr. S.Z. Qasim. This pioneer team, that included renowned glaciologist, Dr C.P.Vohra and Oceanographer like Dr H.N.Siddiqui, created history by reaching the Antarctic continent on 9th of January 1982 and laid the foundation of Indias Antarctic Programme. The First expedition was immediately followed by the Second (under the leadership of Shri V.K.Raina). The success of these endeavors and the recognition by international community encouraged India to establish her permanent research base at the Antarctic continent for pursuit of scientific re-
search. In 1983, under the leadership of Dr. Harsh Gupta, a well known earth scientist, the third expedition team estabDr. S.Z. Qasim lished Indias first permanent station in Antarctica and appropriately named it Dakshin Gangotri in a record time of one Antarctic summer. This station was home to the Indian team members for five long years, sheltering them from harsh and ruthless conditions of Antarctica as also providing them all the facilities to conduct scientific research work.
Dr. Harsh Gupta
Dakshin Gangotri under construction
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Since Dakshin Gangotri (it is affectionately called DG by the Antarcticans from India) was situated on an ice shelf, it gradually sank into snow. By 1988, India had to prepare its second station in Antarctica because Dakshin Gangotri was no longer safe for living.
out side activity is highly restricted between the months of April to October). By 198889, the station construction was nearly over, paving the way for decommissioning of the old station during 1989-90 and shifting the major scientific laboratories to the new station named Maitri.
DG in 1985
DG in the summer of 1989
An ice-free area on a small hill range called Schirmacher Oasis was selected in 1987-88 and the station was built in two summer seasons (there being no sun during the winter period,
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Maitri
Maitri became operational same year (IX Expedition) with commencement of the fullfledged wintering under the leadership of Rasik Ravindra, a Geologist from Geological Survey of India.The inmates of Maitri bring out a House Bulletin - Himvat - that contains interesting account of personal experiences of members in hand written or typed pages. To cite some interesting articles, in Himvat of 1989-91 a member recounts his trauma when a heavy snow vehicle ran over him and he still survived with only minor bruises on his body but strong impressions on his mind turning him towards
spirituality. In yet another incident a team lost all its cooking oil in a fire accident and had to survive on boiled food through out the winter period. You can write mails Shri Rasik Ravindra to the wintering members or to the Leader of the Maitri Station at <maitri@ncaor.amosconnect.com > for any information on the Station or Antarctica.
Photograph of some of the leaders of the past expeditions [Standing from L to R, numbers in the parentheses indicate expedition number: AK Hanjura (x), M Sudhakar (LS Hill Expd.), Rasik Ravindra (IX), Robin Sengupta (VII), VK Raina (II & Weddell Sea Expd.), CP Vohra (Dy. Leader, I), SZ Qasim (I), V.K. Dhargalkar (XII), R. Asthana (XXIV), S. Jayaram (XIII) Sudhakar Rao (XIII), AK Hanchinal (XXII), S Mukerji (XI), Arun Chaturvedi (XV, XIX and XXVII); Sitting : A Dhar (XVIII), N Khare (NCAOR), SM Bhandari (Solar Eclipse Expd), RPLal (XXI).
