. 20 Temporatura & Boy fluid regulation 7 Chapter of Miller & Harley ig m. 26 | Syllabus Chapter 7/28 | 1. Homeostasis and temperature regulation: The impact of temperature on animal life, Heat gain and loss, Some solutions to temperature fluctuations, Temperature regulation in invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Heat production in birds and mammals 2. Control of water and Solutes (Osmoregulation and Excretion): Invertebrates and vertebrates excretory systems, how vertebrates achieve The ability to maintain the internal condition constant or near the constant is called homeostasis. The ability to control the temperature of the body is called thermoregulation. The temperature of a living cell affects the rate of ‘ metabolism. An animal can grow faster in warm environment. They also respond to the environment more rapidly in warm conditions. The evolutionary success of the animals depends on the maintenance of high body temperature. Thermoregulation involves the nervous, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems in highe; animals. IMPACT OF TEMPERATURE ON ANIMAL LIFE Metabolism is sensitive to changes in internal temperature. Therefore, physiological functions of an animal are linked to temperature. Thus, temperature is a strong source of selective pressure. The rate of cellular respiration increases with increase of temperature up to a point. Every organism has temperature Seamed with CamScarner202 Master Success serias Zoology C optima. The temperature at which enzymes catalyze their chemical reactions most efficiently is called temperature optima. The enzymes start denaturing above the temperature optima. Therefore, reaction rates decline ‘above the temperature optima. It also disrupts the three dimensional shape of the enzymes. Temperature optima are responsible for the evolution of enzyme. Temperature shows the habitat of an animal. For example, a digestive enzyme in a trout function optimally at 40°C But another enzyme catalyzes the same reaction in the human at 37° C. Higher temperatures denature the proteins and moranes from a fluid to a solid nucleic acids. Lower temperature changes the me! i state. It can disrupt many cellular processes like active-transport pumps. Animals use thermoregulation to save themselves from temperature fluctuations. They balance the heat gains and heat losses with their environment. HEAT GAINS AND LOSSES Animals produce heat as a by product of metabolism. They may gain heat from, or lose it to the environment. The total body temperature is a result of an interaction of these factors: Body temperature i = heat produced metabolically + heat gained from the environment ? - heat lost to the environment als use four physical processes to exchange heat with the environment. These are conduction, convection, evaporation, and radiation. 4, Conduction: The direct transfer of heat between molecules of the environment and the body surface of an animal is called conduction. Heat moves down thermal gradients. Therefore, this transfer is always from an area of higher temperature to area of lower temperature. For example, when we sit on the cold ground, we lose heat. When we sit on warm sand, we gain heat. 2, Convection: The transfer of heat by the movement of air (ora liquid) over the surface of a body is called convection. An animal loss heat if air is cooler than the body. It gains heat if the air is warmer than the body. — . 3. Evaporation: The loss of heat from a surface as water molecules escape in the form of a gas is called evaporation. It is useful only to terrestrial animals. For example, humans have sweat glands. They produce sweat. Water at the surface absorbs thermal energy at high temperature. This energy breaks the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules. Thus these water molecules depart from the surface. They carry heat with them. Complete evaporation takes place at low environmental humidity. Sweating removes the excess heat. However the water must evaporate for cooling. Drop of sweat does not 4, Ralation: The rans. . jation: The transfer of heat by ihe emission of electroma: netic waves is called radiation. Body of an animal or the sun produces radiations. Radiation. Anim Seamed with CamScamner7> Temperature & Body fluid regulation z can transfer heat between objects that are not in direct contact wit’) Gach other. For example the sun transfers heat to humans. Ko Reflected ~ ; Solar radiation (shortwave Surface \ length) evaporation Radiation to space (longwave length) a Conduction Fig: Heat gain and heat loss SOME SOLUTIONS TO TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS There are three basic ways to withstand the temperature fluctuations: 41. They can live in an environment where temperature remains constant. This temperature should be compatible with their physiological processes 2. Their physiological processes adapt to the optimal range of temperatures. An | animal is capable of living in it ; “3. They can generate and trap heat internally. It maintains a constant body temperature. The fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment do not affect it. (a) Temperature classification based on Animals can be categorized on the basis of may be internal or external. There are two ca! endotherms. ‘ ebtaiy 1. Ectotherms: The animals which derive most of their environment are called ectotherms. These animal source of heat Source of body heat. This source itegories of animals: ectotherms or body heat from the Is have low rate of Seamed with CamScamnerlated. The fishes, amphibians_and ptiles, insects, and fishes can raise about in the environment. They metabolism and they are poorly insul ot invertebrates are ectotherms. But a few re} their internal temperatures. Ectotherms move try to find places that minimize heat or cold stress: 2. Endotherms: The animals which ‘obtain their body heat from cellular Birds and mammals are endotherms. processes are called endotherms. They constantly produce internal heat. This heat allows them to maintain a ental temperature. The nearly constant temperature in fluctuating environm: bodies of endotherms are insulated by fur or feathers. They have a large amount of fat. This insulation enables them to retain heat. Thus they maintain - a high core temperature: Encothermy stabilizes body temperature of animals. Thus biochemical processes and nervous system functions normally even at higher external temperature Thus these animals can live in habitats where ectotherms cannot live ‘b) Temperature classification based on body temperature It is another way of categorizing animals. It is based on whether animals maintain a constant or variable body temperature. 