ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

The non-living environment is comprised of the abiotic factors that shape and define the interactions and
interdependence within an ecosystem. The abiotic factors can be either a resource, if it is a physical material
(organic or inorganic) of the environment that is constantly altered or exchanged among organism; or they
can be a regulator, if they represent a physical condition of the ecosystem. The abiotic factors thus compose
the chemical and physical environment of the living organisms. Depending on the type of ecosystem, the
abiotic factors may range from rainfall, air currents, temperature, pH of soil, and sunlight for terrestrial or land
ecosystems, to water depth, turbidity, salinity, and dissolved oxygen in aquatic or water ecosystems. Climate
is a notable regulating abiotic factor, as well as natural disasters like typhoons, droughts, and fire.
Abiotic factors play a key role in the living organisms’ survival and may serve as a limiting factor that
controls populations of animals and plants in an ecosystem. Each species is adapted only to a specific set of
conditions, however, it may also have the ability to withstand fluctuations in biotic and abiotic environmental
factors – a range of tolerance, that is. Individuals comprising a population may have varying tolerance ranges
for abiotic factors, such as temperature, due to their genetic makeup as well as age and health. For example,
only animals that are well adapted to the cold can survive in the harsh climate of Arctic, such as thick-furred
polar bears or fat-insulated sealed. Abiotic factors have an important function in the physiological needs of
some species. The Atlantic salmon must journey upstream from the sea to the river where it is most suitable
to spawn eggs. Abiotic factors can likewise influence the distribution of organisms in an area. Occurrence of a
forest fire paves way for fire-intolerant grasses and weeds to grow abundantly at the first instance of recovery
while some plants that were previous residents may not be favoured to recover.
 Biotic factors, on the other hand, refer to all living organisms that inhabit an environment. It is
essentially the species richness in a given area. A key feature of an ecosystem is the interactions of among
biotic factors. Animals and plants in a given area interact with and are interdependent directly or indirectly on
each other. No organism can exist by itself; they depend on other living things for their nutrition and
protection.

TROPHIC STRUCTURE
The trophic structure represent the food relationships between the structural components of the ecosystem. In these
food relationships, there is always a transfer of matter and energy between organisms, or between organisms and the
physical environment. The trophic structure is defined by organisms’ classification based on their general nutritional
habits.

PRODUCERS
Producers, sometimes called autotrophs (“self-feeders”), are organisms that can manufacture their own
organic compounds that they use as sources of energy and nutrients. Most producers are green plants that
make the organic nutrients by transforming energy from the sun into chemical energy through the process of
photosynthesis. The stored chemical energy produced by photosynthesis is the direct or indirect source of
food for most organisms. Most of the oxygen in the atmosphere is also a product of photosynthesis. An
estimated 59% of the earth’s photosynthesis takes place on land and the remaining 41% in the oceans and
other aquatic ecosystems.
Some producer organisms, mostly specialized bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds from their
environment and convert them to organic nutrients in the absence of sunlight in the process called
chemosynthesis (i.e., conversion of inorganic hydrogen sulphide into the nutrients they need).

Consumers
Organisms that get the nutrients and energy they require by feeding either directly or indirectly on producers
are called consumers, or heterotrophs (“other-feeders”).
 Depending on their food sources, consumers that feed on living organisms fall into four major classes:
>> Primary consumers – herbivores which feed directly and only on all or part of living plants.
>> Secondary consumers – primary carnivores, which feed only on plant-eating animals.
>> Tertiary consumers and higher-level consumers – large carnivores or omnivores that feed on primary
and secondary consumers, and/ or producers.

Decomposers
Heterotrophs that feed on detritus, or dead organic plant and animal matter, are known as detritivores. There
are two major classes of detritivores: detritus feeders and decomposers.
Detritus feeders ingest fragments of dead organisms and their cast-off parts and organic wastes.
Invertebrates, such as crabs, earthworms, and clams and some vertebrates feed on detritus, contributing to
the decomposition of matter and nutrient cycles in the process.