26
visited Maitri in 2005 along with Dr. Harsh Gupta (then secretary to Department of Ocean Development), while Dr.P.S.Goel (Secretary) and Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Secretary) in the Ministry of Earth Sciences visited the facilities at the Indian station in 2007. India is all set to establish a new Antarctic base at Larsemann Hills, in the eastern Antarctica- a part of the continent that, about 120 million years ago, was contiguous with Indias east coast. The proposed station that is to be built on an unnamed, ice free, coastal area (promontory) fringing the Prydz Bay will be located close to Russian and Chinese stations- Progress and Zhongshan respectively. The proposal was recently cleared by the international body
Shri Kapil Sibal (Honorable Minister of Science and Technology) along with Dr. Harsh Gupta (then secretary to Department of Ocean Development) and Shri Rajesh Asthana (Leader, 24th Expedition) at Maitri
Introduction of special flights to Antarctica and facilities of an ice runway very close to Maitri station has paved the way for short visits of policy makers and senior scientists to Maitri. Honorable Minister of Science and Technology, Shri Kapil Sibal
Dr. P.S. Goel (Secretary, MoES), Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Secretary, MoES) with other Antarctic expeditioners at the ice runway very close to Maitri station
27
proposed site
overseeing the environmental aspects of Antarctica (Committee on Environment Protection). India is committed to come up with an environmental friendly, structure that will preserve the pristine nature of the place. The new station will be about 2000 km away from Maitri. It will have an easy ac-
cess from the sea, as the area is free of shelf ice. This region, including the islands and promontories will offer excellent opportunity for extensive studies on geology, tectonics, paleoclimatic, geophysics, meteorology, oceanography, marine and fresh water biology. The induction of women expeditioners to the icy continent of Antarctica began way back in 1983 when Drs. Sudipta Sengupta and Aditi Pant spent their summer in 198384 (III). Since then, women participation in Antarctic expeditions has been over-
Artists impression of station at Larsemann Hills
28
whelming. The other lady members who took part of earlier expeditions are Ms. Gouri Indresan (IIT Mumbai, V), Ms. Rita Kohli (Delhi University, IX), Smt. Meenakshi Chatterjee (Calcutta University) and Dr. Usha Sachdeva (AIIMS,X), Dr. P.A. Loka Bharathi (NIO) and Ms. M. Naidu (AIIMS, XIII), Dr. Manju Mehta, Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS) and Dr. Girija Rajaram (IIG, XXVIII), Ms. Stella (IMD, XX), Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII), Prof. Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV), Dr. Binita
Phartiyal (BSIP) and Ms. Preeti Oswal (NBRI, XXV). Another milestone was achieved by Dr. Kanwal Vilku of the Central Government Health Services in the year 2000 (XIX) and by Dr. Devyani Borole (XXV) who spent a wintering each (16 months) in Antarctica. How did it feel to stay alone in a men only company? all the expedition members treated us respectfully and it was a memorable stay has been the answer.
LADY EXPEDITIONERS IN INDIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS

(Within brackets: Institution and Expedition number)
Dr. Sudipta Sengupta (Jadavpur University, III and IX)
Dr. Aditi Pant (NIO, III)
29
Ms. Gouri Indreasan (IIT, V)
Dr. Rita Kohli (Delhi University, IX)
Dr. Meenakshi Chatterji (Univ.of Calcutta, X)
Dr. P. A. Loka Bharathi (NIO, XIII)
Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS, XVIII)
Dr. Girija Rajaram (IIG, XVIII)
30
Dr. Manju Mehta (AIIMS, XVIII)
Dr. Kanwal Vilku (CGHS, XIX)
Ms. Stella (IMD, XX)
Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII)
Prof. Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV)
Dr. Binita Phartiyal (NBRI, XXV)
Ms. Preeti Oswal (NBRI, XXV)
Smt. Devyani Borole (NCAOR, XXV)
31
Launching of the Expeditions Launching

How are the Indian expeditions to Antarctica launched? How are the members selected? Who arranges the voyage and who pays for the expenses? The aspirants, who wish to explore Antarctica, often ask these questions. Initially the expeditions were managed and launched by the Department of Ocean Development (DoD), a scientific Department under the Prime Minister of our country (DoD has now been upgraded to a full-fledged ministry named as Ministry of Earth Sciences). Subsequently, the Government established an autonomous institution with headquarters at Goa and gave it the mandate to launch and manage
the logistic and scientific aspects of the expeditions. Since the Southern Ocean is an integral part of Antarctic eco system, its study was also entrusted to this newly constituted Centre. The institute, named as National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) moved into its own campus on 5th April 2000 with Dr. P.C. Pandey as its first Director. Today, the Centre has modern laboratories for conducting research in the fields of microbiology, oceanography, sedimentology, paleoclimatic and glaciology etc. The sophisticated clean ice core laboratory established here is the only such facility of its type existing in India.
Dr. P.C. Pandey
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
32
The selection of Indian Antarctic Expedition Team is done through a rigorous process. This process starts in the month of March, when NCAOR places advertisement in the leading national newspapers inviting proposals from interested scientists to conduct research in Antarctica. After scrutiny, projects are selected and team members are short-listed. The team, which is generally a reflection of the wide spectrum of the Indian Society with the members drawn from different regions and with different work experience, represents universities, research organizations, defense laboratories etc. Defense personnel too join the team for maintenance and operation of the Research Station at Maitri. The members undergo a detailed medical examination at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi. The selected
members are then sent to a Himalayan glacier for training and acclimatization under the guidance of expert mountaineers. The team is now ready for the expedition. It assembles at the NCAOR Campus, where last minute instructions are passed on, foreign exchange is arranged, official documents are handed over and Expedition is wished Bon Voyage. Initially, the members used to board the expedition vessel at Goa and it took almost 20 days to reach Antarctica. Later, arrangements were made to fly the members to Cape Town, South Africa, from where the chartered ship takes them to Antarctica in approximately eight days. This saves a lot of voyage time. From the coast of Antarctica, where the ship is berthed, members are flown to Maitri by the helicopters that are chartered and brought to Antarctica on the expedition vessel itself.
33
Once the ship reaches Antarctic coast, the cargo is off loaded on the shelf. This is then loaded on to the trailers and toed to station by a number of snow vehicles that move together in the form of a convoy. As the journey of over a hundred kilometer covering a treacherous icy terrain, full of hidden crevasses, the Leader of the convoy has a great responsibility to guide the drivers safely to destination. The convoys often get trapped in snow storms. One can also get stranded because of vehicles getting trapped in melt water channels. With improvements in logistics, now it is even possible to transport key scientists and some members directly to Maitri by flight
that takes about eight hours from Cape Town! The expedition members not only attend to their scientific tasks, carry out the experiments or collect data by taking traverses to interior areas, they are also required to attend to the house keeping, perform duties by turn in the kitchen, assist in watch over the power generating systems and attend to waste disposal. Antarctica being governed by a strict protocol on environmental protection, the waste has to be disposed as per a pre defined scientific process or removed from the Antarctica and mind you this also includes the night soil! In retrospect, the members who have spent
34
about sixteen months in the station at a stretch have little complaints. If you have been once to Antarctica, you cant help falling in love with the pristine beauty, great wilderness and awesome ruggedness of this lonesome, unspoilt, white desert. So strong is the urge and fascination of this charm, that one gets swayed. There are members who have repeatedly opted for wintering more than once (wintering in Antarctica means staying back there till the next expedition comes to relieve the old one, which is only after more than a year). The Indian station is located very close to the Russian Station (Novolazervaskaya) and
35
members of the two stations often visit each other during the long winters. During the peak of winters, in June, when we in India have the longest day (21st June), our scientists at Maitri face the peak of the winters. All over Antarctica, this day is celebrated as Mid Winter Day when members of adjoining stations come together to share their experience and forget the isolation. The severe winter months also mark the dark period, as there is no sunlight, forcing most of the members indoors. Many members utilize this period to sharpen their hidden talents (see above for the portrait of an Indian Expedition Leader been drawn by a Russian member).
VII
ANTARCTIC ANTARCTIC SCIENCE
o far we have learned that Antarctica East Antarctica (mostly east of is a remote, isolated and a frozen conGreenwich), consisting of a single tinent which is arguably the most ungreat continental plateau touched region on the planet. That makes West Antarctica (west of Greenit one of the most important laboratories wich), consisting of a group of of the world. Humans didnt even catch a small plateaux, which constitute a glimpse of Antarctica until ~185 years ago sort of archipelago covered by ice. and only in the last 50 years have people begun to explore this vast polar desert in earnest. Today, scientists come to the South Pole and the contiWEDDEL EAST SEA ANTARCTICA nent enclosing it, from POLE OF RELATIVE around the world to study RONNE NECESSIBILITY ICE SHELF geology, climate, astroSOUTH POLE physics, marine biology, WEST ecology, and more! ANTARCTICA
Elevation (Metres)
What is the physical geography of Antarctica?