4. Homeotherms: The animals which maintain their body temperature constant are called homeotherms. Most endotherms are homeotherms. 2. Heterotherms: The animals with variable body temperature are called heterotherms. Most ectotherms are heterotherms. Exceptions their body temperatures seasonally (€.9., hibernation). Some endotherms vary Some others vary it on a daily basis. For example 1. Humming birds and shrews Some birds like hummingbirds and mammals like shrews can only maintain a high body temperature for a short pariod. Their body weight is less than 10 g. Therefore, their body mass is so small that they cannot generate enough heat to compensate the heat lost. Hummingbirds spend most of their time in searching nectar. Nectar is a constant energy source for metabolism. Hummingbirds rapidly run out of energy without nectar. Therefore, their metabolic rates decrease. Hummingbirds enter into a sleep like state at night. It is called daily torpor. Therefore, their body temperature comes near to the environmental temperature. Some bats also undergo daily torpor to conserve energy. 2, Reptiles Some ectotherms can maintain constant body temperatures. For example, .@ aunt of reptiles change their position and location during the day time. It a ee et gain and loss. Thus they maintain constant body ‘emperatures. @ icra distribution of ectotherms and endotherms erg ins There is higher temperature in the tropics. Therefore, lesser Y 'S required to maintain body temperature there. Thus most ectotherms Seamed with CamScamner7> Temperature & Body fluid re are more common in tropics. They can spend more en and reproduction, Therefore, the amphibians are (b) Endotherms: Endotherms more common environments. The endot ms have a c are more abundant there They have t allows them to occupy even the Polar g efficient Circulatory systems and high metabolic rate of birds an are the adaptations to endothermy TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN INVERTEBRATES Environmental temperature plays an ir ant animals. It also controls Metabolic reactions. Many inv: low metabolic rates Therefor they have no the: Thus these invertebrates are thermoconformers. The animal whicl: n maintain the: body temperature are called thermoconformezs. Some higher invertebrates can directly sense di temperatures. But Specific receptors are absent in them. Many arthropods like insects, crustaceans, and the horseshoe crab can sense thermal variations. For example, ticks of warm-blooded vertebrates can sense the warm temperature of their host. Many arthropods have unique mechanisms for surviving in extreme temperatures. For example 1. Temperate-zone insects +: “, does not freeze them. "2. Other insects produce glycerol or other glycoproteins. It acts as. antifreeze. 3. Some moths and bumble bees warm up by shivering before flight. They contract their thoracic flight muscles during shivering. gy fur food gathering more common in the tropics. a 3 ge mals nar t in the distribution of alf ed not to iterences in environmental ‘educe water content in their tissues in winter. It \ Maximize \ Minimize heat gain heat gain Fig: Heat gain in insects 4. Most large. flying insects have evolved a mechanism to prevent overheating Seamed with CamScamner206 Master Success series Zoology C during flight. They circulate blood through the flight muscles. It carries heat from the thorax to the abdomen. Ab 5. Certain cicadas live in the Sonoran De: of evaporative cooling like vertebrates extract water from their blood. They transpo: through large ducts. It passes through swea| Thus these insects produce sweat. It evaporates and causes cooling 6. The basking (sit under sun) insects control their body temperature by their posture (ways of sitting) and orientation of their wings. Its example is perching dragonflies and butterflies. . | 7. Many ground-dwelling arthropods like beetles, locusts, scorpions raise their bodies high from the ground. It minimizes heat gain from the ground. Thus it prevents overheating. 8. Some caterpillars and locusts orient themselves according to the sun and wind, It reduces heat gains or heat loss. . s from the tiny pores on their 9. Some desert-dwelling beetles releases waxe! dehydration. It is also an extra barrier against the cuticle. This wax prevents desert sun. 10.Color has a great effect on thermoregulation. Visible spectrum is the 50% of the radiant energy. A black surface reflects less radiant energy than a white surface. Thus, many black beetles are more active earlier in the day. They absorb more radiation and heat. On thé other hand, white beetles are more active in the hotter parts of the day. They absorb less heat. 441.Endothermy in insects: Locomotion in insects produces sufficient metabolic - heat, Thus endothermic temperature regulation evolved in the active insects. _ It shows that increased locomotory metabolism evolved first. Then the evolution of thermoregulation took place in the vertebrates. TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN FISHES The temperature of the surrounding water determines the body temperature of most fishes. There are following adaptations in the fishes for thermoregulation: 4, Antifreeze substances: Some fishes live in extremely cold area. They have antifreeze materials in their blood. These antifreeze materials are polyalcohols