Unit -2

MOBILE RADIO
PROPAGATION
Introduction to Mobile radio channel
• Mobile radio channel places fundamental limitations on the
performance of wireless communication systems
• Transmission path between transmitter and receiver may vary from
simple LOS to one that is severely obstructed by buildings, mountains,
foliage
• Wired channels are stationery and predictable
• Radio channels are extremely random and do not offer easy analysis
• Mobile radio system design is typically done in statistical fashion, based
on measurements made specifically for intended communication
system or spectrum allocation
Introduction to Mobile radio channel
 Modeling radio channel is important for:
 Determining the coverage area of a transmitter
 Determine the transmitter power requirement
 Determine the battery lifetime
 Finding modulation and coding schemes to improve the
channel quality
 Determine the maximum channel capacity
Radio wave propagation
 The mechanisms behind electromagnetic wave propagation are
diverse, but can generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering.
 Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting the
average received signal strength at a given distance from the
transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal strength in close
spatial proximity to a particular location.
Radio wave propagation
 Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful in
estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter and are called
large-scale propagation models.
 On the other hand, propagation models that characterize the rapid
fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short travel
distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations (on the
order of seconds) are called small-scale or fading models.
Figure 4.1 Small-scale and large-scale fading.
Three Radio Propagation Mechanisms
The physical mechanisms that govern radio propagation are complex and
diverse, but generally attributed to the following three factors
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
Reflection
 Occurs when waves impinges upon an obstruction that is much larger
in size compared to the wavelength of the signal
 Example: reflections from earth and buildings
 These reflections may interfere with the original signal
constructively or destructively
 Diffraction
 Occurs when the radio path between sender and receiver is obstructed by an impenetrable
body and by a surface with sharp irregularities (edges)
 Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments without a line-of-
sight path

 Scattering
 Occurs when the radio channel contains objects whose sizes are on the order of the
wavelength or less of the propagating wave and also when the number of obstacles are quite
large.
 They are produced by small objects, rough surfaces and other irregularities on the channel
 Follows same principles with diffraction
 Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many directions
 Lamp posts and street signs may cause scattering
Radio Propagation Models
 As the mobile moves over small distances, the instantaneous
received signal will fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale
fading
 The reason is that the signal is the sum of many contributors coming
from different directions and since the phases of these signals are
random, the sum behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading).
 In small scale fading, the received signal power may change as much
as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30dB or 40dB), when the receiver is
only moved a fraction of the wavelength.
Radio Propagation Models
 As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over larger distances,
the local average received signal will gradually decrease. This is called
large-scale path loss.
 Typically the local average received power is computed by averaging signal
measurements over a measurement track of 5 to 40 For PCS, this means
1m-10m track)
 The models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary-receiver
transmitter (T-R) separation distance are called large-scale propagation
models
 Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
Free-Space Propagation Model
 Used to predict the received signal strength when transmitter and
receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS path between them.
 The received power decays as a function of T-R separation distance
raised to some power.
 Path Loss: Signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB
and defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective
transmitter power and received power.
Free-Space Propagation Model
• Free space power received by a receiver antenna separated from a
radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d is given by Friis free space
equation:
Pr(d) = (PtGtGr2) / ((4)2d2L) Eq.1

Pt is transmitted power
Pr(d) is the received power
Gt is the transmitter antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
Gr is the receiver antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
d is T-R separation distance in meters
L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L >= 1)
L = 1 indicates no loss in system hardware (for our purposes we will take L = 1,
so
we will ignore it in our calculations).
 is wavelength in meters.
Free-Space Propagation Model
• The gain of an antenna G is related to its affective aperture Ae by:
G = 4Ae / 2 Eq. 2
The effective aperture of Ae is related to the physical size of the antenna,
 is related to the carrier frequency by:
 = c/f = 2c / c Eq.3
f is carrier frequency in Hertz
c is carrier frequency in radians per second.
c is speed of light in meters/sec
Free-Space Propagation Model
 An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna that radiates power with unit
gain uniformly in all directions. It is as the reference antenna in wireless
systems.

