Lecture1 950201

Wireless Communication Systems
Communication Engineering
Faculty of Electrical engineering
Sahand University of Technology
Lecture2: Path loss and shadowing

2
Path loss and shadowing
The wireless radio channel poses a severe challenge as a medium for reliable high-
Path Loss and Shadowing

speed communication.
Not only it is susceptible to noise, interference, and other channel impediments, but
these impediments change over time in unpredictable ways as a result of user
movement and environment dynamics.
Path loss is caused by dissipation of the power radiated by the transmitter as well as
by effects of the propagation channel.
Shadowing is caused by obstacles between the transmitter and receiver that

attenuate signal power through absorption, reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

3
Received power variation due to path loss occurs over long distances (100–1000 m).

variation due to shadowing occurs over distances that are proportional to the length
of the obstructing object (10–100 m in outdoor environments and less in indoor
environments).
Since variations in received power due to path loss and shadowing occur over
relatively large distances, these variations are sometimes referred to as large-scale
propagation effects.
There is received power variations due to the constructive and destructive addition of
multipath signal components. These variations occur over very short distances, on the
order of the signal wavelength, and so are sometimes referred to as small-scale
propagation effects.
4

5
The initial understanding of radio wave propagation goes back to the
pioneering work of James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1864 formulated a

theory of electromagnetic propagation that predicted the existence of
radio waves.
In 1887, the physical existence of these waves was demonstrated by

Heinrich Hertz. However, Hertz saw no practical use for radio waves.
By 1897 Guglielmo Marconi had managed to send a radio signal from

the Isle of Wight to a tugboat eighteen miles away, and in 1901
Marconi’s wireless system could traverse the Atlantic ocean.
The first transmission of voice and music was made by Reginald

Fessenden in 1906 using a form of amplitude modulation, as is done in
all wireless systems today.
6
Electromagnetic waves propagate through environments where
they are reflected, scattered, and diffracted by walls, terrain,

buildings, and other objects.
The ultimate details of this propagation can be obtained by solving

Maxwell’s equations with boundary conditions.
The simplest ray-tracing model is the two-ray model, which

accurately describes signal propagation when there is one direct
path between the transmitter and receiver and one reflected path.
Often the complexity and variability of the radio channel make it

difficult to obtain an accurate deterministic channel model. For
these cases, statistical models are often used.
Transmit and Receive Signal Models
7
models are developed mainly for signals in the UHF and SHF bands, from .3–3 GHz
and 3–30 GHz (respectively).

This range of frequencies is quite favorable for wireless system operation because of
its propagation characteristics and relatively small required antenna size.
All the transmitted and received signals that we consider are real. That is because
modulators are built using oscillators that generate real sinusoids (not complex
exponentials).
Many signals in communication systems are real bandpass signals with a frequency
response that occupies a narrow bandwidth 2B centered around a carrier frequency
fc with 2B << fc.

8

Since bandpass signals are real, their frequency response has conjugate Symmetry.
However, bandpass signals are not necessarily conjugate symmetric within the
signal bandwidth about the carrier frequency fc.
We represent a bandpass signal s(t) at carrier frequency fc in the following form:

9
Define the complex signal

Then u(t) is a complex lowpass signal of bandwidth B. With this definition we see that
The representation on the right-hand side of this equation is called the complex
lowpass representation of the bandpass signal s(t), and the baseband signal u(t) is
called the equivalent lowpass signal for s(t) or its complex envelope.

10
consider a real channel impulse response h(t) with Fourier transform H(f).

A bandpass channel is similar to a bandpass signal: it has a real impulse response
h(t) with frequency response H(f) centered at a carrier frequency fc with a
bandwidth of 2B << fc.
Because the impulse response h(t) corresponding to H(f) is a bandpass signal, it can
be written using an equivalent lowpass representation as
in many wireless channels (e.g., frequency-selective fading channels) H(f) is not

conjugate symmetric about fc, in which case hl(t) is complex.
11
Assume The transmitted signal s(t) and channel impulse response h(t) are both real,
so the channel output r(t) = s(t) ∗ h(t) is also real, with frequency response R(f) =

H(f)S(f).
Since S(f) is a bandpass signal, R(f) will also be a bandpass signal. Therefore, it has a
complex lowpass representation of
Thus, we can obtain the equivalent lowpass signal v(t) for the received signal r(t) by
taking the convolution of hl(t) and u(t).
The main purpose for the equivalent lowpass representation is to analyze bandpass
communication systems using the equivalent lowpass models for the transmitted
signal, channel impulse response, and received signal. This removes the carrier
terms from the analysis .
12 Path loss
Suppose s(t) of power Pt is transmitted through a given channel with corresponding

received signal r(t) of power Pr. We define the linear path loss of the channel as the
ratio of transmit power to receive power:
In general, the dB path loss is a nonnegative number; the channel does not contain
active elements, and thus it can only attenuate the signal.
The dB path gain is defined as the negative of the dB path loss:

Free-Space Path Loss
13
Consider a signal transmitted through free space to a receiver located at

distance d from the transmitter.
Assume there are no obstructions between the transmitter and receiver and
that the signal propagates along a straight line between the two. The channel
model associated with this transmission is called a line-of-sight (LOS) channel,
and the corresponding received signal is called the LOS signal or ray.
Free-space path loss introduces a complex scale factor, resulting in the received
signal

Free-Space Path Loss
14
Where √Gl is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field radiation
patterns in the LOS direction. The phase shi e^(−j2πd/λ) is due to the distance d

that the wave travels.
The power in the transmitted signal s(t) is Pt , so the ratio of received to

transmitted power is
The received signal power is also proportional to the square of the signal
wavelength, so as the carrier frequency increases the received power decreases.

15
Ray tracing
In a typical urban or indoor environment, a radio signal transmitted from a fixed

source will encounter multiple objects in the environment that produce reflected,
diffracted, or scattered copies of the transmitted signal.
These additional copies of the transmitted signal, known as multipath signal

components, can be attenuated in power, delayed in time, and shifted in phase
and/or frequency with respect to the LOS signal path at the receiver.
In ray tracing we assume a finite number of reflectors with known location and
dielectric properties.
The details of the multipath propagation can then be solved using Maxwell’s
equations with appropriate boundary conditions.
Reflected, diffracted, and scattered wave components
16

Reflected, diffracted, and scattered wave components
17
Comparison of the ray-tracing method with empirical data shows it to accurately

model received signal power in rural areas, along city streets when both the
transmitter and receiver are close to the ground, and in indoor environments with
appropriately adjusted diffraction coefficients.
if the source or receiver are moving then the characteristics of the multiple paths
vary with time. These time variations are deterministic when the number, location,
and characteristics of the reflectors are known over time. Otherwise, statistical
models must be used.
if the number of reflectors is large or if the reflector surfaces are not smooth, then
we must use statistical approximations to characterize the received signal.

Two-ray model
18
The two-ray model is used when a single ground reflection dominates the
multipath effect.

The received signal consists of two components: the LOS component or ray, which
is just the transmitted signal propagating through free space, and a reflected
component or ray, which is the transmitted signal reflected off the ground.
the received signal for the two-ray model is
√Gl = √GaGb is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field radiation
patterns in the LOS direction, R is the ground reflection coefficient.

Two-ray model
19
√Gr = √GcGd is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field radiation

patterns corresponding to the rays of length x and x’, respectively.

Two-ray model
20
The delay spread of the two-ray model equals the delay between the LOS ray and
the reflected ray: τ =(x + x’ − l )/c.

If the transmitted signal is narrowband relative to the delay spread then
u(t) ≈ u(t −τ). With this approximation, the received power of the two-ray model for
narrowband transmission is
for asymptotically large d, x + x’ ≈ l ≈ d, θ ≈ 0, Gl ≈ Gr , and R ≈ −1. Substituting these

approximations, the received signal power is approximately

Two-ray model
21
A plot as a function of distance is

shown for f=900 MHz, R = −1, ht=50m,
hr = 2, Gl = 1, Gr = 1, and transmit
power normalized so that the plot
starts at 0 dBm.
In the first segment, power falloff is

constant and proportional to 1/(ht)^2
; for distances between ht and dc,
power falls oﬀ at −20 dB/decade; and
at distances greater than dc, power
falls oﬀ at −40 dB/decade.

Ten-Ray Model
22

Power falloff with distance in both the ten-ray model and urban empirical data is
typically propor onal to d ^(−2), even at rela vely large distances.
General Ray Tracing
23
For this model, the building database (height, location, and dielectric properties)

and the transmitter and receiver locations relative to the buildings must be
specified exactly.
the strength of each component is derived explicitly based on the building locations
and dielectric properties.
In general, the LOS and reflected paths provide the dominant components of the
received signal, since diffraction and scattering losses are high.
Diffraction occurs when the transmitted signal “bends around” an object in its path
to the receiver.

