Sithccc019 - Learner Resource

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SITHCCC019
PRODUCE CAKES,
PASTRIES & BREADS
LEARNER RESOURCE
Issue date January 2017
LEARNER RESOURCE SITHCCC019
SITHCCC019 PRODUCE CAKES, PASTRIES &

BREADS
Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 2
Basic kitchen terms used in this unit ...................................................................................................... 3
Ingredients .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Yeast .................................................................................................................................................... 5
Flour .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Sugar ................................................................................................................................................. 10
Types of sugar ................................................................................................................................... 11
Fats and Margarines ......................................................................................................................... 16
Raising/ leavening agents ................................................................................................................. 18
Milk ................................................................................................................................................... 22
Eggs ................................................................................................................................................... 22
Cakes ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
Aeration in Cake production ............................................................................................................. 25
Making cakes..................................................................................................................................... 33
10 common baking problems ........................................................................................................... 33
Pastries .................................................................................................................................................. 37
Shortcrust Pastry............................................................................................................................... 38
Sweetcrust pastry ............................................................................................................................. 39
Preparation methods ........................................................................................................................ 39
Savoury.............................................................................................................................................. 40
Choux Pastry ..................................................................................................................................... 43
Puff Pastry ......................................................................................................................................... 45
YEASTED PASTRY ............................................................................................................................... 54
Making yeasted pastries ................................................................................................................... 57
Breads. .................................................................................................................................................. 58
Yeast Goods ...................................................................................................................................... 58
Moulding different shapes of breads................................................................................................ 61
Nutrition............................................................................................................................................ 68
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Introduction
Baking is cooking food in an oven with dry heat applied evenly throughout the oven and is
synonymous with roasting. Although it is common in some cultures to use the term baking
for the so-called baked-goods, such as breads, cakes and pastries, and 'roasting' for other
foods, such as meats and vegetables, the terms can also be used interchangeably.
The dry heat of baking causes the
outside of the food to brown or
char, giving it an attractive
appearance and pleasing taste.
The browning is caused by
caramelization of sugars and is the
result of the Maillard reaction.
Despite common misconceptions
about the browning process,
moisture is never entirely sealed
into the food. Over time an item
being baked will continue to lose moisture. This can be an advantage, especially in situations
where drying is the desired outcome, for example in drying herbs or in roasting certain types
of vegetables. Where drying is not desired, a protective layer of butter, oil, or, in the case of
breads and pastries, egg wash, can slow the loss of moisture as well as providing flavour and
additional browning. Alternatively, some foods are replenished with moisture during baking
by placing a small amount of liquid (such as water or broth) in the bottom of the pan and
letting it steam up into or around the food.
Pastries, cakes and yeast goods are probably among the oldest desserts and the most appreciated.
The attraction of freshly baked goods will always remain high and their ability to produce good
profits is well known.
The production of pastries and yeast goods is not easy as it requires the knowledge of bakery
ingredients and specific work techniques. The reward is in the opportunity to create something
special for the enjoyment of others.
Pastries, cakes and yeast goods may be produced for the restaurant dessert menu or for the
morning and afternoon trade and also for the independent pâtissière shop.
All baked goods are prepared from detailed recipes requiring accurate measurement of ingredients
and preparation techniques. Of great importance is the understanding of baking processes to
acquire the knowledge and skill to rectify simple mistakes and manage the vagaries of equipment,
ingredients and environment to produce a saleable product.
This unit will introduce the participant to the preparation and techniques necessary to produce a
range of pastries, cakes and yeast goods for the hospitality industry.
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Basic kitchen terms used in this unit

Blind baking: Is the term used to bake pastry or flan shells without filling. The process involves lining
suitable mould or flan rings with pastry, covering the pastry with greaseproof paper and filling the
mould or flan with dry beans, rice or metal pellets. It prevents the pastry from rising or shrinking
during baking.
Develop: To work a dough mechanically or by hand, to develop the elasticity of the gluten content of
flour to its optimum.
Fermentation: The action of yeast on sugar and starches to produce carbon dioxide to allow the
dough to expand in volume.
Kneading: The action of manipulating a dough to completely incorporate ingredients and/or develop
the elasticity of the dough. Kneading is the first and most fundamental action employed to create a
dough. By hand or machine the aim is to create a fully developed dough that is elastic, smooth and
not sticky. This process applies to yeast-raised and chemically aerated doughs
Leavening agent: Yeast and baking powder leaven by fermentation and chemical aeration
respectively. They produce bubbles of carbon dioxide gas in doughs and batters.
Proof: To let a yeast dough rise due to the action of fermentation.
Proofer: A cabinet with programmable warm and humid atmosphere to help the proofing of yeast
goods.
Creaming: The process of mixing ingredients usually with a high fat content so as to incorporate air
into the mixture and emulsify it. Creaming is another method of combining fat and sugar. It is the
first stage in the process of making cakes and some shortbreads. It is very important to use the
ingredients at room temperature so that the mixture will blend well to form an emulsion and retain
air. If the resulting batter is too cold or not sufficiently worked, it will curdle when the eggs are
added and lose volume. If the fat is too warm or has become oily it will not cream up satisfactorily.
Rubbing in: The action of rubbing fat into flour with the fingers or by machine to obtain a
breadcrumb-like mass. Rubbing in is the method used to create some pastry doughs that have short
eating qualities. Fat is mixed with flour, sometimes in the presence of sugar, in such a way that the
grains of flour are encapsulated with fat. This has the effect of preventing the gluten to develop and
stretch—hence it is ‘short’. This may be done by hand or by machine using a dough hook not a
beater, on first speed. Note that no liquid is added to the mixture at this stage so the flour does not
become wet. Keep the ingredients cool especially with hand mixing. Unsweetened short crust is
made to produce savoury goods to be used as entrées, hors d’oeuvres and cocktail party items. Do
not keep pastry for too long either cooked or uncooked
Folding: ‘Folding in’ is a method of combining different ingredients together by lightly spooning the
one or two aerated mixtures together without losing volume. The incorporation of flour into the egg
and sugar batter is achieved by this method.
Another form of folding or layering is used to make pastry for pie tops, vol-au-vent, Danish pastries,
croissants and similar flaky pastry items. This process requires a well-made dough which has been
rested and fat according to the recipe. It is helpful if the dough and fat have a similar degree of
firmness.
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Methods of incorporating the fat into the dough vary, but the aim is to finish with a pastry that has
thin layers of fat between equally thin layers of dough. Successive rolling out and resting the dough
in a coolroom achieve this. The flaky characteristics of the pastry when baked and the amount of
‘lift’ during baking will be influenced by the quality of the dough, the degree to which successful
layering is achieved and baking temperatures.
The ratio of fat to dough determines the lift ability of the pastry. Production methods are known as
French, English and Scotch, and combined with the number of turns will give a different lift for each
method. A recipe stating equal quantities of fat and dough is referred to as 1/1 or full puff; three-
quarters fat to dough 3⁄4 puff, and half fat to dough 1⁄2 puff. Plain or baker’s flour is preferred. The
fat can be butter or pastry margarine, butter giving a finer taste to the finished product but is not
easy to work unless it has been plasticised. The pastry should be kept cool and well rested between
turns. This pastry is baked at 210º C to 220º C.
Rolling: Rolling out pastry is to spread a dough to a given thickness and size to cover a mould or cut-
out shapes for a variety of purposes. Manual or electric dough breaks or electric sheeters (with belts
both sides of the rollers) are available to do the task. However it is often necessary to do this by
hand using a rolling pin. A clean cold flat surface is required and a wooden rolling pin. The pin should
be not less than 5 cm diameter. Ball-bearing pins are best left for experienced workers. Flour the
surface lightly and press out the dough to about 5 cm thick. Then work the dough in every direction
rolling away from the operator. Turn the dough and flour the surface and the pin only lightly to stop
it sticking. Work the dough to the thickness required. The aim is to roll out the dough rather than
stretch it as this will cause it to shrink. Any scrap left after cutting out should be gathered up without
flour and rested for rework. If the pastry or scrap is allowed to pick up too much flour when making
up it will fall apart when baked
Docking: To prick or make small holes in raw pastry to allow steam to escape and reduce lift
(thickness) during the baking process. It helps to prevent shrinkage and reduces lift as the pastry is
baked. Docking is used to make flan shells and pastry sheets
Knock back: To knead a dough that has been proofed in order to de-gas the dough and redistribute
the yeast nutrients and ensure an even texture.
Piping: Piping is a technique used to make éclairs, meringues, croquette potatoes, various biscuits
and to apply decoration to cakes. The tools required are piping bags of various sizes and piping tubes
to suit the mixture and the task. Éclairs, meringues and biscuits are piped out in a regular pattern to
aid even baking or drying, on a baking sheet covered with silicon paper. Greaseproof paper folded
into cones with or without nozzles are used to decorate cakes with chocolate, fondant or butter
cream.
Bouchée: Small puff pastry case.
Vol-au-vent: Large puff pastry case.
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Ingredients
Yeast
Baker's yeast is available in a number of different forms, the main differences being the moisture
contents. Though each version has certain advantages over the others, the choice of which form to
use is largely a question of the requirements of the recipe at hand and the training of the cook
preparing it. Dry yeast forms are good choices for longer-term storage, often lasting several months
at room temperatures without significant loss of viability.] In general, with occasional allowances for
liquid content and temperature, the different forms of commercial yeast are considered
interchangeable.
Cream Yeast
Cream yeast is the closest form to the yeast slurries of the 19th century, in essence being a
suspension of yeast cells in liquid, siphoned off from the growth medium. Its primary use is in
industrial bakeries with special high-volume dispensing and mixing equipment, and it is not readily
available to small bakeries or home cooks.
Compressed Yeast
Compressed yeast is, in essence, cream yeast with most of the liquid removed. It is a soft solid, beige
in colour, and best known in the consumer form as
small, foil-wrapped cubes of cake yeast. It is also
available in larger-block form for bulk usage. It is
highly perishable; though formerly widely available
for the consumer market, it has become less
common in supermarkets in some countries due to
its poor keeping properties, having been
superseded in some such markets by active dry
and instant yeast. It is still widely available for
commercial use, and is somewhat more tolerant of
low temperatures than other forms of commercial yeast; however, even there, instant yeast has
made significant market inroads.
Active dry yeast
Active dry yeast is the form of yeast most commonly available to non-commercial bakers. It consists
of coarse oblong granules of yeast, with live yeast cells encapsulated in a thick jacket of dry, dead
cells with some growth medium. Under most conditions, active dry yeast must first be proofed or
rehydrated. It can be stored at room temperature for a year, or frozen for more than a decade,
which means that it has better keeping qualities than other forms, but it is generally considered
more sensitive than other forms to thermal shock when actually used in recipes.
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Instant yeast
Instant yeast appears similar to active dry yeast, but has

smaller granules with substantially higher percentages of
live cells per comparable unit volumes. It is more
perishable than active dry yeast but also does not require
rehydration, and can usually be added directly to all but
the driest doughs. In general, instant yeast has a small
amount of ascorbic acid added as a preservative. Some
producers provide two or more forms of instant yeast in
their product portfolio.
Rapid-rise yeast
Rapid-rise yeast is a variety of dried yeast (usually a form of instant yeast) that is of a smaller
granular size, thus it dissolves faster in dough, and it provides greater carbon dioxide output to allow
faster rising. There is considerable debate as to the value of such a product; while most baking
experts believe it reduces the flavour potential of the finished product. Rapid-rise yeast is often
marketed specifically for use in bread machines.
Deactivated yeast
Deactivated yeast is dead yeast which has no leavening value and is not interchangeable with other
yeast types. Typically used for pizza and pan bread doughs, it is used at a rate of 0.1% of the flour
weight, though manufacturer specifications may vary. It is a powerful reducing agent used to
increase the extensibility of a dough.
For most commercial uses, yeast of any form is packaged in bulk (blocks or freezer bags for fresh
yeast; vacuum-packed brick bags for dry or instant); however, yeast for home use is often packaged
in pre-measured doses, either small squares for compressed yeast or sealed packets for dry or
instant. For active dry and instant yeast, in general a single dose (reckoned for the average bread
recipe of between 500 g and 1000 g of dough) is about 2.5 tsp (~12 mL), though comparatively lesser
amounts are used when the yeast is used in a pre-ferment. In general, a yeast flavour in the baked
bread is not noticeable when the bakers' percent of added yeast is less than 2.5%.
Flour
There are many varieties of flour on the market today and with a little basic knowledge you'll be able
to navigate the baking aisle like a pro. Learn about the components, characteristics and best uses for
the most common varieties of flour.
What Is Flour?
Flour is the powdery substance created when a dry grain is pulverized. This is referred to as the
milling process. The most common varieties of flour are made from wheat although any grain can be
made into flour, including rice, oats, corn or barley.
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In addition to the type of grain used, flour grain is retained during the milling process. This may
include the endosperm, bran or germ.
Endosperm: This is the starchy centre of the grain, which contains carbohydrates, protein and a
small amount of oil. Most simple white flours contain only this portion of the grain.
Brain: The outer husk of the grain, known as bran, adds texture, colour and fibre to flour. Bran gives
whole grain flours their characteristic brown colour and rough texture.
Germ: The germ is the reproductive epicentre of the grain and is a concentrated source of nutrients.
Flour that retains the germ during the milling process will contain more vitamins, minerals and fibre.
Gluten: Glutenin and Glidenin are the two proteins found naturally in the endosperm of wheat,
which make up Gluten. It gives strength, elasticity and a characteristic chewy texture to yeast
breads, pasta and pizza dough
Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also
known as polysaccharides. The kinds of flour used in cooking include all-purpose flour known as
known as self-raising, and cake flour including bleached flour. The higher the protein content the
harder and stronger the flour, and the more it will produce crusty or chewy breads. The lower the
protein the softer the flour, which is better for cakes, cookies, and pie crusts.
Bleached flour
"Refined flour" has had the germ and
bran removed and is typically referred to
as "white flour". "Bleached flour" is any
refined flour with a whitening agent
added. Bleached flour is artificially aged
using a bleaching agent, a maturing
agent, or both. A bleaching agent would
affect only the carotenoids in the flour; a
maturing agent affects gluten
development. A maturing agent may
either strengthen or weaken gluten
development.
The four most common additives used as bleaching/maturing agents are:
 Potassium bromate (will be listed as an ingredient/additive) - a maturing agent that

strengthens gluten development. Does not bleach.
 Benzoyl peroxide - bleaches. Does not act as a maturing agent - no effect on gluten
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 Ascorbic acid (Will be listed as an ingredient/additive, but seeing it in the ingredient list may
not be an indication that the flour was matured using ascorbic acid but instead has had a
small amount added as a dough enhancer) - Maturing agent that strengthens gluten
development. Does not bleach.
 Chlorine gas - both a bleaching agent and a maturing agent, but one that weakens gluten
development. Chlorination also oxidizes starches in the flour, making it easier for the flour to
absorb water and swell, resulting in thicker batters and stiffer doughs. The retarded gluten
formation is desirable in cakes, cookies, and biscuits as it would otherwise make them
tougher and bread-like. The modification of starches in the flour allows the use of wetter
doughs (making for a moister end product) without destroying the structure necessary for
light fluffy cakes and biscuits. Chlorinated flour allows cakes and other baked goods to set
faster, rise better, the fat to be distributed more evenly, with less vulnerability to collapse.
Unbleached Flour
Unbleached flour is similar in composition to all-purpose flour but has not been chemically
bleached. Unbleached flour can be used successfully in as many recipes as all-purpose flour.
Unbleached flour is a good choice for those who are concerned with flavour purity or exposure
to chemicals.
Bread Flour
Bread flour contains a higher ratio of protein to carbohydrates than all-purpose, which produces
stronger dough. The strong gluten matrix provides structure to rising dough and gives the end
product a nice, chewy texture.
Cake Flour
Cake flour contains less protein than all-purpose and is milled to a finer texture. These two
factors combined create a softer and more delicate crumb. Cake flour is often bleached to
improve its appearance.
Pastry Flour
Pastry flour has a medium protein content and is between all-purpose and cake flour in texture.
The fine texture produces flaky pastry crust while the slightly lower protein content prevents
pastries from being too dense or chewy. In addition to pastries, this flour is also great for making
cookies, biscuits and quick breads.
Self-raising Flour
Leavening agents are used with some varieties of flour, especially those with significant gluten
content, to produce lighter and softer baked products by embedding small gas bubbles. Self-
rising (or self-raising) flour is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. The added
ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the flour which aids a consistent rise in baked
goods. This flour is generally used for preparing scones, biscuits, muffins, etc. Plain flour can be
used to make a type of self-rising flour although the flour will be coarser. Self-raising flour is
typically composed of the following ratio:
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1 cup (125 g) flour
1 teaspoon (3 g) baking powder
A pinch to ½ teaspoon (1 g or less) salt
Whole Wheat Flour