 The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as:

EIRP = PtGt Eq. 4

 Antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an
isotropic antenna) or units of dBd (dB gain with respect to a half-wave
dipole antenna).
 Unity gain means: G is 1 or 0dBi
Free-Space Propagation Model
 Path loss, which represents signal attenuation as positive quantity
measured in dB, is defined as the difference (in dB) between the
effective transmitted power and the received power.
PL(dB) = 10 log (Pt/Pr) = -10log[(GtGr2)/(4)2d2] Eq. 5 (You can drive
this from equation 1)

If antennas have unity gains (exclude them)

PL(dB) = 10 log (Pt/Pr) = -10log[2/(4)2d2] Eq. 6
Free-Space Propagation Model
 For Friis equation to hold, distance d should be in the far-field of the
transmitting antenna.
 The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined
as the region beyond the far-field distance df given by:
 df = 2D2/ [Eq. 7]
 D is the largest physical dimension of the antenna.
 Additionally, df >> D and df >> 
Free-Space Propagation Model
 It is clear the Equation 1 does not hold for d = 0.

 For this reason, models use a close-in distance d0 as the receiver power
reference point.
 d0 should be >= df
 d0 should be smaller than any practical distance a mobile system uses

 Received power Pr(d), at a distance d > d0 from a transmitter, is related to

Pr at d0, which is expressed as Pr(d0).

 The power received in free space at a distance greater than d0 is

given by:
Pr(d) = Pr(d0)(d0/d)2 d >= d0 >= df Eq. 8
Free-Space Propagation Model
 Expressing the received power in dBm and dBW
 Pr(d) (dBm) = 10 log [Pr(d0)/0.001W] + 20log(d0/d)
where d >= d0 >= df and Pr(d0) is in units of watts.
Eq. 9
 Pr(d) (dBW) = 10 log [Pr(d0)/1W] + 20log(d0/d)
where d >= d0 >= df and Pr(d0) is in units of watts.
Eq. 10

 Reference distance d0 for practical systems:

 For frequencies in the range 1-2 GHz
 1 m in indoor environments
 100m-1km in outdoor environments
Ground Reflection(Two-Ray model)
• In mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the BS and the mobile
is seldom the only physical means for propagation
• Free space propagation model is in most cases inaccurate when used alone
• Two ray ground reflection model considers
 Direct path
 Ground reflected propagation path
• Reasonably accurate in predicting large scale signal strength over distances
of several kms for mobile radio systems that use tall towers(heights that
exceed 50m)
 •In most cases, in mobile
communication systems
maximum T-R separation
distance is only few tens of
kms
• Earth may be assumed to
be flat
• The total received E-field, is
then a result of direct LOS
component , and the ground
reflection component
 height of the transmitting antenna
height of the receiving antenna
 i) Determine Total received E-field(in V/m)
•If   is the free space E-field at a reference distance from transmitter,
Then for ,
The free-space propagating E-field is given by,

---------- (1)

Where = is the envelope of E-field at a distance d meters from the

transmitter
•  Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver:
The direct wave that travels a distance
The reflected wave that travels a distance
• The E-field due to the LOS component at the receiver
can be given as,
• ------ ---- (2)

• The E-field for the ground reflected wave, with propagation distance of can be
given as,

----(3)
is the reflection co-efficient for ground
•  Resultant E-field is the vector sum of of direct LOS component ,
and the ground reflection component , and can be represented as,

-------- (4)

• Resultant total E-field envelope is given by,

-------- (5)
ii) Compute Phase difference and Delay
between two components
•  using method of images, which is demonstrated by geometry shown,
the path difference, Δ, between LOS and ground reflected paths can
be given as
=-= -------- (6)

• when T-R separation distance is very large compared to , eqn.(6) can

be simplified using Taylor series approx.

-------- (7)

• once path difference is known, the phase difference between the

two E-field components and the time delay between the arrival of
the two components can be computed.
•=   = = -------- (8)
and
= =
-------- (9)
• As becomes large, the difference between the distances becomes
very small and the amplitudes of and are virtually identical and
differ only in phase
i.e.
≈≈
-------- (10)
iii)Evaluate E-field when reflected path
arrives
at receiver
•  if the received E-field is evaluated at some time, say at t= , equation.5
can be written as,

------ (11)
 iv) Determine exact E-field for 2-ray ground
reflection model at a distance d
Use phasor
diagram to find
the resultant E- -- (12)
field from
combined direct
and ground
reflection model ------- (13)

Using trigonometric identities, eqn.13 can be expressed as,

------- (14)
• Note that eq. 14 may be simplified as,

This occurs when is less that 0.3 rad.

