CHAPTER 1

The islands of El Nido in Palawan have long been heralded as one of the
most exquisite displays of nature in the whole world. For decades, it has
managed to provide food and other materials to local residents while keeping its
image ever pristine and attractive for tourists. It has successfully resisted the
impacts of man and held its own, a fate not commonly shared by other popular
islands. The reason behind is simply this environmental awareness.

Environmental science is the study of the interaction of man with the

natural environment. In this chapter, we aim to provide a comprehensive
overview of the relevant ecological principles, which include the ecosystem
structure and function, energy flow, and biogeochemical cycles. With a basic
understanding of the ecological foundations, we can better appreciate and
understand the impacts of man to the natural world.

A major field of study related to environmental science is ecology, the

study of how organisms interact with one another and their nonliving
environment. Environmental science is primarily founded on ecological
principles; it starts with its most basic functional unit the ecosystem.

The Ecosystem Concept- The idea of the ecosystem is the most fundamental
concept in the field of ecology. The ecosystem includes organisms, populations,
and communities, each influencing the properties of the others.

A population is a group of organisms of the same kind living in a

particular location (eg, all the milkfish in a lake, people in a country, or people in
the world).

For organisms that reproduce sexually, a species is one or more

populations whose members actually or potentially interbreed under natural
conditions and produce fertile offspring.

Each organism and population has a habitat: the place or type of place
where it naturally lives within a community. Within its defined habitat, it fulfills
an obligatory role or niche contributory to the total ecosystem function. When
several populations of different species live together and interact with one
another in a particular place, they make up what is called a biotic community
(e.g, all the plants, animals, and microorganisms.
 The biosphere is the only ecosystem which has a definite material
boundary, that is, it does not significantly exchange materials with an external
environment.

Ecosystem Structure- An ecosystem's structure is a set of functional elements

occupying a particular habitat and the relationships between the components. All
ecosystems are composed of the abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living)
components. The abiotic components are generally referred to as the life support
system that enables the living components to grow, develop, and reproduce in the
eternal cycle of life.

ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS - The nonliving environment

is comprised of the abiotic factors that shape and define the interactions and
interdependence within an ecosystem. The abiotic factors can be either a
resource, if it is a physical material (organic or inorganic) of the environment
that is constantly altered or exchanged among organisms; or they can be a
regulator, if they represent a physical condition of the ecosystem. The abiotic
factors thus compose the chemical and physical environment of the living
organisms. Depending on the type of ecosystem, the abiotic factors may range
from rainfall, air currents, temperature, pH of soil, and sunlight for terrestrial or
land ecosystems, to water depth, turbidity, salinity, and dissolved oxygen in
aquatic or water ecosystems. Abiotic factors play a key role in the living
organisms' survival and may serve as a limiting factor that controls populations
of animals and plants in an ecosystem. Each species is adapted only to a specific
set of conditions; however, it may also have the ability to withstand fluctuations
in biotic and abiotic environmental factors a range of tolerance, that is.

Biotic factors, on the other hand, refer to all living organisms that
inhabit an environment. It is essentially the species richness in a given area. A
key feature of an ecosystem is the interactions of among biotic factors. Animals
and plants in a given area interact with and are interdependent directly or
indirectly on each other. No organism can exist by itself; they depend on other
living things for their nutrition and protection.

TROPHIC STRUCTURE- The trophic structure represents the food

relationships between the structural components of the ecosystem. In these food
relationships, there is always a transfer of matter and energy between organisms,
or between organisms and the physical environment. The trophic structure is
defined by organisms' classification based on their general nutritional habits.
Producer- Producers, sometimes called autotrophs ("self-feeders"), are
organisms that can manufacture their own organic compounds that they use as
sources of energy and nutrients. Most producers are green plants that make the
organic nutrients by transforming energy from the sun into chemical energy
through the process of photosynthesis.

