Line-of-sight propagation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Line-of-sight (disambiguation).

Line-of-sight propagation is a characteristic of electromagnetic radiation or acoustic wave

propagation. Electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line.
The rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and
obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles.

Line of sight propagation to an antenna

At low frequency (below approximately 3 MHz) radio signals travel as ground waves, which
follow the Earth's curvature due to diffraction with the layers of the atmosphere. This enables
AM radio signals in low-noise environments to be received well after the transmitting antenna
has dropped below the horizon. Additionally, frequencies between approximately 1 and 30 MHz
can be reflected by the F1/F2 Layer, thus giving radio transmissions in this range a potentially
global reach (see shortwave radio), again along multiple deflected straight lines. The effects of
multiple diffraction or reflection lead to macroscopically "quasi-curved paths".

However, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects are
significant. Thus any obstruction between the transmitting antenna (transmitter) and the
receiving antenna (receiver) will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense.
Therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna (disregarding the limitations of
the eye's resolution) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the
propagation characteristic of high-frequency radio is called "line-of-sight". The farthest possible
point of propagation is referred to as the "radio horizon".

In practice, the propagation characteristics of these radio waves vary substantially depending on
the exact frequency and the strength of the transmitted signal (a function of both the transmitter
and the antenna characteristics). Broadcast FM radio, at comparatively low frequencies of around
100 MHz, are less affected by the presence of buildings and forests.

Contents
 1 Radio horizon
o 1.1 Earth bulge and atmosphere effect
o 1.2 Geometric distance to horizon
o 1.3 The actual service range
 o 1.4 Example
 2 Line-of-sight propagation as a prerequisite for radio distance measurements
 3 Impairments to line-of-sight propagation
 4 Mobile telephones
 5 See also
 6 References
 7 External links

Radio horizon
The radio horizon is the locus of points at which direct rays from an antenna are tangential to the
surface of the Earth. If the Earth were a perfect sphere and there were no atmosphere, the radio
horizon would be a circle.

R is the radius of the Earth, h is the height of the transmitter (exaggerated), d is the line of sight
distance

The radio horizon of the transmitting and receiving antennas can be added together to increase
the effective communication range. Antenna heights above 1,000,000 feet (189 miles; 305
kilometres) will cover the entire hemisphere and not increase the radio horizon.

Radio wave propagation is affected by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric absorption, and the
presence of obstructions, for example mountains or trees. Simple formulas that include the effect
of the atmosphere give the range as:

The simple formulas give a best-case approximation of the maximum propagation distance but
are not sufficient to estimate the quality of service at any location.

Earth bulge and atmosphere effect

Earth bulge is a term used in telecommunications. It refers to the circular segment of earth
profile which blocks off long distance communications. Since the geometric line of sight passes
at varying heights over the Earth, the propagating radio wave encounters slightly different
propagation conditions over the path. The usual effect of the declining pressure of the
atmosphere with height is to bend radio waves down toward the surface of the Earth, effectively
increasing the Earth's radius, and the distance to the radio horizon, by a factor around 4/3.[1] This
k-factor can change from its average value depending on weather.

Geometric distance to horizon

Assuming a perfect sphere with no terrain irregularity, the distance to horizon from a high
altitude transmitter (i.e., line of sight) can readily be calculated.

Let R be the radius of Earth and h be the altitude of a telecommunication station. Line of sight
distance d of this station is given by the Pythagorean theorem;

Since the altitude of the station is much less than the radius of the Earth,

If the height is given in metres, and distance in kilometres,[2]

If the height is given in feet, and the distance in miles,

The actual service range

The above analysis doesn’t take the effect of atmosphere on the propagation path of RF signals
into consideration. In fact, RF signals don’t propagate in straight lines. Because of the refractive
effects of atmospheric layers, the propagation paths are somewhat curved. Thus, the maximum
service range of the station is not equal to the line of sight (geometric) distance. Usually a factor
k is used in the equation above

k > 1 means geometrically reduced bulge and a longer service range. On the other hand, k < 1
means a shorter service range.

Under normal weather conditions k is usually chosen[3] to be 4/3. That means that the maximum
service range increases by 15%.
for h in meters and d in kilometres; or

for h in feet and d in miles.