Ten-Ray Model
24
Diffraction results from many phenomena, including the curved surface of the

earth, hilly or irregular terrain, building edges, or obstructions blocking the LOS
path between the transmitter and receiver.
Diffraction is most commonly modeled by the Fresnel knife-edge diffraction model

because of its simplicity.

Ten-Ray Model: “Fresnel knife-edge diffraction model”
25
for h small relative to d and d’ , the signal must travel an additional distance relative
to the LOS path of approximately

Approximations for knife-edge diffraction path loss (in dB) relative to LOS path loss
are given by as
The knife-edge diffraction model yields the following formula for the received
diffracted signal:

Ten-Ray Model
26
A scattered ray, by the segments s and s’ , has a path loss proportional to the
product of s and s’. This multiplicative dependence is due to the additional

spreading loss that the ray experiences after scattering.
The received signal due to a scattered ray is given by the bistatic radar equation

Ten-Ray Model
27
σ (in square meters) is the radar cross-section of the scattering object, which
depends on the roughness, size, and shape of the scatterer:

if we have a LOS ray, Nr reflected rays, Nd diffracted rays, and Ns diffusely scattered
rays, the total received signal is

Empirical Path-Loss Models
28
These models are mainly based on empirical measurements over a given distance in a
given frequency range for a particular geographical area or building.

empirical measurements of Pr/Pt as a function of distance include the effects of path
loss, shadowing, and multipath.
In order to remove multipath effects, empirical measurements for path loss typically
average their received power measurements and the corresponding path loss at a
given distance over several wavelengths.
This average path loss is called the local mean attenuation (LMA) at distance d, and it
generally decreases with d owing to free-space path loss and signal obstructions.

29
Thus, the empirical path loss PL(d) for a given environment (a city, suburban area,

or office building) is defined as the average of the LMA measurements at distance d
averaged over all available measurements in the given environment.
Okumura Model
This model is applicable over distances of 1–100 km and frequency ranges of 150–
1500 MHz.
The empirical path-loss formula of Okumura at distance d parameterized by the

carrier frequency fc is given by

30
where L(fc,d) is free-space path loss at distance d and carrier frequency fc, Aμ(fc,d) is
the median attenuation in addition to free-space path loss across all environments.

GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment.
Hata Model
The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path-loss data provided
by Okumura and is valid over roughly the same range of frequencies, 150–1500 MHz.

Empirical Path-Loss Models: Hata model
31
The standard formula for empirical path loss in urban areas under the Hata model is

a(hr) is a correction factor for the mobile antenna height based on the size of the
coverage area. For small to medium-sized cities, this factor is given by
and for larger cities at frequencies fc > 300 MHz by

Empirical Path-Loss Models: Hata model
32

where K ranges from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert).
Unlike the Okumura model, the Hata model does not provide for any path-specific
correction factors.
The Hata model well approximates the Okumura model for distances d > 1 km.
Hence it is a good model for first-generation cellular systems, but it does not model
propagation well in current cellular systems with smaller cell sizes and higher
frequencies. Indoor environments are also not captured by the Hata model.

COST 231 Extension to Hata Model
33
The Hata model was extended by the European cooperative for scientific and

technical research (EURO-COST) to 2 GHz as
where a(hr) is the same correction factor as before and where CM is 0 dB for medium
sized cities and suburban and is 3 dB for metropolitan areas.
This model is referred to as the COST 231 extension to the Hata model and is
restricted to the following range of parameters: 1.5 GHz < fc < 2 GHz, 30 m <ht< 200 m,
1 m < hr < 10 m, and 1 km < d < 20 km.

Shadow Fading
34
A signal transmitted through a wireless channel will typically experience random
variation due to blockage from objects in the signal path, giving rise to random

variations of the received power at a given distance.
The location, size, and dielectric properties of the blocking objects – as well as the
changes in reflecting surfaces and scattering objects that cause the random
attenuation – are generally unknown, so statistical models must be used to
characterize this attenuation.
The most common model for this additional attenuation is log-normal shadowing.
In the log-normal shadowing model, the ratio of transmit-to-receive power ψ = Pt /Pr
is assumed to be random with a log-normal distribution given by

Shadow Fading
35
where ξ = 10/ln10, μ(ψ)dB is the mean of ψdB = 10 log10 ψ in decibels, and σ(ψ)dB

is the standard deviation of ψdB (also in dB).
Performance in log-normal shadowing is typically parameterized by the log mean

μ(ψ)dB , which is referred to as the average dB path loss and is given in units of dB.
With a change of variables we see that the distribution of the dB value of ψ is

Gaussian with mean μ(ψ)dB and standard deviation σ(ψ)dB :

Shadow Fading
36
Most empirical studies for outdoor channels support a standard deviation σ(ψ)dB

ranging from 4 dB to 13 dB.
The mean power μ(ψ)dB depends on the path loss and building properties in the
area under consideration.
The mean power μ(ψ)dB varies with distance; this is due to path loss and to the fact
that average attenuation from objects increases with distance owing to the
potential for a larger number of attenuating objects.

