Free Space Propagation Model

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite communication systems
and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space propagation. The free space
power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a
distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation

The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by

The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for values of d which are in the far-field of the
'transmitting antenna. The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined as the
region beyond the far field distance df
RAY TRACING
The additional copies of the transmitted signal, known as multipath signal components, can be
attenuated in power, delayed in time, and shifted in phase and/or frequency with respect to the LOS
signal path at the receiver. The multipath and transmitted signal are summed together at the receiver,
which often produces distortion in the received signal relative to the transmitted signal
In ray tracing we assume a finite number of reflectors with known location and dielectric properties.
Ray-tracing techniques approximate the propagation of electromagnetic waves by representing the
wavefronts as simple particles. Thus, the effects of reflection, diffraction, and scattering on the
wavefront are approximated using simple geometric equations instead of Maxwell’s more complex
wave equations.
A simple two-raymodel that predicts signal variation resulting from a ground reflection interfering
with the LOS path. This model characterizes signal propagation in isolated areas with few reflectors,
such as rural roads or highways. It is not typically a good model for indoor environments
2 – RAY GROUND REFLECTION MODEL

The 2-ray ground reflection model shown in Figure 3.7 is a useful propaga tion model that is
based on geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a ground reflected
propagation path between transmitter and receiver. This model has been found to be
reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale signal strength over distances of several
kilometers for mobile radio systems that use tall towers (heights which exceed 50 m), as
well as for line-of-sight microcell channels in urban environments.

In most mobile communication systems, the maximum T-R separation distance is at most
only a few tens of kilometers, and the earth may be assumed to be flat. The total received E-
field, ETOT, is then a result of the direct line-of-sight component, ELOS ,and the ground
reflected component,
electric field magnitude decays as 1/d in free space , the E-field strength at a reference distance,
multiplied by d0/d, for a path (distance of travel for waves) length d. Also, assume the signal is a
simple sinusoid at the carrier frequency, fc.
Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance d'; and
the reflected wave that travels a distance d'. The E-field due to the line-of-sight component
at the receiver can be expressed as

and the E-fleld for the ground reflected wave, which has a propagation distance
of d", can be expressed as

The electric field Etot(d, t) can be expressed as the sum of equations

Using the method of images, which is demonstrated by the geometry of Fig ure
the path difference, A, between the line-of-sight and the ground
reflected paths can be expressed as
When the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to ht+ hr
equation can be simplified using a Taylor series approximation

https://blogs.uakron.edu/bahrami/files/2017/02/Chapter4.pdf

Once the path difference is known, the phase difference

the time delay td between the arrival of the two components

the direct and ground reflected rays combine, the electric field (at the receiver) at a distance d
from the transmitter can be written as

When is less and d is large compared to the height of the antenna

where k is a constant related to E0, the antenna heights, and the wavelength

the received power at a distance d from the transmitter can be expressed as

The path loss for the 2-ray model (with antenna gains) can be expressed in dB as
Ten-Ray Model (Dielectric Canyon)
The building-lined streets act as a dielectric canyon to the propagating signal. Theoretically, an
infinite number of rays can be reflected off the building fronts to arrive at the receiver; in addition,
rays may also be back-reflected from buildings behind the transmitter or receiver. The ten rays
incorporate all paths with one, two, or three reflections: specifically, there is the line-of-sight (LOS)
path and also the ground-reflected (GR), single-wall (SW ) reflected, double-wall (DW ) reflected,
triple-wall (TW ) reflected, wall–ground (WG) reflected, and ground–wall (GW ) reflected paths.

where xi denotes the path length of the ith reflected ray, τi = (xi −l)/c, and √Gxi is the product of the
transmit and receive antenna gains corresponding to the ith ray. For each reflection path, the
coefficient Ri is the reflection coefficient. where del φi =2π(xi −l)/λ.
GENERAL RAY TRACING
General ray tracing(GRT)can be used to predict field strength and delay spread for any building
configuration and antenna placement. The GRT method uses geometrical optics to trace the
propagation of the LOS and reflected signal components as well as signal components from building
diffraction and scattering.
DIFFRACTION

Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth,
beyond the horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions.