Consumers- Organisms that get the nutrients and energy they require by feeding
either directly or indirectly on producers are called consumers, or heterotrophs
("other-feeders"). Depending on their food sources, consumers that feed on
living organisms fall into four major classes:

 Primary consumers - herbivores which feed directly and only on all or

part of living plants

 Secondary consumers - primary carnivores, which feed only on plant-

eating animals

 Tertiary and higher-level consumers - large carnivores or omnivores

that feed on primary and secondary consumers, and/or producers

Decomposers- Heterotrophs that feed on detritus, or dead organic plant and

animal matter, are known as detritivores. There are two major classes of
detritivores: detritus feeders and decomposers.
ECOSYSTEM

Abiotic Biotic

Resource Regulator Producers Consumers Decomposers

Inorganic substances
(metals, elements, etc.)
Latitude and latitude Herbivores

Organic compounds Climate regime (rain,

(carbohydrates, proteins, light, wind, Carnivores
lipids) temperature)

Soil content (water, air, Natural phenomena

minerals, nutrients) (typhoons, fires, etc.) Omnivores

Soil and water properties

Dissolved nutrients
(pH, salinity, ect.)

Dissolved oxygen

Ecosystem Functions- Ecosystem functions refer to the processes that link the
different structural elements together. Based on the trophic structure, there are
three main functions in the ecosystem, that of production, consumption and
decomposition.

Cellular respiration is the chain of reactions during which cells release

the chemical-bond energy and convert it into other usable forms.

PRODUCTION- Production is the function responsible for the accumulation of

organic structures in the ecosystem.

Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the rate at which producers

convert sunlight into usable chemical energy or biomass, Net primary
productivity (NPP), on the other hand, is the rate at which plants use
photosynthesis to store chemical energy in biomass minus the rate at which they
use some of this chemical energy in aerobic cellular respiration to live, grow, and
reproduce.

CONSUMPTION - Consumption is the function which balances the opposites,

production and decomposition. It acts as the regulator, careful that production
would not be too much and decomposition too little, or vice versa.

DECOMPOSITION- Decomposition is the function responsible for the

breakdown of complex structures in the ecosystem.

Energy Flow in Ecosystems- The most fundamental law governing our planet's
finite resources states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed.

The laws of thermodynamics govern energy processes in biological

systems. The first law of energy or thermodynamics, also known as the law of
conservation of energy, states that the total amount of energy in all its forms
remains constant.

This has its implications in trophic relationships. This second law of

energy is otherwise known as the law of degradation of energy quality.

Food chain in an ecosystem refers to the transfer of food energy from

the source (e.g., plants) through a series of organisms, in a process of sequential
or repeated eating and being eaten.

Food webs refer to the interconnected or interlocking relationships

among various food chains in an ecosystem. The pyramid of energy shows how
the amount of available energy decreases at each succeeding trophic level.
 Biomass is the total weight of living matter at each trophic level. A
pyramid of biomass represents the total dry weight of living material available
at each trophic level. Lastly, a pyramid of numbers represents the actual
number of organisms consumed by the level above it.

Biogeochemical Cycles- Elements and inorganic compounds that sustain life

tend to circulate in the earth's biosphere in regular paths from the atmosphere to
the lithosphere (soil) or hydrosphere (water) into living things and then back into
these environments. All-natural systems rely on the recycling of these elements
and molecules herein referred to as nutrients to ensure that life goes on. These
cyclic paths of nutrients that function in animals or plants are called
biogeochemical cycles. The following are the important cycles of materials
found in ecosystems.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE- The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, collects,

purifies, and distributes the earth's fixed supply of water.

Water vapor enters the atmosphere by evaporation from bodies of water

and transpiration from plants. The water eventually returns to Earth as rain or
what is called precipitation. Plants accumulate water from rainfall and then
recycle it back to the atmosphere in the process called transpiration.

CARBON CYCLE- The largest pools of carbon on earth are relatively

inaccessible. Majority of carbon is trapped as carbonate in rocks, such as
limestone and marble. Carbon is also stored in deep earth as carbon-rich
decaying organic sediments, also known as fossil fuels.

