Chapter 4 - Wireless LANs Part 1

Wireless Local Area
Networks (Part 1)
Introduction
NES440 Wireless Networks
Dr. Fahed Awad

Department of Network Engineering & Security
Jordan University of Science and Technology
NES440: Wireless Networks Copyright © Dr. Fahed H. Awad 1

Outline
 Elements of Wireless Networks
 Wireless hosts, wireless links, base stations
 Topologies of Wireless Networks
 Point-to-point, Star, Tree, Switched Star, and Mesh
 WLAN devices
 Client adapters, infrastructure, bridging, etc.
 IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards
 IEEE 802.11 WLAN Architecture
 Discovering and Joining an IEEE 802.11 WLAN
 The MAC sub-layer standards
 The PHY layer standards
 The Network layer standards
Elements of
Wireless Networks

Wireless Hosts
Wireless Hosts
 Laptop, PDA, IP phone
 Run applications
 May be stationary (non-
mobile) or mobile
 Wireless does not
always mean mobility

Base Stations
Base Stations
 Typically connected to
wired network
 Responsible for relaying
packets between the
wired network and the
wireless host(s) within its
coverage area
 e.g.; cell towers
802.11 access points

Wireless Links
Wireless Links
 Typically used to connect
wireless hosts to base
stations
 Multiple access protocol to
coordinates link access
 Various data rates and
transmission distance

Topologies of
Wireless Networks

Wireless Point-to-point Topology
 The simple point-to-point topology is more
common in wireless than wired networks
 Wireless point-to-point topology has several
forms in different technologies such as:
 WLAN peer-to-peer (or ad hoc) mode
 WMAN backhauling
 LAN wireless bridging
 WPAN main topology such as Bluetooth
 Wireless optical communication such as infra-red

Wireless Star Topology
 The center device of the wireless star topology:
 Plays the role of a hub in the wired network
 It can be an access point, a base station, etc.
 May perform a variety of functions based on the technology used

Wireless Tree Topology
 An access point switch or controller is used to:
 Provides interconnectivity and data delivery for the access points
 Moves complexity away from access points towards the switch
 Simplifies management and configuration of the access points

Wireless Switched Star Topology
 The center device can spatially divide the stations using
sectored or array antenna
 The overall throughput is multiplied by the number of
transmitters used (similar to the switch in wired networks)

Wireless Mesh Topology
 Consists of mobile nodes, stationary wireless routers, and wired
access points in order to provide reliable and self-healing network
 Uses multi-hop node-to-node packet routing towards the destination
 The topology is continuously changing due to the mobility of nodes

WLAN Devices

Wireless LAN devices
 Client devices
 Network interface cards (NICs)
 Infrastructure devices
 Access points
 Outdoor wireless bridges
 Wireless switches or controllers
 WLAN antennas

WLAN Client Devices
 Wireless Network Interface Card (NIC):
 Turns a network-capable device such as a desktop, a
laptop, or a PDA into a wireless device (or station)
 Enables the device to communicate with other
wireless devices or with an access point
 Wireless NIC antennas can be:

 Internallyintegrated
 Externally connected (or detachable)

WLAN Client Devices
 Wireless NICs are available in a variety of form factors:
 PCMCIA card type II: used in laptops and PDAs (obsolete)
 PCI card: used in a desktop computer
 Mini-PCI card: integrated inside the laptop
 USB dongles: used in any device with a USB port
 Fully integrated within the main board as part of the chipset
USB PCMCIA adapter / Desk mount PCI card with external
Dongle integrated antenna USB adapter desk mount antenna
PCI card with PCI card with Desk mount USB

detachable antenna multiple radios and or Ethernet adapter Mini-PCI Card
detachable antennas
Access Point (AP)
 Works as a switch/gateway for wireless hosts/stations
 Usually connected to the backbone network to provide
connectivity to wired network resources
 Provides a full range of processing and control functions:
 Security features such as authentication and encryption support
 Access control based on access lists or customized filters
 Network configuration capabilities such as SNMP
 May provide additional optional networking features:
 Internet gateway: NAT routing, DHCP, VPN, etc
 LAN switch: Switching for wired devices such as Ethernet
 Wireless bridge: provide point-to-point connectivity between two
remote network segments
 Wireless repeater: provide range extension capability of another
access point