Combined Path Loss and Shadowing
37
Models for path loss and shadowing can be superimposed to capture power falloff
versus distance along with the random attenuation about this path loss from

shadowing.
In this combined model, average dB path loss (μ(ψ)dB ) is characterized by the path-
loss model while shadow fading, with a mean of 0 dB, creates variations about this
path loss.
For this combined model, the ratio of received to transmitted power in dB is given
by
the variations due to shadowing change more rapidly.

Outage Probability under Path Loss and Shadowing
38
In wireless systems there is typically a target minimum received power level Pmin

below which performance becomes unacceptable (e.g., the voice quality in a cellular
system becomes too poor to understand).
We define outage probability Pout(Pmin,d) under path loss and shadowing to be the
probability that the received power at a given distance d, Pr(d), falls below Pmin:
Pout(Pmin,d) = p(Pr(d) < Pmin).
For the combined path-loss and shadowing model this becomes

Cell Coverage Area
39

The cell coverage area in a cellular system is defined as the expected percentage of
locations within a cell where the received power at these locations is above a given
minimum.
The transmit power at the base station is designed for an average received power at
the cell boundary, averaged over the shadowing variations.
shadowing will cause some locations within the cell to have received power below
average PR, and others will have received power exceeding average PR.

Contours of constant received power
40

41
It is not possible for all users at the cell boundary to receive the same power level.

Thus, either the base station must transmit extra power to ensure users affected by
shadowing receive their minimum required power Pmin, which causes excessive
interference to neighboring cells, or some users within the cell will find their
minimum received power requirement unmet.
In fact, since the Gaussian distribution has infinite tails, any mobile in the cell has a
nonzero probability of experiencing received power below its required minimum,
even if the mobile is close to the base station.
This makes sense intuitively because a mobile may be in a tunnel or blocked by a

large building, regardless of its proximity to the base station.
42

The outage probability of the cell is defined as the percentage of area within the
cell that does not meet its minimum power requirement Pmin;
that is, P cell out = 1− C.
Given the log-normal distribution for the shadowing, we have
Locations within the cell with received power below Pmin are said to be outage
locations.
43

If the target minimum received power equals the average power at the cell
boundary, Pmin = P(r)(R), then a = 0 and the coverage area simplifies to

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Wireless Communication Systems

Lecture2: Path loss and shadowing

Path Loss and Shadowing

Shadowing is caused by obstacles between the transmitter and receiver that

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

Path Loss and Shadowing

Path Loss and Shadowing

In 1887, the physical existence of these waves was demonstrated by

By 1897 Guglielmo Marconi had managed to send a radio signal from

The first transmission of voice and music was made by Reginald

Path Loss and Shadowing

The ultimate details of this propagation can be obtained by solving

The simplest ray-tracing model is the two-ray model, which

Often the complexity and variability of the radio channel make it

Path Loss and Shadowing

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

We represent a bandpass signal s(t) at carrier frequency fc in the following form:

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Define the complex signal

Path Loss and Shadowing

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

in many wireless channels (e.g., frequency-selective fading channels) H(f) is not

Path Loss and Shadowing

Suppose s(t) of power Pt is transmitted through a given channel with corresponding

Path Loss and Shadowing

The dB path gain is defined as the negative of the dB path loss:

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Consider a signal transmitted through free space to a receiver located at

Path Loss and Shadowing

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

The power in the transmitted signal s(t) is Pt , so the ratio of received to

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

These additional copies of the transmitted signal, known as multipath signal

Path Loss and Shadowing

Comparison of the ray-tracing method with empirical data shows it to accurately

Path Loss and Shadowing

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

the received signal for the two-ray model is

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

for asymptotically large d, x + x’ ≈ l ≈ d, θ ≈ 0, Gl ≈ Gr , and R ≈ −1. Substituting these

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

A plot as a function of distance is

Path Loss and Shadowing

In the first segment, power falloff is

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

Path Loss and Shadowing

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

Diffraction is most commonly modeled by the Fresnel knife-edge diffraction model

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016

Path Loss and Shadowing

Afshin Ebrahimi, Sahand University of Technology 2016