QCB2013: Carbonate Sedimentology

IVY VUN JIN YING

EA ANSWER SHEET
Question 1
Heterogeneity can be defined as the variation quality in rock properties with location
in reservoir or formation. The mineralogy, natural fractures, organic content and other
properties of carbonate rocks can vary from place to place. Blue epoxy is used to signify
porosity in thin sections. Epoxy blue colour impregnation technique can clearly show porosity,
such as in low permeability or very fine-grained rocks.

1(a) Distinguish the components.

Figure Q1 shows skeletal components which consist of benthic foraminifera and non-
skeletal components.

Figure 1. Skeletal and non-skeletal components.

Meandropsina anahensis Henson 1950 can be found in the thin section.

Meandropsina anahensis is deemed to be in Miliolida order and Meandropsinidae family
with Meandripsina genus. This component is marine benthic foraminifera which lives on
the seafloor places. This component has structure similar to Peneroplis evolutus however it has
a rather short transverse subepidermal partitions and porcelaneous wall. It is predicted to be in
Middle Miocene ages. This component consists of hard exoskeleton which in turn will protect
the softer internal structures. Muscles will usually attach with the exoskeleton. Moreover, this
component can be identified as calcareous foraminifera ooze which is a calcareous sediment
which consists of shells of dead foraminifera and is the most common pelagic sediment in the
marine. Hence, it can be deduced that this component is deposited in depths of above Carbonate
Compensation Depth (CCD) during burial. Hypersaline lagoon to inner shelf marine
environment is suggested. A proximal to inner ramp setting is further suggested.
 Spiroloculina depressa d’Orbigny 1826 can be found in the thin section too.
Spiroloculina depressa d’Orbigny is deemed to be in Foraminferea class, Miliolida order and
Spiroloculinidae family with Spiroloculina genus. This component is marine benthic
organism as well. Dead of this component will form calcareous oozes as well. Hence, it can be
deduced that it will be deposited in depth less than CCD. Hypersaline marine environment is
suggested. The depth of which it is located is approximately maximum depth of 2305m.
Peloids is the non-skeletal component found in the thin section. Peloids are known as
subrounded grains of micrite. It lacks internal structure. Peloids are usually less than 2 mm in
diameter and found in low-energy environments, hence suggested deep marine.
Sparry and blocky calcite cement which predominantly occupied by benthic
foraminifers are observed to be surrounding the grains. Brown micritic mud can be observed
as well.
Hence, to deduce, bioclastic packestone with calcite cement, micrite, and low diversity
of benthic foraminifers (dominantly mililiods) can be observed in the thin section.
1(b) Determine the type of porosity.

Figure 2. Porosity of components.

There are two types of porosity present in the thin section, which are intercrystalline
and mouldic porosity.
Primary porosity encompasses pre-depositional and depositional time such as
intercrystalline porosity. Intercrystalline porosity is formed in between blocky dolomite
crystals as shown in above figure.
Secondary porosity encompasses eogenetic, mesogenetic and telogenetic process such
as mouldic porosity. Mouldic porosity can be seen in skeletal facies as shown in the above
figure. This type of porosity occurs as selective dissolution process in which it dissolved the
fossils or allochems. Hence, the porosity might appear during early diagenetic process however
mouldic porosity is usually resulted during secondary diagenesis in meteoric environment
where carbonate ions are not undersaturated and water is oversaturated.
1(c) Interpret the diagenetic processes involved.
Diagenetic environment is deduced to be in mixing zone between meteoric and
marine vadose zone.
According to the component depositional environment, both Meandropsina and
Spiroloculina can be found in shallow marine while peloids can be found in low-energy
environment. This suggested lagoon, intertidal, marsh zone. The death of the organism which
resulted in dissolved skeleton in the marine floor. Hence, the diagenetic environment can be
deduced to be in marine vadose zone. In the other side, appearance of secondary mouldic
porosity suggests that the components may be in meteoric setting where there is abundance of
water. Presence of mud also suggested low-energy depositional environment.

First process: Dissolution

Minerals are dissolved through erosion and weathering. Dissolution process can be
carried out in meteoric vadose as well as marine vadose zone.
i. Secondary pores appearance

Figure 3. Secondary pores.

Complete or near completed dissolution is not happening according to the thin section.
This is because oversized pores are created which allows secondary mouldic porosity to
take place. Calcite as the most common cement has the most extensive dissolution.
ii. Remnant grain
 Figure 4. Remnant grains.
Remnant grains are grains that are floating within the pore. This indicates a more
advanced stage of grain dissolution framework.

