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Study of a
Study of a harmonic drive with harmonic drive
involute profile flexspline by
two-dimensional finite
element analysis 2107
Yi-Cheng Chen and Yun-Hao Cheng Received 9 March 2017
Revised 18 April 2017
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Accepted 14 June 2017
National Central University, Taoyuan, Taiwan, and
Jui-Tang Tseng and Kun-Ju Hsieh
Mechanical and Systems Research Laboratories,
Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to present simulation results of a harmonic drive (HD) with involute flexspline
(FS) profiles based on two-dimensional (2-D) finite element analysis (FEA).
Design/methodology/approach – First, the mathematical model of the FS with involute tooth profile
was developed using a straight-edge rack cutter based on the theory of gearing. Then the engaging circular
spline (CS) with conjugate tooth profile of FS was derived based on the enveloping theory and theory of
gearing. Additionally, a mesh generation program was developed to discretize the FS based on the
mathematical model. An elliptical wave generator (WG) was inserted into the FS, and a torque was applied to
drive the FS meshing with the CS. The WG and the CS were both assumed to be rigid in the finite element
model.
Findings – Finally, a 2-D FEA was conducted to explore the stress distribution on the FS, the engagement
movement of the FS, the torsional stiffness and the engaged area of teeth of the HD under various conditions.
Moreover, this research also studied the effect of changing pressure angle of the involute FS on the
performance of the HD.
Research limitations/implications – The simulation model and methodology presented in this paper
paved the way for further investigation and optimization of the HD with involute tooth profile FS and
conjugate CS.
Originality/value – The simulation model of HD is established on conjugate shape based on the theory of
gearing and an automatic mesh generation program is developed to generate the finite element model. The
characteristics of the HD can thus be simulated according to the developed model.
Keywords Finite element analysis, Engaged area of teeth, Harmonic drive, Involute tooth profile,
Torsional stiffness
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Harmonic drive (HD) possesses the advantages of high reduction ratio, high torque capacity,
high stiffness, accurate repeatability, small backlash and compact size. Therefore, HDs have
been applied widely in various fields where precision transmission is needed, such as
Engineering Computations
Vol. 34 No. 7, 2017
pp. 2107-2130
The authors would like to thank the Industrial Technology Research Institute and the Ministry of © Emerald Publishing Limited
0264-4401
Science and Technology of the Republic of China for financially supporting this research. DOI 10.1108/EC-03-2017-0086
EC industrial robots, manufacturing equipment and measuring apparatus. The HD is typically
34,7 composed of a flexspline (FS), a circular spline (CS) and an elliptical wave generator (WG).
The first concept of HD (Musser, 1959) was called strain wave gearing in an old patent more
than 60 years ago. The mating of the inner and outer element is driven by a strain wave by
superimposing a rotary force on the inner element. Kiyosawa et al. proposed a cup-shaped
FS with an improved configuration of the disc-shaped diaphragm by applying a plurality of
2108 curves having different curvatures (Kiyosawa et al., 1993).
The teeth of FS undergo elastic deformation when engaging with the teeth of the
rigid CS. Because of repetetive elastic deformation on the FS, a permissible torque
applied in an HD is calculated on the basis of the fatigue strength of the bottom of the
FS (Li, 2016). The design of the meshing FS and CS have been explored by several
researchers to improve the performance of the HD, such as the kinematic error,
permissible torque, torsional stiffness, engaged region, frictional force, fatigue life,
diaphragm stress and dynamic behaviors.
Various tooth profiles of the HD have been studied and proposed (Kondo and Takada,
1990; Chen et al., 2014b; Maiti, 2004) under different assumptions. The teeth of FS were
assumed to be rigid and the pitch between the teeth of FS was assumed to be constant on the
neutral line (Kondo and Takada, 1990). Under the aforementioned assumptions, the tooth
profiles of the FS and the CS were derived based on the theory of gear mechanism that the
common normal vector of the tooth at the common meshing point passes through the pitch
point (Kondo and Takada, 1990). In addition, double-circular-arc common-tangent tooth
profile was also studied by using envelope theory to calculate the conjugate tooth profile of
the FS and CS (Chen et al., 2014b).
Because of the high manufacturing cost of HDs, numerical analysis and simulation tool
become an effective method to predict the performance of HD without the need for
prototypes. FEA has been widely applied to determine the meshing characteristics of HD
(Chen et al., 2014a; Kayabasi and Erzincanli, 2007; Ostapski and Mukha, 2007; Rhéaume
et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2014a, 2014b; Li, 2016; Xiao et al., 2011). The stress on FS teeth was
calculated by FEA and an optimum shape of teeth was found to maximize the fatigue life
(Kayabasi and Erzincanli, 2007). In addition, three-dimensional FEA was used to determine
the stress state of the FS, and the results were more accurate than two-dimensional (2-D)
FEA (Li, 2016; Ostapski and Mukha, 2007; Chen et al., 2014b; Jeon and Oh, 1999). The three-
dimensional FEA was also used to estimate the torsional stiffness of HD (Rhéaume et al.,
2009). Moreover, several analytical methods have also been proposed to calculate stress of
the FS, and the numerical results have been compared with the results from FEA (Chen
et al., 2014b; Ostapski and Mukha, 2007).
Besides studying the static characteristics of HD, several researchers also investigated
the dynamic behavior of HD (Hsia, 1988; Jeon and Oh, 1999; Xiao et al., 2011; Tjahjowidodo
et al., 2013; Zou et al., 2015). Hsia provided a design guideline of HD by analyzing the
position errors and error curves based on his kinematic analysis model (Hsia, 1988). The
composite FS was reported to exhibit an improved quality compared to the conventional
steel FS, including the natural frequency, stiffness and damping capacity (Jeon and Oh,
1999). Topology optimization of the WG was also revealed to decrease mass and lower
inertia of the WG, improving both the static and dynamic performance of HD (Xiao et al.,
2011).
Apart from FEA and numerical calculation, experiments are also important to
investigate the real performance of HD under various operational conditions (Li, 2016;
Tjahjowidodo et al., 2013; Zou et al., 2015). Li presented an experimental method and
apparatus to measure diaphragm strains of the thin-walled FS (Li, 2016). Li also
compared the simulation diaphragm strain and fatigue strength from three- Study of a
dimensional FEA of thin-walled FS with those from experimental tests. Meanwhile, a harmonic drive
model for torsional compliance of HDs was proposed to predict the nonlinear torsional
behavior of HD, and the simulation model was verified by experimental results
(Tjahjowidodo et al., 2013). Zou et al. proposed a model to simulate the kinematic error
and frictional torque of HD, and also measured the kinematic error and frictional torque
of HD by experimental test (Zou et al., 2015). 2109
However, most of the FS and CS in commercial HD exhibit conjugate and non-
involute tooth profiles. The mating FS and CS tooth pair cannot provide ideal gear
kinematics (Maiti, 2004). Maiti proposed a novel WG, composed of circular and
elliptical arcs, to drive FS of HD with fully conjugate gear pairs of purely involute
profiles. Maiti also reported that the tip interference was properly avoided for both
engagement and disengagement by applying tip relieves on the FS. Nevertheless, the
early study only investigated FS with involute tooth profile of 20-degree pressure angle
(Maiti, 2004). The effect of pressure angle on the conjugate and involute tooth profiles of
FS and CS has not been fully investigated in the previous literatures. Moreover, the
engagement movement of the FS has not been investigated in the previous research.
This study investigated the effect of pressure angle on the performance of an HD
comprising an involute FS and a conjugate CS by FEA. Two-dimensional FEA simulations
were used to evaluate the characteristics of HD with involute FS and conjugate CS. The rest
of this article is organized as follows:

In Section 2, the mathematical models of the HD, including the FS, CS and WG, are
derived based on the theory of gearing and enveloping theory.

In Section 3, the finite element model of the HD and the information related to FEA
of the HD are described.

In Section 4, simulation results of the HD by FEA are presented and discussed,
including the torsional stiffness, engaged region, engagement movement of the FS
and fillet and contact stresses on the FS.

Finally, the main conclusions of this study are drawn in Section 5.

2. Mathematical model of HD
In this study, the FS exhibits involute tooth profile which can generated by a straight-
edged rack cutter based on the theory of gearing. Then, the conjugate geometry of CS is
derived as an envelope of the loci of tooth profiles of the FS being driven by the
elliptical WG.

2.1 Geometry of the FS

In this section, first the mathematical model of the straight-edged rack cutter was developed.
Then the mathematical model of the involute FS was derived based on the theory of gearing
and the generating mechanism.
Figure 1 depicts the normal section of the straight-edged rack cutter used to generate the
involute FS. The rack cutter comprises two regions: straight-edged region and rounded-tip
region, which are used to generate the involute region and the fillet region of the involute FS,
respectively.
According to the illustration depicted in Figure 1, the mathematical model of the rack
cutter can be expressed in coordinate system Sa (Xa, Ya) in the following:
EC
34,7

2110

Figure 1.
Normal section of the
rack cutter for
involute FS
generation

8 9
>
> x ðiÞ >
>
>
< a >
=
ðÞ
Rai ¼ ðiÞ
ya > (1)
>
> >
>
: 1 >;

where i = 1 or 2, i = 1 denotes the straight-edge region and i = 2 denotes the rounded-tip of

the rack cutter. The mathematical model of regions 1 and 2 of the rack cutter can be
expressed as follows:

Straight-edge region:

8 9 8 9
>
> xð1Þ >
> > ðL1 cosa1 hf Þ >
< a >
> = >
< >
=
ð Þ
Ra1 ¼ ð1Þ
ya > ¼ 6ðL1 sina1 hf tana1 b (2)
>
> > >
> >
>
: 1 >
> ; : ;
1

where L1 is the position parameter of straight edge, and M0 M1 ¼ L1 ; a1 denotes the

normal pressure angle;symbols ha, hf and b are addendum, dedendum and half-tooth
space of the rack cutter, and b ¼ p 4mn ; The upper sign and lower sign in “6”
represent the left and right sides of the rack cutter, respectively.

