Hippocampus: Learning and Memory Research Paper ‘Table of Contents 1. Induction Leaming ana Memory, conaysion Reference Introduction Hippocampus is a part ofthe bic system. The Imbic system comprises the subcortical structures and the cerebral cortex The Cortical egion includes the hippocampus, Insular cortex, orbital frontal cortex, subcallosal gyrus, cingulated gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. The subcortical portion of the bic system includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, amygdala, septal nuclei, and portions of thalamic nucle. The limbic system is normaly looked at asthe thinking portion of the brain anc ‘outputs tothe nervous system, The limbic system has its input and processing side as wel as the output side that transmits the final decision to the nerves. The limbic cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus are considered the processing parts of the limbic system while the output part comprises the septal nucle and the hypothalamus. Mostly the jobs done by the limbic system Include species preservation and sell-preservation reactions. They regulate both the endocrine and autonomic functions Whenever there Is an emotion stimulus. Structure of Hippocampus ‘The structure ofthe Hippocampus can be looked at as a structure of three distinctive regions. Each one of these regions is formed by three aifferent kinds of cells addressing three separate functions. (Figure 1). The dentate gyrus comprises granule cells while the CAT ang CAS are comprised of pyramid cells. CAI to CA form a part ofthe Cornu Ammonis (CA\. Input to these ‘neurons in CA1 comes mostly from the CA3 neurons which get ther input from other CA3 neurons or from the dentate gyrus. ‘The dentate gyrus in turn gets its input from the entorhinal cortex. In adtion to this, the hippocampus gets its afferents from the septum and hypothalamus via the fornix Hewocarnaus Fimbeia entote ys Povetipne= compo gyrus Subioulu Entorhinal ere Figur Hppocampus structure (en Hest 1997)This struct primarily helps the brain and the hippocampus in communicating with one another and in processing decisions, ‘Communication happens in two phases. One, external when its taken care of by the frst messenger when the input comes from an external cell two, when the inputs internal and the message is transmitted from one to the other within a cell Communic nis achieved by using the synapse (Ben Best 1997). fry neuron in the human brain on average can handle 1000 iflerent synapses. Hinpocamous connects through three synaptic circuits normally referred to as the Trisynaptic circuit. These pathways are underlying the entire communication system inside the hiapocampus. Layer | and Il of the dentate gyrus and the ‘entorhinal cortex provide the perforant path whichis a part of the Trisynaptc circuit. t was originally proposed that these specific portions ofthe hippocampus were found to be the one that promotes this communication which is essential for the ‘memory and learning functions. Now, the stress is on the complete integrated three-dimensional functioning of 1 hippocampus (ORelly & Rudy June 2000) ‘The output from the hippocampus passes through two routes primarily. One, it passes through fornix. There are other fibers ‘through which the hippocampus sends messages to the frontal lobe and then on to the entorhinal cortex. These would form the ‘major after-process messaging of the hippocampus. Major functions ofthe hippocampus would, therefore, include several types of memory. In the case of implicit memory, it also helps in ‘leering! where predefined decisions are stored for speciic stimulants, Learning and Memory ‘Many experiments have been carried out to ascertain the exact function of the hippocampus. However, some of the recorded effects of operations carried out on the human brain and its response to it have subsequently led to analysis of the effect and cause of specific problems. In one of tne cases normally referred to as the case of "HM' a patient with psychotic seizures was ‘operated and his hippocampus was partially damaged. Ths led to a case of anterograde amnesia which was attributed primarily to the damage caused in the hippocampus, This and several other incidents revesled the close connection hippocampus had with memory It was found thatthe hippocampus supports two main types of memory functions. One, the explicit memory, and the ether the implicit memory; while the explicit memory is facts and numbers, the implicit memory is a derived memory based fn Incidents and experience (Swensen 2008). The implicit memory helps the mind to come te @ conclusion based on prior ‘experience. Hippocampus supports both types of memories. Implicit memory Is the one that is also called learning or thinking In some cases, the establishes memories are moved to the frontal lobe and other associated areas in the cerebral cortex. A stroke resulting in the damage to the CAt portion ofthe hippocampus also resulted in amnesia (Zola Morgan et al 1986; Horel 1994), ‘The inal thought of hippocampus being the central to learning and memory was found to have opposing pieces of evidence, ‘There were also cases where damages done to the hippocampus during an operation did not create any large-scale amnesia as in the case of HM. Research on animals also indicates the role of the hippocampus to be of lesser magnitude than what was originally thought, However, it now seen more as a part of the larger system of memory and learning control and there is certainly a role for the hippocampus but to what extent it could affect the learning and memory is not clearly established, Many theories have been proposed by researchers on the subject of hippocampal function. Based on the memory type, David Coton (1977) proposed the Working or the reference memory system and the Declarative memory system, Many researches on ‘animal performance using the hippocampus were performed and this resulted in many theories. This includes the faliowing: 1. Cognitive Map theory proposed by OKeefe and Nadal (1978) and later researched upon by various authors also brings into focus the performance of the Hippocampus for the cognitive ables of a person. 2. Contfigural Association Theory proposed and developed by Ruth and Sutherland, further strengthened the concept of association with objects and events happening t igh the hippocampus. 8. Path integration was proposed by Gothard et al (1996) and later extended by other researchers primarly bringing out a common and uniform path in communication that isin existence for realizing the actions of the hippocampus. \Work also centers around a more comprehensive theory that encompasses all that has been studied so far in connection with the hippocampus. This includes human lesion iterature, experimental lesion Iteratute, and hippocampal electrophysiology. ConclusionHippocampus is in the path of processing and utlizig the lesring process. Itis also in the memory storage and retrieval process. This makes the hippocampus an important constituent ofthe circuit that is identified, However, the exact role or {unction ofthe hippocampus is stil unclear. It can be taken as 8 supportive and important transition role. In the case of short- term memories, the hippocampus seems to be performing more elaborate roles whereas, in long-term memories, the information's passed over to other areas of the bran for processing. Hippocampus, therefore, s an important constituent of the memory and learning process. Reference Ben Best (1997) Learning Memory and Plasticity. Web, GGothard KM. Skaggs WE, McNaughton Bl. (1996). Dynamics of mismateh correction in the hippacampal ensemble code for space: interaction between path integration ang environmental cues. Journal of Neuroscience. 16(24), 8027-40. Horel J. (1994) Some comments on the special cognitive function claimed for the hippocampus. Cortex 30, 269-280. (Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. (1978). The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map, Oxford: Oxford UP, Coton, DS. (1877). Spatial memory. In Atkinson & Atkinson (Eds.) ming and Behavior, Scientific American Special Issue , New York, Freeman Press, pp 171-181 ‘Reilly RC & Rudy JW (2000) Conjunctive Representations in Learning and Memory: Principles of Cortical and Hippocampal Function. Psychological Review, Vol 108, pp 311-345, ‘swonsan RS (2006) Review of Cinical and Functional Neuro Science. Dartmouth Medical School. Web, Zola-Morgan, S, Squire, LR. and Amara, 0.6. (1986). Human amnesia in the medial temporal region: enduring memory Impairment folowing a bilateral lesion limited to fleld CA of the hippocampus. Journal of Neuroscience, 6, 2950-2967.