Decomposers, on the other hand, do not ingest dead tissue or waste; rather they absorb and endocytose the
soluble nutrients at the cellular level. This saprotrophic mode of nutrition is carried out by bacteria and fungi.
Bacteria and fungi decomposers in turn are and important source of food for organisms, such as worms and
insects, living in soil and water.
Fungi are the foremost decomposers in wood, while bacteria do well in places or substrates where even
oxygen may be limiting, such as in dead animal matter and in aquatic benthos. Many of the decomposition
byproducts are not absorbed as food by decomposers. There are inorganic materials which are recycled back
to producers. Other decomposition byproducts are organic compounds which are resistant to further
decomposition, such as humans.

Ecosystem Functions
Ecosystem functions refer to the process that link the different structural elements together. Based on the
trophic structure, there are three main functions in the ecosystem, that of production, consumption, and
decomposition. The real functional opposites in the ecosystem are production and decomposition. Production
refers to the buildup of organic structures using materials from nonliving environment, while decomposition
deals with the degradation of organic structures. Consumption, on the other hand, shares both features.
There is buildup of organic structures in the body of the consumer, using materials from food that had been
broken down during digestion.
In an ecosystem, production is facilitated by organisms that are capable of trapping solar energy and
converting it into chemical-bond energy in the form of carbohydrates- a process called photosynthesis.
Photosynthetic organisms, such as green plants, algae, and certain bacteria, produce food molecules for use as
energy source, and as building materials for growth and repair. Cellular respiration is the chain of reactions
during which cells release the chemical-bond energy and convert it into other usable forms. Decomposition is
the crucial link that connects producers and consumers to the basal level, that is. Bringing the basic elements
back to the soil or to the atmosphere thus ensuring the continuity of ecosystem functions.

Production
Production is the function responsible for the accumulation or organic structures in the ecosystem. The
process involves four main steps. First, free energy is fixed from some energy source such as solar energy
(photosynthesis) by phototrophs and from chemical compounds (chemosynthesis) by chemotrophs. Carbon
dioxide and water are the raw materials used in the first step of production. After the free energy is fixed,
these raw materials are transformed into the energy-rich glucose materials resulting to the evolution of
oxygen gas. The following equation summarizes the chemical reactions plants and many other photosynthetic
organisms use to make ATP and organic molecules for growth and reproduction:
Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the rate at which producers convert sunlight into usable
chemical energy or biomass. Net primary productivity (NPP), on the other hand, is the rate which
plants use photosynthesis to store chemical energy in biomass minus the rate at which they use
some of this chemical energy aerobic cellular respiration to live, grow, and reproduce. Net primary
productivity is usually reported as the amount of energy produced by the plant average net primary
productivities are estuaries, swamps, marshes, and tropical rainforests, while the lowest are tundra,
open ocean, and desert.

Consumption
Consumption is the function which balances the opposites, production and decomposition. It acts as the
regulator, careful that the production would not be too much and decomposition too little, or vice versa.
The chemical process in consumption involves the digestion of the ingested food material with the aid
of digestive enzymes. The digestive enzymes simplify, rearrange, and absorb the food materials such that
animal protoplasm would be thereafter synthesized. Animal protoplasm buildup, being an important part of
secondary production, places the consumers as the partners of plants and other producers in the conversation
of complex structures in the ecosystem.
Although the organisms in the ecosystem perform different functions, all have the common ability to
break dow food so that the energy can be released for use. The process of unleashing bound energy for
utilization with the aid of oxygen is called respiration. With the aid of enzymes and oxidants, the chemical
bond in glucose snap to give off energy. The summary chemical equation for respiration is:

A portion of the total released energy is utilized to fuel all essential functions in organism (e.g., protoplasm
building, reproduction, photosynthesis, locomotion, ingestion, sorption, etc.). the energy not utilized from the
total energy released is dissipated from

the system as heat. Expelled from the system with heat is carbon dioxide. The byproduct CO ² is notable
because it serves as index for decomposition in the ecosystem level ( as against oxygen O² evolution in
production.