Rounded-tip region:
8 9 8 9
>
> ð2Þ >
RS sin a1  hf  RS sin d S
> a >
<
x > >
= >
<
>
>
ð2Þ  =
Ra ¼ yða2Þ ¼ 7 RS cos a1 þ hf tan a1  RS cos d S þ b (3)
>
> >
> >
> >
>
>
: 1 ; > : ;
1
 where a1 is the normal pressure angle; Rs and d s represent the design parameter of Study of a
the rounded-tip of the cutter and a1 # d S # p2 ; the upper sign and lower sign in “7” harmonic drive
represent the left and right sides of the rack cutter, respectively.
According to the differential geometry, the normal vector of the rack cutter can be
represented as follows:

ðÞ
ðÞ @Rai 2111
Nai ¼  ka (4)
@pðiÞ

where ka is the unit normal vector of axis Za, and p(i) denotes the tooth profile
parameter of region (i). Moreover, p(1) =L1 for region 1 and p(2) = d s for region 2.
Hence, the unit normal vector nðaiÞ of the two regions of the rack cutter can be
derived as follows:

ðÞ
Ni
nðaiÞ ¼  aðiÞ  (5)
N 
a

Substituting equations (2) and (3) into equation (4) yields the unit normal vector nða1Þ
and nða2Þ represented in coordinate system Sa (Xa, Ya) as follows:

Straight-edge region:
8 9 ( )
< nð1Þ = 7sin a1
nða1Þ
ax
¼ ¼ (6)
: nð1Þ ; cos a1
ay

where the upper sign and lower sign in “7” represent the left and right sides of the
rack cutter, respectively.

Rounded-tip region:
8 9 ( )
< nð2Þ = 6sin d S
nða2Þ
ax
¼ ¼ (7)
: nð2Þ ; cos d S
ay

where the upper sign and lower sign in “6” represent the left and right sides of the
rack cutter, respectively.
Figure 2 illustrates the relative movement between the rack cutter and the generated FS.
The coordinate systems S0 (X0, Y0) and Sa (Xa, Ya) are rigidly connected to the rack cuter and
the center of generated FS, respectively. Symbol r1 denotes the pitch radius of the generated
FS. During the generating process, the axode p of the rack cutter translates r1 f 1, whereas
the FS rotates counterclockwise with an angle of f 1. Accordingly, the loci of the rack cutter
can be transformed to the coordinate system S0 (X0, Y0) by the following homogeneous
coordinate system transformation matrix:
ðÞ ðÞ
R0i ¼ ½M0a Rai (8)
 2 3
EC cosð f 1 Þ sinð f 1 Þ r1 ðcos f 1 þ f 1 sin f 1 Þ
34,7 where ½M0a  ¼ 4 sinð f 1 Þ cosð f 1 Þ r1 ðsin f 1  f 1 cos f 1 Þ 5.
0 0 1
Substituting equation (2) into equation (8) yields the loci of the straight edge of the rack
cutter represented in the FS’s coordinate system S0 (X0, Y0) in the following:

Involute region:
2112
8 9 8 9
>
> ð1Þ >
> > ð1Þ ð1Þ >
< 0 >
> x = < xa cos f 1  ya sin f 1 þ r1 ðcos f 1 þ f 1 sin f 1 Þ >
> =
ð Þ
R01 ¼ y ð1 Þ ¼ x ð1 Þ
sin f þ y ð 1Þ
cos f þ r ðsin f  f cos f Þ (9)
>
> 0 > > >> a
1 a 1 1 1 1 1 >
>
: 1 >
> ; : ;
1

Fillet region:
Similarly, substituting equation (3) into equation (8) yields the loci of the rounded tip
of the rack cutter represented in the FS’s coordinate system S0 (X0, Y0) in the
following:
8 9 8 9
>
> ð2Þ >
> > ð2Þ
 ð2Þ
þ ðcos þ Þ >
>
< x0 >
= <> x a cos f 1 y a sin f 1 r1 f 1 f 1 sin f 1 >
=
ð2Þ
R0 ¼ yð2Þ ¼ xða2Þ sin f 1 þ yða2Þ cos f 1 þ r1 ðsin f 1  f 1 cos f 1 Þ (10)
>
> 0 > > >
> >
>
>
: 1 ; > : ;
1

For planar gearing with parallel axes, the common normal to the cutter surface and
generated tooth surface at their common tangent point passes through the instantaneous
axis of rotation. Therefore, the equation of meshing between the cutter and the generated FS
can be expressed as follows:

Xa  xðaiÞ Ya  yðaiÞ
ðÞ
¼ ðÞ
(11)
naxi nayi

where (Xa, Ya) arethe coordinates

 of the instantaneous center of rotation in coordinate
system Sa (Xa, Ya); xðaiÞ ; yðaiÞ are coordinates of the common tangent point of the cutter and

Figure 2.
Relationship between
the rack cutter and
generated FS
the FS of region (i); nðaxiÞ and nðayiÞ denote the common unit normal at the contact point of the Study of a
cutter and the FS of region (i). harmonic drive
Substituting equations (2) and (6) into equation (11) lead to the equation of meshing for
region (1) of the FS. Similarly, substituting equations (3) and (7) into equation (11) lead to the
equation of meshing for region (2). Therefore:
ð1Þ
f1 ð f 1 ; L1 Þ ¼ ½7r1 f 1 þ ðL1 sin a1  hf tan a1 bÞsin a1 þ ½ðL1 cos a1  hf Þcos a1 ¼ 0
2113
(12)

ð2Þ
f1 ð f 1 ; d S Þ ¼ ½7r1 f 1 ðRS cos a1 þ hf tan a1  RS cos d S þ bÞsin d S
þ ðRS sin a1  hf -RS sin d S Þcos d S ¼ 0 (13)

where the upper sign and lower sign in “7” represent the left and right sides of the FS,
respectively. Finally, the mathematical model of the FS can be obtained by simultaneously
considering the following equations based on the theory of gearing:
  n oT  
ðÞ ðiÞ
R0i pðiÞ ¼ xð0iÞ yð0iÞ 1 ; and f1 f 1 ; pðiÞ ¼ 0 (14)

where p(i) denotes the tooth profile parameter of region (i); i = 1 or 2, i = 1 denotes the
involute region and i = 2 denotes the fillet region of the FS.

2.2 Geometry of the WG

The WG is a thin-walled ball bearing into which an elliptical cam is fitted. Figure 3
illustrates the neutral line of the ellipse, neutral line of the circle (undeformed FS) and the
profile of the elliptical WG. The neutral line of the circle (undeformed FS) deforms into
the neutral line of the ellipse when the elliptical WG is fitted into the FS. It is assumed that
the neutral line of the ellipse (blue solid line) is of the same length as the neutral line of the
circle (blue dashed line). As Figure 3 depicts, coordinate system S3 (X3, Y3) is rigidly
attached to the elliptical WG, and the X3-axis coincides with the major axis of the ellipse.
The radius of the undeformed neutral circle of FS, rm, can be expressed as follows:

rm ¼ r1 -hf - z =2 (15)

where r1 denotes the pitch radius of the FS, hf is the dedendum height and z is the rim
thickness of the FS. It is assumed that the length of the neutral line of circle remains

Figure 3.
Illustration of the
neutral lines of the
circle and the ellipse,
and the profile of WG
EC unchanged when it is deformed to the neutral line of ellipse by inserting the elliptical WG.
34,7 The parametric expression of the radial vector of the neutral line of ellipse (deformed FS) can
be expressed in the following:

r ¼ rm þ wðu Þ ¼ rm þ wo cos ð2u Þ (16)

2114 where wo denotes the distance between the deformed ellipse and the undeformed neutral line
of circle along the major axis of the ellipse, and 0° # u # 360°. In addition, the parametric
expression of the radial vector of the elliptical WG profile can be expressed as follows:
r w ¼ r - z =2 (17)

2.3 Geometry of the CS

According to the enveloping theory, the surface of the CS can be determined as the envelope
to the family of surfaces by the surface of FS that is formed in the CS’s coordinate system S2
(X2, Y2). In this section, the neutral line of the FS is deformed from a circle to an ellipse by
inserting the elliptical WG. It is also assumed that the length of the neutral line of the ellipse
and the length of the neutral line of the circle are equal.
The counterclockwise rotation of the WG leads to the clockwise rotation of the FS. The
FS is like a cutter surface to generate the conjugate surface of CS. Finally, the surface profile
of the CS can be obtained by using the enveloping theory and the family of curves of the FS
represented in the coordinate system S2 (X2, Y2).
Figure 4 depicts the relationship between coordinate systems S0 (X0, Y0) and S1 (X1, Y1).
The origin of coordinate system S1 (X1, Y1), O1, is located on the neutral line of circle of the
FS. Besides, O1 is on the X0 axis and is at the middle of the rim thickness of the FS. Hence,
the distance between O1 and O0 is rm, where z is the rim thickness of FS.
Figure. 5(a)-(c) illustrates the relationship among the CS, FS and elliptical WG during the
engagement process. Coordinate systems S1 (X1, Y1), S2 (X2, Y2) and S3 (X3, Y3) are rigidly
attached to the FS, CS and the WG during the engagement process, respectively. In addition,
it is assumed that the CS is fixed (i.e. S2 (X2, Y2) is fixed), the WG is the input (driving)
element and FS is the output (driven) element.
Initially, the three coordinate systems, S1 (X1, Y1), S2 (X2, Y2) and S3 (X3, Y3) coincide, as
shown in Figure 5(a). As Figure 5(b) depicts that when the elliptical WG rotates
counterclockwise with an angle of f 2, the FS rotates an angle of g clockwise. In addition,