But in stormy weather, k may decrease to cause fading in transmission. (In extreme cases k can
be less than 1.) That is equivalent to a hypothetical decrease in Earth radius and an increase of
Earth bulge.[4]

Example

In normal weather conditions, the service range of a station at an altitude of 1500 m. with respect
to receivers at sea level can be found as,

Line-of-sight propagation as a prerequisite for radio

distance measurements
Travel time of radio waves between transmitters and receivers can be measured disregarding the
type of propagation. But, generally, travel time only then represents the distance between
transmitter and receiver, when line of sight propagation is the basis for the measurement. This
applies as well to radar, to Real Time Locating and to lidar.

This rules: Travel time measurements for determining the distance between pairs of transmitters
and receivers generally require line of sight propagation for proper results. Whereas the desire to
have just any type of propagation to enable communication may suffice, this does never coincide
with the requirement to have strictly line of sight at least temporarily as the means to obtain
properly measured distances. However, the travel time measurement may be always biased by
multi-path propagation including line of sight propagation as well as non line of sight
propagation in any random share. A qualified system for measuring the distance between
transmitters and receivers must take this phenomenon into account. Thus filtering signals
traveling along various paths makes the approach either operationally sound or just tediously
irritating.

Impairments to line-of-sight propagation

Two stations not in line-of-sight may be able to communicate through an intermediate radio
repeater station.

Low-powered microwave transmitters can be foiled by tree branches, or even heavy rain or
snow.

If a direct visual fix cannot be taken, it is important to take into account the curvature of the
Earth when calculating line-of-sight from maps.

The presence of objects not in the direct visual line of sight can interfere with radio transmission.
This is caused by diffraction effects: for the best propagation, a volume known as the first
Fresnel zone should be kept free of obstructions.

Objects within the Fresnel zone can disturb line of sight propagation even if they don't block the
geometric line between antennas

Reflected radiation from the ground plane also acts to cancel out the direct signal. This effect,
combined with the free-space r−2 propagation loss to a r−4 propagation loss. This effect can be
reduced by raising either or both antennas further from the ground: the reduction in loss achieved
is known as height gain.
Mobile telephones
Although the frequencies used by mobile phones (cell phones) are in the line-of-sight range, they
still function in cities. This is made possible by a combination of the following effects:

 r−4 propagation over the rooftop landscape

 diffraction into the "street canyon" below
 multipath reflection along the street
 diffraction through windows, and attenuated passage through walls, into the building
 reflection, diffraction, and attenuated passage through internal walls, floors and ceilings
within the building

The combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly
complex, with multipath effects and extensive Rayleigh fading. For mobile phone services these
problems are tackled using:

 rooftop or hilltop positioning of base stations

 many base stations (usually called "cell sites"). A phone can typically see at least three,
and usually as many as six at any given time.
 "sectorized" antennas at the base stations. Instead of one antenna with omnidirectional
coverage the station may use as few as 3 (rural areas with few customers) or as many as
32 separate antennas each covering a portion of the circular coverage. This allows the
base station to use a directional antenna that is pointing at the user, which improves the
signal to noise ratio. If the user moves (perhaps by walking or driving) from one antenna
sector to another the base station automatically selects the proper antenna.
 rapid handoff between base stations (roaming)
 the radio link used by the phones is a digital link with extensive error correction and
detection in the digital protocol
 sufficient operation of mobile phone in tunnels when supported by split cable antennas
 local repeaters inside complex vehicles or buildings

Other conditions may physically disrupt the connection without

prior notice:

 temporal failure inside metal constructions as elevator cabins, trains, cars, ships (see
Faraday Cage)
 local failure when using the mobile phone in buildings with extensive steel reinforcement
(again, see Faraday Cage)
How to Calculate the Distance to the Horizon
Three Methods:Calculating Distance Using GeometryCalculating Distance Using
TrigonometryAlternate Geometrical Calculation

Have you ever watched the sun disappear into the horizon and wondered, "How far is the horizon
from where I'm standing?" If you can measure how high your eyes are from sea level, you can
actually calculate the distance between you and the horizon as follows.

Method 1 of 3: Calculating Distance Using Geometry

1.

Measure your "height of eye." Measure the length between the ground and your eyes in
meters or feet. One way to calculate this is to measure the distance between your eyes
and the top of your head. Subtract this value from your total height and what will be left
is the distance between your eyes and the surface you're standing on. If you are standing
exactly at sea level, with the bottom of your feet level with the water, this is the only
measurement you'll need.
 Ad

2.

Add your "local elevation" if you're standing on a raised surface, such as a hill,
building or boat. How many meters or feet above the true horizon are you standing? 1
meter? 4,000 feet? Add that number to your height of eye (in the same units, of course).
3.