like glycerol, water-soluble peptides and glycopeptides. They lower the freezing point of the body fluids and blood. These fishes also have proteins or protein-sugar compounds. These compounds prevent the ice - crystals formation. These adaptations keep the fishes flexible. Thus they can 2 om teely in a supercooled state. . Counter current arrangement: Some active fis! intain bod, temperature above the temperature of the water. Pet ne and the grea white shark have major blood vessels just under th it it hes transfer blood to swimming red IN er ees 9 muscles, These muscles are present deep in domen releases this heat sert. They have developed mechanism During overheating, the cicadas rt this water to their body surface t pores present in the abdomen, Seamed with CamScamner207 ‘7> Temporaturo & Body fluid regulation the body. These braches gives tise to smaller branches. The smaller vessels are called rete Mirabile, They are arranged in a countercurrent heat exchange. The red Muscles generate heat. This heat is transferred in to the rete mirabile from venous blood. Thus this heat is not lost Now this blood passes outward. Cold arterial blood passes inward from the body surface. This arrangement Keeps the swimming muscles several Jegrees warmer than the tissue near the surface of the fish. It increases the activity of the fishes. This system is adaptive for these fishes. Their muscular contractions are four times powerful than other fishes. Thus, they swim faster and easily search the prey, The rete mirabile Body temperatures (°C) Warm blood In veins transfers heat to blood In arteries Fig: Temperature Tegulation in large active fishes TEMPERATURE REGUIATION IN AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES Amphibians and reptiles are terrestrial animals. Thus they face daily and Seasonal temperature changes. Most of these ani mals are ectotherms. Th ronment. Therefore their body temperatures Vary with extemal temperatures, Seamed with CamScamner208 Master Suocess series Zoology C ans Most amphibians produ their body surface. Therefore, they | adaplations. These ad: static range. Amphibians ha oxygen and carbon dioxide throug! acts as evaporative cooling S! ns live in warms moist ares It helps ce little metabolic heat. They also rapidly loss heat from annot control their body heat. But they have japtations maintain their body temperature ave another thermoregulatory problem, Ih the surface of their skin. em. It lest most of the Some amphibians like m to reaulete some behavio! within a hor They exchang Thus the moisture layer heat. Therefore, amphibiat bullfrogs control the amount of mucous on skin. evaporative cooling Reptiles There are following adaptations in reptiles to conserve heat 4. Reptiles have dry skin. It reduces the loss of body heat through skin. They also have an expandable rib cage. It allows for more powerful 213 efficient ventilation 2. Reptiles are almost ectothermic They have a low metabolic rate. They warm themselves by behavioral adaptations. 3. They have also developed advance heat regulatory mechanisras. For example, diving reptiles like sea turtles, sea snakes conserve body heat. They transfer their blood into the center of the body. 4. These animals also secrete thyroxine and epinephrine. These hormones increase heat production. 5. Tortoises and land turtles can cool themselves by salivating and frothing (spit and take back it) at mouth. They urinate on the back legs, moisten the eyes, and start panting (small rapid breathes) to loss, heat. 7 TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN BIRDS AND MAMMALS ————— ee Birds and mammals are the most active vertebrates. They show complex behaviour. They are homeothermic endotherms. Therefore, they can live in all napa They, can, maintain body temperatures between 35°C and 42° C with metabolic heat. Birds and mammals have differ i eee ent adaptation to control the body 1, They have no sweat glands. Therefore, bii i E . bird: ir causes evaporative cooling. lose heat by panting}. Ranting 2. Some species have a huanty vascularized pouch. It is called gular pouch. Itis in their throat. They flutter (move rapidly) thi incre . is 3 evaporate om the pea system. It is raid eulte eee, “ea . @ special mechanis it i Pp anisms for preventing heat loss. Feathers ere excellent insulators for the bod: fe ear iste 'y. The down feathers trap air. It reduces heat 4. Aguatic bird loss heat from their legs and feet. . They have peripheral Seamed with CamScamner209 7 Temperature & Body fluid regu!stion countercurrent heat exchange vessels in their legs. These vessels are called rete mirabile. It reduces heat loss. Some mammals like arctic fox and barren- ground caribou live in co! Id regions. They also have these exchange vessels in their extremities like te gS, tails, ears and nose. . Some animals like jackr abbits live in hot climates. They have large ears to lose excess heat Some marine mammals like Seal and whales have thick pelts (fur) and a thick blubber. Blubber is a layer of insulating fats. It is present just under the skin. These structures help the marine animals to maintain a body temperature between 36°C and 33° C. Their tail and flippers are without blubber. Tail and flippers have a Countercurrent system of arteries and veins. It minimizes the heat loss. Birds and mammals also use behavioral mechanisms for thermoregulation. They move to shady place in sunny days. Many animais huddle (bring foot near) to keea themselves warm. Some other animais share burrows for Protection from extreme temperature. Migration to warm climates and hibernation also help them to control their body temperature. The dasert camel has many evolutionary adaptations, Thus it can survive in some of the hottest and driest climates on earth. Venous Arterial blood blood 33° 35°C or 18° 9° (b) Fig: Insulation and Counter Heat Exchange Seamed with CamScamner210 Master Success series Zoology C peur PRODUCTION IN BIRDS AND MAMMAL Endotherms can genersts heel. The generation of heat