KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

BACHE LORS OF SCIENCE IN OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION.

RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION ASSIGNMENT

19/U/GDP/2670/PD

OCHOM SAMUEL

QUESTIONS

Discuss the factors that control particle shape and grain packing in sedimentary rocks.

(10 marks)

Discuss the merits and demerits of fractures during the well drilling, completion, and production
processes. (20 marks)

“Fractures influence the reservoir integrity”. Explain why and how this can be possible.
(10 marks)
Discuss the factors that control particle shape and grain packing in sedimentary rocks.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed on the earth’s surface under normal surface temperature and
pressures. They result from the accumulation of the products of weathering of other rocks and
organic materials. Weathering is a general term used for the physical and chemical breakdown of
rocks at the earth’s surface by rain, wind, abrasion etc. Products of weathering are either
transported or may accumulate where they are formed. The processes of transforming loose
fragmented rocks into a compact solid cohesive mass is called lithification. This process is also
known as consolidation, and the resultant rock is said to be consolidated. Sandstone is a
consolidated rock, while sand is an example of an unconsolidated rock

ROUNDNESS

Roundness is a description of how angular the edges of a particle are. It is the degree of
smoothing due to abrasion of sedimentary particles. It is expressed as the ratio of the average
radius of curvature of the edges or corners to the radius of curvature of the maximum inscribed
sphere. . Rounding, or angularity are terms used to describe the shape of the corners on a
particle or clast of sediment. Such a particle may be a grain of sand, a pebble, cobble or boulder,
although roundness can be numerically quantified, for practical reasons. Geologists typically use
a simple visual chart with up to six categories of roundness. There are several methods of
description; some more practical than others.

Figure 1: Rounding of mineral grains in sedimentary rocks.

SPHERICITY

Sphericity Ψ is the relation to each other of the various diameters (length, width and thickness)
of a particle; specifically the degree to which the shape of a sedimentary particle approaches that
of a sphere. Sphericity could be thought of as the degree of equality of the three axes of a grain
where in a perfect sphere the length, width and thickness (long, intermediate and short) are all
equal

Figure 2:Graphical representation of grain rounding and sphericity

Below are some of the factors that control particle shape and grain packing in sedimentary
rocks:

TRANSPORT

As the rock fragments are being transported, they collide with other fragments and become less
angular i.e. more rounded. Transport of particles by water, wind or flowing glaciers has the
potential to cause changes to their particles shape over time.

During the transport, particles interact with each other and with the surface over which they
move. Shape is modified by grinding, chipping and crushing that takes place due to this
interaction. Breakage of particles takes place during collisions between grains and a solid
substrate and depends on the amount of momentum that is exchanged during collisions.
Momentum = mass × velocity

Very fine sand, silt and clay particles have very small mass so that they have little momentum.
During collisions there is little momentum exchange and, therefore, little breakage which is
required to change the mass and shape of the grains.

 Transport by water .Momentum is further reduced when transport is in water because

the buoyant force reduces its effective weight. Most of the particle’s momentum is used
in pushing the water as the particle moves, losing momentum due to the viscosity of the
water. When transport is in water there is little momentum to cause breakage and change
in shape
 Transport by wind. It is more effective in changing the shape of fine grains. Air has
low density or little buoyant force and very low viscosity so that there is more
momentum exchanged during collisions. Rate of weight loss is 100 to 1000 times that
when transport is in water. Aeolian desert sands tend to have relatively high sphericity

HARDNESS

Particularly hard clasts like granite, quartz-cemented sandstone, etc. They change in shape
during transport less readily than softer lithologies. The softer lithologies like limestone change
shape much more readily. The unconsolidated material like cohesive mud changes shape almost
immediately when it is transported.

LITHOLOGY.

For particles that are rock fragments aspects of the lithology of the source rock can influence
shape. The massive source rocks of non-bedded tend to produce more equant particles like
granite, massive sandstone, etc. While the bedded and foliated rocks tend to produce more platy
particles e.g., well-bedded limestone

PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF SEGMENT

A rock fragment that will easily split into its constituent minerals or along its cleavages would
soon be disintegrated by collisions during transport. Similarly a mineral grain with good
cleavages will soon disintegrate. However, in the case of quartz which is a dominant constituent
of many sedimentary rocks, the degree of rounding is proportional to the length of the transport
because quartz is hard and has no cleavages

COMPACTION

As more sediment is being deposited, there is an increase of weight or pressure that usually
expels much of the connate water and forces the rock grains to come much closer together. As
the grains are forced against each other, their outer surfaces usually dissolve and re-crystallize
thus welding the grains together.

RE-CRYSTALLIZATION

This includes pressure solution, Percolating water can also dissolve material from one area and
re-deposit it elsewhere or alternatively water can introduce substance into the sediments which
then crystallize

CEMENTATION

Deposition of substances from aqueous solutions usually occurs in the voids or other spaces
between the grains. When these solutions crystallize they bind the sediments and in the process
they converted the loose aggregate into a solid coherent rock

DISTANCE MOVED BY THE PARTICLE

The distance the particle has moved influences its shape. Particles that have moved for a longer
distance tend to more round as compared to those particles of the same hardness and physical
composition that have moved for shorter distance within the same transportation media.