Figure 4.
Relationship between
coordinate systems S0
and S1
 Study of a
harmonic drive

2115

Figure 5.
Relationships among
coordinate systems
S0, S1, and S3 during
engagement process
EC the S1 (X1, Y1) coordinate system attached to the neutral line of ellipse FS will rotate an
34,7 additional angle of m . Figure 5(c) depicts an enlarged view of the FS shown from Figure 5(b).
When the WG is the driving element and FS is the driven element, angles f 2 and f can
be related by:
z2 -z1
f -f 2 ¼ f2 (18)
z2
2116
Hence:
z1
f2 ¼ f (19)
z2

where z1 and z2 represents the number of teeth of the FS and the CS, respectively.
The radial vector of the neutral line of ellipse of the deformed FS can be expressed by:

r ¼ rm þ wð f 3 Þ ¼ rm þ wo cos ð2 f 3 Þ (20)

As depicted in Figure 5(c), v and w are the radial and circumferential displacements of O1.
Moreover, v and w should be equal, leading to the following expression:
fð3

vð f 3 Þ ¼  wð f 3 Þd f 3 (21)
0

Additionally, the following integration relationship can be obtained based on the

assumption that the length of the neutral line remains the same (Chen et al., 2014b):
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
fð3  fð3
pffiffiffiffiffi
fð3
dwð f 3 Þ 2
rm f ¼ r þ2 df 3 ffi r d f 3 ffi rm f 3 þ wð f 3 Þd f 3
2
df 3
0 0 0

ffi rm f 3 -vð f 3 Þ (22)

Hence:

f ffi f 3 -vð f 3 Þ=rm (23)

According to differential geometry, m ( f 3) can be expressed as follows:


dwð f 3 Þ 1 dwð f 3 Þ 1 1 dwð f 3 Þ
m ð f 3 Þ ¼ arctan ffi ffi (24)
df 3 r df 3 r rm d f 3

Moreover, as shown in Figure 5(b), the rotational angles satisfying the following
condition:

g ffi f 3-f 2 (25)

and here angle q is set as:

 q ¼ ðm þ g Þ (26) Study of a
harmonic drive
The family of curves of the FS represented in the CS’s coordinate system S2 (X2, Y2) can be
obtained by the following homogeneous coordinate system transformation:
8 9 8 9
>
> ðiÞ >
> >
> ðiÞ >
>
> x
< 2 = > < 0 >
> x =
ðiÞ ðiÞ
R2 ¼ y ð i Þ ¼ ½M21 ½M10 R0 ¼ ½M21 ½M10  y i
ð Þ (27) 2117
>
> 2 > > >
> 0 > >
>
: >
; >
: >
;
1 1

where
2 3
1 0 rm
6 7
½M10  ¼ 6
40 1 0 7
5 (28)
0 0 1

2 3
cos ðqÞ sin ðqÞ r sin ð g Þ
6 7
½M21  ¼ 6
4  sin ðqÞ cos ðqÞ r cos ð g Þ 7
5 (29)
0 0 1

q ¼ ðm þ g Þ (30)

And:
z1
g ffi f 3-f 2 ¼ f 3-f (31)
z2
Consequently, the conjugate condition of the tooth profile of the CS can be can be obtained
based on the enveloping theory as represented in the following:
ðÞ ðÞ ðÞ ðÞ
@x2i @y2i @x2i @y2i
 ¼0 (32)
@tðiÞ @ f 3 @ f 3 @tðiÞ

where t(i) represent the surface parameter of region (i), i = 1 and 2, generated by region (i) of
the FS.
Finally, the mathematical model of the CS can be represented by simultaneously
considering the loci of the curves of the FS represented in coordinate system S2 (X2, Y2) and
the equation of enveloping:
n oT ðÞ
@x2i @y2i
ðÞ
@x2i @y2i
ðÞ ðÞ
ðÞ ðÞ ðÞ
R2i ¼ x2i y2i 1 and  ¼0 (33)
@tðiÞ @ f 3 @ f 3 @tðiÞ

2.4 Design parameters of the HD

The reduction ratio of an HD is determined by the number of teeth of the FS and the CS, and
the input/output elements. The teeth difference between the FS and the CS is typically 2. The
EC diameter of the FS is slightly smaller than that of the CS. The elliptical WG made the teeth of
34,7 the FS engage with the teeth of the CS at two regions across the major axis of the ellipse.
The design parameters of the FS and the CS were summarized in Table I. The teeth
numbers of the FS and the CS were 200 and 202, respectively. Therefore, the reduction ratio
of the HD was 100.
The geometry of the CS can be determined as the envelope of the family of the curves of
2118 FS with an elliptical neutral line. A computer program was developed to calculate the
coordinates of the generated surface of the CS. As shown in Figure 6, the red line denotes the
CS as the envelope of the blue loci of the FS. In other words, the tooth profile of the CS is
conjugate with the tooth profile of the FS. Figure 7 depicts the geometry of the FS and the
CS. An elliptical WG was inserted into the FS.