Whole-wheat flour or wholemeal flour is a powdery
substance, a basic food ingredient, derived by grinding or
mashing the whole grain of wheat, also known as the wheat
berry. Whole-wheat flour is used in baking of breads and
other baked goods, and also typically mixed with other lighter "white" unbleached or bleached
flours (that have been treated with flour bleaching agent(s)) to restore nutrients to the white
flours (especially fibre, protein, and vitamins), texture, and body that are lost in milling and other
processing to the finished baked goods or other food(s).
Stone Ground
Stone ground flour is the same as whole wheat flour but is milled to a coarser texture. Stone
ground flour is valued for its characteristic rough texture and rustic look.
Semolina
Semolina is flour made from a specific variety of wheat known as Durum. Durum wheat has an
exceptionally high protein content, giving it a very dense, chewy texture. For this reason,
semolina is most often used to make pasta.
Rice Flour
This flour is made from milling grains of rice and can be found in both white (endosperm only)
and brown (whole grain) varieties. Rice flour is lighter in texture than wheat flours and is a
popular choice among those who are intolerant to gluten.
Storage of flour
Flour must be kept cool and dry. All flours have a limited shelf life. It is recommended that flours
be stored for no more than 6 months. The main change that occurs is the oxidation of oils when
flour is exposed to air. The result of this is rancid off flavours.
Flour should be stored, in airtight containers, in a dry area where there is minimum light
exposure. This prevents the flour from absorbing moisture and odours, attracting insects and
rodents and oxidising.
Do not mix new flour with old in storage containers.
Do not store flour near soap powder, onions or other foods and products with strong odours, as
the flour can take in some of the odour.
If freezer space is available, flour can be repackaged in airtight, moisture-proof containers,

labelled and frozen for longer storage time.
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Keep whole-wheat flour in the refrigerator all year round. Natural oils cause this flour to turn
rancid quickly at room temperature.
Waste flour if it smells bad, changes colour, or is infested with weevils. Putting a bay leaf in the
flour canister can help protect against insect infestations. Bay leaves are a natural insect
repellent.
Sugar
Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain,
soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in
food. They are carbohydrates, composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. There are various types of
sugar derived from different sources. Simple sugars
are called monosaccharides and include glucose (also
known as dextrose), fructose and galactose. The table
or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is
sucrose, a disaccharide. (In the body, sucrose
hydrolyses into fructose and glucose.) Other
disaccharides include maltose and lactose. Longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides.
Chemically-different substances may also have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugars.
Some are used as lower-calorie food substitutes for sugar described as artificial sweeteners.
Sugarcane
Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a
perennial grass in the family Poaceae.
It is cultivated in tropical and sub-
tropical regions for the sucrose that is
found in its stems. It requires a frost-
free climate with sufficient rainfall
during the growing season to make full
use of the plant's great growth
potential. The crop is harvested
mechanically or by hand, chopped into
lengths and conveyed rapidly to the
processing plant. Here, it is either
milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion. The juice is then clarified
with lime and heated to kill enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of
evaporators, after which further water is removed by evaporation in vacuum containers. The
resulting supersaturated solution is seeded with sugar crystals and the sugar crystallizes out and
is separated from the fluid and dried. Molasses is a by-product of the process and the fibre from
the stems, known as bagasse, is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The
crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are or can be
bleached by sulphur dioxide or can be treated in a carbonisation process to produce a whiter
product.
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Refining
Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove the
molasses. Raw sugar is a sucrose which is synthesized from sugar cane or sugar beet and cannot
immediately be consumed before going through the refining process to produce refined sugar or
white sugar.
The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining
process often takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing
the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating
without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water.
The resulting syrup is treated either by a carbonisation or by a phosphatation process. Both
involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered out, many of the
impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of colour is achieved by using either a
granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling
and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize out. The liquor is
spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or
used. The surplus liquor is made into refiners' molasses.
Types of sugar
Monosaccharides
Glucose, fructose and galactose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general
formula C6H12O6. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are
cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevo-
rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.
Glucose, dextrose or grape sugar occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary
product of photosynthesis. Most ingested carbohydrates are converted into glucose during
digestion and it is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the
bloodstream. It can be manufactured from starch by the addition of enzymes or in the presence
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of acids. Glucose syrup is a liquid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture of
foodstuffs. It can be manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.
Fructose or fruit sugar occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey
and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used
as a high-fructose syrup, which is manufactured from hydrolysed corn starch that has been
processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into
fructose.
In general, galactose does not occur in the Free State but is a constituent with glucose of the
disaccharide lactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the antigens
found on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood groups.
Disaccharides
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the general formula
C12H22O11. They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with the
exclusion of a molecule of water.
Sucrose is found in the stems of sugar cane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally
alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as
carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of
sweetness experienced when eating them. A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination
of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its
constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as sucrases.
Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being barley,
which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is formed by
the combination of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose. It
is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase and is itself broken
down during digestion by the enzyme maltase.
Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by the
combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when
consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. Children have this
enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.
Brown Sugar
Brown sugars are softer and moister than
granulated sugars.
Their crystals are coated with a molasses like

syrup. Darker sugars are more intensely
flavoured, as the colour relates to the molasses
retention. Glucose and fructose are present in
the molasses syrup coating the crystals. These
attract and retain more moisture in the sugar itself, making brown sugars great for baking, as the
products will retain more moisture and stay fresher for longer periods. Granulated sugars are
99% sucrose and brown sugars vary between 85-92%. If brown sugar is used instead of
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granulated sugar the result will be more flavourful and moist but the browning temperature will
be lower.
Caster Sugar
Caster sugar is preferred in pastry and cake making as the granules are finer (around 0.35mm)
and dissolve faster. With more sharp edges to cut through
fat, batters become aerated more rapidly. Caster sugar also
dissolves into beaten eggs for meringue with greater
efficiency, and it's worthwhile to know that table sugar will
typically produce a cake with a speckled crust.
A small note on etymology, the term caster or castor sugar

is a British term given to sugar fine enough to fit through a
sugar "caster" or sprinkler. In the United States this sugar is
also sold as ''superfine" sugar.
Icing Sugar (or confectioners’ sugar)

This is crushed, powdered granulated sugar. It is used in icings, fillings and some pastries, such as
friandes and sable. It's also one of the most important ingredients in cake decorating. This is
because icing sugar is the basis of royal icing,
which is used for decorating and writing, and it's
also used to make "cake glue" and to dust
surfaces before rolling out icings.
There are a few different sorts of icing sugar and

they are not interchangeable. Pure Icing Sugar is
pure unmixed sugar with no additives. Pure
icing sugar is quite lumpy and usually needs to
be sifted. This is the sugar used for Royal icing.
Icing Sugar Mixture is sugar that has been
blended with a small amount of cornflour
(around 4%). It's not so good for cake
decorating work as the small amounts of flour
present can start to form mould if there is any
moisture in the cake or decorated items (and there usually is). Pure sugar will not grow mould.
Icing sugar mixture, however, is fantastic for making simple glazes and icings, and fillings where a
small amount of cornflour will not affect the result. It does not clump or lump and this is a
definite advantage.
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Palm Sugar
Palm sugar is extracted from a sugar-giving tree,
of which there are several varieties. The most
generous is the Asian sugar palm. The sap is
collected from the
flowers or from a tap
in the trunk, then
boiled down to syrup
(called palm honey) or crystallised to a mass. The dark sugar is often
called jaggery and has a distinct almost winey aroma. It is mostly
used in Indian, Indonesian and some African cuisines. A lighter palm
sugar is also used extensively in Thai cuisine. This lighter palm sugar is the most common palm
sugar used in our kitchens in Australia.
Demerara
Demerara sugar is also considered to be in this category, as it often comes from the first
crystallisation of cane juice, producing yellow gold crystals that are frequently washed with
alcohol to make them shiny and clear. Muscavado sugars are the crystallisation of the dark
mother syrup forming very small, sticky, intensely flavoured sugars.
Invert Sugar
Invert sugar is made from a sucrose water solution (basic sugar syrup) that is heated with the
addition of acid. Although invert sugar naturally occurs in honey, molasses and corn syrup, to
name a few, it can also be purchased as a paste or syrup. It doesn't crystallise and it retains
moisture. It is sweeter than sucrose (standard sugar), and when added to baked goods it will
keep them moist longer. It also helps prevent ice formation in ice creams and sorbets. Therefore,
it is used extensively in ice cream, sorbet, glazes and sauces, fondant and candy making. Fudge
and caramel sauce are two more examples where the non-grainy texture afforded by invert
sugar is important.
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Molasses (also known as treacle)

There are a number of grades of molasses. The
darker the molasses, the more bitter it is.
Blackstrap molasses is usually the last extracted
and is very dark, as its sugars have been
caramelised over and over and an effort to extract
as much sucrose as possible. Most of the syrups
available as molasses (or treacle) are a blend of
molasses in various stages of caramelisation and
sugar syrups. This is so the molasses can be sold in
an almost uniform condition. Molasses is generally
added to a recipe for colour, flavour and moisture,
rather than sweetness. This is why many recipes
use molasses or treacle with sugar also added,
such as gingerbread. Molasses is common in liquorice, baked beans, and barbecue sauce.
Molasses are variably acidic, which makes them work well with bi-carbonate of soda as a
leavening agent.
Golden Syrup
This is refinery syrup made from raw sugar filtered through charcoal to give it a clear appearance
and delicate flavour.
Honey
Honey is great for longevity in baked goods. It is very high in fructose and glucose, and quite
similar to invert sugar. It is approximately 1.25 times as sweet as granulated sugar. Heating
honey makes it less liable to crystallise. The sweetness of the fructose in honey is registered
almost immediately on the tongue, and fades very quickly. This quick action is said to enhance
the flavours in some foods, especially fruitiness, tartness and spiciness without the sweetness
lingering long enough to mask the flavour of the other ingredients. This is why honey and lemon
work so well, and why honey is often used in a spicy marinade.
Maple Syrup and Maple Sugar
Maple syrup originates from the sap of the maple tree. The season for harvesting maple sap is
very short (approximately six weeks). The water in the sap is separated from the sugars and
boiled down, leaving heavily about 40 parts sap to make 1 part syrup.
Maple syrup is graded by colour, flavour and sugar content, grade a being the highest grade. The
lower, darker grade syrups are used in baked goods and glazes. Cheap maple flavoured syrups
are usually not maple at all, they're usually corn syrup with maple flavour added. Maple sugar is
made by concentrating (boiling) the sap down for much longer than is needed to make the syrup
until all that's left is a solid sugar.
Glucose (also known as dextrose)

Glucose is the building block of sugars, the chemical place from which sugar chains are started. It
is found in fruits and honey, amongst other things. Glucose is less sweet than granulated sugar.
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It is less water soluble, producing a thinner solution. It melts and starts to caramelise at 150°C,
where granulated sugar will caramelise at around 170°C. Used in toffees, candies and ice
creams, it can keep the product soft and gooey while still caramelising and setting.
Corn Syrup
Corn is the second largest sugar producing crop. Corn syrup begins as a starchy liquid that is
converted into sugars by the addition of acid. The thickness of corn syrup is due to the large
number of carbohydrate molecules that are tangled up with each other. This results in a syrup
that is much thicker than a standard sugar can produce.
Due to the tangled nature of its molecular composition, corn syrup has the valuable effect of
preventing other sugars from crystallising and producing a grainy texture.
This means that it helps minimise the size of ice crystals in ice cream encouraging a creamy
consistency. Its viscosity helps impart a thick chewy texture to foods. It is less sweet than sugar
because it contains a lot of glucose, preventing moisture loss without being overbearingly sweet.
Corn syrup is acidic, due to the way it is produced; therefore, it works well with baking soda.
Light corn syrup is a mixture of regular and high fructose corn syrup with the addition of vanilla.
It contains around 75% fructose plus glucose making the sweetness similar to table sugar. The
combination enhances the moisture and develops colour in baked goods. Dark Corn Syrup is a
mixture of corn syrup and refiner's syrup, used for colour and flavour.
Fats and Margarines

The most essential bakery products include fats and oils. Fats and Oils are a fundamental
ingredient in baking and are used to add moisture and texture to baked goods. Omitting fats and
oils in baking will result in hard dry baked goods that will not taste very good. Bakery fats and
oils are either a solid or a liquid. Solid fat bakery products include lard, butter, margarine and
shortening. Liquid fats used in baking include oils such as vegetable oil, olive oil and almond oil
to name a few. Most recipes require one to beat solid bakery fats with the required sugar. This
process adds air to the mixture, which also results in light, fluffy cakes and cookies.
One of the most popular solid fats used as an essential bakery product is
probably butter.
Butter contains a number of saturated fats; therefore many people have

opted to replace butter with specially manufactured fat and oil bakery
products. The specialised bakery products are suitable for vegetarians
and many of them are also Halal and Kosher, which makes them a
popular fat and oil bakery product used in restaurants and bakeries.
Specialised bakery fats include puff pastry margarines that are used in
pies and croissants. The margarines are used to create cakes, cookies and
are an essential bakery product used in frosting.
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Butter
Butter fills several roles in baking, where it is used in a similar manner as other solid fats like
lard, suet, or shortening, but has a flavour that may better
complement sweet
baked goods. Many
cookie doughs and some
cake batters are
leavened, at least in part,
by creaming butter and
sugar together, which
introduces air bubbles
into the butter. The tiny
bubbles locked within the butter expand in the heat of baking and
aerate the cookie or cake. Some cookies like shortbread may have
no other source of moisture but the water in the butter. Pastries
like pie dough incorporate pieces of solid fat into the dough, which become flat layers of fat
when the dough is rolled out. During baking, the fat melts away, leaving a flaky texture. Butter,
because of its flavour, is a common choice for the fat in such a dough, but it can be more difficult
to work with than shortening because of its low melting point. Pastry makers often chill all their
ingredients and utensils while working with a butter dough.
Lard
Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. Lard is one of the few edible oils with
a relatively high smoke point, attributable to its high saturated fatty acids content. Pure lard is
especially useful for cooking since it produces little smoke when heated and has a distinct taste
when combined with other foods. Many chefs and bakers deem lard a superior cooking fat over
other types of shortening because of lard's range of applications and taste. Because of the
relatively large fat crystals found in lard, it is extremely effective as a shortening in baking. Pie
crusts made with lard tend to be flakier than those made with butter. Many cooks employ both
types of fat in their pastries to combine the shortening properties of lard with the flavour of
butter.
Suet
Suet is essential in several traditional British dishes. Suet pastry is soft in contrast to the
crispness of shortcrust pastry, which makes it ideal for certain sweet and savoury dishes. Suet is
most widely used in sweet puddings, such as jam roly-poly and spotted dick. Savoury dishes
include dumplings, which are made using a mixture of suet, flour and water rolled into balls that
are added to stews during the final twenty minutes or so of cooking. In the savoury dish steak
and kidney pudding, a bowl is lined with suet pastry, the meat is placed inside and a lid of suet
pastry tightly seals the meat. The pudding is then steamed for approximately four hours before
serving. Suet is also an ingredient of traditional fruit mince. In recipes calling for suet, substitute
(e.g. vegetable) fats usually do not work as well.
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Margarine
Margarine and other commercially produced fats are easier to work with, as they are more
elastic and have a much higher softening point. They are specifically made for improved handling
properties and as business owner they are a lower cost.
Margarine's are specifically made for improved handling properties and pastes and dough's
made with these fats can be stored at room temperature (20 - 22 degrees Celsius), thus always
being ready for immediate use.
Oils
Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of
cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavouring that doesn't involve heat, such
as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense might be more accurately termed
edible oil.
Cooking oil is typically a liquid, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as
coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil, are solid at room temperature.
Types of cooking oil include: olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil (rapeseed oil),
pumpkin seed oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, peanut oil, grape seed oil, sesame
oil, argan oil, rice bran oil and other vegetable oils.
Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic.
Raising/ leavening agents

A leavening agent (sometimes called just leavening or leaven) is a substance used in
doughs and batters that causes a foaming action. The leavening agent reacts with
moisture, heat, acidity, or other triggers to produce gas that becomes trapped as
bubbles within the dough. When a dough or batter is
baked, it 'sets' and the holes left by the gas bubbles
remain, giving breads, cakes, and other baked goods
their soft, sponge-like textures.
Chemical leaveners are chemical mixtures or
compounds that typically release carbon dioxide
when they react with moisture, heat, and acidity. They usually leave behind a chemical
salt. Chemical leaveners are used in quick breads and cakes.
They include:
• Baking powder
• Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate)
• Ammonium bicarbonate (hartshorn, horn salt, baker's ammonia)
• Potassium bicarbonate (potash)
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• Potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar)

