Lab 4 Habitat and Conflict

Jared Altomare, Aidan Lawyer, Zachary Lenzi, and Jennifer Polios

Environmental Issues Lab

Dr. Daniel Moscovici

Stockton University
Environmental Science
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Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Introduction 3
Methods 3
Habitat Requirements 4
Analysis of Existing Structures 5
Recommendations 6
References 8
Appendix A 10
Appendix B 11
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Abstract
The loss of habitats and biodiversity is an increasing concern globally. Birds are particularly
affected by the loss of habitat and biodiversity, and the wood duck is no exception. Stockton University
has five wood duck habitats that are located on its campus. In an exercise these five habitat boxes were
examined to determine the functionality and if any invasive or unwanted species took up residence within
it. Based on the condition of some of the nesting boxes, it was concluded that new ones should be built to
ensure the wood ducks have habitats to live in. Research was conducted to determine the best possible
potential habitat locations for nesting wood duck boxes on Stockton University’s Galloway campus.
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Introduction
The loss of global biodiversity is becoming an increasingly important issue and one of its greatest
drivers is the destruction of habitat needed for breeding and foraging (Ducatez & Shine, 2017). Birds in
particular are affected by this, and the wood duck (Aix sponsa) is no exception. Wood ducks are endemic
to North America, ranging from the southern most portions of Canada to as far south as the Yucatan
Peninsula (see figure 1 for range) and are unique among most other waterfowl in that they nest in tree
cavities rather than on the ground (Bellrose, 1976a). Their diet mainly consists of seeds and invertebrates,
depending on the season (Drobney & Fredrickson, 1979). Ducklings and eggs are preyed upon by snakes,
woodpeckers, and racoons (Strange et Al., 1971), while the adults often fall victim to birds of prey (Davis
et Al., 2001). The species is currently listed as “least concern” by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List (Birdlife International, 2021), but this was not always the case
and there was concern the species would have gone extinct in the early 1900’s due to overhunting and
habitat loss (Bellrose, 1976b). Habitat loss still remains a major issue for the ducks today, however the
use of artificial nest platforms provides a possible solution.

Figure 1: Geographic range of the wood duck (Aix sponsa).

Methods:

Stockton University has five wood duck habitat boxes which are located in the surrounding area.
These boxes were located and assessed in person to determine the functionality and if any invasive or
unwanted species took up residence within it. These boxes and the nearby area were also observed to
determine if any wood ducks were currently visiting the area. After this occurred, ArcGIS mapping
analysis was conducted to determine where new habitat boxes could be placed in order to influence more
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wood duck nesting. These locations were based on the land use and features present on the map and also
prior research which informed what a proper environment would look like for these organisms.

Habitat requirements:
Wood ducks are secondary cavity nesters, meaning they nest in tree cavities that have already
been created rather than excavating their own cavities (Malanchuck & Straub, 2020). Because of this they
often require standing dead trees with a large diameter, or artificial nesting boxes created to mimic a
cavity in a large tree (Gutzat & Dormann, 2018) located in still or slow moving wetlands consisting of a
combination of shallow water interspersed with vegetation, and deeper open water. Some examples of
their preferred habitat include lakes, managed impoundments, beaver ponds, and lake-influenced wetlands
(Hartke & Hepp, 2004). A very important factor for habitat selection and hatchling survival rate is
abundance of food source: vegetation before incubation and insects during incubation (Hartke & Hepp,
2004). Availability of cover adjacent to nesting location is also a crucial factor for survival and thus must
be heavily considered when analyzing potential habitat (Dyson et al., 2018).
These factors must be considered when placing artificial nesting structures, however there are
also more specific requirements that must be met in order to create successful nesting boxes. To begin
with, wood duck boxes have been found to have higher success rates when installed over water rather
than on land (Malanchuk & Schaub, 2020; Carfagno & Weatherfield, 2009) and should be at least 3-6 feet
above historical water level (Cornell Lab of Ornithology, 2019). While it is not ideal, boxes can also be
installed on land and must be at least 10 feet above ground level and within 100 feet of water. In all cases
the entrance hole should be facing open water (Cornell Lab of Ornithology, 2019). Boxes also require
clearance of branches, with no branches blocking the flyway from the water to the opening in the box and
no branches overhanging the box that predators could use to climb onto the box. Predators should also be
deterred by a sturdy cone shaped baffle attached to the pole below the nest box. Furthermore, boxes
should be placed at least 300 feet from one another (Wood Duck Society, n.d.; Ducks Unlimited, n.d.) in
order to avoid egg dumping and brood parasitism, behaviors in which female wood ducks lay their eggs in
unoccupied nest boxes or in another female’s nest box (Harvey et al., 2021).
Boxes should be built using cedar lumber with the dimensions found in Appendix A. Once
installed, wood duck boxes require yearly maintenance which includes adding a four to six inch layer of
cedar wood chips to the bottom of the box. This layer of wood chips mimics the material found naturally
inside of tree cavities and should be refreshed yearly between December and February (Cornell Lab of
Ornithology, 2019), before wood ducks migrate north to breed in the spring. Adhering to all of these
requirements will result in the highest chances of successful usage by wood ducks and not by unintended
species, such as hooded mergansers, which have been known to use wood duck boxes, although at a much
lower frequency than wood ducks (Huesmann & Stolarski, 2017).
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Analysis of Existing Structures