Geographically, Antarctic continent comprises two distinct constituents:
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 0
ROSS ICE SHELF ROSS SEA
WEST ICE CAP
TRANS ANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS ROSS ICE SHELF
EAST ICE CAP
36
East Antarctica is formed by magmatic and metamorphic rocks of Proterozoic (2500 to 542.0 1.0 million years ago), and partly Archaean age (4000 to 2500 million years ago). Conversely, Western Antarctica consists of more recent rocks, of Mesozoic age (251 to 65.5 million years ago) and Cenozoic age (65.5 million years ago to present), alternating with volcanic ashes and lava rocks. The east Antarctic ice cap is much thicker than the west Antarctic ice cap. The topography in east Antarctica is also higher than that in the west Antarctica. The highest peak, Vinson Massif (4892m) is situated in the Ellsworth Mountains of western
Antarctica, overlooking Ronne Ice Shelf.
Geology
Antarctica was at one time a part of an ancient, considerably larger landmass, referred to by geologists as Gondwanaland. The supercontinent began breaking up ~150 million years ago and its several segments gradually drifted apart to form the present land masses of South America, Africa, India, Australia (with New Zealand), and Antarctica ( for a simulation of Gondwana breakup with time scale, refer the link in www.ncaor.gov.in).
100 Million Years Ago
Present Day
37
How do geologists find out the past always a cold and inhospitable place. Coal deposits found today in sandstone beds less disposition of continents?
than 500 kilometers from the South Pole The present outlines of these continents show that these materials were laid down along with the similarity of their geology during late Paleozoic time (240-300 miland fossil findsindicate that they had fitlion years ago) under marshy conditions ted together and that Antarctica was not in a cool, moist climate.
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
38
Are there volcanoes in Antarctica? ucts of eruptionsfrom the Pliocene

Volcanic activity in Antarctica is limited to only a few places, the most notable being Mount Erebus on Ross Island. The island is entirely of volcanic origin, as are White and Black Islands, Brown Peninsula and Mina Bluff, and the massifs of Mounts Discovery and Morning. These are prodthrough the presentof basaltic lavas from central cones and fissures at various locations. Mount Erebus is the largest and by far the most active of the few volcanoes on the continent, almost continuously spewing out steam and gases from its summit crater.
Smoke emanating from an active volcano
39
rocks Are there rocks lying beneath ice?

Geologists have dug deep into the Antarctic ice to see what lies beneath! A small part of Antarctica (~ 2 %) remains ice-free and is extensively studied by the Earth Scientists to discover the geological history and evolution of Antarctica in the past many millions of years. You would be surprised
to know that Antarctica is made up of one of the worlds oldest rocks which could be around 3 billion years old! One prominent topographic feature of the Antarctic continent is the Transantarctic Mountains. These ranges form a divide between East (greater) and West (lesser) Antarctica and cover more than 2,200 kilometers.
Ocean floor around Antarctica
40
Climate
We have read that Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, driest continent on the Planet Earth. The weather, strong winds and brutal storms have been synonymous with Antarctica since its discovery and continue to be a major challenge for modern explorers.
Why is Antarcticas weather so brutal?

Antarcticas climate is so inhospitable due to several factors. The main cause is that Antarctica has a perpetual ice sheet covering the major part of the continent. Ice is highly reflective and doesnt absorb warmth. Attenuation of solar radiation energy is greatest at high latitudes where the path through the atmosphere is longest. Also, solar energy reaching the surface at high latitude is spread over a larger area because the surface is at a greater angle to the incoming radiation. Therefore, the earths surface at the poles is a heat sink when compared with that at the tropics. The poles simply lose more energy than they receive they have a negative radiation balance. Another important factor is that it is surrounded by a vast ocean, South41
ern Ocean, in which flows one of the worlds largest and strongest current that is known as Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). It is a cold oceanic current driven by strong winds generated due to the Antarctic Circumpolar Trough, which is a zone (between 60S and 65S) of low pressure that exhibits variable winds moving from west to east. ACC is the only current encircling the whole globe as it is unhindered by landmasses. It isolates the Antarctic continent from the effect of warm surface ocean currents and thus helps in the gradual build-up of ice.
Antarctic ocean current system
Global relevance of Antarctic Science
The Ozone Hole