• Potassium carbonate (pearl ash)
• Monocalcium phosphate
Baking powder
Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent, a mixture of a carbonate or
bicarbonate and a weak acid, and is used for increasing the volume and lightening the
texture of baked goods. Baking powder works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into a
batter or dough through an acid-base reaction, causing bubbles in the wet mixture to
expand and thus leavening the mixture. It is used instead of yeast for end-products
where fermentation flavours would be undesirable or where the batter lacks the elastic
structure to hold gas bubbles for more than a few minutes, or for convenience. Because
carbon dioxide is released at a faster rate through the acid-base reaction than through
fermentation, breads made by chemical leavening are called quick breads.
Baking soda
Baking soda, sodium bicarbonate (IUPAC name: sodium hydrogen carbonate) is the
chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that
is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It has a slightly salty, alkaline taste
resembling that of washing soda (sodium carbonate). The natural mineral form is
nahcolite. It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in many
mineral springs. It is among the food additives encoded by European Union, identified by
the initials E 500. Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many
related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, and bicarbonate of soda.
The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus meaning aerated salt, was widely used in the
19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. The term has
now fallen out of common usage.
Question: What Is the Difference Between Baking Soda & Baking Powder?
Answer: Both baking soda and baking powder are leavening agents, which means they
are added to baked goods before cooking to produce carbon
dioxide and cause them to 'rise'. Baking powder contains baking
soda, but the two substances are used under different
conditions.
Baking soda is pure sodium bicarbonate. When baking soda is
combined with moisture and an acidic ingredient (e.g., yogurt,
chocolate, buttermilk, honey), the resulting chemical reaction
produces bubbles of carbon dioxide that expand under oven
temperatures, causing baked goods to rise. The reaction begins
immediately upon mixing the ingredients, so you need to bake
recipes which call for baking soda immediately, or else they will fall flat!
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Baking Powder Baking powder contains sodium bicarbonate, but it includes the
acidifying agent already (cream of tartar), and also a drying agent (usually starch). Baking
powder is available as single-acting baking powder and as double-acting baking powder.
Single-acting powders are activated by moisture, so you must bake recipes which include
this product immediately after mixing. Double-acting powders react in two phases and
can stand for a while before baking. With double-acting powder, some gas is released at
room temperature when the powder is added to dough, but the majority of the gas is
released after the temperature of the dough increases in the oven.
Ammonium bicarbonate
Ammonium bicarbonate is an inorganic compound
with formula (NH4) HCO3, simplified to NH5CO3. The
compound has many names, reflecting its long
history. Chemically speaking, it is the bicarbonate
salt of the ammonium ion. It is a colourless solid that
degrades readily to carbon dioxide, water and
ammonia.
Salt of Hartshorn
Compositions containing ammonium carbonate have long been known. They were once
produced commercially, formerly known as sal volatile or salt of hartshorn. It was
obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous organic matter such as hair, horn, and
leather. In addition to ammonium bicarbonate, this material contains ammonium
carbamate (NH4CO2NH2), and ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3). It is sometimes
called ammonium sesquicarbonate. It possesses a strong ammoniacal smell, and on
digestion with alcohol, the carbamate is dissolved leaving a residue of ammonium
bicarbonate. A similar decomposition takes place when the sesquicarbonate is exposed
to air.
Potassium bicarbonate
Potassium bicarbonate (also known as potassium hydrogen carbonate or potassium acid
carbonate) is a colourless, odourless, slightly basic, salty substance. According to the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), potassium bicarbonate is "generally recognized as
safe". There is no evidence of human carcinogenicity, no adverse effects of
overexposure, and an undetermined LD50. It is among the food additives encoded by
European Union, identified by the initials E 501. Physically, potassium bicarbonate
occurs as a crystal or a soft white granular powder. Potassium bicarbonate is very rarely
found in its natural form, the mineral called kalicinite.
Potassium bitartrate
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Potassium bitartrate, also known as potassium hydrogen tartrate, with formula

KC4H5O6, is a byproduct of winemaking. In cooking it is known as cream of tartar. It is
the potassium acid salt of tartaric acid (a carboxylic acid)
In food, potassium bitartrate is used for:
• Stabilizing egg whites, increasing their heat tolerance and volume
• Stabilizing whipped cream, maintaining its texture and volume
• Anti-caking and thickening
• Preventing sugar syrups from crystallizing
• Reducing discoloration of boiled vegetables
• Additionally it is used as a component of:
• Baking powder, as an acid ingredient to activate baking soda
• Sodium-free salt substitutes, in combination with potassium chloride
A similar acid salt, sodium acid pyrophosphate, can be confused with cream of tartar
because of their common function as a component of baking powder.
Potassium carbonate
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is a white salt, soluble in water (insoluble in ethanol),
which forms a strongly alkaline solution. It can be made as the product of potassium
hydroxide's absorbent reaction with carbon dioxide. It is deliquescent, often appearing a
damp or wet solid. Potassium carbonate is used in the production of soap and glass. In
cuisine, it is used as an ingredient in the production of grass jelly, a food consumed in
Chinese and Southeast Asian cuisines. It is used to tenderize tripe. German gingerbread
recipes often use potassium carbonate as a baking agent.
Used in the production of cocoa powder to balance the pH (i.e. reduce the amount of
acidity) of natural cocoa beans (it also helps enhance the aroma). The process of adding
potassium carbonate to cocoa powder is usually called "Dutching", or Dutch-processed
cocoa powder. As the process was first developed in 1828 by Coenrad Johannes van
Houten, a Dutchman.
Monocalcium phosphate
Monocalcium phosphate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca
(H2PO4)2 ("ACMP" or "CMP-A" for anhydrous monocalcium phosphate). It is commonly
found as the monohydrate (""MCP" or "MCP-M"), Ca (H2PO4)2•H2O (CAS# 10031-30-8).
Both salts are colourless solids. They are used mainly as superphosphate fertilizers and
are also popular leavening agents.
Calcium dihydrogen phosphate is used in the food industry as a leavening agent, i.e., to
cause baked goods to rise. Because it is acidic, when combined with an alkali ingredient,
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commonly sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate, it reacts to

produce carbon dioxide and a salt. Outward pressure of the carbon dioxide gas causes
the rising effect. When combined in a ready-made baking powder, the acid and alkali
ingredients are included in the right proportions such that they will exactly neutralize
each other and not significantly affect the overall pH of the product. AMCP and MCP are
fast acting, releasing most carbon dioxide within minutes of mixing. It is popularly used
in pancake mixes. In double acting baking powders, MCP is often combined with the
slow acting acid sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP).
Milk
Milk is available in three (3) forms.
There are several forms of fresh milk that are
processed to meet dietary and market needs. To
reduce fat content in certain recipes we can use
skim types of milk.
A by-product of butter making is buttermilk, which

can be used as a substitute for sour milk. It is used
in some cake, muffin, pancake and soda bread
recipes.
Milk Powder or Powdered milk comes also as a full

cream or skim varieties. It is used to enrich breads and cake batters it also adds sugar and assists in
the browning or colouring of product.
Eggs
Symbolically, the egg stands for the renewal of life. Commercially, the term 'egg' refers to hen's
eggs. Eggs from ducks, geese, quails, ostriches are also sold but they must be labelled accordingly.
Eggs, as well as flour, are the structural ingredients in baking. Eggs provide leavening; add colour,
texture, flavour and enrichers to the batters and dough. They are very important in helping to bind
all the other ingredients together. Beaten eggs are an aeration agent as they incorporate air into the
batter, which will expand in the oven and cause the cake to rise. Some cakes use beaten eggs as
their only source of aeration. Eggs are also used as a thickener in custards and creams, and to glaze
pastries and breads. Egg whites are used to make meringues.
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Eggs contain a yolk and a white (albumen). The egg yolk is rich in fat and a source of vitamins and
minerals. A fresh egg yolk will be rich in colour.
Some recipes call for beating egg yolks and sugar until thick, light, and forms a ribbon. This means
beating the yolks and sugar together until the batter will drop from the beaters in a slow ribbon like
shape. The egg white is mostly protein. To get maximum volume when beating egg whites they
should be at room temperature and make sure your bowl and beaters are clean and free of grease.
Structure of an egg
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Cakes
Cake is a form of bread or bread-like food. In its modern forms, it is typically a sweet baked dessert.
In its oldest forms, cakes were normally fried breads or cheesecakes, and normally had a disk shape.
Determining whether a given food should be classified as bread, cake, or pastry can be difficult.
Modern cake, especially layer cakes, normally contain a combination of flour, sugar, eggs, and butter
or oil, with some varieties also requiring liquid (typically milk or water) and leavening agents (such as
yeast or baking powder). Flavourful ingredients like fruit purées, nuts, dried or candied fruit, or
extracts are often added, and numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients are possible. Cakes
are often filled with fruit preserves or dessert sauces (like pastry cream), iced with buttercream or
other icings, and decorated with marzipan, piped borders, or candied fruit.
Cake is often the dessert of choice for meals at ceremonial occasions, particularly weddings,
anniversaries, and birthdays. There are countless cake recipes; some are bread-like, some rich and
elaborate, and many are centuries old. Cake making is no longer a complicated procedure; while at
one time considerable labour went into cake making (particularly the whisking of egg foams), baking
equipment and directions have been simplified so that even the most amateur cook may bake a
cake.
Cakes may be classified according to the occasion for which they are intended. For example,
wedding cakes, birthday cakes, cakes for first communion, Christmas cakes, Halloween cakes, and
Passover plava (a type of sponge cake sometimes made with matzo meal) are all identified primarily
according to the celebration they are intended to accompany. The cutting of a wedding cake
constitutes a social ceremony in some cultures. The Ancient Roman marriage ritual of confarreatio
originated in the sharing of a cake.
Particular types of cake may be associated with particular festivals, such as stollen or chocolate log
(at Christmas), babka and simnel cake (at Easter), or mooncake. There has been a long tradition of
decorating an iced cake at Christmas time; other cakes associated with Christmas include chocolate
log and mince pies.
The term "cake" has a long history. The word itself is of Viking origin, from the Old Norse word
"kaka".
Although clear examples of the difference

between cake and bread are easy to find, the
precise classification has always been elusive.
For example, banana bread may be properly
considered either a quick bread or a cake.
The Egyptians invented beer as a leavener, the

Greeks were frying fritters in olive oil, and
cheesecakes using goat's milk. In ancient Rome,
basic bread dough was sometimes enriched
with butter, eggs, and honey, which produced a
sweet and cake-like baked good. Latin poet Ovid
refers to the birthday of him and his brother
with party and cake in his first book of exile, Tristia.
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Early cakes in England were also essentially bread: the most obvious differences between a "cake"
and "bread" were the round, flat shape of the cakes, and the cooking method, which turned cakes
over once while cooking, while bread was left upright throughout the baking process.
Sponge cakes, leavened with beaten eggs, originated during the Renaissance.
In Cake Shops, Bakeries, Cafe's, Restaurants etc. a large range of tasty and varied cakes are produced
in kitchens throughout the world to cater for numerous lifestyles, tastes, climates and cultures. They
may be derived from classical or contemporary recipes.
Depending on the country of origin cake varieties may

change, usually due to the availability of ingredients on
offer or the temperate climate. Since the beginning of
multiculturalism and globalisation, world travel has
become much easier and the food world has become a
whole lot smaller and more easily accessible. Cakes
from all over the world and cultures are becoming
better known and available to be enjoyed by all.
Generally a large variety of cakes can be found on
display in patisserie shop windows, in menus in cafes
and restaurants, at five star hotel buffets, and in large scale catering venues and pubs. The limit to
the variety and flavours you will find and the elaborate decorations that adorn such creations is
endless and always evolving.
Cake production is one of only production areas it is so important to select the correct type of fresh,
high quality ingredients, accurately weigh and measure them, mix and blend them correctly with
other ingredients, and then bake them at precisely the right temperature for a set period of time.
Aeration in Cake production

In baking there are 5 different methods of aeration Physical (Mechanical), Chemical, Biological
(Natural), Lamination and Combination. In cake production we use basically 3 of those methods.
Physical, chemical and combination.
Physical Aeration
Physical aeration means to be done by mechanical or manual action. In creaming a batter we cream
the fats and sugars together. In this process we are incorporating air into the mixture. During baking
the air expands and in the process causes the batter to rise/grow.
Chemical Aeration
Chemical aeration is the introduction of a chemical agent such as baking powder or bi-carb soda etc.
to react with the liquids and / or heat to produce carbon dioxide (CO2). This process will have the
cake lift and aerate during the baking process.
Combination Aeration
Combination aeration in baking is generally the combination of the creaming and chemical aeration
methods, this will give extra aeration and gives us a light fluffy product with good crumb and taste.
With good crumb and taste.
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Pound Cake (Creaming Method)
Pound cake refers to a type of cake traditionally made with a pound (450grams) of each of four
ingredients: flour, butter, eggs, and sugar. The traditional recipe makes a cake much larger than
most families can consume, and so the quantity is often changed to suit the size of the cake that is
desired. As long as the ratio is preserved, the resulting cake will be identical to that using the
traditional recipe. Hence, any cake made with a ratio of flour, butter, eggs, and sugar is also called
a pound cake.
Whisk
A whisk is a cooking utensil (Properly referred to as a Wire Whip) used in food preparation to blend
ingredients smooth, or to incorporate air into a mixture, in a
process known as whisking or whipping. Most whisks consist of a
long, narrow handle with a series of wire loops joined at the end.
The wires are usually metal, but some are plastic for use with non-
stick cookware. Whisks are also made from bamboo.
Whisks are commonly used to whip egg whites into a firm foam to
make meringue, or to whip cream into whipped cream.
Pound cakes are generally baked in either a loaf tin or a Bundt