is called thermogenesis, This heat warms thuir body. Birds and mammals can generate heat by muscle ATPase pump enzymes, oxidation of fatty acids in brown fat, and contractio other metabolic processes 1. Contraction of muscies . The actin and myosin filaments slide over each other during contraction of muscle cell. ATP molecules are also hydrolyzed during contraction. Both these processes generate heat. The working of voluntary and (running, flying, jumping) and involuntary muscles (shivering) generate heat. Heat generation by shivering is called shivering thermogenesis. Brown fat (b) Warmer blood 2. ATPase pump enzyme Birds and mammals have specific enzymes called ATPase pump enzymes. These enzymes have ancient evolutionary origin. ATPase pump enzymes ae present in the plasma membranes of most cells. The thyroid gland releases the hormone thyroxine on cooling of the body. Thyroxine increases the permeability rs sodium (Na) ions. They leak into the cells. The ATPase pump quickly pumps heat wt A enna in the process. It releases heat energy. The a onidatian Era bats called nonshivering thermogenesis. Brown fats are specialized type of fats. They are found in newborn mammals, Fig: Brown fats Seamed with CamScamner; 211 > Temperature & Body fluid regclation Chengas in ‘bogy (bia0) lemperatura Thermoreceptors ———___, | . Tharmoreceptars mae found nse by} a bogy 1 | 1 (__ 7 BRAIN: > +] HYPOTHALAMUS. T “Thyrold-teleasing hormone x i i a antaror { sea aye fasanonypophysts) | Ee T t “hyroie-stimulatng hotmone (thyrotropin) | Voluntary Involuntary Tryrolt 1 response + Tesponses siand i \ T ‘ Tryroxne tony | y ! Skelatal |* | Blood ‘Adrenal glands |? | Boaycals ‘Sweat glands | muscias vessels (cortex) i =. T eae i =] v 1 shivering Vasoconstriction _Inctoasesor «Basal motapoic —Swoating cools Tharmogenesis {eympatnatc) or _acraases rale creases tha body (rantion ee a feat) (Garasympatnetic) ~ metadoism P| A | pry | | y r if Exner heat generation or conservation, | — Blood lemparaturo olor rsos or tals — Fig: Over view of thermoregulation in mammals . mammals that live in cold climates, and in hibernating mammals. They hdve a * large number of mitochondria. These mitochondria have iron-containing cytochromes. These cytochromes have brown colour. It gives brown colour to these fat cells. Brown fats are present beneath the ribs and in the shoulders. Brown fat cells oxidize fatty acids. Little amount of ATP is formed during this Seamed with CamScamnererection of hair and fur and shivering or nons| 212 Master Success series Zoology C reaction. Therefore, a large amount of heat is produced by the oxidation of brown fat. It is used to warm te body. 4. Heat from metabolism . Birds and mammals have high basal metabolic rate. It produces heat as by. product 5. Heating and cooling centers have specialized cells in the Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals i hypothalamus of the brain. They control thermoregulation. The two hypothalamic it d the cooling center. thermoregulatory areas are the heating center and | i + It controls the vasoconstriction of superficial blood vessels, Se pend hivering thermogenesis, (b) Cooling center: Itc antrols the vasodilatation of blood vessels, sweating, and anting ee by REY y These areas are controlled by feedback mechanisms. The hypothalamus acts as a thermostat Specialized neuronal receptors In the skin and other parts of the body sense temperature changes Warm neuronal receptors excite the cooling center and inhibit the heating center. Cold neuronal receptors have the opposite effects, 6. Hibernation and aestivation (a) Hibernation: The state of inactivity during winter is called hibernation. Various endotherms go into hibernation during winter. Its examples are bats, woodchucks, chipmunks and ground squitrels. The metabolic rate slows during hibernation. Similarly heart and breathing rates are lowered. Mammals store fat reserves and grow lang winter pelts for hibernation AlLhibernating animals have brown fat. Decreasing day length stimulates the fat deposition and fur growth. (b) Aestivation: The state of slow metabolism and inactivity in summer is called aestivation !t help: the mammals to survive in long periods of high temperature and low water supplies. (c) Prolonged sleep: Some animals enter a state of prolonged sleep in the winter, These animais are badgers, bears, opossums, raccoons and skunks. Their body temperature remains normal. Therefore, this is not true hibernation. CONTROL OF WATER AND eye @£ OREGULATION AND EXCRETION a Ve sumination of metabolic waste products form the body of animals is a sxeraron. The waste products are COz, water, excess nitrogen and selutes 2 and water are produced by respirati it is pepeanrie tan tae y respiration. Nitrogen is produced by the The contro! of the movement of wate nral n rand solutes in the body is called osmorayit'ation. Osmoregulation is necessary for all the animals There are two Seamed with CamScamner213 7> Temperature & Body fluid regulation types of animals: “6 (a) Osmoconformers: The animals which maintain the osmotic concentration of their body equal to external environment are called esmoconformers. The osmotic concentration changes with the change of fluid of the body. This type of osmoregulation is not efficient. (b) The animals that maintain their body fluid at a ditferent osmotic concentration from the surrounding environment are called esmoregulator. The osmotic concentration of the body fluids of marine animals is about a third less than the Surrounding seawater. Therefore, water leaves iheir bodies continuously. Thus these animals have developed mechanisms to compensate this loss of water. This mechanism conserves water and prevents dehydration. The body fluids of freshwater animals are hyperosmotic to their environment. Therefore, water tends to continually enter into their bodies. These animals. evolved a mechanism. This mechanism exeretes excess water Land animals have a higher concentration of water in their iluids tha Thus