What is ozone? Ozone is a form of oxygen in which each molecule contains three atoms of oxygen as compared to the normal two. It is a bluish gas and is chemically very active. When inhaled it is toxic and particularly harmful to asthmatics and others with respiratory problems. Ozone also absorbs ultraviolet radiation (UV), a property of considerable significance to life on Earth. Ozone occurs naturally in our atmosphere, which is dominated by nitrogen (78% of the total) and oxygen (21%).
Ozone hole in Antarctica? In 1974 the American scientists Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland proved that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) possibly played an active role in the depletion of the ozone layer. CFC are stable industry gases containing mainly chlorine, fluorine and bromine, used in refrigeration systems, air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in
Zone of ozone depletion
42
the production of some types of packaging. The hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica was discovered in 1985. When British scientists at the Halley Bay station in Antarctica saw the results of their measurements, they thought that there was something wrong with their instruments. At once they were replaced, but the results stayed as alarming as before. When their conclusions were published in the scientific magazine Nature, the world recognized that something had to be done and quickly. A question that is often asked is Why the hole in the ozone layer occurs only over Antarctica? During the polar night the temperature in the stratosphere drops to sometimes -100o Celsius. At lower temperatures the demolition process of the ozone molecules is strengthened. At the be-
ginning of spring (September - October) it goes from bad to worse. Each year a cold wedge of ice clouds moves in over Antarctica. At about the same time of year the Sun returns to the continent after the winter dark months, and the combination of sunlight, ice clouds and CFCs form a mixture that destroys the ozone. What effects does ozone depletion have? The ozone layer plays an important role in the atmosphere. It protects us from the harmful effects of certain wavelengths of UV radiation, particularly UV-B radiation (radiation between the wavelengths 280320 nanometers). Overall, ozone destruction process over Antarctica reduces the total amount of stratospheric ozone on a global scale.
43
Why Arctic doesnt have an Ozone Hole? Unlike Antarctica, which is a continent surrounded by oceans, the Arctic is an ocean surrounded by mountainous continents. This means that the stratospheric circulation is much more irregular, and the tem-
perature does not fall as low as it does in the Antarctic. Stratospheric clouds are therefore, less common, which prevents the formation of a deep ozone hole over the Arctic.
Greenwich Meridian
Arctic View
Arctic Circle 660 300 North
North Pole
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44
VIII
THE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TO ANTARCTIC ANTARCTIC SCIENCES

peditions since beginning for conducting atmospheric studies. Other Institutions include National Physical Laboratory, National Institute of Tropical Meteorology, National Institute of Oceanography, National Geophysical Research Institute, Indian Institute of Technology (Delhi) etc. Continuous recording of surface weather parameters at Maitri has provided necessary input for understanding the variations in the Antarctic atmospheric circulation patterns. Surface characteristics and insulation features over Antarctica also influence the energy budget of the globe, which in turn control the climate. The scientific community has recognized that ozone depletion could increase the levels of UV rays on the earth. Indian Scientists are monitoring the ozone hole above the Maitri station and have found that the hole depth is fluctuating from year-to-year. The observations at Maitri also showed an event of major stratospheric warming during 2002.
ndian Antarctic Research Programme is one of the finest examples of a coordinated long-term research effort of key national research institutions. It is also an important component of international scientific communitys effort to understand this remote icy continent. Antarctica plays a key role in the global climate. India has been pursuing research in the fields of earth atmospheric, biological, human physiology, communication, space and weather sciences etc. Antarctica provides a unique environment to study the interactions of glaciation and climate without human interferences.
Sciences Atmospheric Sciences

Antarctica has attracted the attention of scientific community all over the world since it is one of the most important climate regions with a potential to influence long-term global climate change. India Meteorological Department (IMD) is participating in Antarctic ex-
45 45
Sciences Biological Sciences