Flexspline

Number of teeth Z1 200

Module 0.5 mm
Pressure angle 20 degrees
Pitch diameter 100 mm
Fillet radius Rs 0.14 mm
Addendum ha 0.5 mm
Dedendum hf 0.48 mm
Rim thickness z 1.24 mm
Radius of neutral circle rm 48.82 mm
Circular spline
Table I. Number of teeth 202
Design parameters of Wave generator
the HD w0 0.625 mm

Figure 6.
Family of curves of
FS and the conjugate
surface profile of CS
 Study of a
harmonic drive

2119

Figure 7.
Geometry of the FS,
the WG and the CS

3. FEA of the HD
3.1 Finite element model
The 2-D finite element model of the HD comprises the FS, the WG and the CS. Based on the
mathematical model of the FS, a mesh generation program was developed to discretize the
FS. The major advantages by using the mesh generation are:

unlike making meshing on imported CAD model, the coordinates of nodes of the FS
are accurately calculated by the mesh generation program based on the
mathematical model; and

flexibility of assigning the mesh density of the FS.

As Figure 8 shows, a denser mesh was assigned at the fillet and contact area of the FS.
Meanwhile, the base part of the FS was built with a less dense mesh.
The WG and the CS were both assumed to be rigid in the FEA. Therefore, a 2-D rigid
linear element R2D2 was used to discretize the finite element model of the CS and the WG.
Plane strain quadrilateral element CPE4R was used for the FS. The FS is assumed to be
elastic and its material properties include: Young’s modulus = 200 GPa and Poisson’s
ratio = 0.29.
Figure 9 illustrates an enlarged partial view of the finite element model of the HD before
assembly. There are totally 735,800 nodes and 30,400 elements in the finite element model of
the FS. In addition, 35,158 elements and 629 elements were built in the finite element model
of the CS and the WG, respectively. Surface to surface contact was applied for the contact
surfaces between the FS and the CS and between the FS and the WG. In addition, finite
sliding and frictionless were assumed in the contact interfaces. The commercial FEA
package, Abaqus, was used for the contact analysis among FS, WG and CS. Moreover,
convergence testing was made to ensure suitable numbers of nodes had been made on the
finite element model of HD.

3.2 Assembly of the finite element model of the three components

The finite element model of each component of HD needs to be assembled before conducting
stress and displacement simulations. Figure 10(a)-(c) illustrate the assembly process of the
three key components of the HD, including the FS, the WG and the CS. In these figures, only
the enlarged partial view at the one end of the major axis of the elliptical WG was shown in
Figure 10(a)-(c). Figure 10(a) depicts the initial finite element model of the three components.
Because the WG is elliptical and the FS and CS are both circular. The WG (shown in black
EC
34,7

2120

Figure 8.
Finite element model
of one tooth of the FS

Figure 9.
Finite element model
of the HD

line) is overlapped with the FS in initial position. In Figure 10(b), a uniform pressure was
applied at the inner rim of the FS to enlarge the FS, enabling the elliptical WG to be fitted
into the FS. In Figure 10(c), after the elliptical WG was inserted into the FS, the setting of
“contact pair” between the FS and the WG, and “contact pair” between the FS and the CS
were activated, making the WG contact with the inner rim of the FS, and the FS teeth
contact with the fixed CS teeth. The assembly process of the finite element models of the
three components are described in the following steps:
 Study of a
harmonic drive

2121

Figure 10.
Assembly process of
the three components
of harmonic drive in
FEA

(1) In Figure 10(b): A uniform pressure was applied at the inner periphery to expand
the circular FS, such that the elliptical WG could be inserted into the enlarged FS.
(2) The surface-to-surface contact setting between the FS and the WG was activated,
followed by deactivating the pressure applied at the inner rim of the FS. Then the
FS and the WG were in contact, leading to a deformed elliptical FS.
(3) Then, the surface-to-surface contact setting between the FS and the CS was
activated and the assembly of the three components were completed, as shown in
Figure 10(c).

Consequently, the subsequent simulation of stress and angular displacement could be

conducted, and the simulation results are presented in the following section.