(guggelholf) mould, and served either dusted with powdered sugar,
lightly glazed, or sometimes with a coat of icing.
Pound Cake recipe
Butter Unsalted 150 g
Caster Sugar 150 g
Egg (warmed 402) 150 g
Flour (cake or biscuit) 150 g
Total 600 g
1. In a mixing bowl cream together softened butter and caster sugar until the mixture become light
in colour.
2. Add the warmed eggs a little at the time, mixing until clear before adding the next part of egg. If
you add the eggs to fast the mixture will curdle or split.
3. Sift the flour and fold through the mixture.
4. Pour into a greased/lined baking mould.
5. Bake at 1800C for 40-45 minutes. When the cake is springy in the middle to touch and remove
from the oven. When possible unmould and cool on a wire.
Basic Cake Mixture
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Caster Sugar 150 g
Egg (warmed) 150 g
Milk (warmed) 75 g
Baking Powder 15 g
Salt 2g
Vanilla Essence 5g
Total 772 g
The method in producing the basic cake batter is the same as pound cake but the difference is in the
ingredients. With milk and baking powder being present we are able to increase the flour in the
mixture.
Traditional Sponge (Whisking method)
Traditional Sponges consists of a mixture of eggs and sugar with the addition of flour. If we add
melted butter to our mixture to enrich it, help with keeping qualities and gives us flavour then our
Traditional sponge becomes a Genoese Sponge.
There are two method's we can use to produce a Genoese Sponge.
1. Warm mixing method is when we beat the eggs and sugar over a hot water bath up to blood
temperature (370C Celsius) then whisk until light and airy. Then we fold through the sifted flour
through the mixture.
2. Cold mixing method we separate the egg whites from the egg yolks, then we whisk the yolks
with the sugar into a sabayon (light and fluffy), then fold through stiffly whisk egg whites and then
fold through sifted flour.
Genoese Sponge
Eggs 300 g
Caster Sugar 150 g
Flour 150 g
Butter 75 g (melted)
Total 600g
1 Whisk together the eggs and caster sugar over a hot water bath until it reaches blood
temperature, then whisk until the batter becomes light and fluffy.
2 Using a cutting and stirring method (folding) mix through the sifted flour into the batter.
3 Fold through the melted butter then pour into required cake tin
4 Pour into a greased/lined baking mould.
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5 Bake at 1800C for 20-25 minutes. When the cake is springy in the middle to touch and
remove from the oven. When possible unmould and cool on a wire.
Rich Fruit Cake (Flour Batter method)
The Flour batter method is using Combination aeration method where we cream (mechanical) the
butter, sugar, eggs etc. and also use an aeration agent (chemical) baking powder or bi-carb soda.
Also in a fruit cakes there is the addition of glycerine and/or soak our fruits in rum to help with the
keeping qualities.
Rich Fruit cake
Group 1
Brown Sugar 375 g
Glycerine 30ml
Eggs (warmed) 375 g
Group 2
Flour 450 g
Baking Powder 8g
Nutmeg 3g
Mixed Spice 5g
Group 3
Sultanas 1125 g
Currants 375 g
Mixed Peel 150 g
Glace' Cherries 225 g
Almonds Blanched 50 g
Rum 40 ml
Total 3661 g
1 Using a beater mixing together until lightly creamed, add in from Group 1 the flour and the
glycerine and cream until light and fluffy (well Aerated).
2 Add the eggs in small amounts gradually.
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3 Sift all the ingredients in Group 2 and add to the batter and then mix until smooth.
4 The ingredients from Group3 and mix well.
5 Use 2 x 18cm round cake tins with Silicone paper and then add ¾ of the batter to each tin.
Place tins onto a baking tray lined with thick cardboard.
6 Bake at 1600 Celsius for approximately 1½ hours.
Swiss Roll
A Swiss roll, or cream roll is a type of sponge cake roll filled with whipped cream, jam, or icing.
The origins of the term are unclear. In spite of the name "Swiss roll", the cake originated in Central
Europe rather than Switzerland as the name would suggest. It appears to have been invented in the
nineteenth century, along with Battenberg, doughnuts and Victoria sponge
The shape of the Swiss roll has inspired usage as a descriptive term in other fields, such as in optics
and many forms of the term.
Melted butter, to grease
4 eggs, separated
125g caster sugar
1 teaspoon vanilla extract
75g plain flour, sifted
Icing sugar, to dust
450g raspberry jam, warmed, strained
1. Preheat oven to 180°C. Brush a 24 x 30cm (base measurement) Swiss roll pan with melted
butter and line with baking paper.
2. Use an electric beater to beat egg yolks, sugar and vanilla in a bowl until a ribbon trail forms
when the beater is lifted.
3. Use clean beaters to beat egg whites in a clean, dry bowl until soft peaks form. Fold into yolk
mixture. Sift over flour and use a metal spoon to gently
fold until combined.
4. Pour into prepared pan. Bake in oven for 15 minutes or
until a skewer inserted into the centre comes out clean.
Remove from oven. Cover with baking paper, then a damp
tea towel. Set aside for 30 minutes to cool.
5. Dust a piece of baking paper with icing sugar. Remove tea
towel and paper from sponge and turn onto icing sugar.
Spread with preserve. Starting with the short edge and
using the baking paper as a guide, firmly roll up sponge.
Wrap in baking paper and place, seam-side down, on a baking tray. Set aside for 30 minutes
to set. Dust with icing sugar and cut into slices to serve.
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Angel Cake
Angel food cakes are foam cakes and, although there is some flour in the batter to add softness and
help hold the cake together, they get most of their body from beaten egg whites. Air pockets in the
egg whites expand as the cake heats up in the oven, lifting the cake. The pan is designed to ensure
that the cake bakes evenly and rises as high as possible. The tube design – with the hollow core at
the centre of the cake – lets heat evenly reach the entire cake, so that the outside edge is not done
long before the cake’s centre. This is especially important with an angel food cake because the cake
is very delicate during baking and it needs all the help it can get to rise up. The other factors that
helps the cake rise are the material and shape of the pan. The sides of the pan must be straight and
should not be made of a non-stick material. This ensures that the cake can “grip” the pan and “pull”
itself up. Since the delicate cake must be cooled upside down to prevent it from collapsing, a non-
non-stick surface will also ensure that the cake remains firmly in the pan during this time.
21cm (base measurement) angel food cake pan
Ingredients
12 egg whites
1 1/2 teaspoons cream of tartar
315g caster sugar
150g self-raising flour
300g icing sugar
2 tablespoons water
1 teaspoon rose water
1. Preheat oven to 180C/160C fan forced. Use electric beaters to beat egg whites in a clean, dry
bowl until soft peaks form. Beat in the cream of tartar until just combined. Gradually add
155g (3 ⁄4 cup) of the sugar, in 4 batches, beating well after each addition until sugar
dissolves. Sift flour and remaining sugar together 3 times. Gently fold flour mixture into egg
white mixture. Spread mixture into a 21cm (base
measurement) ungreased angel food cake pan
(Find angel food cake pans online or at speciality
cake stores.). Smooth the surface and wipe side of
pan clean. Bake for 20-25 minutes or until mixture
springs back slightly when touched.
2. Immediately invert the pan onto a wire rack
(Cooling the cake upside down makes the cake
light and airy). Allow the cake to cool completely
in pan. Once cool, gently run a palette knife
around both sides of the pan to loosen cake.
Gently ease the cake out of the pan. Place upside
down on serving plate.
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3. Combine the icing sugar, water and rosewater in a heatproof bowl. Place bowl over a pan of
simmering water (don’t let the bowl touch the water). Cook, stirring, until smooth and
mixture is the consistency of pouring cream. Drizzle icing over top of cake, allowing icing to
drip down the side. Set aside to set.
Cake ingredients are best if they are at room temperature when used (unless the recipe directs
otherwise). This makes ingredients easier to combine and gives cakes better volume.
Eggs should be left out about 30 minutes before using them (ideal temperature is about 35°C). The
use of cold eggs will reduce the volume of your finished cake. Warming produces a strong form
which can withstand additional mixing. It also prevents curdling or separation of mixtures when fat,
sugar and eggs are creamed.
Use the correct ingredients, according to recipe, and measure them carefully - to ensure a consistent
product.
Preheat ovens to the correct temperature, before baking; otherwise cakes will not rise properly.
Generally cakes require gentle mixing so the gluten in the flour is not over stretched. If it is, the cake
will not rise correctly and will be tough.
Some cakes, however, will be made using batters. These should be beaten and rested before
cooking.
Remember that good quality ingredients will result in a good quality product.
Recipe percentages
Many professional bakery recipes refer to the ingredients as a percentage of the total weight of the
mix. This method allows a recipe to be calculated to order - to increase or decrease the size
(amount) of end product according to need. For example, if the total order for sponge cake is XX
trays and Z kg of mix makes 6 trays, by calculating percentage measurement of each ingredient, in
proportion to the total recipe, it is possible to produce a consistent product in either larger or
smaller quantities. Ingredients, both wet and dry, must be accurately measured and weighed.
Cake varieties can include:
• Devils food chocolate cake
• Yellow butter
• Carrot cake
• Chocolate spice
• Yellow spice
• Marble
• Poppy seed
• Mud cakes
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• Apple cakes (or those utilising other fruits)
• Cheesecakes - cooked and uncooked (cheesecakes can also be considered a pastry product,
depending on the base used)
• Light and heavy (rich) fruit cakes
• A range of flavoured tortes and gateaux
• Sponge cakes
Cakes are also used in making petite fours.
Flavourings and styles are really only limited by your imagination.
There are many more cake varieties and the cakes with which you work will be dependent on the
needs and wants of your customers and the methods used by your organisation to meet customer
needs.
Cakes can be made and sold in a variety of sizes - party size, large and small whole cakes and single
serve.
Cakes can be decorated, iced and/or filled.
Some of the cake fillings that might be used include: cream fillings:
• Vanilla or chocolate French butter cream
• Bavarian cream or chocolate Bavarian
• Custard
• Cream cheese
• Orange or petit cream
• Rum or mecca Kahlua (coffee) cream
• Irish cream; amaretto cream
• whipped cream
Fruit fillings:
• Raspberry
• Cherry
• Strawberry
• Lemon
• Jams, jellies and conserves can also be used as fillings
Spreading and smoothing - when spreading fillings over cakes it is important that you do not damage
the surface. This can easily occur if the filling is too thick. With practise you will be able to obtain a
smooth finish for icing. When spreading icing, use a palette knife. From time to time dip the blade
into hot water. This softens the icing and makes it easier to spread.
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Making cakes
The method used to make a cake will be dependent on the type of product and the recipe.
Some cakes, for instance, will require that ingredients like butter and sugar are creamed, others
might use liquid oils or melted butter.
Some cake batters might be beaten then rested, others will require light mixing, while still others,
egg sponge cakes, will require that eggs or egg whites be beaten and gently folded into the mixture.
Some cheesecakes will be made by combining ingredients and setting the cake in the cold room - as
opposed to cooking it.
Cake pans, lining or greasing
Lining or greasing a cake tin prevents the cake sticking to the bottom or sides of the pastry tins. A
cake tin can be lined with greaseproof paper or with butter or margarine rubbed onto the bottom
and/ or sides of the pan.
The handiest tins have a base that you can take out, which makes removing the finished dish very
easy.
Testing the cake is cooked
Temperature and cooking times will depend on the type of cake you are cooking and the type of
oven you use.
When a cake is properly cooked it will come away from the sides of the pan slightly. Depending on
the mixture, it will be lightly browned on the top and firm to the touch in the centre. To be sure a
cake is baked; insert a clean metal skewer near the cake centre. It should come out free of wet
batter.
Allow the cake to cool in the pan on a rack for 10 minutes. Then turn out of the pan and cool
completely. Cover with a very clean cloth to prevent excess drying out.
10 common baking problems

My cake didn't rise
What's the problem? My cake didn't rise and is as flat as a pancake.
Can I fix it? If you forgot to put the baking powder or didn't use self-raising flour, then there's
nothing you can do to fix it. The cake's not destined for the bin though, if the cake is still soft and
spongy and not overcooked, then it's good enough to eat. You could cut it into chunks and top with
buttercream or icing for mini cakes instead - no one has to know!
If it's not completely cooked and you've definitely added the rising agent, pop it back into the oven
and bake for longer. Double check the temperature and make sure it's correct - it may just be that
your oven is a little too cool.
What to do next time?
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Remember to add your baking powder next time. If you've chosen a complicated recipe, swap it for
something simpler like a classic chocolate sponge. Make sure your baking tin is the right size - if it's
too big the mixture won't rise enough to fill it. And last but not least, don't over whisk your mix.
Once your ingredients are combined, that's it - stop whisking and get baking!
My cake is greasy
What's the problem? My cake is really shiny and greasy and I have no idea why!
Can I fix it? If your cake's cooked properly, but is a little greasy, you could cover the top in chocolate
and let it set to disguise the grease. If not and it's soggy the whole way through then we're afraid it's
one of the bin!
Be sure to measure out your butter carefully. Make sure you whisk the mixture properly. Don't leave
your butter out on the side at room temperature for too long - it will start to sweat and become
greasy and if you add that to a cake - well, you're asking for trouble!
Keep your butter at a good temperature and follow the recipe.
My cake is stuck in the tin
What's the problem? My cake is stuck and doesn't want to move from the tin - help!
Can I fix it? Don't panic! This is an easy problem to fix - just run a sharp knife around the edge of the
cake, between the cake and the baking tin. Give it a little pat around the edges and on the bottom
too. Leave it to stand for a little while - don't attempt to get it out of the tin when it's scorching hot.
Let it sit for 15 mins or more.
To tip your cake out, pop on your oven gloves. Hold the tin with one oven glove and cradle the top of
the cake with your other one and tip it upside down tapping around the edges until it falls onto your
hand. Flip it the right way up and pop onto a cooling rack.
If it's a major disaster and your cake has not kept its shape, don't worry - you can let the crumbled
up pieces of cake cool and add them to ice cream to make a sundae, or turn then into the layer at
the bottom of a trifle or mash them up and make cake pops!
Next time you're making a cake remember to grease your baking tin before adding the mix.
Use butter, oil or non-stick and cover your tin in greaseproof paper, parchment or tin foil instead -
any of these methods will save the day!
My cake is burnt
What's the problem? Oh no, my cake is burnt - what should I do?
The cake is cracked on top
The temperature is too high:
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Raising the temperature may make a cake bake quicker, but it may not bake correctly, and will bake
in an unbalanced way.
Can I fix it? If it's ridiculously burnt, and by ridiculous we mean black beyond saving then bin it - you
don't want to get an upset stomach eating burnt cake. But if it's just a little crispy around the edges
but is soft on the inside then cut off the edges.
Get a large knife, a rigged bread knife would work, and cut off the outer layer. Cover your under
cake in buttercream or icing and decorate like normal - you won't be able to tell the difference!
Make sure you bake your cake on the right temperature and pre-heat it properly. If it's too hot the
cake will cook too quickly and burn on top.
If your cake is not cooked but is starting to brown on top then cover it in tin foil or baking parchment
- this will make sure the centre continues to cook but the outside doesn't.
Keep an eye on it and check it every 5-7 mins until done.
My cake is raw
What's the problem? I've just baked my cake for the correct time but it's not cooked at all and it's
raw! Help!
Can I fix it? If your cake hasn't even began to cook then pop it back in the oven and make sure the
oven is on and on the correct temperature too.
If your cake is cooked around the outside but not in the inside then pop it back into the oven and
cover tightly in tin foil. The tin foil will trap the heat and help to cook the inside of your cake. Bake
for another 10-15 mins checking after 5-7 mins to make sure it's working.
Your cake might not look very appetising when it comes out of the oven so leave it to cool and cover
in the buttercream to hide the lumps and bumps if there are any!
Checking oven temperature is key - if it's too low it won't cook and if it's too high it will burn!
My cake mix has split
What's the problem? I've started to cream my butter and sugar together along with the egg and my
mixture has started to split.
Can I fix it? Before it splits anymore add in your flour. Fold it with a wooden spoon or mix with an
electric hand whisk until combined. The quicker you act the more likely you'll be able to save your
mix and stop it from curdling.
You don't have to cream your butter and sugar together, you can use an all in one method instead -
just like Mary Berry's Victoria sandwich cake. There's no need to cream the sugar and butter
together just try this instead!
My cake is too dry
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What's the problem? I've just taken my cake out of the oven and it's extremely dry!
Can I fix it? If your cake is dry to the point of crumbling when you remove it from the tin then turn
your cake into cake pops instead. Add some buttercream or candy melts to the mix and mould your
cake into balls - there's no need for waste! If it's a little bit dry and still edible cover it in a thick layer
of buttercream or icing and decorate with moist ingredients like butter, chocolate etc.
Double check how much flour you add to the mix. If you put too much flour in, the wet ingredients
will absorb the flour leaving your cake dry and crumbly.
Your cake can also end up dry if you don't add enough butter or eggs to make sure you follow the
recipe correctly next time and always double check your oven temperature.
My cake has sunk in the middle
What's the problem? My cake has sunk in the middle and I don't know why.
Can I fix it? If your cake has sunk in the middle but is cooked the whole through then there's not
much you can do about it. Just cover the top of your cake with buttercream to disguise the concave
in the middle. If you cake isn't completely cooked - cover it in tin foil and bake for a further 5-10
mins - check it again after 10 mins or so and if needs longer bake again. Your cake will still probably
look a bit odd so get the buttercream at the ready and no-one will have to know!
Make sure you don't open the oven door whilst your cake is cooking especially at the beginning.
Double check the temperature on your oven and if all else fails use two baking tins instead of one
next time.
Cooking two separate sponges and then sandwiching them together will avoid any unwanted caving.
My cake has risen unevenly
What's the problem? For some strange reason my cake risen on one side but not the other - any
ideas?
Can I fix it? Once your cake has been cooked there's nothing much you can do about an uneven bake
other than cut off the top and level the surface with a large bread knife. You can then cover your
cake in fondant or buttercream to hide the cut marks.
Next time you get baking make sure you whisk your flour properly when you add it to your wet
ingredients. If the flour doesn't blend evenly it will make the cake bake uneven.
Double check your oven temperature too - if your oven is too hot this can have an impact or if your
oven is not working properly this can be a tell-tale sign as the heat is not spreading evenly around
your machine.
My cake has shrunk
What's the problem? My cake started off at a good size and now it's shrunk!
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Can I fix it? If you're cake has shrunk but it cooked the whole way through and looks edible then eat
it. It might not look pretty but we're sure it will still taste good. You could also cut your bake up into
cubes and make mini cakes instead.
Always make sure your cake mix is not too cold when it goes in the oven. If you're using lots of
ingredients that have been stored in the fridge it's best to allow them to reach room temperature
before combining or before baking.
Over-mixing your cake mix can have an impact too so keep your electric hand whisk on a steady
speed and stop whisking when combined.
Pastries
Pastry is the basis of good patisserie; basic pastes form the foundation of the art and craft of
patisserie. This covers short sweet (Sweet paste) and savoury (short paste), Laminated Pastry (Puff
Pastry), suet and boiled pastry including English pie pastry and Choux Pastry, French pie pastry and
German pastry.
The word 'Short' used in the word shortpaste or short bread implies that the pastry when baked
should be rather crumbly and tender and not tough and leathery. The balance of the ingredients
used and the methods of preparation achieve this.
A Sweet Pastry Crust, also known as Pate Sucre', is a rich and sweet pastry with a crisp cookie-like
texture. Once made, this pastry can be stored in the refrigerator for several days. This Sweet Pastry
Crust is ideal for making both large and small sized tarts, especially those filled with fruit and/or
custards and creams.
A Sweet Pastry has a little more sugar and eggs to your basic Shortbread recipe. This gives the pastry
a sweeter flavour and a softer texture. While it can be made in a food processor, it is preferable to
use an electric mixer or by hand. That is, beat the butter and sugar, then add the egg, and then mix
in the flour. Then simply wrap the pastry in plastic wrap and refrigerate it just until it is firm (about
30 minutes in the refrigerator, 10-15 minutes in the freezer).
I know pastry is normally rolled, but this pastry has the tendency to tear and crack, both when you
roll it out and transfer it to the tart pan.
More often than not, this Sweet Pastry Crust is prebaked. Common practice is to line and fill the
unbaked pastry crust with pie weights or rice before baking to prevent the pastry from shrinking and
puffing up. But you can eliminate this step by putting the unbaked pastry crust in the freezer for 15
minutes. This sets the crust, which prevents these problems. To help prevent shrinking gently dock
the bottom of the pastry before baking which also prevents the pastry from puffing up.
The pastry is baked at a medium to high temperatures depending on the products being produced
and cooked until the crust and the pastry is baked until firm, dry, and lightly golden brown
Over mixing
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If Sweetpaste is over mixed during preparation or overworked while handling, the water is forced
through the fat, developing the gluten structure and resulting in a tough paste and shrinking during
baking.
Pastes that have short strands of gluten will be tender when baked.
Sugar in Sweetpaste
Sugar used should dissolve quickly and completely. Caster sugar and icing sugar is more readily used
sugars in Sweetpastes. The amount of sugar used in a recipe influences the colouring during the
baking and the flavour, texture and crispness while eating. The higher the sugar content, the quicker
the baked pastry will soften and appropriate storage conditions (dry, airtight container) must be
used.
Flour in Sweetpaste
Flours that are best used are flours with low protein contents such as biscuit flour (9- 11% protein)
or cake flour (9-ll% proteins).
Eggs in Sweetpaste
For us to achieve a desired paste consistency, eggs, egg yolks, milk or even water may be added.
Eggs or egg yolk assist in the binding of the ingredients. If used in larger quantities, the paste can be
softened to a piping consistency as in Viennese Biscuits.
Shortcrust Pastry
Shortcrust pastry is a type of pastry often used for the base of a tart, quiche or pie. It does not puff
up during baking because it usually contains no leavening agent. It is possible to make shortcrust
pastry with self-raising flour, however. Shortcrust pastry can be used to make both sweet and
savoury pies such as apple pie, quiche, lemon meringue or chicken pie. Many shortcrust pastries are
prepared using vegetable shortening, a fat food product that is solid at room temperature, the
composition of which tends to create crumbly, shortcrust-style pastries and pastry crusts.
Proportions
It is based on a "half-fat-to-flour" ratio (by weight). Fat (lard, shortening, butter or full-fat margarine)
is rubbed into plain flour to create a loose mixture that is then bound using a small amount of ice
water, rolled out, then shaped and placed to create the top or bottom of a flan or pie. Ideally, equal
amounts of butter and lard are used to make the pastry, ensuring that the ratio of the two fat
products is half that of the flour. The butter is employed to give the pastry a rich flavour, whilst the
lard ensures optimum texture.
Techniques
In both sweetcrust and shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to ensure that fat and flour are
blended thoroughly before liquid is added. This ensures that the flour granules are adequately
coated with fat and are less likely to develop gluten and may be achieved with the use of a
specialized kitchen utensil called a pastry blender, or through various alternatives, like a pair of table
knives held in one hand.
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Overworking the dough is also a hazard. Overworking elongates the gluten strands, creating a
product that is tough, rather than light and crumbly or flaky.
Pâte à foncer
Pâte à foncer is French shortcrust pastry that includes egg. Egg and butter are worked together with
a small quantity of sugar and salt before the flour is drawn into the mixture and cold water added to
bind it.
Pâte brisée
This is similar to pâte à foncer, but is lighter and more delicate due to an increased quantity of butter
— up to three fifths the quantity of flour.
Sweetcrust pastry
Sweetcrust pastry is made with the addition of sugar, which sweetens the mix and impedes the
gluten strands, creating a pastry that breaks up easily in the mouth.
Preparation methods
The pastes should be easy to roll out, have a minimum of elasticity, should not shrink in the oven
and produce a tender crust after baking. Consequently, these pastes are mixed quickly and worked
as little as possible.
Rub-in method
Short pastry
Ingredient weight
Flour (Biscuit) 650 g
Butter 450 g
Caster Sugar 225 g
Eggs 100 g
Total 1425 g
1. Place the flour, butter and caster sugar together and rub together by hand, (or in a small
electric mixer with a paddle on slow speed) until it has become crumbly in texture.
2. Add the eggs to the mixture and combine until a dough is formed. Do not over mix the
dough, as it will cause the dough to shrink during baking.
3. Place the dough into the refrigerator and rest for 30minutes before using.
4. Using a rolling pin or dough break, roll dough out to desired thickness and line a flan tin or
tartlet using the lining a flan tin method on the next pages.
Creaming Method
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Butter 450 g
Caster Sugar 225 g
Eggs 100 g
Total 1425 g
1. Place Caster Sugar and Butter in a mixing bowl and mix on a medium speed until it
becomes light in colour and fluffy.
2. Add the eggs in stages until well combined and smooth.
3. Fold threw Flour until combined, do not over mix.
4. Using a rolling pin or dough break, roll dough out to desired thickness and line a flan tin or
tartlet using the lining a flan tin method on the next pages.
Substitute liquids in sweet pastes
If other liquids rather than eggs can be used, for each 100g substitute
I. 125g of cream, or
II. 85 g of milk, or
III. 75g of water
Savoury
A basic Savoury Shortcrust recipe is generally a 1-2-4 recipe, meaning 1 part water, two
parts fast and 4 parts flours. When produced we us a basic rub in method.
We can use the Savoury shortcrusts to produce products such as quiches, savoury pies,
various pie bases, Flans (savoury) and edible bowls to place and eat other foods out of.
You can substitute lard or margarine instead of the butter to change or enhance the flavour.
Savoury
Butter 200 g
Water 100 ml
Salt 5g
Total 705 g
1 Place the flour, butter and salt together and rub together by hand, (or in a small
electric mixer with a paddle on slow speed) until it has become crumbly in texture.
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2 Add the water to the mixture and combine until a dough is formed. Do not over mix
the dough, as it will cause the dough to shrink during baking.
3 Place the dough into the refrigerator and rest for 30 minutes before using.
4 Using a rolling pin or dough break, roll dough out to desired thickness and line a flan
tin or tartlet using the lining a flan tin method on the next pages.
What equipment do we use for pastes?
Commercial planetary mixers
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Dough Break or Rolling pin (depending on