Biological studies on the ice shelf and fresh water lakes have been carried out since the first expedition. Researchers have studied the composition, spatial distribution and influence of different physical and chemical factors on eco-biology of fresh water environment. The invertebrate fauna, birds
like Penguin and South Polar Skua of Schirmacher Oasis have also been studied. Genetic information of Antarctic Algae, Mosses & Lichens is an exciting field of study proposed to be mounted by NCAOR in Antarctica. The microbiologists working at NCAOR in collaboration with Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad aims at unraveling the molecular basis of the survival of microbes under extreme climatic conditions. Findings of this research can help to de-
velop better technologies for the easy survival and living habits of mankind in the Antarctic. Indian scientists are making an attempt to highlight the bacterial diversity of Antarctica, the biotechnological potential of the cold-loving bacteria and also to understand their survival strategies. Studies on the bacterial diversity of Antarctica have led to the identification of a number of new species of bacteria from Antarctica such as Sphingobacterium antarcticum, Pseudomonas antarctica, Planococcus antarcticus, Pseudonocardia antarctica, Planococcus maitriensis, Arthrobacter gangotriensis etc. As of now, only about 120 new species of bacteria have been identified from the frozen continent. India has added 20 new species to this list.
Sampling for Biological Studies
46
vey of India (GSI) and National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI). In the light of continental drift theory (see section on Geology of Antarctica), Antarctica formed a major part of the super continent Gondwanaland, from which India, Australia, Africa, South America, Madagascar have drifted apart. From the point of view of earth sciences, therefore, Antarctica provides a vital link in the reconstruction of Gondwanaland. The proximity of Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) of India to a large part of East Antarctica in reconSciences Earth Sciences structed models of the supercontinent and Indian efforts in earth science studies over the fact that mineral enriched zones of Antarctica were initiated by Geological Sur-
Studies on the human biology and behavior of expedition members are being done for regular monitoring and to examine their responses in extreme conditions. For example a research program has been initiated to study the disturbances in sleep, salivary melatonin hormone concentration and their daily rhythm. Initial results show that there was no phase shift in the acrophase in the melatonin level was observed during the period of observation at Antarctica except in April and August.
Gondwanaland reconstruction c.400million years ago
47
Gondwanaland continents were in contact with Antarctica in the geological past; underline the importance of studying Antarctica geologically. India has been carrying out integrated geophysical, geological and geochemical investigations in Antarctica. The objective of these studies is a reconstruction of Greater Gondwanaland by finding out the past geological events, their field configuration, the pressure and temperature conditions of the melt that gave rise to the rocks and the nature
Ice Core Drilling
of metamorphism, deformation, and time of formation of the rocks. To work out an evolutionary model and finally compare these results with the Indian counterparts, the above studies have been carried out in the Schirmacher Oasis, and parts of Wohlthat ranges. India has also been successful in retrieving ice cores to decipher palaeoclimatic history of polar continental ice. An ice core is a sample of the ice that might have been burried over hundreds or even thousands of years. This ice
Ice Core Archival Facility
Ice Core Processing
48
preserves the trapped air bubbles representing gases from geological past. The composition of these ice cores, especially the presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes, provides a picture of the climate as well as the time of the deposition of snow. Because water molecules containing heavier isotopes exhibit a lower vapor pressure, when the temperature falls, the heavier water molecules will condense faster than the normal water molecules. The relative concentrations of the heavier isotopes in the condensate indicate the temperature of condensation at the time, allowing for ice cores to be used in global temperature reconstruction. In addition to the isotope concentration, the air bubbles trapped in the ice cores provide an opportunity to measure the atmospheric concentrations of trace gases, including greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. The air bubbles may also contain traces of aerosols, which are produced in great concentrations during volcanic eruptions. Shallow cores, or the upper parts of cores in high-accumulation areas, can be dated exactly by counting individual layers, each representing a year. The Indian contributions towards glaciological studies in Antarctica were initiated in
49
1982-83. The initial observations recorded fluctuations of polar continental ice margin, ablation and accumulation pattern of the ice shelf, details of stratigraphic zonation within the shelf ice, melting rates on shelf ice during the polar day etc. The net average accumulation of snow over the ice shelf near the Indian research base is estimated to be more than 50 cm. Studies also indicate that the growth patterns have a strong temporal bias, encompassing different segment of the year. Surface drift is the major source of both accumulation and ablation. Scientists are conducting different geomagnetic measurements in Antarctica to comprehend the response of the experimental setup to various atmospheric, electrical and meteorological conditions and assess the role of solar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere interactions in modulating the Global Electric Circuit etc. The studies on seismo tectonics and geodynamical processes between Antarctica and Southern Indian Peninsula by GPS-Geodesy and seismology were initiated in 1997 by the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI). The primary objective of obtaining the signatures of geodynamical and crustal deformation processes have already
been achieved and more detailed studies are being currently done. Indias research activities in the polar remote sensing field concentrates on cryosphere remote sensing which aims at the extraction of sea ice surface characteristics from the
and some long-term investigations have been initiated.
Sciences Environmental Sciences