On Stockton’s campus there are five existing locations of wood duck nest structures as seen in
Figure 2. Of these structures, box number 3 was damaged beyond repair (Figure 3) and box number 2 was
damaged so badly it could not be located. Box number 1 (Figure 3) is intact and located on land with a
proper height of 10 feet, proper facing towards the water, and properly attached predator guard. The box
was slightly smaller than what is recommended, but was in usable condition. The location of this box was
suitable for wood ducks, with plenty of cover around the box and on the adjacent body of water. No ducks
were observed inside the box, however a pair of wood ducks was observed in an adjacent body of water
although it is undeterminable if this pair used the nest box at this location or was stopping in the area
during migration. Box number 4 is adjacent to lake Pam and is of proper size and height but is in poor
condition (Figure 3). Additionally, the placement of the box is not ideal because of the lack of vegetation
and cover on the body of water that the box is facing. Finally, box number 5 (Figure 3) is located on land
with proper height, but with a broken predator guard and instead of facing a body of water, is facing the
parking lot of a local hospital. The box is in usable condition, but has unusable placement.

Figure 2: Locations of previously installed wood duck boxes as well recommended

installation sites and land use of these sites. See appendix B for a full sized map.
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Figure 3: Existing wood duck nesting structures on Stockton’s campus. Top left: box
number 1. Top right: box number 3. Bottom left: box number four. Bottom right: box
number 5.

Recommendation
We recommend several courses of action in order to improve habitat availability for wood ducks
on Stockton’s property. To begin with, boxes numbers 2 and 3 should be fully replaced with new boxes, as
the habitat location of these boxes is perfect because they provide abundant cover, food, and direct access
to a large slow moving body of water (Dyson et al., 2018). These boxes should be installed over the water
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in these locations at a height of 3-6 feet above water level to increase likelihood of usage and survival of
offspring (Carfango & Weatherfield, 2009). We also recommend installing boxes in the locations shown
in figure 2. These locations are all at least 300 feet away from each other and consist of areas on or
around Lake Fred with available cover and direct access to the lake. Recommended boxes 1, 2, 3, and 4
are all located on the lake along the coast line in cove-like areas with adjacent vegetative cover and
should be installed on the water with clearance from branches. Recommended box 5 is located in a cedar
wetland consisting of several small clearings which is perfect habitat for wood ducks as it combines
wooded cover and abundant food source with open flyways and access to a larger lake. The recommended
installation sites, as well as the sites of previously installed boxes 2 and 3, are consistent with what was
found to be successful habitat in a study done in the Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge using similar
nesting boxes to analyze their effectiveness in different habitats (Hartke & Hepp 2004).
Once installed, we strongly encourage involvement from an organization such as the Stockton
Birding Club that can be responsible for maintenance, as it would seem that the existing boxes on campus
are not maintained properly and without the addition of wood chips to the bottom of boxes yearly, the
likelihood of usage is severely decreased (Cornell Lab of Ornithology, 2019; Ducks Unlimited n.d.). We
also recommend entirely removing or relocating box number 5 due to its unsuitable location. Finally, we
recommend one of two courses of action for box number 4. Either removal, or repair. But if repaired it is
advised that native vegetation is planted on and around lake Pam and cover such as logs and branches are
added to the landscape in order to increase suitability of the habitat. In all, these actions should lead to
usable habitat for multiple pairs of nesting wood ducks with minimal interference from each other, low
risk of predation, and low risk of use by unintended species.
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References

Bellrose, F. C. (1976a). Ducks, Geese and Swans of North America. (2nd ed.). Stackpole Books.