Types of Access Points

Outdoor Wireless Bridge
 Provides point-to-point link between two remote wired
and/or wireless network segments
 Usually designed for outdoor environment:
 Weather proof enclosure: water, humidity, sun, lightening, wind
 Uses high-gain directional antennas

Wireless Switch or Controller
 Used in environments with large-scale WLAN
deployment (i.e.; tens or hundreds of APs deployed)
 The aim is to simplify the deployment, configuration, and
management of APs
 Handles the majority of the AP functionality
 Works with “thin” or “light” dependent APs
 Advantages:
 Lower cost of AP hardware and deployment
 Simplified network configuration and management
 Better mobility management of mobile hosts between APs
 Simplified updating and upgrading processes (i.e.; the wireless
switch instead of every AP)

Sample Wireless Switch Layout

WLAN Antennas
 Traditional fixed-gain antennas
 Different types and radiation patterns per need
 Omni-directional, sectored, patch, yagi, and parabolic
 One node can transmit on the channel at a time (i.e.;

limited throughput)
 Smart antennas
 Use multiple antenna elements called antenna array
 Can form & direct radiation beams in different directions
 Allows multiple nodes to transmit simultaneously for
increased throughput
 Examples:
 Switched Beam Array Antenna
 Adaptive Beam Antenna
 Multi-input Multi-output (MIMO) Antenna
WLAN Antennas
Traditional WLAN antenna specifications for 2.4GHz operation Beam pattern of a 6-elment smart antenna array
Parabolic

IEEE 802.11 WLAN
Standards

History of the IEEE 802.11 Standards
 FCC opened the three ISM frequency bands (900 MHz,
2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz) for unlicensed use in 1985
 IEEE WLAN standardization process began in late 80’s
 IEEE 802.11 was ratified in 1997 (1 & 2 Mbps)
 IEEE 802.11a (54 Mbps) & 802.11b (11 Mbps) were
ratified in 1999.
 IEEE 802.11b was the first to be used under Wi-Fi
 IEEE 802.11g (54 Mbps) was ratified in 2003
 IEEE 802.11n (600 Mbps) was ratified in 2009
 IEEE 802.11ac (3.5 Gbps) was ratified in 2013
 Several other standards were/are being developed as
enhancements or extensions to the exiting ones
Some IEEE 802.11 Standards
Standard Main Characteristics
802.11a 54 Mbps using OFDM in the 5 GHz ISM band
802.11b 11 Mbps using DSSS & CCK in the 2.4 GHz ISM band
802.11g 54 Mbps using OFDM in the 2.4 GHz ISM band Interoperable with
802.11b equipment
802.11e Quality of service (QoS) for all 802.11 interfaces, TDMA to
enhance the performance of delay sensitive applications
802.11f Inter-Access Point Protocol to facilitate roaming between inter-
vendor access points
802.11i Employs advanced encryption standard (AES) and 802.1x
authentication
802.11n Higher data rates of up to 600 Mbps using MIMO technology
802.11s Extending 802.11 MAC to support mesh networking. Message

delivery over self-configuring multi-hop mesh topologies.
The Main Characteristics of 802.11 WLANs
 The IEEE divided the Data Link Layer into two sub-layers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer (specified by the 802.2 standard):
 Provides the common interface to the upper layers
 Provides error control
 Provides flow control
 Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer:
 Enables the station to establish or join a network
 Appends physical addresses and transmit the frames coming from the LLC
 The 802.11 standards cover the PHY layer and MAC sub-layer for local
area wireless networking