Decomposition
Decomposition is the function responsible for the breakdown of complex structures in the ecosystem.
The process of decomposition involves the presence of substrates, such as fallen leaves, twigs, logs,
animal matter, feces, grass, and the secretion of degradation enzymes onto specific substrate. The
enzymes reduce complex organic structures into simpler degradation byproducts. Only a portion of
degradation byproducts are absorbed as food by the decomposer organisms. Most of these nutrients,
if not leached, find their way back to plants and again become incorporated in living protoplasm.
There are also byproducts which resistant to further degradation and thus retain their organic
structures. These organic byproducts include the humic substances which are found universal to all
ecosystems. Many humic substances are good chelators, that is, they are capable of holding
nutrients against leaching, hence, the conservation if essential materials in the ecosystem.
In terrestrial ecosystem, aerobic decomposers such as fungi are responsible for most of wood
decomposition, while anaerobic decomposers, such as bacteria, are responsible for the degradation
of succulent plants and animals. Aquatic ecosystems are expected to harbour mostly anaerobic
decomposers, mainly because such habitats are limiting to oxygen.

Food chain in an ecosystem refers to the transfer of food energy from the source (e.g.,plants)
through a series of organisms, in a process of sequential or repeated eating and being eaten. Each
time one organism eats another in the food chain, energy is transferred. For every transfer, about 80
to 90 percent of the potential energy is lost as heat. The transfer movement of energy is in one
direction only-usually from plants to a series of animals eating each other. Man is ultimately at the
highest trophic level.
Food webs refer to the interconnected or interlocking relationships among various food chains
in an ecosystem. In a food web, an organism may feed on several members of the web. In complex
natural communities, organisms whose food is obtained from plants by the same number of stepes
are said to belong to the same trophic level.
To illustrate the distribution of matter and energy within an ecosystem, an ecological Pyramid
is constructed. Ecological pyramids can use any of the three measures of energy flow: Energy,
Biomass, and numbers.The Pyramid of energy shows how the amount of available energy
Decreases at each succeeding trophic level. Only 10% of the energy from previous level is captured
by the next Because some of the energy in the prey is expended for metabolism or given off as heat.
Biomass is the total weight of living matter at each trophic level, A pyramid of Biomass represents
the total dry weight of living material available at each trophic level.The pyramid of number
represents the actual number of organisms consumed by the level above it.
The pyramid representation constitutes the overall structure of dependency among the biotic
or living elements in an ecosystem. At the lowest level of the pyramid are the food sources or primary
producers.One may even go further down and see that the base of the food pyramid constitutes
organic matter that serves as fertilizer or food sources.

Biogeochemical Cycles
Elements and inorganic compounds that sustain life tend to circulate in the earths biosphere in regular paths
from the atmosphere to the lithosphere (soil) or hydrosphere (water) Into living things and then back into this
environment. All natural systems rely on the recycling of these elements and molecules. –Herein referred to
as nutrients- To ensure that life goes on. These cyclic paths of nutrients that function in animals or plants are
called biogeochemical cycles. The following are the important cycles of materials found in ecosystems.

Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle. Or water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes the Earths fixed supply of water. The
main processes in this water recycling and purifying cycle are:
(a) Evaporation or conversion of water to water vapor.
(b) Condensation or the conversion of water vapour to droplets of liquid water.
(c) Transipiration, or the process of which water, after being absorbed by the root system of plants and
passing through their living structure. Evaporates into the atmosphere as water vapor.
(d) Precipitation, such as dew, rain, sleet, hail, snow, and
(e) Runoff, which Is the draining water back to the sea to begin the cycle again.

Water vapor enters the atmosphere by evaporation from bodies of water and transpiration from plants. The
water eventually returns to Earth as rain or what is called precipitation.Plants accumulate water from rainfall
and then recycle it back to the atmosphere in the process called transpiration. Some of the rainfall leach to
thei ground through the process of percolation and find their way to aquifers underground.