DISSOLUTION

This is the process in which solids like materials are dissociated and ionic components are
dispersed in a liquid usually water. This process is determined by the composition of the grain
minerals and the chemistry of the initial pore spaces.

BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Burrowing organisms are often accountable for biological changes that can occur close to the
surface of new sedimentary deposits organisms such as worms and crabs will mix. The loose
sediments are often leave evidence by their behavior in the texture and this process is called
bioturbation. Organisms will flush overlying water through their burrows after leading to an
exchange of minerals in the irrigated zone. Burrowing organisms also tend to ingest organic
matter contain in loose materials further altering the chemical composition called bioirrigation

DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENTS

The depositional environment is specific type of place in which sediments are deposited, these
environments include lacustrine, Aeolian, fluvial, alluvial etc. That control particle shape and
grain packing in sedimentary rocks

REPLACEMENT

This occurs when a mineralizing solution encounters minerals but is unstable in its presence. The
original mineral is dissolved and almost simultaneously exchanged for another. The exchange
doesn't occur molecule for molecule but volume for volume hence fewer molecules of a less
dense mineral will replace those for more dense mineral. The replacement of fine particles will
bring about close packing whereas bigger particles will have loose packing.

MECHANICAL WEATHERING

Weathering is a process that turns bedrock into small particles called sediments or soil.
Mechanical weathering includes pressure expansion, frost wedging, root wedging, and salt
expansion. Finely disintegrated particles by weathering are closely packed while large sized
weathered sediments are loosely packed.

Discuss the merits and demerits of fractures during the well drilling, completion, and
production processes.

FRACTURES

These are displacement discontinuities in rocks which appear as local breaks in the natural
sequence of the rock properties. These fractures can appear as micro fissures with an extension
of only several millimetres or as a continental fracture with an extension of several thousands of
kilometres.

During well drilling

Drilling is a process of creating a bore hole with in the subsurface using a drill bit. This process
encounters a number of problems partly which are caused by fractures. However fractures are
important in the following ways.

Merits of fractures during drilling

 Knowledge about fracture during drilling helps in determining the mud hydrostatic
pressure that will not bring about severe formation damage in fractured formations.
 Fracture orientation helps drilling engineers to determine the direction of drilling in that
the fracture zone will be avoided.
 Knowledge about fractures during drilling improves on the certainty of the formation
being drilled through to avoid making uninformed decisions.
 By predicting the location and connectivity of fracture networks geologist are able to plan
horizontal well bores to intersect as many fracture networks as possible during drilling

Demerits of fractures

 Pipe sticking: Pipe sticking is one of the most common problems faced during drilling
that causes a lot of nonproductive time (NPT). Pipe is considered stuck if it cannot be
freed and dragged out of hole without damaging the pipe or surpassing the maximum
allowed hook load. This happens when there is high pressure difference between
wellbore and formation pressures. This difference is pressure is brought about by
fractures in the formation.
 Loss of circulation: Loss of circulation is the undesirable flow of portion or whole mud
into the formation. Lost circulation zones, referred as thief zones, are located at
inherently fractured formations, the fractures are found in it before drilling and usually
developed during composition or as a result of earth quakes.
 Factures can cause a kick: a kick is defined as an unexpected and unwanted influx of
reservoir fluid, oil, water, or gas, into the wellbore due to an underbalanced condition in
which pressure inside the wellbore or bottom-hole pressure (BHP) is less than formation
 pressure. The pressure difference is caused by fractures encountered during drilling in the
formation.
 Drilling through a fractured zone can lead to fish especially when drilling through an
open fracture.
 Drilling through an open fractured zone can lead to well deviation.
 The vibrations of the drill string can induce an earthquake in fractured formations.

During well completion

Well completion is the process of making a well ready for production (or injection) after drilling
operations. This principally involves preparing the bottom of the hole to the required
specifications, running in the production tubing and it’s associated down hole tools as well as
perforating and stimulating as required. Sometimes, the process of running in and cementing the
casing is also included

Fracture can be both of use and of harm during the process of well completion.

Merits of fractures during well completion

 Fractured reservoirs (For closed fractures) are easy to open as compared to reservoirs
without factures during well completion
 Significant decrease in simulation of fractures in the reservoir
 During perforation, the available fractures will help in determining the formation fracture
pressure necessary to create the desired hydraulic fractures to improve reservoir
connectivity.
 Identification of fractures in the reservoir helps in selection of favourable zones for
perforation.
 Fractures reduce on the costs of perforation in naturally fractured reservoirs.