Second Process: Cementation process

It is presumed that original depositional environment consists of sand and gravel.
Cementation occurs as ions in water table has chemically precipitated in order to form
crystalline material in between sedimentary grains. New minerals which are then filling in the
pores had connected original sediments and bound them together. Sand will slowly become
sandstone while gravel will slowly develop into conglomerate. As a diagenesis process,
cementation occurs under water table (meteoric phreatic zone). Large amount of meteoric water
must pass through the pores between sediments in order to crystallize new mineral cements. In
this case, calcite is the mineral cement which is formed.
This process is said to be carried out at meteoric and marine vadose zone where active
cementation occurs as waves constantly hitting the sea floor.
i. Drusy, sparry and equant calcite cement
 Figure 5. Drusy, and sparry calcite cement.

Drusy calcite spar is formed. Drusy cement can be formed as calcite rhomb mosaics
which line and fill the pores between sediments during cementation. Drusy cement is common
feature in meteoric diagenetic environment. This occurs in meteoric vadose zone.

Figure 6. Equant calcite cement.

The figure above shows the equant feature of cement.
ii. Meniscus and pendant cement
 Figure 7. Meniscus and pendant cement.
Meniscus cement can be observed at the grain contact between Meandropsina and
Spiroloculina. Water is retained there and is sustained by surface tension forces. Meanwhile,
pendant cement can be found at the lower point (bottom) part of the grains due to gravitational
forces of interstitial fluid.

Third process: Micritization

Micritization process might happen as well in relatively low energy places such as
lagoon.
i. Micritization of peloids

Figure 8. Micritization of peloids.

Micrite can be formed from calcareous particles through recrystallization of lime mud.
Micrite appears as matrix and acts as an envelopes around allochems or as peloids. Micritic
envelopes can be spotted as brownish surrounding the grains. Micritized surfaces can survive
dissolution and will provide a site for later cementation. Micrite envelopes can be observed in
all environments however they are especially prevalent in lagoon areas.

Conclusion
No compaction is observed as the grains are not aggregated due to pressure. Burial zone
is not reached. The three diagenetic processes that the components went through are dissolution,
micritization and cementation.

1(d) Propose a textural name for the rock.

This is a packstone as it is grain-supported which consists of Meandropsina,
Spiroloculina and peloids. In the other hand, mud is spotted. Under Dunham classification, this
thin section is a Packstone.
Question 2
Depositional environments of carbonates may dictate the direction of exploration targets in the
oil and gas industry. Assess the importance of understanding the depositional environments
of carbonate reservoirs with the examples from producing oil fields.

There is large amount of oil fields been produced from carbonate reservoirs. Porosity
and permeability of the carbonate reservoirs can define good oil fields. Porosity can be
defined as a measure of void spaces while permeability can be defined as the ability of
carbonate rocks in transmitting fluids. High porosity and permeability carbonate rocks
will result in good reservoir rocks and good oil fields.
Carbonate rocks are deposited in situ with diverse grain sizes. Carbonate depositional
environments can result in different diagenesis process which can lead to highly heterogeneous
reservoirs where two or more members with different permeability are formed. However, the
reservoirs have relative lower recoveries as compared to that of sandstone reservoirs. Vuggy
porosity which is formed through secondary diagenetic process can enhance the storage of oil,
however vugs have low permeability. There are a lot of uncertainties in carbonate reservoirs as
compared to that of sandstone.
In the other hand, there are two beneficial characteristics of carbonate reservoirs that
will yield better oil fields. The first characteristic is the fractures in carbonate rocks can
enhance the permeability and porosity in heterogenous rocks. The second characteristic is that
dolomitization diagenetic process can enhance permeability as well.
Great understanding of carbonate depositional enables us to understand the two
deciding factors which are porosity and permeability of carbonate rocks in term of diagenesis
process undergone. By understanding the factors, quality of oil fields produced can be known.
In order to portray the importance of depositional environments of carbonate reservoirs
in producing oil fields, a few carbonates depositional environments are used as examples to
explain.
Understanding carbonate depositional zone
Example 1: Marine phreatic zone
Reefs zone is a good oil field option. This is because it can be a good reservoir where
the carbonate rocks’ primary porosity can be preserved. Carbonate grains do not undergo rapid
cementations. According to Sun and Sloan, carbonate reservoirs here have the highest recovery
rates. For example, barrier reef zone in Bahamas has good vertical permeability with good
porosity due to the large pore systems found.
Abundance of calcareous fossils is another advantage of reef zones. Barrier reefs can
form very long sheets parallel to shoreline. Reef-forming organisms which produce massive
calcareous framework interbedded with muds and sands. These muds, silts and sands are the
products of erosion from the reef. Hence, the reefs can itself function as sediments sources in
which the sediments can be transported towards land or sea. Hence, the calcareous sediments
are built up. Back reef consists of large number of skeletal sediments while reef aprons consist
of silt to boulder range of sizes of debris. Thus, barrier reef can be served as major reservoirs
for oil fields, such as Iraq Kirkuk field.
Another example of marine phreatic depositional environment is organic build-ups
zone. Complex pinnacle reef systems show lenticular and layered zones distribution, and this
often associated with better properties and qualities of reservoirs. Fractures which happen
usually can help in connecting isolated pores existed and hence enhance porosity and
permeability of the rocks. Moreover, secondary recovery rates are high due to the fact that
organic build-ups have greater thickness with interconnected pores.