Multiply by 13m if you took the measurement in meters, or multiply by 1.5ft if you
took the measurement in feet.
4.

Take the square root to find the answer. If you used meters, your answer will be in
kilometers, and if feet, the answer will be in miles. The distance calculated is a straight
line from your eyes to the horizon.

o The actual distance you'll travel to get to the horizon will be longer because of
surface curvature and (on land) irregularities. Proceed to the next method below
for a more accurate (but complicated) formula.
5.

<a href="http://us-ads.openx.net/w/1.0/rc?

cs=6305fd7298&cb=1440599334626&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikihow.com

%2FCalculate-the-Distance-to-the-

Horizon&c.width=665&c.height=98&c.tag_id=21083&c.taglink_id=32112&c.scale=1.0

947368&c.url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikihow.com%2FCalculate-the-Distance-to-the-

Horizon&c.params=&c.impression_type=26" ><img src="http://us-

ads.openx.net/w/1.0/ai?

auid=537735502&cs=6305fd7298&cb=1440599334626&url=http%3A%2F
 %2Fwww.wikihow.com%2FCalculate-the-Distance-to-the-

Horizon&c.width=665&c.height=98&c.tag_id=21083&c.taglink_id=32112&c.scale=1.0

947368&c.url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikihow.com%2FCalculate-the-Distance-to-the-

Horizon&c.params=&c.impression_type=26" border="0" alt=""></a>

Understand how this calculation works. It's based on a triangle formed by your
observation point (your eyes), the true horizon point (what you're looking at) and the
center of the Earth.

o By knowing the radius of the Earth and measuring your height of eye and local
elevation, that leaves only the distance between your eyes and the horizon as
unknown. Since the sides of the triangle that meet at the horizon actually form a
right angle, we can use the Pythagorean theorem (good old a2 + b2 = c2) as the
basis for this calculation, where:

• a = R (the radius of the Earth)

• b = the distance to the horizon, unknown

• c = h (your height of eye) + R

Ad

Method 2 of 3: Calculating Distance Using Trigonometry

1.

Calculate the actual distance you'd have to traverse to get to the horizon by using
the following formula.

o d = R * arccos(R/(R + h)), where

• d = distance to horizon

• R = radius of the Earth

• h = height of eye
2.

Increase R by 20% to compensate for the distorting refraction of light rays and to
arrive at a more accurate measurement. The geometric horizon calculated using the
method in this article may not be the same as the optical horizon, which is what your eye
actually sees. Why is this?

o The atmosphere bends (refracts) light that is traveling horizontally. What this
usually means is that a ray of light is able to slightly follow the curvature of the
earth, so that the optical horizon is a bit further away than the geometric horizon.
o Unfortunately the refraction due to the atmosphere is neither constant nor
predictable, as it depends on the change of temperature with height. There is
therefore no simple way to add a correction to the formula for the geometric
horizon, though one may achieve an "average" correction by assuming a radius
for the earth that is a bit greater than the true radius.
 3.

Understand how this calculation works. This will calculate the length of the curved
line that follows from your feet to the true horizon (shown in green in this image). Now,
the arccos(R/(R+h)) portion refers to the angle that is made at the center of the Earth by
the line going from the true horizon to the center and the line going from you to the
center. With this angle, we multiply it by R to get the "arc length," which, in this case, is
the distance that you are looking for.

Ad

Method 3 of 3: Alternate Geometrical Calculation

1.

Assume a flat plane or the ocean. This method is a simpler version of the first set of
instructions presented in this article, and applies only in feet and miles.

2.
 2

Solve for the distance in miles by plugging in your height of eye in feet (h) into the
formula. The formula you will be using is d = 1.2246* SQRT(h)

3.

Derive the formula from the Pythagorean theorem. (R + h)2 = R2 + d2. Solving for h
(making the assumption that R>>h and expressing the radius of the earth in miles,
approx. 3959) yields the expression: d = SQRT(2*R*h)

Ad

We could really use your help!

Can you tell us about
Glass tile?
Can you tell us about
Caring for cookware?
Can you tell us about
Pokemon?
Can you tell us about
Hamster Mazes?

Tips
 These calculations are most commonly used if you are looking at the true horizon, or
where the sky and the Earth would meet if there were not any barriers or obstructions in
your way (which is usually the case at sea, unless there's a land mass in the way). On
land, however, there may be mountains or buildings in front of the true horizon, in which
case these calculations will still tell you how far you are from the true horizon, but you'll
have to tack on any additional distance created by having to climb over or circumvent the
obstacles that are in your way.