4. Simulation results and discussion

Two-dimensional static analyses were performed to evaluate the stress and displacement of
the FS. In the simulation of the torsional stiffness/angles and engaged area of teeth, the WG
and the CS were fixed, and a counterclockwise torque was applied on the FS. Three values of
torque were applied to the FS to determine the respective torsional angles, engaged area of
teeth and torsional stiffness of the FS.
Furthermore, in the simulation of the periodic fillet stress and contact stress of the FS, an
angular displacement of 720 degrees (2 rounds) was applied to the WG, and a torque of 50 N-m
was also applied to the FS. The CS was fixed in the simulation for the stress estimation of the FS.
EC 4.1 Engaged area of teeth and torsional stiffness
34,7 The WG and the CS were fixed in the simulation of the torsional stiffness, torsional
angles and engaged area of teeth. According to the information provided in the
commercialized HD catalogue (Harmonic drive LLC, 2015), three levels of torques,
30N-m, 111 N-m and 150 N-m, were applied respectively to determine the resulting
torsional angles, torsional stiffness and engaged area of teeth. Table II summarized the
2122 engaged area of teeth under the three values of applied torques. When the torque was 30
N-m, the engaged number of teeth between the FS and the CS was 14 teeth (7 per cent of
the total teeth number of the FS). As the torque increased to 111 N-m and 150 N-m, the
engaged number of teeth between the FS and the CS were increased to 36 teeth (18 per
cent of the total teeth number of the FS) and 44 teeth (22 per cent of the total teeth
number of the FS). Accordingly, the simulation results revealed that the engaged
number of teeth increases as the applied torque increases.
Figure 11 shows the stress distribution of the FS when the torque is 150 N-m. Moreover,
Figure 12(a)-(c) show the detailed view of stress distribution on the FS of the red rectangular
region depicted in Figure 11, under the three applied torques. The maximum von Mises
stress shown in Figure 12(a)-(c) increased from 517 MPa to 1251 MPa when the torque was
increased from 30 N-m to 150 N-m.
Figure 13 illustrates the simulated relationship between the torsional angles and the
input torques (30 N-m, 111 N-m and 150 N-m). Three corresponding torsional stiffness
can be calculated as the slope of each segment shown in Figure 13. The calculated three
values of torsional stiffness were designated as K1, K2 and K3, respectively for 30 N-m,
111 N-m and 150 N-m. Table III summarized the torsional angles and corresponding
torsional stiffness under the three applied torques. The torsional angles under the
torque of 30 N-m, 111 N-m and 150 N-m were 4.5  104 rad, 15.8  104 rad and 20.3 
104 rad, respectively. Furthermore, the calculated torsional stiffness of the three
segments were K1 = 6.7  104 N-m/rad, K2 = 7.1  104 N-m/rad and K3 = 8.7  104 N-m/
rad, respectively. As Figure 13 and Table III reveal, the three values of torsional
stiffness under respective applied torque is more or less proportional to the applied
torque. This is because when the applied torque increases, the engaged area of teeth
increases form 14 teeth to 44 teeth (Table II), resulting in an increment of torsional
stiffness.

4.2 Movement on the FS

A point, point A, located at the center of tooth tip of the FS was selected as the point to
depict the trajectory of the FS (Figure 14) when it was driven by the rotation of the WG
and engaged with the CS. When the WG rotated two rounds (720 degrees)
counterclockwise, the FS rotated 4 teeth clockwise. In addition, a torque of 50 N-m was
applied to the FS. The resulting trajecotry of point A was depicted in Figure 15. There
are four cycles in the trajectory of point A, because the FS engaged 4 teeth of the CS in
the movement.

Torque Engaged no. of teeth (%)

Table II. 30 N-m 14 teeth (7)
Engaged area of 111 N-m 36 teeth (18)
teeth 150 N-m 44 teeth (22)
 Study of a
harmonic drive

2123

Figure 11.
Stress distribution on
the FS under a 150 N-
m torque

4.3 FS fillet stress and contact stress

A torque of 50 N-m was applied to the FS and a rotational angle of 720 degrees was applied
to the WG to determine the cyclic fillet stress as well as contact stress on the FS during the
meshing process with the CS. The fillet stress at point B in the fillet of FS, as shown in
Figure 16, was selected to depict the cyclic fillet stress fluctuations during the meshing
process between the FS and the CS in four teeth engagement. The resulting four peak values
of von Mises stress at pint B were 559.6 MPa, 577.8 MPa, 549.9 MPa and 572.6 MPa at the
four teeth engagement cycles, as shown in Figure 17. Moreover, the maximum peak fillet
stress during the four mehsing cycles was 577.8 MPa, which was lower than the yielding
strength (860 MPa) and fatigue limit (640 MPa) of the FS material.
Moreover, the contact stress at point C in the involute region of FS, as illustrated in
Figure 18, was selected to depict the contact stress fluctuations during the engaged between
the FS and the CS in the four teeth engagement as the WG rotated two rounds. The resulting
peak von Mises stress at point C were 447.7 MPa, 614.1 MPa, 481.7 MPa and 588.7 MPa at
the four teeth engagement cycles, as depicted in Figure 19. Moreover, the peak contact
stresses during the four meshing cycles were all lower than the yielding strength (860 MPa)
and fatigue limit (640 MPa) of the FS material.
EC
34,7

2124

Figure 12.
Detailed view of
stress distribution on
the FS

Figure 13.
Relationship between
the torsional angle
and the input torque
4.4 Effect of pressure angle of the FS on the meshing characteristics Study of a
In the preceding simulations, the pressure angle of the involute FS was 20 degrees. The harmonic drive
meshing characteristics, including the engaged area of teeth, torsional stiffness, torsional
angles, cyclic fillet stress and contact stress, were successfully determined by FEA. In this
section, the effect of the variation of the pressure angle on the meshing characteristics was

2125
Torque on the FS (N-m) Torsional angle (104 rad) Torsional stiffness (N-m/rad)

30 4.5 K1 = 6.7  104 Table III.