Reservoir qualities
The potentials of both reefs and build ups to be reservoirs are presumed to be high.
1. Primary porosity can be preserved
Porosity of reef boundstones are not obstructed by both primary as well as secondary
cementation and internal sediments. Hence, the proximal back reef sand sediments can hold
large amount of primary porosity. This is especially in reef tracts due to the rapid accumulation
of skeletal rubbles. Fore reef sediments as well as reef aprons of mud build ups can retain more
porosity due to the fact that the reef is filled with carbonate cements which in turn function as
updip seal in trap of stratigraphy.
2. More sharply limited by impermeable deposits
Pinnacle reef as well as mud build ups are deemed to be major oil field. This is because
pinnacle reefs tend to be more sharply limited. The porous facies are observed to be bounded
by impermeable flank or margin deposits and evaporites. These impermeable deposits have
function as a seal. Such situation occurs in oil fields of Silurian of Michigan Basin.
3. Abundance of source rocks
Pinnacles are observed to have rich rock sources nearing their flanks. Hence, more
organic sediments and high preservation rate of basinal sediments.
Downside of reservoir qualities
1. Deep lagoons – calmer environment
Deep lagoons which consist of relative calm water is predominant by wackestone and
packstones. These textures often give low porosities and permeabilities.
2. Lack of updip trap
Some barrier-reef deposits do not have immediate updip trap even though are major
reservoirs such as Oligocene reef complex located at Kirkuk in Iraq.

Example 2: Oolitic sand shoals

Sand shoals are typically not a good reservoir source.
Downside of reservoir qualities
Sand shoals are highly oxygenated and agitated and hence they are not good reservoir
source. The sands are observed to have high porosity initially and the porosity can be preserved
in subsurface, However, the consecutive marine cementation which leads to hardgrounds and
intraclasts creation. Secondary porosity will be developed immediately after deposition. Hence,
low permeabilities and porosities are observed.

Example 3: Subtidal and intertidal zone

The facies found in this zone has the highest porosities and permeabilities. Hence, this
zone is the most suitable for yielding oil field. In the other hand, supratidal facies are deemed
to have the poorest reservoir properties.
Understanding the diagenetic process of carbonate depositional environment
Deep burial environment: Shahejie Formation
By the understanding of deep burial environment, several diagenetic processes
occurring in this formation are known.

Diagenesis 1: Mechanical Compaction

Strong compaction occurs within micrites, however there is no pressure solution
sutures observed in thin section. This is due to the fact that lacustrine carbonates are
interbedded with great thickness of both mudstones and sandstones. Hence, the compaction is
not sufficient alone to cause pressure solution sutures. Instead, fractures can be found. Poor
compaction occurs as well within grains.

Diagenesis 2: Authigenic Minerals

Dolomite is widely spread in carbonate rocks. Dolomite which can the be classified into
pore-lining dolomites with 3 stages of generations and pore-filling dolomite. Pore-lining
dolomites consist of microcrystalline, powder crystalline and fine crystalline. Pore-filling
dolomites are distributed to primary intergranular pores or visceral cavity pores. They usually
have coarser crystal as compared to that of pore-liners.