The IEEE 802.11 WLAN Components
 Station (STA):
 Any device that implements the
PHY and MAC layer protocols
 Access Point (AP):
 A device that provides an
addressable interface between a
set of stations, known as a Basic
Service Set (BSS), and the
distribution system
 Distribution System (DS):
 Connects two or more APs and
their associated BSSs to form an
Extended Service Set (ESS)
 Can be a network component
(usually a wired LAN component)
such as a hub, a switch, or a router
The Basic Service Set
 IEEE 802.11 WLANs are based on a cellular
structure
 Each cell in known as a basic service set (BSS)
 BSS is a group of STA’s served by a single AP
 The BSS must be assigned a unique identifier
called the basic service set identifier (BSSID)
(or the SSID for short)
 SSID serves as a “network name” for the BSS
 The BSS has an associated Basic Service
Area (BSA) called a cell
 BSA is the geographical coverage area of the
BSS
 All STA’s, including the AP, of a BSS:
 Use a common SSID
 Synchronize to a common timer
 TX/RX on the same RF channel used by AP
 BSS parameters are periodically broadcasted
by AP within a beacon frame

The Extended Service Set
 The extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSS’s, of
which the AP’s are connected via a common distribution system (DS)
 AP’s are usually located such that the BSAs (or cells) are partially
overlapped in order to facilitate the roaming between cells
 If the STA is located in a coverage overlap area, it may choose the AP
based on several factors such as the signal strength or some required
QoS metrics such as the data rate
 A mobile STA may move (or roam) from one cell to another
 The STA has to “handoff” from one AP to the other in order to retain an
ongoing session

The Independent Basic Service Set
 The Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) is a group of two or
more STA’s that communicate directly with each other without an
AP or any type of wired connection
 The IBSS is also called peer-to-peer or ad hoc mode
 The IBSS allows a wireless network to be quickly and easily
established for data sharing
 In an IBSS, all stations:
 Use a common SSID
 Synchronize to a common timer
 Transmit and receive on the same RF channel
 Periodically broadcast beacon frames

The IEEE 802.11 MAC
Sublayer Standards

The MAC Sublayer Standards Specify
 Functions and Services
 Frame Formats
 Frame Types
 Addressing Mechanisms
 Discovering a WLAN
 Joining a WLAN
 Wireless Media Access

MAC Sublayer Functions and Services
 The MAC sublayer performs several vital functions in the WLAN, which can be
divided into three functional areas:
 Access control
 Discovering a pre-existing WLAN
 Gaining access to the wireless medium shared by the WLAN devices
 Joining the WLAN and remaining connected during mobility
 Reliable data transfer of the LLC frames over the WLAN
 Security Services such as authentication and privacy
 The MAC sublayer functions are delivered using two classes of services:
 Station services: implemented in every 802.11 STA including the AP
 DS services: provided between BSS’s and are implemented either in the AP or any
special-purpose device attached to the DS such as the AP Controller or a stand-
alone server
 The MAC sublayer services are implemented via the transmission of three
types of frames between the MAC sublayers of the communicating stations:
 Management frames
 Control frames
 Data frames

IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer Services
 There are two categories of services:
 MAC Service Data Unit (MSDU) delivery
 The MSDU is a block of data passed down by the LLC
 The MSDU is typically the LLC Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
 If the MSDU is very large, the MAC performs frame fragmentation
 WLAN access and security
Service Provider Category
Association Distribution system MSDU delivery
Authentication Station WLAN access and security
Deauthentication Station WLAN access and security
Dissassociation Distribution system MSDU delivery
Distribution Distribution system MSDU delivery
Integration Distribution system MSDU delivery
MSDU delivery Station MSDU delivery
Privacy Station WLAN access and security
Reassocation Distribution system MSDU delivery