amounts)
Flan Tins, tartlet moulds and baking trays.
Lining a Flan, Tartlet or Pie Tin
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Lining a tart pan correctly is an essential step in making any tart. The correct technique ensures that
the tart will bake evenly and look perfect.
1. Prepare the pastry for the tart of your choice. Roll the dough out to a thickness of 3 mm. The
finished circle should be approximately 5 cm larger than the diameter of the pan. Gently roll
the dough around the rolling pin, place it over the pan and unroll loosely, allowing the
excess to hang over the rim.
2. Press the dough gently into the pan to cover the base, inside seam and side.
3. Roll the rolling pin over the rim of the pan, pressing down firmly to remove the excess
dough. If indicated in the recipe, dock the base of the dough-lined pan with a fork and bake
as described.
Choux Pastry
Choux pastry, or pâte à choux, is a light pastry dough used to make profiteroles,
croquembouches, éclairs, French crullers, beignets, St. Honoré cake, and gougères. It contains
only butter, water, flour, and eggs. Like Yorkshire Pudding or David Eyre's pancake, instead of a
raising agent it employs high moisture content to create steam during cooking to puff the pastry.
Choux pastry is usually baked but for beignets it is fried. In Spain and Latin America, churros are
made of fried choux pastry, sugared and dipped in a thin chocolate blancmange for breakfast. In
Austrian cuisine, it is also boiled to make Marillenknödel, a sweet apricot dumpling; in that case
it does not puff, but remains relatively dense. They are sometimes filled with cream and used to
make cream puffs or éclairs.
Choux Paste is a very versatile base for a variety of pastries, gateaux and desserts. A mixture
using more fat requires fewer eggs and is regarded as somewhat heavier than a mixture
containing less fat, but requiring the addition of more eggs. Recipes richer in fat are best suited
for products such as profiteroles.
The use of Bakers flour is recommended as the higher protein level helps in capturing the air in
the paste during the baking process.
The process of boiling the water, salt, fat together then adding the flour and cooking it out to
temperature of 800Celsius, this is the perfect temperature to coagulate the proteins of the flour
also known as a Panada.
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The Panada should cool to below 500Celsius before adding the eggs into it.
Choux paste should be baked at 2100 Celsius. As the paste rises in the oven it needs humidity to
delay the formation of a crust from baking rigid. As steam develops on the inside of Choux paste
the elastic skin will expand while trapping the air inside. Choux pastry can be used for sweet and
savoury products.
Choux Paste
Water 250 ml
Butter 100g
Salt 2g
Flour (Bakers) 200g
Eggs 6 whole (or 300g)
Total 852g
1 In a saucepan boil the water with the butter and salt.
2 Add the flour (sifted) all at once and cook it out until the panada reaches over 800 Celsius.
3 Cool the panada to below 50g Celsius to help prevent the eggs from coagulating when being
added, then add them 1 at a time.
4 Once the
paste is
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smooth, it can piped into desired shapes then baked at 210g Celsius. (Choux paste can also be
deep fried for various products)
5 Bake your Choux paste at 2109 until golden brown in colour.
What equipment do we use for choux paste?
 Saucepan (appropriate size)

 Commercial planetary mixer (eg. Kitchen Aid, Burko or Hobart)
 Baking trays (either lightly greased or with silicone paper lined)
 Commercial deep fryer (if frying)
Puff Pastry
Puff pastry is a light, flaky and tender pastry made by mixing flour, water and salt into a dough and
adding layers of fat. It is used to make pies, pasties, vol au vents, savouries and desserts.
There are many ways of making puff pastry. The aim is to produce a paste with many alternating
layers of dough and fat which rise and form a layered pastry when baked. Specialist bakers and
pastry cooks have their own way of making puff pastry. They use different proportions of butter and
flour, and differ in the way they incorporate the butter and the number and type of folds they make
to the pastry.
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Ingredients
It is important to use the correct ingredients and the right pastry making techniques to make a good
puff pastry. The main ingredients are flour, water, salt, dough fat and fat.
It is best to use a pastry flour because it is has no bran (which will cause the product to have dark
specks) and a high protein content (a minimum of 10%). Some protein becomes gluten when wet
and this makes the paste elastic and strong and capable of forming layers when cooked.
'Dough fat' is a small amount of fat that is rubbed into the flour during mixing, to 'shorten' the dough
so it becomes tenderer. Cool water must be used to prevent the fat from becoming oily. The water
must also taste good, i.e. be free of any unusual flavours, so it does not taint the pastry. Salt is added
to strengthen the gluten and improve the flavour.
Fat is the second most important ingredient when making a good pastry. Butter is tastiest, but there
are some excellent pastry margarines specially produced for making pastry products. There are even
better butter/margarine combinations available for use. Fat must be kept cool so that it does not
become soft and oily and mix into the dough. Other ingredients are sometimes added to give the
pastry a distinctive look and taste. Eggs improve the colour of the pastry, and a little raising agent
such as baking powder strengthens the gluten and increases the height of the pastry.
When making puff pastry it is important to rest the pastry. During resting, gluten relaxes and
become elastic again, making rolling easier and preventing the pastry from shrinking and becoming
misshapen during baking. Correct rolling is essential. The edges of the pastry must be straight and
the corners square. The terms full, three-quarter and half are used when describing the amount of
fat in the pastry. Full has equal weight of fat and flour, three-quarter has three-quarters of the
weight of fat to flour, and half has half the weight of fat to flour. More fat makes the pastry softer to
eat but reduces its height.
Making the pastry

First a dough is made using a little dough fat and then more fat is added between the dough layers.
The dough and fat are then laminated, which involves folding and rolling the dough and fat a few
times to make many layers of dough and fat. The fat stays as separate layers and does not mix into
the dough.
There are three different ways of adding the fat.
1. The quickest way is the Scotch or Blitz method. It is suitable for making pastry for pies,
sausage rolls and pasties. Flour, salt, cold water and dough fat are mixed together in a
mixing bowl. Walnut-sized lumps of fat are then added to the bowl and are mixed in a little,
to ensure large lumps of fat are left whole in the dough. The fat is distributed throughout
the dough in flat discs, rather than a continuous sheet as with the other methods. As a result
this pastry does not always rise evenly and so is not suitable for products that must look
exceptionally good.
2. In the English method the flour, salt, water and dough fat are mixed together. This dough is
rolled into a long rectangular shape, three times as long as wide. Two-thirds of the dough is
covered by dabs of butter. The third without butter is folded into the middle first then the
other end is folded on top.
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3. The French method - The main feature of the French method is that a square layer of fat is
wrapped in the basic dough. This dough is made by rubbing about 10% of the soft fat into
the flour, then adding cold water and mixing well to make a clear dough. After testing it is
rolled into a square, making each side half the distance between opposite corners of the
dough. The fat is placed in the centre of the doughs in the diagram below and the corners
folded into the centre so they meet and cover the join. The paste is then folded again.
Once the fat is placed on the dough during lamination, the layers are folded and rolled a number of
times until you have the number of layers you want. This can range from 100 to about 700. If there
are more than 700 layers the dough layers are too thin and break during baking, so the pastry does
not rise evenly.
Dough is rolled into a rectangle three times as long as wide to a thickness of about 12 mm. When
rolling the paste keep the unfolded edges closest to you and parallel to the rolling pin before you
begin rolling. The dough is then folded as described below.
There are two different ways of doing this and any combination of the two ways can be used when
making puff pastry:
The half-turn method

The book-fold method. When there are enough layers the paste is rolled out to a final thickness of
about 5 mm thick and left to rest so it will not shrink or become misshapen when baked. The paste is
then used to cover tins or is cut into the shape needed. To line baking tins roll the paste carefully
around a rolling pin and unroll it over the tin. Then trim off excess paste that is overhanging by
cutting around the top of a tin with a knife. Finally, add fillings or toppings. Puff pastry is best baked
at 220°C.
Height of pastry
Bakers using the English or French method calculate the number of layers they want. About 130
layers often give the greatest height of pastry, but sometimes they want less height and more layers.
Bakers may use different types of folds to get the number of layers they want. The number of dough
layers is calculated using different formula for different folding methods. The three-fold method
gives two layers of fat after the first half turn. Each subsequent turn triples the total number of fat
layers. However, there is always one more layer of dough than fat. The formula for the number of
dough layers is 2(3n-1) + 1 where n is the number of half-turns. The four-fold method quadruples the
number of fat layers each time the dough is folded. Like the half-turn method there is one more
layer of dough than fat after each 'half turn'. The number of dough layers is calculated as (4n) + 1
where n is the number of book-folds. If the English method is used to add the fat then the number of
dough layers is 2(4n) + 1.
Unbaked puff pastry (paste) has many alternating layers of fat and dough to make it puff. As the
pastry bakes water boils off as steam from the gluten in the dough layers and goes into the fat
layers. As water turns into steam it expands, making large bubbles between the layers of dough. This
inflates the pastry and it becomes about eight times higher.
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Scotch Method
Ingredients
Strong Bread Flour 500g
Salt 8g
Cold Water 285ml
Butter (unsalted) 250g
Total weight 1k 42g
No 1. METHOD OF MIXING (Scotch method only)
(1) Sieve together into a mixing bowl, the flour and the salt.
(2) Cut the butter into small cubes (size of walnuts) do not add at this stage but keep cool.
(3) Add the cold water to the flour/salt in the bowl and mix to half clear.
(4) Add the cubed butter and continue to mix. Do not over mix as this will produce short pastry
instead of puff. You should still be able to see lumps of butter in the paste when finally mixed.
(5) Place a cloth or cling film over the bowl and put in the fridge for at least 15 minutes so as to cool
the butter and allow the gluten to rest and recover.
(6) The paste is now ready to laminate.
Note: If using salted butter, omit the salt from the recipe.
3/4 Puff English or French