they lose water to the air by evaporation. The organs or systems for excretion and osmoregulation are related to the environmental conditions and body size INVERTEBRATE EXCRETORY SYSTEMS “ Aquatic invertebrates live in different media They live from freshwater to hypersaline water. The marine invertebrates have same osmotic concentration as seawater. Therefore, they are osmoconformers. Thus they do not need to osmoregulate. Most water and ions are taken inside through int nt. This water move by gills, by drinking, and in food, ions. They lose the tes by diffusion through the integumenis like gills or urine. Freshwater invertebrates are strong osmoregulators. They eliminate water as urine. A number of invertebrates live in terrestrial habitats. The most successful terrestrial invertebrates are the arthropods like insects, spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, centipedes, and millipedes. The terrestrial invertebrates face limited water supplies. Therefore, aquatic animals have different mechanism of osmoregulation. They lose water by evaporation from their integument: They have following osmoregulatory structures. CONTRACTILE VACUOLES Some protists and marine invertebrates do not have specialized excretory structures. Their wastes are simply diffuse into the surrounding isoosmotic water. Some freshwater animals actively pump ions into the animal. Many freshwater species (protozoa, sponges) have contractils vacuoles. These vacuoles pump out excess water. Contractile vacuoles need energy. They expel excess water from individual cells to hypoosmotic environments. N the surrounding air. Seamed with CamScamner214 Mastor Succoss series Zoology C PROTONEPHRIDIA Protonephridia are present in most of the m af a used for excretion and osmoregulation. These are primitive Nephridia. Flame cell systems are the simplest form of protonephridium. these are present in some annelids, larval molluscs and some flatworms. The protonephridial excretory system is composed of a network of excretory canals. These canals open to the outside of the body through excretory pores. Bulbs like flame cells are present along the excretory canals. The flame cells filter the fluid from the Surrounding interstitial fluid, The beating of cilia propels the fluid through the excretory canals. This fluid is moved out of the body through the excretory pores. ‘Flame cell system primarily eliminates excess water. Nitrogenous waste simply diffuses across the body surface into the surrounding water. étazoan invertebrates. These are ~<-Path of fluld Nephridiopore ii 7—Cell of Flame cell: tubule wall Excretory ——Tubule tube lumen (a) Fig: Excretion in Planarian METANEPHRIDIA j Metanephridium is a more advanced type of excretory structure among the. Seamed with CamScamner7> Temperature & Body fluid regulation . invertebrates, Metanephridial excretory sys! m fem is present in most of annelids and other invertebrates, Earthworms have segmented body. Each segment has a pair of metanephridia. The molluscs have protonephridia in larval and metanephridia in adults, . Structure . Each mestanephridium begins with a ciliated funnel c: Nephrostome opens in the body cavity of a segment. Its other e.1d forms a coiled tubule. The beating of cilia of nephrostome moves the fluid through the t network of capillaries surrounds the tubu! ailed nephrostome. es. It reabsorbs ions. Each tubule opens in to an enlarged bladder. This bladder opens outside of the body through nephridiopore. Nephridia Posterior Nephric tubule Capittary network Ciliated Tunnel (nephrostome) i . Nephridiopore Fig: Metanephridia in Earth Worm een the metanephridium and protonephridium Protonephridium Protonephridia do not open into the body fluid Protonephridia are unicellular . They are primitive nephridia. They are modified flame cells. present in some annelids, Seamed with CamScamner216 Master Success series Zoology © jarval —- malluses and = some flatworms. ANTENNAL (GREEN) AND MAXILLARY GLANDS . Most crustaceans release ammonia. They also produce some urea and uric acid as waste products. Thus, the primary functions of their excretory organs are reabsorption of ions and elimination of water: The discharge of nitrogenous wastes is tneir secondary function. Crustaceans have following excretory structures: 4. Gills: Some crustaceans have these gills by diffusion. . 2. Antennal glands or green glands: These are present in some crustaceans like crayfish and crabs. They are located near the antenna and they have green color. Fluid filters into the antennal gland from the hemocoel. The pressure of hemolymph causes this filtration. Marine crustaceans have a urine is isoosmotic to their hemolymph. The short nephridial canal. Their f freshwater crustaceans have longer nephridial canal. Thus it allows more surface area for ion transport. . Maxillary gland: These are present in some crustaceans like maiacostracans, crabs, shrimp and pillbugs. They are present near the maxillary segments. Therefore, they are called maxillary glands. Maxillary glands collect fiuid within its tubules from the hemocoel. It forms primary urine. This urine moves through the excretory system and rectum. Reabsorption and secretions take place in thase structures. It modifies the primary urine. ° MALPIGHIAN TUBULES The excretory system of insects is composed of gut and Malpighian tubules. The Malpighian tubules are attached with the gut. The nitrogenous waste of insects is uric acid. The potassium ions move into the tubules by active transport from the hemolymph. Water follows it osmotically. Nitrogenous wastes also enter into the tubules, The fluid moves through the Malpighian tubules. Some of the water and certain ions are reabsorbed. Malpighian tubules open into the gut. Thus all of the uric acid passes into the gut. COXAL GLANDS . Coxal glands are common in arachnids like spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites. Coxal glands are spherical sacs. They resemble the annelid néphridia. The coxal glands collect