MSDU Delivery-Related Services
 Association service (by DS)
 Establishes initial logical connection between a STA and an AP
 Essential to provide the DS with the necessary information for data delivery
 Reassociation service (by DS)

 Enables the transfer of the association from one AP to another, allowing the station to
move (or roam) from one BSS to another
 Allows the STA to change some attributes of an existing association such as the data rate
 Disassociation service (by DS)

 Association termination notice from a STA or an AP when a STA is leaving the BSS
 MSDU delivery service (by STA)

 Ensure the delivery of the MSDU between the LLC’s in two STA’s
 Distribution service (by DS)

 Used to exchange MAC frames from a STA in one BSS to a STA in another BSS
 Integration service (by DS)

 Transfer of data between a STA on the IEEE 802.11 WLAN and a station on the
integrated IEEE 802.x LAN
Access and Security-Related Services
 Authentication service (by STA)
 Enables a station to authenticate another station prior to association
 An AP can be configured to provide either
 An open system authentication: minimal security
 A shared key authentication: requires a common secret key to be provided by both stations
(usually pre-configured in both stations)
 Deathentication service (by STA)

 Enables a station to terminate an existing authentication when it intends to stop
communicating with another station
 This service is invoked prior to the disassociation service
 Privacy service (by STA)

 Enables data frames and shared key authentication frames to be encrypted before
transmission
 Prevents message contents from being read by unintended recipient
 Uses either the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), which is the original “weak” protocol
provided by the IEEE 802.11 or the “strong” Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) protocol,
which is based on the IEEE 802.11i security standard

MAC Sublayer Frames

MAC Sublayer Frame Format
 The MAC sublayer frame consists of nine fields:
 Frame Control (FC): defines the type of the frame and some control
information
 Duration (D): defines the duration of transmission in microseconds
 Addresses: four 6-byte address fields used based on the “To DS”
and “From DS” subfields of the FC field
 Sequence Control (SC): defines the frame sequence number to be
used by the flow control mechanism
 Frame Body: 0 to 2312 bytes of information based on the type and
subtype subfields of the FC field
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS): 4-byte CRC-32 error detection
sequence
 The max. size of the MAC sublayer frame is 2346 bytes

The Frame Control (FC) Field
Specify the addressing mode used

Frame types
 There are three types of frames:
Management Frames
Control Frames
Data Frames

Management Frames
 Used for:
 Initializing the communications between the STA and the AP (in the
infrastructure mode) or between STA’s (in the ad hoc mode)
 Maintaining the connection
 Types of management frames (the subtype field of FC):

 Authentication
 Association request
 Association response
 Beacon
 Deauthentication
 Disassociation
 Probe request
 Reassociation request
 Reassociation response

Control frames
 Used for:
 Accessing the channel
 Request To Send (RTS) frame
 Clear To Send (CTS) frame
 Acknowledging frames
 Acknowledgment (ACK) frame
 Control Frame Formats

Data frames
 There are two types of data frames:
 Data carrying frames
 Carry LLC data to be transmitted to the destination
device
 Non data carrying frames
 Do not carry user data
 For example: the Null Function
 Carries a power management bit in the frame control
field to the AP
 It indicates that the STA is changing to a low-power state

Addressing Mechanism
 The addressing mechanism is specified by the “To DS” and the
“From DS” flags of the FC field
 Address 1 is always the address of the next device
 Address 2 is always the address of the previous device
 Address 3 is the address of the final destination STA if it is not defined
by Address 1. Otherwise, it is the address of the original source
 Address 4 is the address of the original source STA if it is not defined in
Address 2. Otherwise, it is not used

Addressing Mechanism Cases
 Case 1 (00): the frame is not from or to a DS
 The frame is from one STA to another within an IBSS
 The ACK should be sent to the original sender
 Case 2 (01): the frame is from a DS but not to a DS

 The frame is from an AP to a STA
 Address 2 holds the BSSID of the AP
 The ACK should be sent to the AP
 Address 3 contains the address of the original sender,
which can be in another BSS
 Case 3 (10): the frame is not from a DS but to a DS