A comprehensive study of the different environmental components viz., air water,
The 2003 Antarctic Total Solar Eclipse at Antarctica
observed electromagnetic signatures sensed by the space borne sensors. The threshold technique of quasi co polarized ratio and quasi co polarized difference during winter and summer have been used to distinguish water and ice pixels for delineating the sea ice in the background of open sea. Some of these studies have been fine tuned
land, noise is being carried out at the Indian Polar research station Maitri, in compliance with the statutory requirements of the Antarctic Treaty. India has established an Environmental Monitoring Laboratory at Maitri. The objectives are to assess the impacts of various scientific programmes and their logistic support
50
facilities on the fragile system of Antarctica, identify the major sources of pollution and quantification of pollution load. Previous studies reported that the level of pollution at Maitri are not alarming but
there is a scope for concern looking into the critical aspects of Antarctic environment and the carrying capacity of the environment surrounding the Maitri station.
Shri Arun Chaturvedi Participant of X, XII (Wintering), XV (Wintering & Leader), XIX (Wintering & Leader), XXII, XXV, XXVII (Wintering & Leader) Expedition.
Shri Ajay Dhar Participant of V, VI (Wintering), XV, XVIII (Wintering & Leader), XXII, XXIII, XXVI (Leader Larsemann Team), XXVII (Leader Larsemann Team) Expedition.
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51
IX
FACTS ANTARCTICA AMAZING FACTS ABOUT ANTARCTICA

Ice-free area
(2% of total) 280,000 km2
Area
1.39 times bigger than the USA 13,829,430 km2
Shelf Largest Ice Shelf

Ross ice shelf: (about the size of France) 510,680 km2
Mountains
Transantarctic Mountain chain: 3,300 km Highest mountain: Mt. Vinson - 4,892 m
Temperature
Lowest recorded - 89.2C
Wind
Maximum recorded gust:248.4 km/h
Ice
Antarctica has 70% of all the worlds freshwater Frozen as ice and 90% of all worlds ice Mean thickness is 1,829 m
Population
About 4,000 on scientific bases in the short summer 1,000 total in winter around 25,000 summer tourists are no permanent residents and no native population.
Governance
Governed by the Antarctic Treaty System
Discovery and Exploration