Carbon Cycle
The largest pools of carbon on Earth are relatively inaccessible. Majority of carbon is trapped as
carbonate in rocks. ,Such as limestone and marble. Carbon is also stored in deep Earth’s as carbon-rich
decaying organic sediments, also known as fossil fuels. However, Carbon that is readily accessible for all living
Organisms is found in the atmosphere where it consists a small 0.03% of the total atmospheric gases.
The carbon cycle is starts with the conversion of gaseous carbon dioxide into organic compounds by
producers during photosynthesis. Consumers use the plant’s carbon compounds for growth and energy,
releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct of metabolism during respiration. The composition of organic matter
brings back carbon molecules to the earth, eventually producing fossil fuels. This fossil fuels are turned into
useful energy in factories and machines that release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Carbon is then
taken up by plants in photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide is readily soluble in water. Therefore, some carbon is also stored as dissolved carbon
dioxide in the ocean. Dissolved carbon dioxide is used up and released by aquatic organisms. Oceanic and
atmospheric carbon dioxide pools are generally in equilibrium where carbon dioxide evaporating into the
atmosphere equals the carbon dioxide dissolving into the ocean.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen gas constitutes about 79 percent of the atmosphere. Although abundant in its gaseous form,
it is not readily available for the ecosystem. The nitrogen cycle is heavily dependent on microorganisms that
are capable of absorbing atmospheric nitrogen and turning in into usable forms for other living organisms.
Atmospheric nitrogen needs to be fixed by special groups of microorganisms and, to a lesser extent, by
lightning and volcanic actions in order to be transformed into compounds that can be used by plants. Major
sources of nitrogen-containing materials are the wastes of organisms and decomposition products of dead
animals and plants. The so called ammonifying bacteria convert the nitrogen-containing wastes into
ammonia
(NH3) and ammonium salts. Other special bacteria convert the ammonia into nitrites and nitrates. The
nitrates are then assimilated through the roots of many plants and used in their metabolism or growth
processes. Another set of microorganisms, then denitrifying bacteria breakdown nitrogen-containing
substances and release the nitrogen back into the atmosphere. Special decomposer bacteria convert the
nitrogen-containing organic compound found in detritus (wastes and dead bodies of organisms) into organic
compounds, such as ammonia gas and water-soluble salts containing ammonium ions. Other special groups
of bacteria then convert these inorganic forms of nitrogen back into nitrate ions in the soil and into nitrogen
gas, which is released to the atmosphere to begin the cycle again.
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is primarily required in the cellular level for its role in energy currency, the ATP. However, it is not
a common element found on earth. Phosphorus cycling occurs less actively. Also, its largest active pool is
found in the soil from decaying organic matter.
The short term cycle of phosphorus starts when plants get phosphorus from the soil. Consumers
obtain phosphorus by eating the plants. Decomposition of dead organic matter from producers and
consumers bring back phosphorus to the soil for recycling.

The long term cycle involves phosphates running off into bodies of water or leaching into bodies from the soil,
settling into sediments, and later on, being incorporated into the rock as insoluble compounds. At this point,
phosphorus stores are immobilized and are unavailable to living organisms. Later on, when the rock
containing phosphorus is exposed to the elements and undergoes weathering, the stores are released into
the environment once again.
Unlike the carbon and nitrogen cycles, the phosphorus cycle does not involve the atmosphere. Natural
processes, such as weathering and erosion of rocks, bring phosphate minerals (found in rocks) into rivers that
empty these into the sea where marine birds which eventually drop the phosphorus-rich deposits (guano) on
land. Some of these are mined in certain areas as fertilizer.
Phosphates which remain in the sea become sediments or deposits and thus do not circulate anymore,
except if geological events, such as tsunamis, raise these sediments above sea-level. Decomposition of
organic matter also enables phosphorus circulation to some extent.
Phosphorus released by the slow breakdown, or weathering, of phosphate rock deposits in dissolved in
soil water and taken up by plant roots. However, most soils contain only small amounts of phosphorus
because phosphate compounds are fairly insoluble in water and are found only in certain kinds of rocks,
making it a limiting factor for plant growth in ecosystem.