The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen's principle, which states

that all points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for the production of
secondary wavelets, and that these 'wavelets combine to produce a new wavefront in the
direction of propagation. Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a
shadowed region. The field strength ofa diffracted wave in the shadowed region is the vector
sum of the electric fieldcomponents of all the secondary wavelets in the space around the
obstacle.

The wavefront of a time-varying field is the set of all points where the wave has the
same phase of the sinusoid. 

Fresnel Zone Geometry

To find the received electric field from the diffracted path shown, relative to the line of sight path.
Its characteristics depend strongly on the path difference ∆ between the length of the diffracted path
and the length of the LOS path.
Phase difference = x

Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter is given by

From the above equations it is clear that the phase difference between a direct line-of-
sight path and diffracted path is a function of height and position of the obstruction, as
well as the transmitter and receiver location.
Knife-edge Diffraction Model

When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the attenuation
caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife
edge. This is the simplest of diffraction models and the diffraction loss in this case can be
readily estimated using the classical Fresnel solution for the field behind a knife edge(also
called a half-plane)..
knife-edge diffraction path loss (in dB) relative to LOS path loss has been
approximated and are given by
The knife-edge diffraction model yields the following formula for the received diffracted signal

where √Gd is the antenna gain and τ = delta d/c is the delay associated with the refracted ray
relative to the LOS path.
The received signal due to a scattered ray is given by the

where τ is the delay associated with the scattered ray; σ (in square meters) is the radar cross-
sectionofthescatteringobject,whichdependsontheroughness,size, and shape of the scatterer;
and√Gs is the antenna gain.
The received signal is determined from the superposition of all the components due to the
multiple rays. Thus, if we have a LOS ray, Nr reflected rays, Nd diffracted rays, and Ns diffusely
scattered rays, the total received signal is
where τi, τj, and τk are (respectively) the time delays of the given reflected, diffracted, and
scattered rays–normalized to the delay of the LOS ray.

The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path difference around an obstruction is
explained by Fresnel zones.

Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves have a path length
from the transmitter to receiver which are greater than the total path length of
a line-of-sight path. The Fresnel Zone is the area around the visual line-of-sight that radio
waves spread out into after they leave the antenna. Figure demonstrates a transparent plane
located between a transmitter and receiver. The concentric circles on the plane represent the
loci of the origins of secondary wavelets which propagate to the receiver such that the total
path length increases by for successive circles. These circles are called Fresnel zones.
The excess total path length traversed by a ray passing through each circle is , where
n is an integer. Thus, the path traveling through the smallest circle corresponding to n = 1in
Figure 3.11 will have an excess path lengths of lamda/2 as compared to a line-of-sight path,
and circles corresponding to n = 2, 3, etc. will have an excess path length of lamda,
3lamda/2, etc.

The radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by

In mobile communication systems, diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of secondary waves
such that only a portion of the energy is diffracted around an obstacle. That is, an obstruction
causes a blockage of energy from some of the Fresnel zones, thus allowing only some of the
transmitted energy to reach the receiver. Depending on the geometry of the obstruction,
the received energy will be a vector sum of the energy contributions from all unobstructed
Fresnel zones.
if an obstruction does not block the volume contained within the first Fresnel zone, then
the diffraction loss will be minimal, and diffraction action effects may be neglected
References

https://www.waves.utoronto.ca/prof/svhum/ece422/notes/19-diffraction.pdf

Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction- the propagation path may consist of more than one
obstruction, in which case the total diffraction loss due to all of the obstacles must be
computed. suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single equivalent
obstacle so that thepath loss can be obtained using single knife-edge diffraction
models.

Scattering
when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is spread out
(diffused) in all directions due to scattering. Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to
scatter energy in all directions, thereby providing additional radio energy at a receiver