Relation with porosity of reservoir

Dolomite grains are focussed in this discussion. Pores contained in carbonate rocks are
primary intergranular pores and visceral cavity pores. According to Qing and others (2018),
the primary intergranular pores consist of 10.6% and 14.1% of plane and average porosity
while visceral cavity pores consist of 8.3% and 12.0% of plane and average porosities
respectively. Together, the initial primary porosity is 46.9%.
Mechanical compaction can decrease the porosity through two methods. First, no
intergranular cements can be found in within 400 m of burial depth. Porosity is lost to
maximum as accordance to the effect of mechanical compaction. However, exceeding 400,
point-contact particles are able to resist the mechanical compaction and hence retain the
primary porosity due to the pore-lining dolomite formation. To be conclude, the primary
intergranular porosity will decrease greatly per 200 m within 400 m burial depth while decrease
mildly per 200 m after exceeding burial depth of 400m.
Three stages of both pore-lining and pore-filling dolomite will occupy and hence
destroy the pores in carbonates. First stage of pore-lining dolomite had proven to be imposing
the maximum destruction on carbonate rocks’ porosity.

Conclusion
 Deep burial diagenetic environment with lacustrine depositional environment of
carbonate rock reservoirs cannot yield high quality oil field in shallow zone, instead a better
oil field can be yielded in deeper zone. The main reservoir pores consist of primary
intergranular and visceral cavity pores while diagenetic processes had caused the formation of
authigenic minerals.

Understanding the textures of carbonate rocks in depositional environments

1. Grainstone
According to Dernaika and others (2019), presence of cement can affect the porosity. The
microporosity percentage increases with increasing cementation. These microporosities are
from grain micritization.
2. Floatstone
Floatstone-to-boundstone is the best facies with highest permeability range with lowest
capillary pressure observed. In the other hand, lowest permeability rate is the facies with
bioturbated floatstone-to-packstone. The pore-throat size distribution is mainly contributed by
leaching and boundstone texture.
3. Wackstone and mudstone
Both register lower permeability rate due to the influence of cementation, compaction and
recrystallization. Low pore-throat size is observed too.
4. Packstone
Packstone is influenced by leaching, compaction and cementation. Less compaction and
cementation will result in heterogeneous pore-throat size distribution.

Conclusion
It can be concluded that floatstone is the most suitable carbonate rocks to store oil and
transmit oil in oil field.
 Three perspectives have been provided to show the importance in understanding
depositional environment. With further understanding of the depositional environment, one can
analyse the porosity and permeability as well as features of carbonate rocks in certain
environment, Diagenesis undergone by carbonate rocks will be helpful in analysing the
porosity and permeability too.
Question 3
Modern analogue study in petroleum exploration is an important step in establishing a
paleodepositional environment and prediction of facies distribution. For this purpose, the
principle of uniformitarianism is one of the applicable fundamental principles for
interpreting products of past sedimentary processes. How would you relate to carbonate
sedimentology?

Analogue modelling
Modern analogue study includes analogue modelling in which it is a laboratory
experimental method with the usage of physical models. The time scale and length are two
parameters used to model geological scenarios as well as to stimulate the geodynamic
evolutions.
Principle of uniformitarianism
According to James Hutton, principle of uniformitarianism proposes that the sediments
in ancient sedimentary rocks were deposited in the same fashion as the sediments being
deposited in current Earth’s surface. The basis of this principle is that “the present is the key to
the past”. This principle suggests that the natural geological processes occurred at the same
rate and intensity as they are in distant past.
Analogue models are used to better understand earth’s dynamic phenomena.

Relation between uniformitarianism and analogue modelling

Among the four propositions of Lyell’s uniformitarianism, there is only one proposition
shows the relationship between analogue and uniformitarianism. The proposition is the
uniformity of methodology in which appropriate hypotheses are proposed to explain current
geological occurrences using theory implied in ancient geological events. Analogue modelling
can be carried out in order to understand the process of geological events.

Carbonate Sedimentology
Carbonate sedimentology consists of the study of modern carbonate sediments and also
the understanding of process which deposits the sediments. Observation of ancient carbonate
sediments is included as well to better understand the process of carbonate sedimentation today.

Paleo depositional environment

Paleodepositional environment indicates the past geological environment.
Carbonate facies
 Carbonate facies can be defined as the product of processed that are active in
depositional setting such as movement of wind, water, currents and others which in turn affect
the qualities of carbonate formation.