Ingredients
Strong (bread) Flour 250g
Salt Pinch
Butter 25g
Water 140
Unsalted Butter 165g
METHOD OF MIXING (For French and English method.)
(1) Sieve the flour and salt into a mixing bowl.
(2) Add the butter and rub into the flour.
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(3) Add the cold water and mix until a clear dough is formed.
(4) Remove from bowl, wrap in cling film or place in freezer bag and put in the refrigerator for 10
minutes to allow the gluten to recover.
(5) Weigh the butter, place in the refrigerator in preparation for the next stage.
Note: if using salted butter, omit the salt from the recipe.
FULL PUFF for English or French

Ingredients
Strong (Bread) Flour 250g
Salt Pinch.
Butter 30g
Cold Water 140 ml
Unsalted Butter 220g
METHOD OF MIXING (For French and English method)
(1) Sieve the flour and salt into a mixing bowl.
(2) Add the butter and rub into the flour.
(3) Add the cold water and mix until a clear dough is formed.
(4) Remove from the bowl, wrap in cling film or place in a freezer bag and put in the refrigerator for
10 minutes to allow the gluten to recover.
(5) Weigh the butter, place in the refrigerator in preparation for the next stage.
Note: If using salted butter, omit the salt from the recipe. This recipe can also be made by the Scotch
method, great care must be taken to ensure that it is not over mixed.
INCORPORATING THE BUTTER (or pastry fat)

FRENCH METHOD
(1) Remove the prepared dough and measured butter from the fridge.
(2) Place the dough onto a lightly floured surface. With a sharp knife make two cuts to form a cross
to half the depth of the dough.
(3) Carefully pull out the four points and with a rolling pin extend the points making them thinner
than the middle.
(4) Form the butter into a square to a size suitable to fit the middle of the dough. This can be
achieved by using a rolling pin or by cutting the butter as in the second series of photos.
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After placing the prepared butter into the centre of the rolled dough start to fold in the 4 points to
encase the butter fully in the dough. This will form the Envelope that is characteristic of the French
method, this will give you two layers of dough and one layer of butter.
Return to the fridge for 10 minutes.
The pastry is now ready for the LAMINATION stage
ENGLISH METHOD
(1) Remove the dough and measured butter from the fridge.
(2) Place the dough onto a lightly dusted surface and roll out to a rectangle, 1.25cm (0.5in) thick. The
rectangle should be three times longer than the width.
(3) Prepare the butter by cutting into thin slices and lay over two thirds of the dough. An alternative
method to cutting the butter is, with the aid of a rolling pin, form it into a thin sheet to the size
required. Do not allow the butter to become too soft. This can be done between two pieces of cling
film or just rolling and beating with the rolling pin, make sure that both surfaces are dusted with
flour (judiciously), just enough to ensure the butter does not stick to the surface or the pin.
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(4) Fold the uncovered third of dough over the butter.
(5) Fold again to obtain three layers of dough and two layers of butter.
The pastry is now ready for the LAMINATION stage.
THE LAMINATION (Turning) PROCESS

Whichever way that you have chosen to produce your Puff Pastry, Scotch, and French or English the
lamination process is the same for all three.
There are two methods of lamination for puff pastry.
(1) HALF TURN
(2) BOOK TURN
HALF TURN
The pastry needs 6 half turns to create the required numbers of layers of dough and butter.
(1) Roll out the pastry to a rectangle, 1.25cm (0.5in) thick, with the length three times the width.
Brush off any excess flour before the next stage.
(2) Fold the paste into 3 by folding the bottom third up over the middle third. Fold the top third
down to complete the half turn. This is one HALF TURN.
(3) You now need to turn the pastry through 90 degrees this is to ensure that the gluten is stretched
evenly so that any shrinkage in baking will be even. If you just kept rolling in one direction baked
circles are likely to come out of the oven oval. Always brush off excess flour before folding.
(4) Repeat the process once more, the paste will now have had 2 half turns. Cover with cling film or
plastic bag to avoid skinning and place in fridge for 20 minutes to allow the gluten to rest and relax.
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(5) Repeat the process above, this will give you four turns.
(6) Rest for 20 minutes and then repeat again to obtain the 6 half turns required.
(7) Return to the fridge covered and leave to rest at least 20 minutes before using.
TIP. Always ensure that the closed side is on the right side and that the three open sides are top,
bottom and left before rolling out the next turn. This will ensure the even stretching of the gluten.
BOOK TURN
The pastry needs 6 half turns to create the required numbers of layers of dough and butter.
(1) Roll out the pastry to a rectangle 1.25cm (0.5in) thick with the length three times the width as
with above.
(2) Fold both ends until they meet in the centre.
(3) Fold the pastry in half again to complete the book turn. This is equal to 2 half turns.
(4) Cover and leave in fridge for 20 minutes to allow the gluten to relax and recover.
(5) Repeat stages 1to 3 and rest 20 minutes in fridge.
(6) Repeat stages 1to 3 and rest in fridge for 20 minutes.
(7) Finally roll out the pastry to an oblong and fold in half. Refrigerated for 20 minutes.
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The Pastry is now ready to be used.
Baking
Flat, thin pieces should be baked quickly at a higher temperature (215°-225°C); thicker pieces at a
somewhat lower temperature (200°-210°C).
A low baking temperature will result in a poor lift, the fat running out of the pastry. Excess heat
results in a wild, irregular lift of the pastry or, as the sides bake too quickly, hindering any
development. It also results in the pastry not cooking through properly, leaving parts unpleasantly
doughy.
While still hot, most baked puff pastry items benefit from being moved off the tray. Storage
To hinder skinning and crust formation, puff paste must always be covered with plastic or a lightly
dampened cloth while resting or being stored.
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Refrigeration is suitable for storing paste for only a couple of days. Enzymes (from flour) and acid
(from lemon juice) will change the character of the paste during extended refrigerated storage.
Freezing, well covered up and in pieces of workable size and thickness, is the preferred way for
storing puff paste. Required amounts can be defrosted overnight in a fridge.
Pieces worked off ready for baking can be frozen on trays. Once frozen, they should be covered up.
Thawed out in a refrigerator, they are ready to be baked.
Trimmings/off-cuts
Off-cuts are pressed gently together while keeping in line with the direction of the layers. Given a
single turn and then rested for 30 minutes, these trimmings are quite suitable for a range of pastries
including sheets for cream slices, sausage rolls, puff pastry tongues, German strudel, cheese straws,
fleurons and for wrapping fruit (apples, pears, bananas) and meats.
Commercial products
Puff paste is available in sheets or on rolls, prepared with margarine or butter. Sheets of low
moisture butter help cut preparation time.
YEASTED PASTRY
Yeasted pastries are light flaky pastries that are crisp on the outside, but soft and tender on the
inside. The dough, which has yeast added, is layered with fat, so this pastry is a cross between bread
and pastry.
Examples of yeasted pastries include croissants and Danish pastries. Croissants are made in a
horseshoe shape, and are traditionally eaten warm filled with butter and jam for breakfast. Danish
pastries are found in all sorts of shapes, such as swirls and figures of eight. They are always sweet
and can have a filling, such as custard, and icing on top, making a delicious snack or dessert.
Yeasted pastries
Yeasted pastries are a delicious product that originated in Europe, where they are traditionally eaten
in the morning freshly baked and still warm. They are a cross between bread and puff pastry and so
they should be crisp on the outside, like puff pastry, and soft and tender inside, like bread, and
should melt in your mouth, leaving no aftertaste.
Croissants
Croissants are thought to have originated in Austria.
In 1683 when the Turks were secretly digging
tunnels under Vienna to make a surprise attack on
the city they were heard by the bakers working early
in the morning. The bakers who raised the alarm and
saving Vienna from being defeated by the Turks,
then baked a special commemorative roll in the
shape of the crescent on the Turkish flag. Marie
Antoinette, a French princess, introduced the roll to
France where it became known as the croissant, the
French word for crescent.
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Over the years the croissant developed into the product we know today. Because croissants are
time-consuming and expensive to produce by hand, they were not widely eaten. Recently new
technologies have been developed that allow less expensive, efficient, mass production of this
delicious cereal product.
Croissants are made from a sweet yeasted paste (unbaked pastry) layered with fat. Nowadays they
are eaten at any time of the day and can be filled with all sorts of delicious savoury or sweet fillings.
They may also be pre-filled with delicious fillings such as chocolate, fruit or almond paste.
The volume and flakiness is achieved by the combination of Biological (yeast) and Physical
(lamination, steam) Aeration Basically, croissant dough, is a puff pastry with added yeast. Great care
has to be taken in the making of this product to ensure that the maximum volume and lightness is
achieved. A dilemma is created because of this. On the one hand the yeast needs warmth to
function but the large amount of fat (butter) must not be allowed to melt/oil before it finally arrives
at the oven. It is for this reason that a cool dough is used but given a long time to ferment the yeast,
technically known as a: cool, slow dough. Some traditional recipes will be left to ferment 8-12 hours
before processing and then given a long slow, cool prove.
Part A
Strong white flour (bread flour) 300g
Fresh Yeast or (8g dried active yeast) 16g
Salt. 8g
Sugar 30g
Cold milk. (Approx. 1O-12C) 240 ml
Part B
Butter 140g
Part A Method
1. Sieve the flour and salt together into a mixing bowl.

2. Place the yeast and sugar into the milk and stir until dispersed.
3. Add the milk, yeast, sugar mixture to the flour and with a spatula/spoon mix together to
form a dough.
4. When all ingredients are combined, tip out onto the clean work surface and continue mixing
to a clear developed dough. (Gluten that was formed when the flour came in contact with
the water, has to be developed. This is known as Kneading (mixing).Using the heel of one
hand and a tearing action with the other, start to stretch and pull the dough apart, bring it
back to a mass and then repeating this action.
5. When a clear, well mixed dough is formed, wrap in cling film or place in a freezer bag and
place in the refrigerator for 30 mins. This allows the Gluten to rest and relax and will avoid
shrinking during baking.
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Part B
1. After the dough has had 30 minutes standing/rest, roll out to a rectangle approx. 8mm (1/4
in) thick. The length of the rectangle needs to be about 3 times the width.
2. Cover 2/3 rds. of the dough with the butter and fold as in the English method of making puff
pastry.
3. Proceed to give three half turns allowing a rest of at least ten minutes between each turn.
4. After the last rest , roll out the pastry to about 2mm (1/10 in ) thick, 46cm (18in) x 60cm
(24in) and using a knife or pastry cutter (a pizza cutter is ideal) cut into 2 strips 23cm (9in)
wide
5. Cut the two strips into a series of triangles, the base of which should be approx. half the
height of the triangle. Each triangle will be 23cm high with a base of 12 cm. Click on thumb
nails above for greater detail.
6. Starting at the base roll up to the point of the triangle, shape into a crescent and place onto
a lightly greased or baking parchment lined baking tray.
7. Any trimmings can be used up by adding to the centre of a triangle before rolling.
8. Carefully egg wash and prove in a warm humid atmosphere (place in a large bin liner
making sure the liner does not touch the croissants at any stage) but not hot area until
doubled in size. This is a critical stage in the making of these croissants, too much warmth
will start to melt the fat but at the same time the yeast needs a little warmth to encourage it
to breed and help to give the final volume. Our advice is to allow the yeast as much time as
is needed, 30-40 minutes at least, do not be afraid to give it longer if it is required.
9. Bake at 235C, Fan 215C, 455F, Gas 8 for 10-15 minutes.
10. On removal from the oven, allow to set for 2-3 minutes before placing them onto a cooling
wire.
This recipe will produce 18-20 croissants. It is possible to freeze half of the pastry before rolling out
for use another day or form all the pastry into croissants but freeze half of them already formed. Do
not egg wash, place on a tray in the freezer for 30 minutes and then place into freezer bags to
continue freezing taking care not to damage or misshape them. When required, remove from the
freezer and place onto lightly greased or baking parchment lined tray and egg wash immediately,
they will de-frost and then start to prove, this will take a good hour. Prove until double in size.
Carefully egg wash again taking care not to damage/deflate the product and then bake as above.
Danish pastries
Little is known about the history of Danish pastries. They are
popular throughout Europe and the USA. In different countries
they have different names: the Danish call them Wienerbrod
(Vienna bread, after the Austrian capital) and the Austrians call
them Kopenhagener (Copenhagen, after the Danish capital).
They were introduced to America by bakers from Denmark.
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Like croissants, Danish pastries are made from yeast-leavened sweet doughs layered with butter or
margarine. They are not kneaded for as long as croissants so they will have a softer mouthfeel and
will be more tender. They can have all sorts of fillings and/or toppings, such as nuts and fruits.
Making yeasted pastries

Yeasted pastries are a cross between puff pastry and bread so a combination of techniques used for
both bread and pastry making are involved in their production. To make high quality yeasted
pastries it is important to understand the effects of ingredients on the quality of the final products.
Information about the functions of ingredients can be found in the bread and puff pastry
information sheets.
First, a dough is made with yeast in the same way as bread dough is prepared. This contains flour
suitable for bread making, some sugar, dough fat, salt, yeast and cold liquid, which is usually water
or milk. Some recipes include eggs, giving the baked pastry a beautiful golden colour. The flour
needs to have a fairly high protein content. When the ingredients are mixed into a dough the protein
changes to gluten. The gluten is strong and elastic, producing layers that hold up the pastry after it is
baked. After the dough has been kneaded it is covered and left in a cool place to relax. This helps
prevent distortion and shrinking in the final product. After relaxing, the dough must cool for the
lamination stage.
Lamination is a way of adding the 'roll-in' fat to the dough to produce a paste (unbaked pastry). This
paste is made up of many very thin layers of dough and fat, which are made by rolling and re-rolling
the dough in a similar way to making puff paste. The tastiest fat is butter and it leaves no aftertaste.
The butter must be cool, but pliable. If it is too soft it soaks into the dough and layers will not form.
One way to add the roll in fat is to use the English method.
The dough is then given four half turns. This is done by placing the paste on the bench so that the
unfolded sides of the dough are parallel to the edge of the bench. The paste is then carefully rolled
away from the edge of the bench into another rectangle and then folded into three. It is then
covered and placed in a fridge for 10-15 minutes. Repeat this twice more. Finally the dough is rolled
out ready for cutting.
Croissants are made by rolling out the paste into a square about 3.5mm thick. This is cut into
triangles that are rolled up, bent into the traditional crescent, put on a baking sheet and left to rise
until they have doubled in size. This takes about 40 minutes at 32°C. Before being baked, croissants
are brushed with a beaten egg so the baked croissant looks golden. During baking the dough rises a
little more, as bread does during breadmaking. This is called ovenspring. The moisture in the dough
puffs up the pastry when it converts to steam. The steam is trapped between the layers of fat,
turning the fat and dough laminations into flaky layers so the croissant looks like a cross between
bread and puff pastry.
Danish pastry make-up

To make Danish pastries the paste is rolled out to about 4mm thick, cut and folded into various
shapes - from 'snails' and 'elephant ears' to 'swirls' and 'knots'. All sorts of fillings can be added;
popular ones include almond paste, fruit, nuts or custard. Like croissants, Danish pastries are then
put on a baking tray and left to rise until about double in size. Toppings such as chopped nuts may
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be added and a beaten egg may be brushed on the surface just before baking. Danish pastries rise
up and form flaky layers like croissants. After baking, the pastries are usually glazed to make them
look attractive and to add flavour. Usually the glaze is diluted apricot jam, which is brushed on while
the pastry is still hot. When cool the pastries may also be iced. Lemon icing is a delicious and popular
icing.
Breads.
Yeast Goods
To activate yeast the first step is called proofing and is a way to test the yeast to make sure it is alive
and still active. This is accomplished by mixing the yeast in a warm liquid. In order for yeast to
become very active it needs food. Its favourite food is sugar, simple sugars to be precise (glucose
and fructose). Some recipes call for adding granulated white sugar that the yeast will break down
into its simpler form. But in some bread recipes where sugar is not used, flour can be added to the
warm liquid and the yeast will break down some of the starch in the flour to a simple sugar.
Once the yeast, liquid, and flour are mixed together and distributed, the next step is to knead the
dough. This step is done to aerate the dough and develops the gluten (elasticity) in the flour. As you
knead (press-fold-turn action) pockets of air are developed in the dough. The more you knead the
smaller and more numerous the pockets of air become. How the dough is kneaded will determine
the final texture of the bread. Dough with larger air pockets will produce bread with a coarser
texture. Commercially made breads or homemade ones that are kneaded by machine tend to have a
finer texture than breads kneaded by hand. You'll know when the dough has been kneaded enough
as it takes on a smooth and satiny appearance.
The next step is the fermentation or rising of the

dough. This is where the dough is placed in a
greased bowl and covered with plastic wrap or a
clean dishcloth to avoid moisture loss and a dry,
crusty surface from forming. The dough is then
left in a warm, draft-free environment to rise
until about double in size. The rising starts slowly
as the yeast begins to feed on the sugar. Carbon
dioxide and alcohol are produced and the carbon
dioxide stretches and expands the existing air
pockets in the dough and the dough starts to
rise. This is also where the bread's flavour is developed. Dough that doesn't rise sufficiently will be
very compact.
Once the dough has doubled in size this signals the next step i.e. the punching down of the dough.
This 'punching down' is where the dough is deflated; thereby releasing the large air pockets formed
during rising and evenly distributes the temperature and yeast throughout the mass of dough.
Depending on what you are making, at this point there may be a second rising. Otherwise, the dough
is shaped and placed in a pan and allowed to rise for a shorter period of time.
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Working with yeast