NITROGEN CYCLE- Nitrogen gas constitutes about 79 percent of the

atmosphere. Although abundant in its gaseous form, it is not readily available for
the ecosystem. The nitrogen cycle is heavily dependent on microorganisms that
are capable of absorbing atmospheric nitrogen and turning it into usable forms
for other living organisms.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE- Phosphorus is primarily required in the cellular level

for its role in energy currency, the ATP However, it is not a common element
found on earth. Phosphorus cycling occurs less actively. Also, its largest active
pool is found in the soil from decaying organic matter.
 CHAPTER 2

This tropical climate brings about high levels of precipitation that

facilitates accelerated ecological processes and nutrient cycling factors that in
turn make the region a thriving mecca for a wide array of plants and animals,
some of which are exclusively found in the Philippines or what we call endemic
species.

The process of shaping and molding species composition in a given area

over time is called ecological succession.

PRIMARY SUCCESSION- A newly exposed piece of land starts off barren

until it is colonized by a biological entity this first step of forming a biological
community in a sterile spot is called primary succession. The first colonizers are
termed pioneer species. Lichen, which consists of algae or bacteria in a mutual
relationship with a fungus, makes for an excellent pioneer species due to its
versatility.

The process of primary succession is gradual and may take decades to

complete. Primary succession eventually slows down as the community reaches
equilibrium. A stable ecological community with little or no change in species
over a period of time is called a climax community. If the abiotic conditions
remain stable, climax communities may last for decades or even centuries.

SECONDARY SUCCESSION- If a climax community undergoes a sudden

change in its vegetation, such as in the case of natural disasters, the disturbed
community will undergo a series of events aimed to re- establish the ecological
community. These changes in a previously colonized community are termed
secondary succession. Secondary succession is a much more rapid process than
primary succession because the cleared land already contains fertile soil; hence, it
requires less time and fewer steps to achieve a stable climax community.

Types of Ecosystems- Ecosystems vary according to the predominant types of

living and nonliving elements available. Ecosystems may be classified along two
major types: natural or those which have existed and regenerated through
natural processes and man-made or those which have been formed through
man's interventions.

NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS- Natural ecosystems fall under two main kinds:

aquatic or terrestrial. Terrestrial ecosystems are broadly classed into forest,
desert, grassland, and mountain ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems, on the other
hand, include marine, estuarine, and freshwater types.

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

Forest ecosystems- are characterized by an abundance of vegetation in a

relatively small space.

The effects of these functions on the environment are called forest

influences.

Desert ecosystems are found in regions where the annual rainfall is less
than 25 cm. With extremely high temperature and intense sunlight, and very little
water, plants are limited to shrubs, bushes, and grasses.

Mountain ecosystems or cloud forests provide a formidable range of

habitats according to altitude. Lastly, marginal lands or grassland ecosystems
are an important ecosystem type. They are areas once covered with tropical moist
forest, converted to plantation forests, fire-prone Imperata (Cogon) grasslands,
and brushlands.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Freshwater ecosystems- Freshwater bodies such as rivers, lakes, and bays have
provided sources of water for all life forms: drinking water for humans and
animals, as well as water for nourishing plant life.

Riverine ecosystems- also called lotic ecosystems, refer to fast-moving waters,

such as streams and rivers.

Lacustrine ecosystems- are lentic or still such as in lakes and ponds.

Palustrine ecosystems- are wetlands that lack flowing water; thus, the soil is
saturated for a long period of time.

Brackish/estuarine ecosystem- Bordering seas and oceans are areas which are
referred to as "seashores." These are made up of other smaller coastal ecosystems
such as mangroves and estuaries.

Marine Ecosystems- Comprise the biggest ecosystems, covering around 71% of

the earth's surface. Water in these ecosystems has high salinity and high
dissolved nutrients and minerals. Marine ecosystems are huge reservoirs of
species diversity. There are three major life zones in the marine ecosystem: the
coastal zone, open sea, and the ocean bottom.

The coastal zone is the shallow and warm water that flows from land
towards the sloping edge of the continental shelf (the submerged part of a
continent).

MAN-MADE ECOSYSTEMS- Unnatural or man-made ecosystems are

ecosystems that have been developed through man's participation used by man
and maintained by man.