• Using eqns. 7 and 8,
----- (15)

Which implies eqn.15 may be simplified whenever,

----- (16)

• Thus as long as d satisfies eqn.16, the received E-field can be

approximated as
 
Where K is a constant related to , the antenna heights and the
----- (17) wavelength.
• The free space power received at d is related to the square of the
electric field through,
----- (18)

• Combining the given eqns.

• The received power at a distance d from the transmitter for the two-
ray ground bounce model can be given as,

----- (19)
• As seen at large distances , the received power falls off with
distance raised to the fourth power, or at the rate of 40 dB/decade.
• This is much more rapid path loss than is experienced in free space.
• The path loss for the two-ray model can be expressed in dB as,

---- (20)
Diffraction
• Allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth,
beyond the horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions
• Although received field strength decreases rapidly as the receiver moves
deeper into the shadowed region, diffraction field still exists and often has
sufficient strength to produce a useful signal.
• Phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s principle
• Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a
shadowed region
• The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region is the vector
sum of the electric field components of all secondary wavelets in space
Fresnel Zone
Geometry
 • Consider a transmitter and receiver
separated in free space as in Fig.
• An obstructing screen of effective
height with infinite width be placed
between them at a distance of from
the transmitter and from receiver.
• wave propagating via top of the
screen travels a long distance than if a
direct LOS path existed.
Assuming
,
>>λ

  the difference between the direct

Then
path and the diffracted path, called Excess
path length Δ can be obtained.
•  Path difference direct path and diffracted path is

----- (1)

• corresponding phase difference is given by,

----- (2)

• when then the angle

=+
----- (3)
Eqn.(2) is often normalized using dimensionless Fresnel-kirchoff
diffraction parameter ν given by,
----- (4)
• From eqn. (4), ф can be expressed as,
------ (5)

• It is clear that the phase difference between a direct LOS and

diffracted path is a function of,
 height of the obstruction
 position of the obstruction
 transmitter and receiver location
• in practical diffraction problems, it is advantageous to reduce all
heights by a constant, so that geometry is simplified by without
changing the values of the angles as in fig.3.10c
Fresnel zones
•  The concept of diffraction as a function of path difference around an
obstruction is explained by Fresnel zones.

• Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves

have a path length from the transmitter to receiver which are than
the total path length of the LOS path
•  successive Fresnel zones alternatively provide constructive and
destructive interference to the total received signal.
• radius of the Fresnel zone circle is denoted by and can be expressed
in terms of n, , , by

----- (6)

This approximation is valid for , >>

• The excess total path length traversed by a ray passing through each
circle is ,where n is an integer.
Knife–edge diffraction model
• Diffraction of radio waves over hills& buildings cause signal
attenuations
• Estimating the signal attenuations for predicting the field strength in a
given service area
• Generally very precise estimates of diffraction losses is impossible
• Even then, expressions for diffraction losses for many simple cases are
available
• As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over a knife-edge
gives good insight into the order of magnitude of diffraction loss
• the attenuation caused by diffraction
can be estimated by treating the
obstruction as a diffracting knife edge
• this is the simplest of diffraction
models
• diffraction loss can be estimated using
classical Fresnel solution for field
behind a knife edge
• Consider a receiver at point R located
in the shadowed region(also called
diffraction zone)
• The field strength at point R in Fig. is a
vector sum of the fields due to all of
the Secondary Huygen’s sources in the
plane above the knife edge
•  the electric field strength, of a knife edge diffracted wave is given by,

----- (7)
free space field strength in the absence of both the ground and knife
edge
is the complex Fresnel integral, is a function of Fresnel-kirchoff
diffraction parameter , defined as

and is commonly evaluated using tables or graphs for given values of

•  The diffraction gain due to the presence of knife edge is given by,
---- (8)
• A graphical representation of as a function of

An approximate solution for Eqn. (8) is

  Knife edge diffraction gain as a

Fig.
function of Fresnel diffraction parameter
Multiple knife edge • Especially in hilly terrain, the
propagation path may consist of more
diffraction than one obstruction
• Bullington suggested that the series of
obstacles can be replaced by a single
equivalent obstacle
Multipath
propagation • Multiple reflections from various
objects cause the electromagnetic
waves travel along different paths and
varying lengths
• Interaction between these waves
causes multipath fading at a specific
location
• Strengths of the waves decrease as the
distance between the transmitter and
receiver increase

Fig. Multipath propagation