wastes from the hemolymph. They discharge it through pores. nese pores ore Presatt on many appendages. These appendages are present 7 Pp al joint (coxa) of the leg. Coxal glands also secrete some pheromones. , Other arachnids have Malpighian tubules. Coxal glands may or may not present gills. They remove their nitrogenous wastes o Seamed with CamScamnerfur) alpighian tubules produce silk. 7+ Temporature & Body fluid regulation in them. In some arachnids jike Spiders, the M ‘Antenoat (green gland Stercoral vig \Agbees é ral \ Scoxal >. Midgut Malpighlon % @ glands tubule f _ Ventral) Dorsal 1 ditation’!ation Aecescory \/4 gland | Tet Fl <2 ven) Pag Fig: Antennal (Green) Glands of the Crayfish Fig: Coxal glands In arachnids ow, Malpighian tubule Fig: Malpighian tubules in insects i Seamed with CamScamner218 Master Success series Zoology C VERTEBRATE EXGRETORY SYSTEMS Vertebrates face the problems of water and ion balance. tes absorb water from small 1. Water balance Loss of water is balanced by waler gains. Vertebral Nt and large intestines. This water comes form liquids and solid foods They also get water from the metabolism of food. They lose water by evaporation from the Iso lose water by sweating surface of respiratory organs and integument. They al and elimination of feces. Their urinary system also releases water. 2. Solute balance Solute lost is also balanced by solute gi small and large intestines. They also ab: Metabolism also releases some ions by the degra solutes in sweat feces, urine, and gill secretions. cid. Vertebrates live in The major metabolic wastes are ammonia, urea, or uric a saltwater, freshwater, and on land, These environments cause different water and solute problems. The vertebrates have solved these problems in different ways. HOW VERTEBRATES AGHIEVE OSMORGULATION The vertebrates have different mechanisms for osmoregulation. Mostly osmoregulation occurs by adaptations in the urinary system. The vertebrates have a closed circulatory system. It maintains pressure. This pressure forces blood through a membrane filter in a kidney. Following three important processes take place in the kidney 4. Filtration: Blood passes through a filter, This filter retains blood cells, proteins, and other large solutes. But small molecules, ions, and urea pass through it. It is process in which selective ions and molecules are taken 2, Reabsorption: back into the blood from the filtrate end products of metabolism like KH’, "3, Secretions: Some selective ions and NHs are present in the blood, They are transferred in to the filtrate for removal from the body. It is called secretion VERTEBRATE KIDNEY VARIATIONS Verlebrates have a pair of kidneys. These kidneys are present in the back of the abdominal cavity, on the sides of the aorta. Each kidney has a coat of connective tissue called the renal capsule. The inner portion of the kidney ‘is called medulla. The region between the capsule and the medulla is called cortex. There is a difference in the structure and function of vertebrate kidneys. There are three types of vertebrate kidneys: pronephros, mesonephros and metanephric. There are physiological differences between these kidneys. They ain. Vertebrates absorb minerals from the sorb ions through the integument or gills. dation of wastes. They lose Seamed with CamScamner. 219 7> Temperature & Body fluid regulation have different numbers of blood-filtering units. " pronephros: The Pronephric kidney is formed in the anterior portion of the y cavity. It contains lesser number of blood-filtering units tnan the Teeonsehric or metanephric kidneys. The pronephros appears only for brief me in many vertebrate embryos. It is not developed in all mammalian ie Tyos. The pronephros is the first osmoregulatory and excretory organ of © embryo in some vertebrates. Its examples are tadpoles and other amphibian larvae. In hagfishes it remains functional .kidney. The Mesonephros kidney replaces the pronephros during embryonic development of amniotes and metamorphosis in amphibians. Mesonephros: It is the functioning embryonic kidney of many vertebrates. It is also functional in adult fishes and amphibians. The mesonephros gives rise to metanephros kidney during embryonic development in adult reptiles, birds, and mammals. 3. Metanephros: It is the functional kidney in reptiles, birds and mammals. It has a larger number of filtering units. Thus it carries out osmoregulation and excretion in freshwater and terrestrial environments. i Ureter Renal tubule Metanephric To anus {kidney Archinephric duct 5 Ureter. To anus (a) Primitive _ pronephros (c) (segmented) Ductus deferens (archinephric duct) Testis Anterior portion of opisthonephros Oplsthonephros Accesso Archinephric urinary duct uct To anus Fig: Types of kidney in Vertebratas and their association with male reproductive system @) Seamed with CamScamner220 Mastor Success sories Zoology C Pronephros (b) Masonepliros (c) Metaphors How varlous Vertebrates Maintain Water and Salt Balance 1a~ ADAPTATION Onoamisn OWMANTAL URINE mAsOR WRATIOM CONCENTRATION —-HITROOENOUS eaLaTivi 10 waste stoop Forno hes rpomnon Ale ‘Abel kana Derg gle fewer ben! Mrpecamenic Ierarate Avni Secreta ke dag le Stats beraeone lara noes Seciee tan cial pad Anghitiace Hypeameeie Very bp sont Anavenis soe urea ‘Alenb baw duoagh tia Mace yee ‘rym ‘Anmmia wo ues Secret dmg mk aad Mane wamemals — Wrwcamesle Ure rink nae water nen mamas No ryan Une Prodca mealic wot acne eds No wpwtem Ure wet vin ecnaee ede fads Temewoal ee Mowat Weak Ingen Une wl Dv facet erin Sharks onephric kidneys. They have different Sharks, skates and rays have mes: adaptations than they bony fishes Their kidneys do not act their bodies. They have two adaptations to conserved water: 4. They have a rectal gland for the secretion of highly concentrated salt (NaCl) ively oump ions out of solution. two organic molecules to reduce water loss. These are urea and 2. They usi ide (TMO). They retain these compounds in their body trimethylamine ox fluids. {t raises