Yeasts are single-celled microscopic fungi. Yeast is used as a raising agent and is manufactured in a
complicated process. When acquired for preparing yeast goods, it is usually obtained as fresh
compressed yeast. It is also available as dried and instant yeast.
It should be kept wrapped to prevent drying and stored at 2°-7°C or frozen. It should also have a
pleasant, fresh, characteristic smell and taste.
Dried yeast contains only about 8% moisture and has to be rehydrated prior to use. In this form, only
half the quantity of fresh yeast is required and should be reconstituted about 15 minutes prior to
use. Its fermentation power is best preserved when water is used at 41°-42°C to reconstitute the
yeast.
Dried yeast can be stored at room temperature.
Instant yeast is a dehydrated yeast with added strength, requiring only 25%-35% compared with
fresh compressed yeast. Unless instructed differently by the manufacturer, it is blended with the
flour before liquid is added. Within each yeast cell is a watery solution of protein, fat and mineral
matter. Some of the proteins are enzymes which, given suitable conditions, enable the yeast to
become active and reproduce. For yeast to be active and reproduce (to act as an efficient raising
agent), it requires sufficient food, moisture, oxygen and warmth. Food is present in the dough,
coming from the flour and the added sugar.
Moisture (liquid), used when making a dough, is required to dissolve the yeast foods. The fine pores
of the yeast cells can only absorb liquid nourishment. Oxygen is required for the yeast to breathe, in
order to grow and multiply. It is obtained from the surrounding air, from the aerated flour (from
sifting), as part of the liquids used and from air incorporated when manipulating the dough.
Warmth influences the growth and the multiplication of the yeast cells and has to be controlled to
achieve desired dough conditions.
The fermentation process

This is the process where a dough changes from a tough elastic substance to a lighter, tenderer
material, suitable for a range of pastries.
As the yeast cells become active, the enzymes contained in the yeast and the flour process sugar to
provide food for the yeast. Given the right conditions, simple sugars are converted into carbon
dioxide (CO2) and alcohol and many minor compounds, responsible for the characteristic yeast
flavour.
The CO2 serves as the leverage agent for yeast dough's, as it expands the air pockets in dough's and
influences the final texture of the baked product.
Finished dough temperatures

When working with yeast, it is important that you observe the temperatures of the ingredients and
of the finished dough.
When using this workbook, you will find general temperature recommendations and some very
specific ones.
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Dough preparation
When preparing yeast goods, it is practical to look at three methods for preparing the dough:
 direct method (single step);

 starter dough method (two step);
 Cold method (for laminated doughs).
Direct method (single step)
1. Yeast is stirred in the liquid until evenly dispersed.

2. Some flour is added and mixed together to achieve a good distribution.
3. The remaining flour and all other ingredients are mixed in and the dough kneaded to
develop the gluten network. The dough has to be elastic enough to stretch the gluten
and have a springy texture.
4. Rest the dough to relax and prove, keeping it covered to avoid drying out. Placed on to a
warm surface or in a warm area, the dough should double in size.
5. The dough is now knocked back to relieve the stress on the gluten, squeeze out excess
carbon dioxide and to restore even texture and temperature throughout the dough.
Starter dough method (fermentation dough-two step)
For heavier yeast dough's, rich in fat, a starter dough is recommended, as yeast activity is reduced
when fat gets into contact with yeast. Fat coats the yeast cells and restricts the intake of liquid
simple sugars as food.
Dough's rich in sugar also reduce yeast activity, as its hygroscopic properties retain the liquids
required by the yeast cells for growth.
1. Using ¼ to 1/3 of the required liquid, the yeast is evenly dispersed and enough flour added to
make a soft dough.
2. This starter dough is covered and kept in a warm place for the yeast to multiply.
3. When doubled in size, the remaining liquid, flour and other ingredients are worked in to
form a dough.
4. Further treatment is the same as with the direct method.
Cold method (for laminated dough's)
This method is used for laminated dough, where butter (fat) is rolled into the dough (croissants,
Danish pastries). The quality of the products is influenced by the choice of fat and the amount of fat
that is folded in.
Aeration is created by the combination of fermentation and lamination.
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The dough should be kept as cool as possible and must be refrigerated after mixing and during the
entire rolling process.
1. Yeast is dispersed in cold liquid (water/milk).
2. Preparation method of the dough is the same as in the direct method.
3. Consistency of the freshly mixed dough should be approximately that of the fat to be rolled
in.
4. The dough is shaped into a rectangle, covered, and relaxed in the fridge.
5. Fat to be rolled in is spread over 2/3 of the surface of the rolled out dough.
6. The uncovered 1/3 is folded over the middle 1/3.
7. The remaining fat covered 1/3 is folded over the double layer.
8. The dough is now given 3 single turns with about 15 minutes resting time between each turn
(3 or maximum 4 single turns give the best results).
9. The leafiness (layering and lift) of the pastry is best when rolled to about 10 mm for folding.
10. The rolling has to be in gentle steps and the dough not forced to the desired thickness too
quickly, as this may break the even layers.
Moulding different shapes of breads.

Prepare your bread dough. If you are making the dough from scratch follow this basic method: Mix
the sugar, water and yeast together and allow to sit for 5 minutes for the yeast to activate. If it
doesn't, the yeast may be too old so a fresh sachet should be added to fresh water and sugar. Once
the yeast is active, mix with the flour and salt and knead heavily (no need to be gentle) for 5-10
minutes, or until the dough is smooth and when the dough is pulled, it is smooth and elastic.
 Allow to prove at least one hour in a warm place. Once doubled or tripled in size, deflate the
dough; punching or flattening it and then kneading again for a few more minutes to
distribute the yeast.
 If using a mixing machine, follow the same method. A food processor work fine, but ideally
mix the dough by hand and then process in batches so as not to overfill and overload the
processor.
 If the dough is too wet, add a little more flour. Flour absorbency varies according to variety
and time of year.
Page 61 of 74
Making Baguettes
1. Divide the dough into two halves. Press the dough with
the heel of your palm into a rectangle roughly 20-25cm or
8-10 inches long. Fold this dough in half (width-wise) and
press to seal. Fold again in half to make a long loaf. Find
the seam and pinch it shut if it seems open.
2. Roll out the dough. Using your palms, start at the middle
and roll the dough outwards. The bread should end up a
little fatter in the middle and thinner at the ends. The
seams should be well sealed, otherwise pinch them shut
again.
The loaf should be about 40-50cm or so long, ideally longer if your

oven may permit its size. In practice, do not roll out a loaf bigger
than you can bake
3. Prove the dough until doubled in size. Use a floured linen or cotton tea towel, or use a
baguette mould. If using a cloth, place the loaf seam side up (so the good side is face down)
and pleat the cloth to support the bread and leave in a warm place. Repeat with the other
half of the dough if desired or make other shapes.
To apply sesame seeds, poppy seeds or other grains (which are not traditional on French style
Baguettes, mist the top of the dough with a spray bottle of water and roll the baguette gently into a
tray that has the seeds spread into it before you place it on the cloth or baking tray. This gives a
more even coating than sprinkling by hand.
4. Bake the Bread. When it has proved and ready to

bake, gently turn the bread over (so it is now good
side up) and use a sharp razor blade to slash the bread
very gently on a regular diagonal pattern 4-5 times.
Kitchen knives are typically too blunt to do this well. Cut only
a millimetre or so into the bread.
5. Transfer the loaf into the oven (you may slide it onto a
flour lined tray or baking peel) and splash a little
water in the oven bottom to generate steam. Close the door quickly and bake 20-25
minutes, turn off the oven but leave them in for another 10-15 to further form their crust.
You may also use this method to make a long very thin loaf, which you may then cut up (or divide
the dough up into smaller loaves) to make thin bread sticks like the Italian grissini loaves.
You may also divide the 1kg dough into 10 portions and follow the same method to make hot dog
rolls, or from hot dog rolls, press the two ends together to make a loop like a bagel.
Page 62 of 74
Making Batards
1. Gather the Dough and split in half. Follow the same method as Baguettes up to when the
rectangle is rolled out and folded in half, once.
2. Make the loaf. Turn the cylinder of dough over and pinch the seam and gently roll with your
hands from the middle out to make a shorter and fatter loaf. To make a Vienna loaf shape,
the bread should be noticeably fatter in the middle and this is done using very light pressure
applied to the ends of a round loaf so it makes an
oval shape.
3. Prove the bread. Leave the bread seam side up for
undecorated breads for at least an hour, or until
doubled in size. Slash or carve an attractive pattern
into the bread with a razor and bake.
4. Bake for 40-45 minutes. Follow the same method as
baguettes, splashing a little water into the oven to
generate steam. When cooked, the bread should be
lightweight and sound hollow when tapped at the
base. Leave in the switched off oven to further crisp if desired.
Making Round Loafs

1. Gather the dough. Split in half to make 2 loaves or make 1 large loaf. Press the dough ball flat on
the table in a round shape and form into a nice circle using one of the two methods:
 For Beginners, it’s easier to start folding the edges of the dough and pressing them into them
middle, turning and pleating the dough as you go. Once all the edges are pressed in, you
typically will have a nice round loaf. Grip the centre seams and pinch them, then roll or rock the
ball around the bench top to round the loaf's edges. The pinched side will end up the bottom of
the loaf, so the good side is face down in this method.
 For more practiced Bakers, gather the dough and place your hand to the side of the dough, palm
facing the dough. Press the side of the ball with the edge of your hand and press down, pushing
it forward. The dough should rotate as you do this. With this method it stretches the dough after
several repetitions into a nice round shape, with the good side up.
2. Prove until doubled in size. With this bread, you may do a wide range of decorations with a
razor, such as a spiral from the outside into the centre, diagonal slashes, diagonal slashes coming
inwards like a vortex, a cross, a chequerboard, or a flower shape - such as on Galette Des Rois -
or anything you desire.
3. Bake for 35 - 40 minutes. Tap the base of the load and it should sound hollow when cooked. If
the dough feels heavy, leave it in the cooling oven for another 10-15 minutes.
Making a Braid or a Plait Loaf

Gather the dough. Split in half to make 2 loaves or make 1 large loaf. From this stage, cut each
portion into 3 pieces. It's best to use a scale and calculator for best accuracy to ensure each portion
is equal.
You may also divide it into 4 for an even more attractive plait, but it’s better with the big 1kg loaf to
be made into a 4 plait.
Page 63 of 74
2. Roll each third into even Baguettes. Gather the three

together and pinch at one end, if desired you may tuck this
seam underneath the finished plait.
3 Make a plait with the bread. This is just like plaiting hair,
otherwise you may look at the three portions as a simple
pattern, folding one strand over another: ABC, BAC, BCA, CBA,
CAB and so on until you run out of dough. You may mist with
water and dip in seeds if you wish, or use an egg wash for an
attractive finish.
4. Prove until doubled in size. Ideally on a floured cloth or the baking tray. Bake 30-35 minutes for
the smaller 500g loaves.
You may also plait small rolls for an attractive finish, or even more attractive is to fold the plait in on
itself to make a loop. Flatten the roll slightly and allow to prove.
Making round Rolls

1. Prepare the portions. Divide the 1kg dough into 10 balls for large rolls, or 13-15 balls for
dinner rolls. Ideally use a scale and calculator to divide the dough weight to get even sizes.
2. Make the rolls. Press the dough ball flat on
the table in a round shape and form into a
nice circle using one of the two methods:
3. Like the round loaf above, press the dough
portions flat and pinch or press the edges
into the middle. Once completed, pinch the
centre and rock or rotate the ball on the
benchtop to make a nice round finish. The
roll is turned over so the more untidy
pinched part will be the bottom of the roll.
4. For more practiced Bakers, press the dough
flat with the palm of your hand and rapidly roll the ball around with some pressure. What
should be happening is the outsides of the dough will be pulled inwards and around in your
palm and as you keep rolling in a tight circle, it will make a nice shape. Lighten the pressure
as you go, but with this method it is a practice to develop - if the dough is too soft it doesn't
always work, too tight and the dough ends up tough and needs longer to prove.
5. Decorate as desired. You may dip in seeds or grains as per the Baguette method and / or
slash them as per the round loaf. You may also snip the edges vertically with scissors around
the edges for a crustier roll, which will look similar to an artichoke flower if you snip all the
way around. Place them directly on the baking tray to prove, or on a floured cloth from
which you can later transfer to a hot stone. Prove until doubled in size. Also splash the oven
with water if you desire a crisp crust.
6. Bake for 10-15 minutes. The rolls should be golden and hollow when tapped.
Page 64 of 74
Savarins and babas

These are prepared with a yeast dough which is rather soft and
rich in eggs, resulting in a sponge-like structure in the baked
product.
A savarin is baked in a doughnut-shaped ring mould, soaked in a

syrup (traditionally Rum) and served with cream and/or fruit. An
apricot glaze (seals, adds flavour) improve their appearance.
Babas are made from the same dough with the addition of
sultanas and/or currants. After baking in a dariole or timbale
mould, they are soaked in a syrup and finished with fresh cream
Gugelhopf
Gugelhupf is a big cake and has a distinctive ring shape or the shape
of a torus. It is usually eaten with coffee, at coffee breaks.
Gugelhupf consists of a soft yeast dough which contains raisins,

almonds and Kirschwasser cherry brandy. Some also contain candied
fruits and nuts. Some regional varieties (Czech, Hungarian and Slovak)
are also filled, often with a layer of sweetened ground poppy seeds.
It is baked in a special circular pan with a central tube, originally

made of enamelled pottery. Similar pans are used for making Bundt
cakes, a cake baking pan shape in the US derived from the Gugelhupf.
Panettone
Panettone is a type of sweet bread loaf
originally from Milan usually prepared and
enjoyed for Christmas and New Year in Italy,
south eastern France, Spain, Portugal, Brazil,
Peru, Malta, Albania, Germany and
Switzerland, and is one of the symbols of the
city of Milan.
It has a cupola shape, which extends from a

cylindrical base and is usually about 12–15 cm
high for a panettone weighing 1 kg. Other bases may be used, such as an octagon, or a frustum with
star section shape more common to pandoro. It is made during a long process that involves the
curing of the dough, which is acidic, similar to sourdough. The proofing process alone takes several
days, giving the cake its distinctive fluffy characteristics. It contains candied orange, citron, and
lemon zest, as well as raisins, which are added dry and not soaked. Many other variations are
Page 65 of 74
available such as plain or with chocolate. It is served in slices, vertically cut, accompanied with sweet
hot beverages or a sweet wine, such as Asti or Moscato d'Asti. In some regions of Italy, it is served
with crema di mascarpone, a cream made from mascarpone, eggs, sometimes dried or candied
fruits, and typically a sweet liqueur such as amaretto; if mascarpone cheese is unavailable, zabaione
is sometimes used as a substitute.
Fruit Loaves
These loaves are popular when slices are
lightly toasted and served for breakfast. They
may contain one or more fruits, usually
sultanas, currants, raisins and/or mixed
peels, with or without the addition of kernels
and nuts and spices. The dough has to be
well developed before the fruit is added, as
the fruit (particularly if washed) easily breaks
up. To obtain a desirable crust on the baked
product, fruit doughs (loaves and buns)
should not be exposed to excess humidity
during proving and baking, as this would result in a leathery outer skin. At the completion of
baking, a bun-wash or sugar syrup (with gelatine added) is usually brushed on to the top to
obtain a shiny or glossy surface.
Yeast Buns
From sweet yeast doughs with varying amounts of sugar and fat, with or without a filling (nuts,
marzipan, custard) and/or fruit, a variety of differently shaped yeast buns are produced.
Some buns are topped with streusel or finished, when baked, with a glaze or icing. Hot cross buns
are traditionally prepared for Easter.
Doughnuts
Also known as Berliners, they are prepared by frying ball, finger or pretzel shaped yeast dough in
clean fat. When cooked through (best to be cooked twice on both sides), they are well drained of fat
and rolled in cinnamon sugar while still hot or glazed with fondant or water icing. Traditionally filled
with a raspberry or plum jam, then lightly dusted with icing sugar and/or partially cut and filled with
whipped cream.
Page 66 of 74
Proving, baking and storing Proving

The conditions required are warmth and humidity of varying degrees. During proving, the
fermentation process continues, producing more carbon dioxide and thus expanding the yeast goods
further. During this time, the gluten recovers from the strain of moulding and shaping.
The final prove depends on dough consistency and oven temperature.
Soft doughs require less proving time than firm doughs.
Items baked at lower temperatures require less prove (as the pastries will develop further in the
oven) than items baked at higher temperatures.
Laminated yeast doughs require proving temperatures

that will not melt out the fat used (butter = 27°C
maximum).
Baking
During the baking process, yeast goods expand further,
as air, steam and gases increase in volume and expand
when warmed.
As the protein in the flour and eggs starts to coagulate,

the yeast goods attain stability. Further heat penetration
causes more protein to coagulate and the starch to
gelatinise, making the product edible.
Caramelisation of part of the sugars gives the pastries their desired appearance and colour.
A baking temperature of 190°-220°C is suitable for most yeast goods.
Storage
Most yeast goods are best when served/sold and consumed fresh and will stale rapidly as time
progresses.
Some products made from very rich yeast doughs (panettone, stollen) have to be stored in a cool dry
place, properly packaged or frozen until required.
Pastries made with laminated yeast doughs are suited for freezing before the final prove, usually on
trays ready for baking. They must be thawed slowly (overnight) in a coolroom or fridge prior to final
prove and baking.
What equipment is used?