Agricultural Ecosystems- A basic element of the rural landscape is represented

in agroecosystems. Agroecosystems are essentially croplands which have been
cultivated and maintained with human inputs like chemical fertilizers, irrigated
water, heating systems, etc.

Urban Ecosystems- Like agroecosystems, and even more so, urban settlements
are "fuel-power" ecosystems that depend largely on fossil fuels, such as oil and
gas, for survival inputs.

Biomes- The earth's major communities are called biomes. Biomes are a broad,
vegetative subdivision of some biogeographic realm, shaped by climate,
topography, and the composition of regional soils.

TERRESTRIAL BIOMES

Tundra- Tundra is the region near the North Pole. Due to the extremely cold
climate, tundra lacks complex flora and fauna, such as trees, and have very low
species diversity. At constant freezing temperatures, the ground is a permanently
frozen structure called permafrost.

Taiga- The taiga is the largest among the terrestrial biomes. Lying south of the
tundra, it is also known as the northern coniferous forest as it is predominated by
rows and rows of needleleaf trees (fir, hemlock, and spruce).

Desert- The desert is the driest biome on Earth with less than 25 cm of
precipitation annually. Found in arid regions of the world, it can sustain only
plants and animals that have developed adaptations for water retention and heat
tolerance.

Grassland- Grasslands have vegetation that is dominated by grasses, with

occasional trees, and large shrubs. Tropical grasslands called savannas have only
a few scattered individual trees per hectare, with frequencies increasing in areas
near water sources. Savannas are found in the warm climates of Africa, Australia,
India, and South America. Grasslands receive about 25 to 75 cm of precipitation
annually. Grasslands are coined "breadbaskets of the world" because they can be
used as farming lands for cereal grains oats, rye, and wheat. Temperate
grasslands usually do not have any trees and large shrubs and can be subdivided
into prairies (grasslands with tall grasses) or steppes (grasslands with short
grasses). Herds of grazing animals occupy grasslands.

Temperate Forest- Temperate or deciduous forests are characterized by its leaf-

shedding, broad- leaved hardwood trees and its seasonal climate winter, spring,
summer, and autumn.

Rainforest- Rainforests possess the most species of organisms compared to other

biomes on Earth. Rainforests at the temperate zone are found in South America,
New Zealand, and Australia.

AQUATIC BIOMES

Marine Biomes- In a marine biome, a large proportion of the oceanic biomass is

contributed by microorganisms called plankton that is consumed as food by
marine animals. Varying depths exhibit shifts in abiotic conditions, and as such
the biological communities vary accordingly. At the photic zone (shallow
portions receiving ample sunlight), vegetation is abundant and supports a wide
variety of animals. Marine ecosystems like seagrass beds and coral reefs, as well
as shoreline ecosystems, are found in the photic zone. The aphotic zone
meanwhile, serves as habitat to some organisms that have developed adaptations
for cold and dark waters.

Estuaries- Recall that an estuary forms in an area that is partially enclosed by

land wherever a river meets the ocean. The convergence of freshwater from the
river and salt water from the sea deposits high levels of sediments and thus,
nutrients, in this transition zone.

Freshwater Biomes- Freshwater biomes range from lentic ponds and lakes, to
wetlands, to the lotic streams, and rivers. In a lacustrine ecosystem, the topmost
zone is the warmest as it receives the bulk of the sun's energy.

For riverine ecosystems, streams and rivers have fast flowing water
whose characteristics change as it flows from its estuarine source to the mouth.
 Marshes, swamps, and bogs are palustrine wetlands that support a
variety of plants that are adapted to moist and humid conditions, collectively
called hydrophytes.
 CHAPTER 3

It is essential to consider the three unifying themes of environmental

science sustainability, sound science, and stewardship.

Environment and the Economy- The earth’s natural environment provides for
its residents by way of ecosystem services.

The goods and services derived from the environment create the products
and commodities mobilized in the social infrastructure we refer to was
economics.

SUSTAINABLE ECONOMY- A sustainable economy is one which embodies

"living within its means" an economy that is disinclined in depleting resources
and conscientiously uses resources that the environment is able to replenish. A
sustainable economy can be achieved in the form of a green economy.