Demerits of fractures during well completion

 The extensional forces from the fractures can lead to casing failure as a result of pressure
differences between the well bore and the formation.
 Fractures cause formation damage during well completion
  Lost circulation; the loss of cement slurry into the formation during well completion can
occur in zones that are fractured.
 There is a possibility of loss of cement due to pressure differences this will easily happen
in open fractures which have low pressures
 Perforating through fractured formations can induce earthquakes

During the production process

Production is the process of extracting hydrocarbons from the reservoir through the well bore up
to the surface by either natural drive mechanisms or by enhanced recovery mechanisms.
Fractures can influence production both negatively and positively in the following ways;

Merits of fractures during production

 Accurately predicting the location and connectivity of fracture networks enable geologist
to plan horizontal wellbores to intersect as many fracture networks as possible thus
increasing the production.
 Fractures improve on the porosity and permeability of the reservoir hence allowing easy
flow of the fluids into the well bore.
 Fractures improve on the production rate since the capillary rise of the driving fluid is
enhanced within the reservoir
 Knowledge about fractures helps in determining the injection pressure for water during
water flooding.
 Fractures aid in the disposal of wastes that is to say harmful gases

Demerits of fractures during production

 There is a possibility of uncontrolled migration fluids in highly fractured reservoirs

 There early production decline in stress sensitive reservoirs
 Fractured formations require frequent stimulation treatments for production due to low
pressures
 Fractures can bring about earth quakes during production
  Fractures can bring about compartmentalisation of the reservoir hence making production
difficult

“Fractures influence the reservoir integrity”. Explain why and how this can be possible.

Reservoir integrity refers to how a reservoir is maintained in its good state to favour production
of hydrocarbons. Reservoir integrity focuses on the preservation and enhancement of the
reservoir quality. The parameters of the reservoir to be maintained in better conditions for
production are; permeability, porosity, fluid capillarity, fluid saturation, skin factor among
others.

Induced fractures: These are fractures that are created artificially, typically through the use of
hydraulic fracturing techniques

Natural fractures: These are fractures that occur naturally within the reservoir rock and can be
caused by a variety of factors, such as tectonic activity, stress from overlying layers, or changes
in temperature and pressure.

Fractures influence reservoir integrity because of the following;

 Fractures provide essential permeability: Induced fractures can be used to increase the
permeability and connectivity within the reservoir, making it easier for fluids to flow and
improving resource recovery.
 Fractures provide essential porosity which influences reservoir integrity:
 Fractures improve hydrocarbon recovery within the reservoir
 Fractures improve on fluid capillarity within the reservoir
 Fractures enhance fluid saturation within the reservoir
 Fractures keep the skin factor favourable for production that is a negative skin factor
shows a stimulated reservoir.

Explanation for the above reasons

Permeability
When the fractures are being created within the formation, the rock matrix is split due
stresses acting on the rock. The space created acts as an interconnection to pores that were
dead and isolated.

Porosity

Some fractures are formed as a result of diagenetic processes such as recrystallization,

compaction, and bio burrowing among others. These processes crack the rock matrix
bringing about change in porosity that is to say secondary porosity.

Fluid capillarity

Fractures act as path ways for water to rise under capillary pressure thus exerting capillary
force that pushes the hydrocarbons towards the well bore.

Fluid saturation

When the rock matrix is cracked, the spaces created can easily be filled with hydrocarbons
thus increasing the net to gross pay of the reservoir

Fracture Reservoir Integrity Impact

Fractures influence the reservoir integrity , explain why and how this can be possible

Fractures can influence the integrity of a reservoir by providing pathways for fluids (such as
oil or naturalgas) to escape, reducing the overall amount of recoverable resources. Fractures
can also create permeability and connectivity within the reservoir rock, allowing fluids to
flow more easily and potentially increasing the efficiency of resource recovery. In addition,
fractures can create structural instability within the reservoir, potentially leading to the failure
of wellbores or other infrastructure.

There are several ways that fractures can impact the integrity of a reservoir:
Natural fractures: These are fractures that occur naturally within the reservoir rock and can
be caused by a variety of factors, such as tectonic activity, stress from overlying layers, or
changes in temperature and pressure. Natural fractures can create pathways for fluids to
escape, reducing the overall recoverable resource.

Induced fractures: These are fractures that are created artificially, typically through the use of
hydraulic fracturing techniques. Induced fractures can be used to increase the permeability
and connectivity within the reservoir, making it easier for fluids to flow and improving
resource recovery. However, if not properly managed, induced fractures can also create
structural instability within the reservoir and potentially lead to infrastructure failures.

Closure stress: The closure stress of a reservoir is the stress that is required to keep the
fractures within the reservoir closed, preventing fluids from flowing through them. If the
closure stress is not sufficient, the fractures will open, allowing fluids to escape and reducing
the overall recoverable resource.

Fracture orientation: The orientation of fractures within a reservoir can also impact the
integrity of the reservoir. If the fractures are oriented in a way that allows fluids to flow
freely through them, the overall recoverability of the resource may be increased. However, if
the fractures are oriented in a way that restricts fluid flow, the recoverability of the resource
may be reduced.

Overall, fractures can have a significant impact on the integrity and recoverability of a
reservoir. It is important for reservoir engineers and other professionals to understand the role
of fractures in reservoir performance and to manage them effectively to maximize resource
recovery