their osmotic pressure equal or higher than the seawater. So they do not lose water. Urea denatures proteins and inhibits enzymes. But TMO stabilizes proteins and activates enzymes. They counteract each other and raise the osmotic pressure. It does not interfere in they functions of enzymes or proteins. This process is called counteracting osmolyte strategy. A number of other fishes and invertebrates also used the same mechanism. The counteracting osmolyte raise the osmotic pressure of their body fluids. Teleost Fishes Mee! teleost fishes have mesonephric kidneys. There are two types of teleost ishes: (a) Fresh water fishes The body fluids of freshwater fishes are hyperosmotic, Thus water tends to enter the fishes. It causes excessive hydration or bloatini ir ‘ g. At the same time, body ions move outward into the water. They have adaptations to solve these problems: ; a eset fishes do not drink water. . Their bodies are coated with mucus. It prevents the i d . inward wi nt. 3. They absorb salts and ions by active transport through their ot me Seamed with CamScamner221 7> Temperature & Body fluid regulation 4, They also excra| te a | . . (b) Marine water fishes Volume of water as dilute urine. Many - ir diferent prebiee yhes have freshwater ancestors. Marine fishes face a seawater. Thus. ie water balance, Their body fluids are hypoosmotic to They h water tends to leave their bodies. It can causes dehydration. Mi ave following adaptations: 2 They coer atk large amount of water to compensate it. 3. They have ak la”, Cl «and K ions through secretary cells in their gills actively tra channels in plasma membrane of their kidneys. These channels Ca,2 ii ansport the multivalnt ions into tube of nephrons. These ions are 32. Mg™, SOx”, and PO.*. They are abundant in seawater. These ions are then excreted through concentrated urine. pone Tene Moves in both fresh water and salt water during their life. New born tlantic salmon Swim downstream from the freshwater stream and enter the sea. They pump ions in freshwater. But the salmon must remove salt in sea water. Next year, these salmons migrate from the sea to their freshwater home for spawning (release egg). Now they reverse the pumping mechanisms. wie » >) Food = Satine Hy poosmotic urine codon NS) (large volume) Hypoosmotic freshwater (a) Freshwater teleosts (hypertonic blood) Salt , ° Seawater?—“s07 Sap z Mi Scosmotic urine ° H tl (small volume) 'b) Marine teleosts Myperosmotic tyg2* sq? ca**, pos- f ) (hypotonic blood) Seawater oat PO, Fig: Osmoregulation in fishes Amphibians ‘Amphibians spend most of their time in freshwater. They live in moist places on land. Therefore, their kidney is similar to kidney of freshwater fisnes. Amphibians Seamed with CamScamner222 Master Success series Zoology C and ions in their food. They also absorb water by their skin and balance of water in body. ans is an important water and ion reservoir. The It stores more urine. The brain of releases water from the take up water urinary bladder. It keeps The Urinary bladder of amphibi bladder enlarges in dry environment. amphibians releases a hormone on dehydration. It bladder. This water enters into the body fluid. Reptiles, Birds and Mammals Reptiles, birds, and mammals all possess metanephric kidneys. They have most complex kidneys. These kidneys are suitable for high rates of metabolism of these animals. 1. Excretion in reptiles, birds and mammals and mammals can remove more water than The kidneys of reptiles, birds, amphibians. Kidneys are the primary regulatory organ in these animals. It controls the osmotic balance of the body fluids. Some desert and marine reptiles and birds use salty foods or seawater. Therefore, they build up high salt (NaCl) concentrations in their bodies. They lose water through evaporation, urine and feces. These animals also have salt glands near the eye and in the tongue. These glands remove excess salt from the blood. They secrete it as tear like droplets. . 2. Water balance in the body Lungs are the major site of water loss in mammals. Many mammals have nasal cavities to reduce this evaporation. The nasal cavities acts as countercurrent exchange systems. The animal inhales air. It passes through the nasal cavities. This air is warmed by the surrounding tissues. Thus the teniperature of this tissue drops. The air moves deep into the lungs. It is further warmed and humidified. The warm moist air passés though the respiratory tree during exhalation. This air gives up its heat to the nasal cavity. Much of the water condenses on the nasal surfaces due to cooling. It does not leave the body. This mechanism explains why a dog's nose is usually cold and moist. HOW THE METANEPHRIC KIDNEY FUNCTIONS 1. ‘Filtration . The metanephric kidney consists million of nephrons. The nephrons are used for filtration, secretion, and absorption. Each nephron has a filtration apparatus called glomerular capsule or Bowman's capsule. The capsules are present in the cortical region of the kidney. An afferent arteriole enters in each capsule. It forms a fine network of capillaries called the glomerulus. The walls of these ylomerular capillaries contain small perforations called filtration slits. These slits act as filters, Blood pressure forces fluid through these filters. The fluid is now snown as glomerular filtrate. This filtrate contains smail moleculas like glucose ind urea or uric acid. The filtration slits are much smaller. Therefore large Seamed with CamScamner223 tei dibs 7> Tomporaturo & Body tid rogutation roteins and blood c : 7 efferent area tene in the blood, Blood leave the glomorutus through the peritubular capillaries Seren arteriole then divides into capillaries called the nephron, These caine capillaries coil around the tubular portions of kidney. aries merge to form vains that carry blood out of the / —— Afforent artariola —— Intorlobular artory and voln — Cortox Modulla Arcuato artery ni and veln — Intorlabar artery and vain Al, Fy SS onal artory 4a A Ronal palvis = {—— Ronal vein (a) LP iene Fig 2; Filtration device of the melanephric kidney 2 Selective reabsorption and secretion ‘The other part of the nephron is proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of the / nephron (loop of Henle), and the distal convoluted tubule. The glomerular filtrate is selectively reabsorbed in these parts. Certain ton like Na’, K’, Cl are returned to the bloodstream. Both active and passive transport are involved in the reabsorption of these substances. Some harmful compounds are H* and ammonium (NH,’ ions, drugs, and various other foreign materials. These substances are secreted into the nephron lumen ~ st portion of the nephron is called ‘the collecting duct. Final water reabsorption takes place in it. Now concentrated urine is formed. Thus kidney removes wastes. It also maintains water and ion balance. These are the homeostatic function of the kidney. Seamed with CamScamner224 Master Success series Zoology © rata! convoluted 7 taoute Giomarvier capsule Emerart anericia Atecant srterola Fig: Metanephric Nephron Capsular epitheltum by Glomerulus Efferent-Q\ % arteriole } Proximal seo ei7/ tubule Atferent: arteriole By Electrolytes and Seamed with CamScamner225 7> Temperatura & Body fluid regulation evolutionary trend in the kidneys wammalian kidneys can 1 amphibian kidneys. Hui plasma The urine of ¢: move more water from the glomerular filtrate than the amet urine is four times concentrated human aoe i mel is eight times concentrated than its plasma. The urine of a gerbil is 14 times concentrated than teers Some desert rats and mice have urine more than 20 umes concentrated than their plasma. This concentrated urine enables them to live in dry or desert environments. Little water IS available there. Most of their water is metabolically produced from the oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Mammals and birds have developed this excellent capacity of water conservation. They have developed it by evolutionary adaptation. The nephron tube bends into a loop during this evolution. It has increased the ability of the nephron to reabsorb water. fers Nee Vasa recta J. Nephron 4 ‘osmotal {0100 mOsm (mOsm) [ | | | Cortex —» 300 mOsm 4 : Outer —e : olny medulla Lt SL 600 mOsm | NaCl eo - | . “PHO Sonne | | 4 5 Omura H,0 4} | a | | (eat Inner —* i if (acne HO medulla Fo Urea __ coh urea nro 050. (Ft S act T 2700 mOsm 4 descending vas reclum 4 descending thin limb 7 cortical collecting duct 2 ascending vas rectim 5 ascending thin limb 8 outer medullary collecting duct 3 proximal tubule 6 thick ascending limb 9 inner medullary collecting duct Fig: Counter current mechanism in nephron COUNTERCURRENT EXCHANGE The loop of the nephron increases the efficiency of reabsorption by a countercurrent flow. Water is reabsorbed during countercurrent exchange. More Water and ions are reabsorbed through longer loop of the nephron. Thus the desert rodents like kangaroo rat form highly concentrated urine. They have very Jong loops in nephron, But amphibians live in aquatic habitats. So their nephrons Seamed with CamScamner226 Mastor Success series Zoology C lack a loop. There are following steps of contour current me hanism. 4, Some salt (NaCl) and water are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule. It reduces its volume by approximately 25%. But salt and urea are stil! isoosmotic with the extracellular fluid. . 2. Now the filtrate moves to the descending limb of the loop of the nephron, It loses water. Thus its volume is further reduced and it becomes more concentrated. There is high salt concentration in the extra lular fluid. |t is called brine bath. So water moves out of the tubule by osmo: 3. The highest urea brine bath concentration is present around the lower portion of the loop of the nephron. The filtrate passes into the ding. limb. Sodium (Na) ions are actively transported out of the into. the extracellular fluid. Ghloride ions follow it passively. The cells of the ascending Iimd are imp2tmeable to water. Therefore, water cannot flow out of the ascending limb. Thus, the salt concentration of the extracellular fluid becomes very high 5. The salt flows passively into the descending loop. But th the ascending loop. It causes recycling of salt through the loop and the extracellular iluid. It flows in the descending and ascending limbs are in opposite directions. Thus a coe gtadient in salt is set up. A large amount of urea moves out of the COllecting ducts. Therefore, the osmotic pressure of the extracellular brine bath increases. “6. Finally, the distal convoluted tubule opens into the collecting duct. Collecting duct is permeable for urea. The concentrated urea in the filtrate diffuses out into the surrounding extracellular fluid. The high urea concentration in the extracellular fiuid with high concentration of salt forms the urea-brine bath. It causes water to move out of the filtrate by osmosis. 7. Many peritubular capillaries surround each nephron. They collect water and return it to the systemic circulation 8. The renal pelvis of the kidney form ureter. Ureter carries urine to a urinary bladder. Urinary bladder is a storage organ. 9. The Urine leaves the body through the urethra. It opens at the body surface at the end of the penis (in human males) or just in front of the vaginal entrance (In female). The urinary bladder fills with urine. Therefore, tension is produced in the muscle walls. This tension stimulates the response. This fesponse relaxes sphincter muscles at the entrance of the urethra. This fesponse is called urination. yy move out againin | Seamed with CamScamner. 227 7> Temperature & Body fuid regulation Kidney “a _ Renal en ‘ S ex . Calyx “ an Renal Renal -— ~~ pyramid pelvis Ureteropelvic Renat Junction pepilia Ureter Ureterovesical Bladder Fig: Urinary system of mau | DEFINITIONS Ab AND | KEY POINTS 2 ability to control the temperature of the body is called thermoregulation. The animals which derive mest of their body hy vironment are called ectotherms. Seamed with CamScamner