A commercial mixer if the doughs are not prepared by hand.
A prover or proving cabinet and an oven for baking.
A selection of pastry cutters moulds, cooling racks and baking trays.
Saucepans of appropriate sizes are required to heat the finishing glazes.
Page 67 of 74
Most importantly, you should have access to thermometers to measure the temperatures of
ingredients, doughs, and the prover and of the room you work in, and a sugar thermometer.
Various Dough Cutters
Important facts to remember
 Ensure cleanliness of equipment and working surfaces

 Check that the ingredients are of correct specifications, quality and temperature.
 Weigh and measure ingredients correctly.
 Create the conditions required for yeast to work as a raising agent.
 Mix and develop doughs to correct consistency.
 Control dough temperature.
 Pay attention to even thickness and uniform shapes of pastries.
 Prepare fillings to correct consistency and portion evenly.
 Control proving conditions and correct proving of yeast goods.
 Bake at correct temperatures to achieve desired colour and crumb stability. Use soaking
syrups at the correct temperature and allow maximum absorption.
 Apply apricot glaze and fondant icing at correct temperature and viscosity
Nutrition
Flour, whether white or wholemeal, supplies a large proportion of the nutrients required by our bodies
to ensure growth and health.
Flour is used as the basis for many cereal food products including bread, biscuits, pasta, pastries and
cakes. The nutrients it contains are continually supplied throughout an average person's day. Our
breakfast, lunch and evening meals usually contain products either based on flour, or thickened with
flour.
Flour is an excellent source of protein, vitamins, fibre and complex carbohydrates. It is also low in fat
and cholesterol. As flour is the basis of many frequently eaten foods such as bread and pasta, we are
easily able to take advantage of its varied nutrients.
Bread supplies a significant portion of the nutrients required for growth, maintenance of health and
well-being. It is an excellent source of proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre and complex carbohydrates.
Page 68 of 74
It is also low in fat and cholesterol. Bread is quite bulky so it takes longer to digest and is therefore
more satisfying and less fattening than the fats, sugars and alcohols commonly consumed in excess.
All breads are nutritious, and the differences between them in nutritional value are not significant if
we eat a balanced diet.nutrition
Chemical Composition of Wheat

The composition of the dry matter of wheat varies widely depending on soil, climate and genetic
variations between wheat types. Wheat in New Zealand has a protein content that ranges on average
from 8% to 13%. It has a high carbohydrate content of about 83% of the weight of a kernel.
Other components of the wheat grain include bran and germ. Bran, the outer coating or "shell", is rich
in B vitamins and minerals.
The wheat germ or embryo is a rich source of B vitamins, oil, vitamin E and fat. It needs to be discarded
during milling because the fat is liable to become rancid during storage. It is still very valuable and is
used in many products.
Minerals contained in wheat include calcium, phosphorous, potassium, iron, magnesium and sodium.
Vitamins such as thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), pantothenic acid, inosotol, P-aminobenzoic acid, folic
acid and vitamin B6 are also distributed throughout the wheat grain. White bread has approximately
the same carbohydrate and protein content as wholemeal bread, contains soluble and insoluble
dietary fibre, and a good percentage of the whole wheat nutrients. It is made from unbleached flour
made from the inner 78% of the wheat grain. If you prefer white bread to wholegrain breads, you can
get your extra fibre from other wholegrain foods such as breakfast cereals, wholemeal crackers and
biscuits.
A healthy diet with bread

Substitution of bread for fats maintains the energy we need to get from our diet by providing
carbohydrates rather than fats for energy production. Worldwide, nutritionists and dieticians support
this recommendation, and advise that the following plan for good eating is used:
Eat a wide variety of foods to get a good balance of vitamins and minerals.
Eat mostly cereals, vegetables and fruit.Eat more complex carbohydrates and dietary fibre.
Eat less fats, refined sugar, salt and alcohol.
When its composition is considered along with its relatively low cost, bread is an ideal food to
complement the nutritious fillings we may choose to balance our diet. Four to six slices daily is the
intake often recommended for people of normal weight and health.
Page 69 of 74
Approximate Nutrient Content of 100 g of Bread
Bread Type
White Wholemeal Wheat/Rye Multi- Multi- Italian Wheat
grain grain /
Oat
Protein 7.30 8.1 9.1 7.70 8.80 9.60 9.6
(g)
Thiamin 0.33 0.66 0.84 0.4 0.30 0.14 0.4
(mg)
Niacin 1.6 2.1 2.1 1.30 2 1.6 1.6
(mg)
Riboflavin 0.09 0.16 0.19 0.15 0.12 0.03 0.1
(mg)
Iron 1 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.40 1.4 2.10
(mg)
Calcium 40 33 40 50 39 40 48
(mg)
Energy 216 198 207 189 230 232 222
(kcal)
CARBOHYDRATES
The primary role of carbohydrates is to supply the body’s cells with glucose, which is the basic unit of
carbohydrates and an important energy source. Nearly all of the energy required by the brain to
function each day is supplied by glucose from the diet. Carbohydrates also maintain blood glucose
levels and have a role in gastrointestinal health.
When carbohydrates are eaten, they are broken down into glucose which is circulated to all parts of
the body via the blood as an energy source. Any glucose that is not required immediately is stored in
the liver and muscles as glycogen. Additional glucose is stored as fat.
Classification of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are composed of sugar molecules made up of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen, and
are classified based on their structure.
At one stage, simple sugars were considered the 'bad' carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates the
'good' carbohydrates. It is now realised that a balance of both groups is required for a healthy diet.
Page 70 of 74
Simple sugars
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are known as simple sugars because the body quickly digests
them. Examples of foods containing simple sugars are sweet-tasting foods, but also fruit and
vegetables.
Complex sugars
Also known as polysaccharides, these compounds are made up of long chains of monosaccharides,
usually glucose. Examples are compounds such as starch and glycogen. Foods containing complex
sugars are breads, noodles, rice and vegetables.
Recommended daily intakes for carbohydrates
One gram of carbohydrate gives 16 kJ or 3.75 calories of energy. At least half the energy in our diets
should come from carbohydrate, mostly as complex carbohydrates. Sucrose (sugar) and other free
sugars found in syrups and juices should be restricted to less than 10% of this energy because of the
problems of excess energy intake.
Food sources for carbohydrate
Good sources of carbohydrate include grains, starchy vegetables, legumes and wholegrain cereals,
all of which contain at least 3-15% complex carbohydrates. At least six servings of breads and cereal
per day and at least three of vegetables and fruit per day are required to achieve a desirable
carbohydrate intake.
PROTEIN
Proteins are present in the muscle, skin, hair and every other body part or tissue. Protein is required
in the body for building and repairing tissue, for making enzymes that assist with many of the
chemical reactions in the body, and for the production of haemoglobin which carries oxygen in the
blood.
The ‘building blocks’ of protein are amino acids made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
occasionally sulphur. Each protein is composed of a chain of amino acids with a specific number and
sequence of amino acids. There are twenty amino acids which are either called essential (as they
cannot be made in the body and must be consumed from the diet), or non-essential (so they are
synthesised in the body). The body does not store amino acids so a daily supply is required from diet.
FAT
For all the bad press that fat gets it actually has some important roles to play in the body. Fat is a
source of essential fatty acids and it provides the mechanism for the absorption of fat soluble
vitamins (Vitamin A, D, E, K). Fat is also a concentrated energy source, 1 gram of fat providing 37 kJ
energy or 9 calories, which is over twice the amount of energy provided by carbohydrate or protein.
In foods, fat carries flavours, enhances the tastiness of foods and assists in satiety or a feeling of
fullness after eating.
The health issues associated with fat are related to its excess consumption, especially saturated fat.
If excess energy is eaten in the form of fat, it is stored in the body as fat. High levels of fat intake can
Page 71 of 74
cause obesity and this increases the risk of diseases such as cardiovascular (heart) disease, type 2
diabetes, hypertension and cancers.
Classification of fats
Saturated fats
In general saturated fats are solid at room temperature and are found in animal products, such as
butter, full-fat milk and cheese. Coconut and palm oils are an exception to this ‘rule’ as both of these
vegetable fats are predominantly saturated. Most meats contain saturated fat although there may
also be some monounsaturated fat present.
Saturated fats increase total blood cholesterol and ‘bad’ LDL cholesterol, which promote high levels
of fat in the blood and encourage blood clotting. Studies have concluded that a decreased
consumption of products containing large amounts of saturated fats decreases the risk of
cardiovascular (heart) disease.
Unsaturated fats
Plant foods and seafood are usually a mixture of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.
Monounsaturated fats are most commonly found in olive oil, canola oil, avocado oil, macadamia
nuts and almonds. Monounsaturated fats decrease total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol but have no
effect on HDL cholesterol, which has a protective effect on cardiovascular (heart) disease.
As with monounsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fats decrease total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol.
However, polyunsaturated fats also have an additional positive effect by increasing HDL cholesterol.
There are two essential polyunsaturated fats, Omega 3 and Omega 6, which cannot be synthesised
in the body so they must be consumed in the diet. Omega 3 is commonly found in fish and fish oil
products, soya bean, walnut and canola. Good sources of Omega 6 are sunflower seeds, soya bean
and corn oils. These two polyunsaturated fats are used in the body to make other fatty acids which
are important for our well-being. Polyunsaturated fats are important in the body in terms of
controlling blood cholesterol concentrations and the body’s immune response.
Trans fatty acids
There has been much media publicity recently about trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acids are
commonly found in commercially prepared foods and are formed during hydrogenation of vegetable
oils (hardening of the oil with hydrogen) for the production of some margarine. Small quantities of
trans fatty acids may also form during deep frying. These fats are unsaturated but they increase total
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, while decreasing the good HDL cholesterol.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are inorganic compounds that are needed in small amounts in the body for carrying out
essential processes. The majority of vitamins required by the body cannot be produced in the body
so they need to be consumed in the diet. As with minerals, only small amounts of vitamins are
required, in milligrams (mg) or micrograms (µg).
Vitamins carry out a range of functions in the body; some are involved in enzyme activity, while
other also act as antioxidants (preventing oxygen from doing damage in the body).
Page 72 of 74
Vitamins can be separated into two groups; water soluble vitamins (Vitamin C, B Vitamins) and fat
soluble vitamins (Vitamin A, D, K). Water soluble vitamins are carried in the body in the blood,
excreted in the urine, needed in regular small doses and are unlikely to reach toxic levels in the
blood. Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed into the lymph system, then carried into the blood by
protein carriers, stored in the body fat and more are likely to be toxic when consumed in excess of
the body's requirements.
FOOD INTOLERANCE
Before we discuss what gluten intolerance is, let us first explain what food intolerance is.
Food intolerance is an adverse reaction to a food although the reaction is not due to a person’s
immune system. The reaction to the food may be immediate or delayed by 20 hours after
consumption. The symptoms of a food intolerance can be vague and can be confused with other
medical conditions, as symptoms include: gastrointestinal problems, nausea and indigestion, eczema
or asthma.
Diagnosis of a food intolerance is determined by using the elimination diet and oral challenge test.
Any or all foods suspected of causing an issue are removed from the diet for one to three weeks.
After this period of time small amounts of the food are slowly reintroduced. If there is more than
one food suspected of causing an issue then these foods are reintroduced separately to determine
which one is responsible for the reaction. If the symptoms reappear, then food intolerance is
confirmed.
This test must be undertaken by an experienced doctor, allergy specialist or Registered Dietitian. If
there is a risk of a severe reaction, foods should never be reintroduced without first consulting a
health professional, especially in children.
The majority of food intolerances are dose-dependent. This means that you may be able to consume
a certain amount of the food causing the intolerance before symptoms appear. However gluten
intolerance differs from other food intolerances in that gluten must be strictly avoided.
Gluten intolerance can be diagnosed at any age and can be called a variety of names:
 celiac sprue,
 gluten sensitive enteropathy,
 non tropical sprue,
 celiac disease,
 idiopathic steatorrhea
 mal absorption syndrome.
Coeliac disease is a condition that causes damage to the bowel wall because gluten is unable to be
digested normally. The adverse reaction that people with Coeliac Disease experience when they
consume gluten is due to Gliadin. This protein is a component of gluten, which is naturally found in a
range of wheat and cereals (including rye and barley).
Gliadin damages the lining of the intestine of people with coeliac disease, which results in damage to
the villi (finger-like projections important in the small intestine for digesting and absorbing nutrients)
and inflammation of the tissues. The effects of this damage occur a few hours after eating the gluten
containing food. Due to damage to the small intestine, the absorption of almost all nutrients appears
to be affected in some way.
Page 73 of 74
When gluten is removed from the diet of a person suffering from Coeliac Disease, the small intestine
recovers and the symptoms disappear. However a gluten free diet must be maintained throughout a
person’s life time and all gluten must be excluded, which means the exclusion of a range of grains.
----------END OF STUDY MATERIAL----------
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SITHCCC019 PRODUCE CAKES, PASTRIES &

Basic kitchen terms used in this unit

Proof: To let a yeast dough rise due to the action of fermentation.

Bouchée: Small puff pastry case.

Vol-au-vent: Large puff pastry case.

Active dry yeast

Instant yeast appears similar to active dry yeast, but has

The four most common additives used as bleaching/maturing agents are:

 Potassium bromate (will be listed as an ingredient/additive) - a maturing agent that

1 cup (125 g) flour

1 teaspoon (3 g) baking powder

A pinch to ½ teaspoon (1 g or less) salt

Whole Wheat Flour

Do not mix new flour with old in storage containers.

If freezer space is available, flour can be repackaged in airtight, moisture-proof containers,

Their crystals are coated with a molasses like

A small note on etymology, the term caster or castor sugar

Icing Sugar (or confectioners’ sugar)

There are a few different sorts of icing sugar and

Molasses (also known as treacle)

Maple Syrup and Maple Sugar

Glucose (also known as dextrose)

Fats and Margarines

Butter contains a number of saturated fats; therefore many people have

Raising/ leavening agents

• Potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar)

Potassium bitartrate, also known as potassium hydrogen tartrate, with formula

commonly sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate, it reacts to

A by-product of butter making is buttermilk, which

Milk Powder or Powdered milk comes also as a full

Although clear examples of the difference

The Egyptians invented beer as a leavener, the

Depending on the country of origin cake varieties may

Aeration in Cake production

Pound Cake (Creaming Method)

Pound cakes are generally baked in either a loaf tin or a Bundt

Pound Cake recipe

Butter Unsalted 150 g

Caster Sugar 150 g

Egg (warmed 402) 150 g

Flour (cake or biscuit) 150 g

3. Sift the flour and fold through the mixture.

4. Pour into a greased/lined baking mould.

Basic Cake Mixture

Butter Unsalted 150 g

Caster Sugar 150 g

Egg (warmed) 150 g

Flour (cake or biscuit) 225 g

Traditional Sponge (Whisking method)

There are two method's we can use to produce a Genoese Sponge.

Caster Sugar 150 g

4 Pour into a greased/lined baking mould.

Rich Fruit Cake (Flour Batter method)

Rich Fruit cake

Butter Unsalted 375 g

Brown Sugar 375 g

Flour (cake or biscuit) 75 g

Eggs (warmed) 375 g

Mixed Peel 150 g

Glace' Cherries 225 g

2 Add the eggs in small amounts gradually.