111 15.8 K2 = 7.1  104 Torsional angles and
150 20.3 K3 = 8.7  104 torsional stiffness

Figure 14.
Illustration of the
central point A on the
tip of the FS tooth for
depicting the
trajectory of
movement

Figure 15.
Trajectory of central
point A on the tip of
FS tooth
EC evaluated by FEA. In addition to 20 degrees, five other values of pressure angles, including
34,7 16, 18.75, 21.5, 24.25 and 27 degrees, were used to study the influence of pressure angle on
the meshing characteristics of the HD. The torque applied to the FS was 60 N-m in this
section. The simulation results were summarized in Table IV and Figure 20(a)-(c). The
simulation results reveal the following:

2126

Figure 16.
Stress distribution of
the fillet region of the
FS (torque = 50 N-m)

Figure 17.
Fillet stress
fluctuations (point B)
of the FS during the
four-teeth meshing
cycle

Figure 18.
Contact stress
distribution of the FS
(torque = 50 N-m)
 Study of a
harmonic drive

2127

Figure 19.
Contact stress
variation (point C) of
the FS in four-teeth
meshing cycle

Pressure Maximum fillet von Torsional Engaged

angle (deg.) Mises stress (MPa) angle (104rad) no. of teeth Table IV.
Fillet stress, torsional
16 590 9.17 28
18.75 601 9.25 26 angles and engaged
21.5 611 9.31 24 number of teeth
24.25 625 9.41 24 under various
27 638 9.42 24 pressure angles

The torsional angle increases with an increase in pressure angle. The torsional
angle was 9.17  104 rad at a pressure angle of 16 degrees, and was 9.42  104
rad at a pressure angle of 27 degrees. Consequently, as Figure 20(a) shows, the
torsional stiffness increases as the pressure angle decreases.

The fillet stress increases as the pressure angle increases. The maximum fillet stress
was 590 MPa at a pressure angle of 16 degrees, and was 638 MPa at a pressure
angle of 27 degrees [Figure 20(b)].

As Figure 20(c) shows, the engaged number of teeth was 28 when the pressure angle
was 16 degrees. The engaged number of teeth declined to 24 when the pressure
angles were 21.5, 24.25 and 27 degrees. Therefore, an increase of pressure angle
leads to decreased engaged number of teeth, a decrease of torsional stiffness and an
increase of fillet stress on the FS.

Consequently, the analysis results reveal that a decreased pressure angle will improve
the torsional stiffness as well as lower the fillet stress of the FS. Moreover, it was
observed that when the pressure angle decreased to 15 degrees, interference between
the teeth of FS and CS occurred, as depicted in Figure 21. The interference will induce
an overly large contact stress at the tip the FS tooth. A compromise between teeth
interference and increasing torsional stiffness by decreasing the pressure angle of the
EC
34,7

2128

Figure 20.
Effect of pressure
angles of FS on the
meshing
characteristics

Figure 21.
Interference
occurrence between
the FS and CS when
the pressure angle
was less than 16
degrees
FS is needed, and this is an interesting topic for further optimization of the involute FS Study of a
in the future. harmonic drive

5. Conclusions
In this study, the geometry of an HD comprises an involute FS, a conjugate CS with involute
FS and an elliptical WG. The mathematical model of the involute FS and conjugate CS was
established based on the theory of gearing and enveloping theory. Two-dimensional static 2129
FEA was conducted to evaluate the performance of the HD, including the torsional angles,
torsional stiffness, movement of the FS and fillet and contact stresses of the FS during
meshing process. The simulation results revealed that the peak fillet stress and contact
stress under an input torque of 50 N-m were 577.8 MPa and 614.1 MPa, respectively, both
being smaller than the yielding strength or fatigue limit of the FS material. Moreover, it was
found that decreasing the pressure angle of the FS will improve the torsional stiffness as
well as enlarge the engaged area of teeth, leading to a reduced fillet stress of FS. The lowest
pressure angle found was 16 degrees without the occurrence of interference between the
teeth of FS and CS. Optimization on the involute tooth profile of the FS is expected to be
conducted in the future to determine the optimum pressure angle without interference under
various torques. The proposed methodology in this study paved the way for future
investigation of three-dimensional FEA and optimization of the involute HD characteristics.

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Further reading
Litvin, F.L. and Fuentes, A. (2004), Gear Geometry and Applied Theory, 2nd ed., Cambridge University
Press, New York, NY.

Corresponding author
Yi-Cheng Chen can be contacted at: ethan@ncu.edu.tw

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