Bellrose, F. C. (1976b). The Comeback of the Wood Duck. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 4(3), 107–110.

Birdlife International. (2016, October 1). Wood Duck (Aix sponsa). The IUCN of Threatened Species.
Retrieved October 16, 2022, from https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22680104/92843477

Carfagno, G. L. F., & Weatherfield, P. J. (2009). Ratsnake response to bottomland flooding: implications
for avian nest predation. . Acta Herpetologica, 4(2), 191–194.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.13128/Acta_Herpetol-3422

Cornell Lab of Ornithology. (2019, August 27). Wood Duck. NestWatch. Retrieved October 11, 2022,
from https://nestwatch.org/learn/all-about-birdhouses/birds/wood-duck/

Davis, J. B., Kaminski, R. M., Leopold, B. D., & Cox, R. R. (2001). Survival of female wood ducks
during brood rearing in Alabama and Mississippi. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 65(4),
738–744. https://doi.org/10.2307/3803024

Drobney, R. D., & Fredrickson, L. H. (1979). Food selection by Wood Ducks in relation to breeding
status. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 43(1), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.2307/3800641

Ducatez, S., & Shine, R. (2017). Drivers of extinction risk in terrestrial vertebrates. Conservation Letters,
10(2), 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12368

Ducks Unlimited. (n.d.). Installing your wood duck box. World Leader in Wetlands & Waterfowl
Conservation. Retrieved October 16, 2022, from
https://www.ducks.org/conservation/waterfowl-research-science/installing-your-wood-duck-box

Dyson, M. E., Schummer, M. L., Barney, T. S., Fedy, B. C., Henry, H. A., & Petrie, S. A. (2018). Survival
and habitat selection of wood duck ducklings. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 82(8),
1725–1735. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21508

Gutzat, F., & Dormann, C. F. (2018). Decaying trees improve nesting opportunities for cavity‐nesting
birds in temperate and boreal forests: A meta‐analysis and implications for Retention Forestry.
Ecology and Evolution, 8(16), 8616–8626. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.4245
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Hartke, K. M., & Hepp, G. R. (2004). Habitat use and preferences of breeding female wood ducks.
Journal of Wildlife Management, 68(1), 84–93.
https://doi.org/10.2193/0022-541x(2004)068[0084:huapob]2.0.co;2

Harvey, K., Lavretsky, P., Foth, J., & Williams, C. K. (2021). Nest parasitism, promiscuity, and
relatedness among wood ducks. PLOS ONE, 16(12), 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257105

Heusmann, H. W., & Stolarski, J. T. (2017). Hooded Mergansers (Lophodytes cucullatus) Use Nest Boxes
Designed for Wood Ducks (Aix sponsa): A Changing Demographic. The Wilson Journal of
Ornithology, 129(3), 644–651. https://doi.org/10.1676/16-098.1

Janke, A. (2020, August). Woodworking for wildlife - wood duck box. Extension Store. Retrieved October
16, 2022, from https://store.extension.iastate.edu/product/15553

Malanchuk, J. B., & Straub, J. N. (2020). Use of tree cavities and nest boxes by Wood Ducks at
Missisquoi National Wildlife Refuge. Northeastern Naturalist, 27(1), 115–124.
https://doi.org/10.1656/045.027.0109

Strange, T. H., Cunningham, E. R., & Goertz, J. W. (1971). Use of nest boxes by Wood Ducks in
Mississippi. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 35(4), 786–793.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3799788

Wood Duck Society. (n.d.). Wood Duck Q&A. Wood Duck Society - FAQ. Retrieved October 16, 2022,
from http://www.woodducksociety.com/qanda.htm
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Appendix A: Wood Duck Box Blueprint

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Appendix B: GIS Map