 The frame is from a STA to an AP
 Address 1 holds the BSSID of the AP
 The ACK should be sent to the original STA
 Address 3 contains the address of the final destination,
which can be in another BSS
 Case 4 (11): the frame is from a DS to another DS

 The frame is from an AP to another AP in a wireless DS
 Addresses 1 and 2 hold the BSSID’s of the corresponding AP’s
 The BSSID of the AP is the MAC address of STA part of AP

Discovering and Joining
a WLAN

Discovering and joining a WLAN
 In order for a wireless device to be part of a
WLAN, the following steps have to be performed:
 Discovering the WLAN, which includes:
 Beaconing by the existing WLAN to announce its existence
 Scanning by the wireless device in order to discover the WLAN
 Joining the WLAN, which includes:
 Authenticating the wireless device to validate its identity
 Associating the wireless device to the WLAN

Beaconing
 At (quasi) regular intervals, the AP (in an infrastructure
mode) or a station (in an ad hoc mode) transmits beacon
frames in order to:
 Announce the presence of a WLAN BSS
 Provide the information needed by other devices to join the BSS
 The beacon frame is a standard management frame, of
which the destination address is always set to all ones
(i.e.; broadcast frame)
 The sending of the beacon frames is considered as the
“heart beat” of the WLAN
 In ad hoc mode, the responsibility of sending beacon
frames is rotated among the stations using random
drawing

The Contents of the Beacon Frame
 The beacon frame contains the following fields:
 The beacon interval: adjustable but it is typically 100 ms
 What are the implications of changing the beacon interval? (network
traffic versus roaming success)
 The timestamp of the beacon source
 Contains the time of the beacon source clock
 All stations adjust their clocks to the timestamp
 The Service Set Identifier (SSID) used by the beacon source
 A 2 to 32 character case-sensitive network name
 Included only if the “Broadcast SSID” is enabled (a security feature)
 The supported data rates (e.g.; 802.11b has 11, 5.5, 2, & 1 Mbps)
 Parameter sets: the type of modulation used (e.g.; FHSS or DSSS)
 Capability information: the requirements needed to join the WLAN
 Traffic Indication Map (TIM): identifies the stations that are in a
power-save mode, of which data frames are buffered at the AP

Scanning
 The station that attempts to join a WLAN must scan the available channels
for existing service sets
 There are two types of scanning used:
 Passive scanning
 The station simply listens for beacon frames from exiting WLAN’s
 Typically, listens on each available channel for a pre-determined period of time
 Active scanning
 The station first sends out a probe request frame on each available channel
 Then, it waits for a probe response frame from each available AP
 The key difference between passive and active scanning is which device
initiates the discovery
 The station can:
 Scan and join a specific pre-configured SSID or a list of preferred SSID’s ordered
based on a specific priority (e.g.; Office SSID, Home SSID, etc.)
 Passively or actively scan all available channels for a full list of available AP’s,
then the station or the user chooses a specific SSID to join from the list found
 Join “ANY” available SSID (not a secure option though, usually disallowed)
based on either the strongest signal received or the first available
 After an SSID is selected, the station uses the information contained in the
beacon frames broadcasted by the BSS in order to be able to join it

Authentication
 In wired LAN:
 The physical network connection is restricted by the physical boundaries of the
premises such as walls and doors
 Only authorized devices and users are assumed to connect to the LAN
 Therefore, the user is usually authenticated after the device is connected to the
network.
 In wireless LAN:
 The access to the radio signal can’t be restricted by wall and doors
 Unauthorized devices and users can get access to the network
 Therefore, the device is authenticated before it is allowed to connects to the LAN
 In IEEE 802.11:
 The authentication is the process of accepting or rejecting a station by the AP
 There are two types of authentication in the legacy standard:
 Open system authentication: the default and most basic authentication method
 Shared key authentication: an optional authentication method that uses a challenge text
 Both types are considered weak and more secure methods are usually used such as
the methods provided by the IEEE 802.11i standard