The Environmental Movement- The term environment is an inclusive one. It

collectively refers to the world created by nature, interfacing with human
societies and man-made structures.

It was clear then that human activity stands as the culprit to

environmental decline, and thus should be properly addressed. This period marks
the start of modern environmentalism.

ENVIRONMENTALISM- In the United States, the '60s to '70s decade marked

the most proactive era of env iron mentalism. During this time, the Congress
created the first Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and passed numerous
laws promoting wildlife protection and controlling pollution.

Environmental issues became "transboundary," which subjected concerns

to geographical and physical boundaries rather than exclusive, national, or state
boundaries. International cooperation is acknowledged as necessary in dealing
with environmental affairs. As such, conventions are ratified by multiple
nationalities; hence they are also referred to as multilateral agreements.

The increase in civic consciousness also led to the emergence of civil

society organizations (CSO) focused on local and global environmental
concerns.

Environmental Policies- The environmental movement that gathered steam in

the 1960s set the stage for real and tangible movements in environmental
management. Government bodies firmly took action and began playing an active
role in environmental governance, starting with the formulation of
environmental policies.

The following are the generally accepted fundamental principles

governing international environmental policy. These international agreements are
used as the guiding principles for formulating legislation:

The Sustainability Principle- This principle emphasizes the concept of

sustainability as a means to avert a global ecological crisis. Environmentalists
assert that human exponential growth is not sustainable because the planet is
finite and thus can support only a limited number.

The Polluter Pays Principle- In the 1970s, the initial trend in formulating
legislation targeted corporations and businesses which contribute to the
production of polluting materials.

The Precautionary Principle- The precautionary principle was first recognized

in 1982 at the World Charter for Nature. Up to that point, governments tended to
focus its intervention through remedial action of past or ongoing negative
environmental impact. This principle strives to curtail further harm to the
environment through environmental impact assessments (EIA) and risk
evaluations done in advance of the proposed activities.

The Participation Principle- The participation principle outlines the

involvement of the general public as a stakeholder in any environmental decision
that might affect them. It is mandatory for a new project to have an
environmental impact statement (EIS) displayed for the public for consultation
purposes.

The Equity Principle- Equity or fairness in this context refers to

intergenerational equity, or justice and fairness to future generations.

Human Rights Principle- In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

adopted in 1948, the notion of human rights was incorporated within the context
of environmental management.

Three Unifying Themes- By this point, the desired outcome of environmental

science should be clear the health of the planet must be restored and maintained
for the current generation and the generations to come. This is a Herculean task
that requires careful planning and precise execution. In this lesson, we look at the
three vital themes that will direct societies towards long-term sustainability:
sustainability, sound science, and stewardship.

SUSTAINABILITY- The term "sustainable" was first used to define the limits
to the exploitation of biologically renewable resources, such as fisheries, forests,
and groundwater.

Three spheres of influence are considered here. In the economic sphere,

the focus is the growth of businesses and economic infrastructures which is
dependent on the world's stock of natural resources or the natural capital. The
social sphere is where cultural forms and community infrastructures or the social
capital comes in. Economic performance is dependent on the social capital. The
third sphere represents the ecologist's point of view which revolves around the
preservation of the environment. The ecological sphere is in place to ensure that
the economic and social spheres respect the integrity of the environment as it will
be providing for the two other spheres in the long-term.

SOUND SCIENCE- Environmental issues are rooted in compromised biological

processes. In order to create solutions for problems, the problems have to be
analyzed in a valid and reliable manner. The scientific method is an important
tool that methodically tests ideas and assesses data to answer scientific
questions. Scientific inquiry is a powerful way to understand nature.
Knowledge obtained through the scientific method which has been subjected to
the peer review process by the scientific community is called sound science.

STEWARDSHIP - The third theme is stewardship or the collective

responsibility for environmental quality by all whose actions affect the
environment.

Doers are individuals who make time and take action to address an
environmental problem. These are the volunteers who participate in ocean clean
ups, bird census, etc. Donors are the financial backers of an environmental cause.
Their contributions can range from donating money to organizing fund raisers.
The practitioners are the people involved with environmental work in a daily
basis.