Characteristics of this principle

1. Gradual process
2. Processes that have happened in the past will happen today as well.
3. Cycle of destruction and renewal

Relationship between uniformitarianism and carbonate sedimentology

Uniformity of methodology

Example 1: Similarities between Precambrian platforms and ramps and Phanerozoic

structures
According to Grotzinger and James (2000), it has been deduced that similar facies belts,
particulate and muddy sediment, ooids, reefs, and seafloor cement precipitate can be found in
both Precambrian and Phanerozoic platform.

Example 2: Similarities between Arun gas field in Miocene age and patch reef complex in
Indonesia
Patch reef complex
Samples are collected in Kepulauan Seribu. Red reef facies which is encrusted by red
algae boundstone
Figure 9. Patch reef complex. Reef facies: red; near-reef facies: yellow; reef-sediment slope:
light blue; inner-reef lagoon: light grey; middle shelf: dark blue.
Coral reefs found here are common in Indo-Pacific areas. Sediments are exported in
radial pattern away from their reef centre as indicated in the figure above. Concentric white
sand rims which located at near-reef and reef-sediment-slope environments can be seen. Living
reef rim (which are growing up to sea level) can be seen at red area indicated in the above
figure. 40 m of maximum depth in inter-reef lagoons can be predicted. Largest reef platforms
can be observed to be in southern part while smaller reef platforms can be observed to the north.
This has suggested a great subsidence of reefs to the north which indicates the sea level are
rising to the north and the reefs are struggling to retain the height of sea level. Dominated
yellow areas have indicated that most part are occupied by reef-derived sediments rather than
the reef.
Arun Carbonate Reservoir
The above figure actually has similarities as compared to Arun gas field in Miocene
age which located in North Sumatra Basin. Similar carbonate platform sizes and shapes are
compared between these two. Coral faunas are observed to have similar facies diversity as well.
The subsidence direction as well as the direction of sea level rise are observed to be similar.
According to the principle of uniformitarianism, similar process can be predicted to have
occurred now as it is in the past. Hence, it is safe to say that the function of coral reefs are
similar as compared to the ancient corals reefs.

Figure 10. Arun Carbonate Reservoir

Arun Carbonate Reservoirs consist of 4 main lithofacies namely reef facies which
consists of coral boundstones and encrusted with red algae boundstones. Second lithofacies are
near reef facies which consist of skeletal Packstone and mixed coral branches. Lagoon facies
with mixed planktonic and benthic foram packstones to wackstones are found. Lastly, middle-
shelf facies which consist of benthic and planktonic foram Packstone. It can be observed that
the lithofacies between Arun reservoirs and patch reef complex are similar. Principle of
Uniformitarianism can be used.
Hence, from here, analogue obtained from Arun gas field in North Sumatra Basin can
be used to predict that of patch reef complex in Indonesia.

Example 3: Similarity between Upper Palaeozoic rocks of west Texas and Barrier Reef
System In Belize Shelf

Figure 11. Belize Shelf. Reefs: red; grainstone shoals: yellow.

Barrier reef system and atolls can be demonstrated through the above figure. Red reef
zones together with yellow Grainstone shoals can be observed. Wide variety of middle-shelf
sediments, a drop-off shelf margin, restricted inner shelf and some middle-shelf reef patterns
can be observed which map similarly with the oil and gas fields in Upper Palaeozoic rocks of
west Texas.
According to the ancient reef formation, it can be deduced that the southern half of the
shelf consists of more topographic relief with more middle-shelf patch reefs. Southern half of
the shelf is broader than the northern half. Northern half is said to have less patch reefs, instead
shoals are abundant such as foram Grainstone sand bars. Large embayment which consists of
low salinities can be observed at the north end while normal marine salinities area can be
discovered throughout the southern shelf. Corals, and green algae cannot be found in the
embayment area.

Example 4: Rock cycle

Rock cycle has been the same in ancient time as well as of now. Weathering of rocks
physically and chemically which result in carbonate rock sediments. These sediments will then
be transported via wind, water, and other medium. Deposition and lithification will take place
when the transportation of sediment stops. Sedimentary rocks will be deposited. Uplift of the
rock as well as exposure of the rock to the air will occur. Along with the exposure, the rocks
will be broken and weathered again. The rock cycle will happen.

Conclusion
Carbonate sedimentology can be related to reef formation, rock cycle, and ramp
structure. These show certain similarities with the process took place in ancient times. Hence,
principle of uniformitarianism can be performed to analyse and predict the future action.
Modern analogue study is important to determine the accurate events happening. Paleo
depositional environment can be closely related to modern depositional environment.
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