Open system authentication
 After discovering the WLAN, the station:
 Sends an association request frame to the AP including the necessary
information such as the supported data rates and the SSID
 After receiving the association request, the AP:
 Compares the received SSID to its SSID
 If they match, then the device is authenticated. Otherwise it is rejected

Shared key authentication
 Both the AP and the station are pre-configured with the same authentication key
 The station sends an authentication frame to the AP
 The AP sends back an authentication frame including a challenge text to the station
 The station encrypts the text using the shared key and sends it back to the AP in an
authentication frame
 The AP decrypts the encrypted text and compares it to the original challenge text. If
they match, then the device is authenticated. Otherwise it is rejected

Association
 The association is the last step towards accepting the
station to join a WLAN
 After the authentication process, the AP responds with
an association response frame, which contains the
acceptance or the rejection information
 If the station is accepted, the AP:
 Reserves memory space in the AP for the station
 Establishes an association ID for the station
 Includes the association ID and the supported data rates in the
association response frame

Association-Related Services
 In order to be able to perform its services of transferring MSDUs
among different MAC sublayers within ESS, DS requires information
about STAs within ESS such as their locations and capabilities
 This information is provided by the association-related services
 There are three types of STA transition based on its mobility:
 No transition:
 STA is either stationary or it moves within the range of a single BSS
 BSS transition:
 STA moves from a BSS to another within the same ESS
 This requires addressing capability to be able to recognize the new location
 ESS transition:
 STA moves from a BSS in an ESS to a BSS in another ESS
 Maintenance of the upper-layer connections is not guaranteed
 Disruption of service is likely

Station Location
 The DS needs to know where the destination STA is in order to be
able to deliver the MSDU to it:
 It needs the identity of the AP to which the MSDU should be delivered
 The station must maintain an association with an AP within the current
ESS in order to get the data destined to it
 Three services are relate to this requirement:
 Association: establishes the initial association between STA and AP
 In order to make the identity and address of STA known
 STA must establish an association with an AP within a particular BSS
 The AP’s within the ESS exchange information about STAs
 Reassociation: transfer the established association to another AP
 This allows STA to move from one BSS to another
 Disassociation: the association can be terminated by either STA or AP
by sending the disassociation frame
 It is performed before STA leaves the ESS or shuts down
 The MAC management facility protects itself against STAs that
disappear without notification

A Sample Scenario of a Station Mobility Among APs
a) The station discovers AP1. It authenticates and associates with it
b) As the station moves, it may pre-authenticate with AP2
c) When the association with AP1 is no longer needed, the station reassociates with AP2
d) AP2 notifies AP1 of the new location of the station. AP1 terminates the previous
association with the station
e) AP2 may be taken out-of-service. AP2 would disassociate the associated stations
f) The station finds AP3 and authenticate and associate with it

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Wireless Local Area

Dr. Fahed Awad

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 Wireless NIC antennas can be:

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PCI card with PCI card with Desk mount USB

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 One node can transmit on the channel at a time (i.e.;

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802.11s Extending 802.11 MAC to support mesh networking. Message

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 Reassociation service (by DS)

 Disassociation service (by DS)

 MSDU delivery service (by STA)

 Distribution service (by DS)

 Integration service (by DS)

 Deathentication service (by STA)

 Privacy service (by STA)

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 The max. size of the MAC sublayer frame is 2346 bytes

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Specify the addressing mode used

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 Types of management frames (the subtype field of FC):

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 Control Frame Formats

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 Case 2 (01): the frame is from a DS but not to a DS

 Case 3 (10): the frame is not from a DS but to a DS

 Case 4 (11): the frame is from a DS to another DS

 The BSSID of the AP is the MAC address of STA part of AP

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