1st time anyone set foot was in 1821 1st overwintering in 1898 South Pole was first reached in 1911
If Antarcticas ice sheets melted, the worlds oceans would rise by 60 to 65 metres (200 - 210ft) - everywhere. The largest land animal in Antarctica is an insect, a wingless midge, Belgica antarctica, less than 1.3cm (0.5in) long. There are no flying insects (theyd get blown away), just shiny black springtails that hop like fleas and tend to live among penguin colonies. When the Antarctic sea-ice begins to expand at the beginning of winter, it advances by around 40,000 square miles (100,000 square kilometres) per day, and eventually doubles the size of Antarctica, adding up to an extra 20 million square kilometres of ice around the land mass. One of the biggest icebergs ever (possibly the biggest iceberg ever) broke free from the Ross ice shelf in Antarctica in 2000. ---52
EPILOGUE EPILOGUE
Dear Reader, Antarctica has remained as an area of immense curiosity and awe due to its inaccessibility and inhospitable climate. Though the scene is changing fast with the opening of ice runways and ships carrying tourists, yet this continent continues to be the last wilderness because of no permanent habitation. We have attempted to bring together information scattered at various locations for students interested in knowing different aspects pertaining to Antarctica. The account varies from the discovery of the continent to stories of heroism, gradual shifting of scene from the days of huskies to automobile/ motorized ships/ aircrafts, the unique flora and fauna capable of surviving in the extreme cold and finally the Indian initiative in this land. We sincerely hope that the book will stimulate our young minds, which is the main objective of this popular series.
(Rasik Ravindra) Director NCAOR
53 53
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Many articles, books and websites were consulted in search of material for this book. While all known and unknown sources are thanked, the main ones are listed below. Arun (2005): Rochak aur Romanchak Antarctica, Prabhat Prakashan, New Delhi. Australian Antarctic Division: www.aad.gov.au British Antarctic Survey: www.antarctica.ac.uk Global Warming: http://www.climatehotmap.org/index.html Gateway to Antarctica: http://www.anta.canterbury.ac.nz Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica: Third and Ninth Scientific Reports. International Polar Year: www.ipy.org Kids Design Antarctic Experiments: http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/news/05-02/ antarctica.html New Zealand Antarctic Survey: www.antarcticanz.govt.nz National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research: www.ncaor.gov.in National Science Foundation: http://www.nsf.gov/ Nova warnings from the ice: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/warnings/) Polar meteorology web module: http://www.weather.nps.navy.mil/~psguest/polarmet Polar regions: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~leung/intl/pola/webpage.html Portals of the world: http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html Scott Polar Research Institute: http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research: www.scar.org The Commission for the conservation of the Antarctic marine life: www.ccamlr.org The secretariat of the Antarctic and southern ocean coalition (ASOC): www.asoc.org The South Pole: www.south-pole.com The explorer web: (http://www.thepoles.com/) Teachers experiencing Antarctica and Arctic: http://tea.armadaproject.org
---54
Research Team Research

Manish Tiwari C.M. Laluraj Lalit Kumar Ahirwar National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
Advisors
S. Mukherjee Arun Chaturvedi K. R. Gupta N. Khare Ajai Saxena Geological Survey of India Geological Survey of India Geological Society of India National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research Ministry of Earth Sciences
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THE STORY OF ANTARCTICA

Story The Story of Antarctica

Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research

Ministry of Earth Sciences, Goa

Geological Society of India

Dr. P.S. Goel

New Delhi - 110 003

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

THE MYSTERIOUS CONTINENT

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Penguins moving into the sea

Snow covered mountains in Antarctica

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

IT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHERE

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Under The Sheet Of Ice Sheet

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Sea The Sea Ice

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

ANTARCTICA LIFE IN ANTARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Adelie Penguins Emperor Penguins

Macaroni Penguins Gentoo Penguin

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Plant Antarctic Plant Life

Antarctic hair grass

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Antarctic Marine Life

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

ANTARCTICA DISCOVERY OF ANTARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Early Explorers

Captain James Cook

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

earch South Search for the South Magnetic Pole

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

South Pole Race To The South Pole

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of Endurance in pictures

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Sir Hubert Wilkins (right side)

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

REALLY LAND? IS IT REALLY NO MANS LAND?

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

INDIAS ANTARCTICA INDIAS JOURNEY TO ANTARCTICA

Dr. Harsh Gupta

Dakshin Gangotri under construction

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

DG in the summer of 1989

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

Artists impression of station at Larsemann Hills

The Story of ANTARCTICA ANTAR ARCTICA

LADY EXPEDITIONERS IN INDIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS

Dr. Sudipta Sengupta (Jadavpur University, III and IX)